Wikiversity:Sandbox

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    <title>Wikiversity:Bots/Status</title>
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      <comment>/* WikiJournalBot */ comment about sequence issue</comment>
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      <text bytes="10843" xml:space="preserve">[[cs:Wikiverzita:Bot/Žádosti]]
[[fr:Wikiversité:Bot/Statut]]
[[it:Wikiversità:Bot/Autorizzazioni]]
[[pt:Wikiversidade:Robôs/Pedidos de aprovação]]
''This page allows bot operators to ask for approval to use a bot on the English-language Wikiversity.''

'''Please read [[Wikiversity:Bots|Wikiversity policy about bots]] first.'''

Bureaucrats are able to give and remove bot status using the [[Special:UserRights]] feature.  Request are usually handled after about 7-10 days, to allow time for comments and questions from the community.  If you do not receive a timely response to your request, feel free to leave a message on the talk page of a [http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3AListUsers&amp;username=&amp;group=bureaucrat&amp;limit=50 Bureaucrat].

Older status requests are [[/Archive/]]d.

The wikicode below is a suggestion for formating a bot request:

&lt;pre&gt;
== BotName ==
* '''Bot name''': {{User|BotName}}
* '''Bot operator''': {{User|Name}}
* '''Automatic or manually assisted''': 
* '''Purpose of the bot''': 
* '''Edit period(s)''': 
* '''Programming language(s) (and API) used''': 
* '''Other projects that are already using this bot''': 
* '''Additional information''': 
&lt;/pre&gt;

'''Requests for bot status'''

''Add new bot requests at the bottom''

{{archive top}}
== DannyS712 bot ==
* '''Bot name''': {{User|DannyS712 bot}}
* '''Bot operator''': {{User|DannyS712}}
* '''Automatic or manually assisted''': automatic (manually triggered)
* '''Purpose of the bot''': Tag pages that are uncategorized with {{tl|Uncategorized}}
* '''Edit period(s)''': One time run for 4000+ pages, then if needed will run on occasion (but rarely)
* '''Programming language(s) (and API) used''': AWB
* '''Other projects that are already using this bot''': No other wikis for this task, but lots of tasks on enwiki (and one on enwikibooks)
* '''Additional information''': Please ping when replying.

Thanks, --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 04:52, 12 September 2019 (UTC)

:{{At|DannyS712}} Please start a discussion in the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium]] to confirm which pages should be tagged as {{tl|Uncategorized}}. Looking at [[Special:UncategorizedPages]], I don't see any problems tagging main space landing pages, but tagging subpages doesn't appear to add value. Perhaps they could be updated with {{tlx|CourseCat}}, but the community should have an opportunity to discuss this first. Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 15:01, 12 September 2019 (UTC)
::I agree with Dave about the CourseCat for subpages and Uncategorized for top level pages. I'd like to hear what the community thinks is best. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 15:57, 24 September 2020 (UTC)

{{not done}} due to lack of reply. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 22:24, 14 January 2021 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

{{archive top}}
== &lt;s&gt;Listeriabot&lt;/s&gt; WikiJournalBot ==
===Listeriabot===
* '''Bot name''': {{User|ListeriaBot}}
* '''Bot operator''': {{User|Magnus Manske}} (Though {{User|Evolution and evolvability}} will supervise on this wiki)
* '''Automatic or manually assisted''': Automatic 
* '''Purpose of the bot''': Formatting up wikitables based on sparql queries
* '''Edit period(s)''': 1 week test, (if no problems, indefinitely)
* '''Programming language(s) (and API) used''':
**Languages = Rust
**API = https://www.wikidata.org/w/api.php
**Repository = [https://github.com/magnusmanske/listeria_rs magnusmanske/listeria_rs])
* '''Other projects that are already using this bot''': commons, meta, wikidata, wikispecies, ,43 languages of wikipedia (incliuding english) - [https://listeria.toolforge.org/botstatus.php full list]
* '''Additional information''': The bot creator ({{U|Magnus Manske}}) isn't good at replying to talkpage comments or emails, but does seem to fix raised issues reasonably rapidly. My main discomfort is that I don't speak Rust, so can't directly troubleshoot any issues. I've tested the bot quite extensively on other wikis and have found it to be very reliable (at the very least, it has only ever edited pages with the {{tlx|wikidata list}} template, so there is minimal risk of disruption). My very minimal test here was to run [https://listeria.toolforge.org/index.php?action=update&amp;lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;page=User:Evolution_and_evolvability/sandbox this command] on [[User:Evolution_and_evolvability/sandbox|my sandbox]] which caused {{U|ListeriaBot}} to apply for an account, but it has not attempted to make an edit. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 11:13, 24 February 2021 (UTC)

{{At|Evolution and evolvability}} Can we get a test of the bot here that we can see, or do we need to enable the bot flag first? -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:15, 24 February 2021 (UTC)
:{{re|Dave Braunschweig}} I think the bot flag needs to be applied for it to run a test. You can see a test case below:
:*[[User:Evolution and evolvability/sandbox|Testcase on Wikiversity]] (click &quot;Update now&quot; to test)
:*[https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Evolution_and_evolvability/sandbox&amp;oldid=21145459 Testcase on Meta] (showing what the result should be)
:[[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 22:31, 24 February 2021 (UTC)

{{At|Evolution and evolvability}} [[User:ListeriaBot]] is now tagged as a bot with a one-week expiration. Please update here if the test is successful and you want to go ahead with indefinite bot status. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:48, 24 February 2021 (UTC)

{{not done}} due to no activity in over one year. This is done without prejudice and we welcome a new application to suggest improvements to Wikiversity. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 22:19, 1 June 2022 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

===WikiJournalBot===
* '''Bot name''': {{User|WikiJournalBot}}
* '''Bot operator''': {{User|Evolution and evolvability}} &amp; {{User|Octfx}}
* '''Automatic or manually assisted''': Automatic 
* '''Purpose of the bot''': Formatting up lists of wikijournal articles based on sparql queries
* '''Edit period(s)''': 2 week test, (if no problems, indefinitely)
* '''Programming language(s) (and API) used''':
**Languages = PHP
**API = https://www.wikidata.org/w/api.php
**Repository = [https://github.com/octfx/WikiJournalBot octfx/WikiJournalBot])
* '''Other projects that are already using this bot''': none
* '''Additional information''': Having failed to get in contact with {{U|Magnus Manske}} to update listeriabot, I asked {{User|Octfx}}to put together a stripped-down version that is specialised for the wikijournal tasks we need. In particular, automating the lists:
* Currently: [[WikiJournal_of_Medicine]], [[WikiJournal_of_Science]], [[WikiJournal_of_Humanities]]
* Eventually: [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Potential_upcoming_articles]]
* Eventually: [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Editors]]
As with listeriabot, it only edits pages between the templates {{tlx|WikiJournalBotList}} and {{tlx|ListEnd}}, see sandbox tests [[User:Octfx/Volume_4_Issue_1]]. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 23:10, 16 March 2022 (UTC)

:{{At|Evolution and evolvability|Octfx}} Can someone create the WikiJournalBot user account and perform an edit under that account? So far, it doesn't appear to exist. Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:07, 17 March 2022 (UTC)
::@[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] Ah yes, rather easier to apply permissions to an existing account. Done. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 22:31, 17 March 2022 (UTC)
:::{{At|Evolution and evolvability|Octfx}} I followed the previous approach, bot for a week, presuming that was the intent. Let us know how testing goes. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 22:41, 17 March 2022 (UTC)
::::{{At|Dave Braunschweig|Evolution and evolvability}} I've created an OAuth consumer at meta and ran the bot through toolforge. Successful edits were made to the [[Wikiversity:Sandbox|Sandbox]] and two of my user pages [[User:Octfx/sandbox2|here]] and [[User:Octfx/Volume_4_Issue_1|here]]. --[[User:Octfx|Octfx]] ([[User talk:Octfx|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Octfx|contribs]]) 09:51, 18 March 2022 (UTC)
:{{At|Evolution and evolvability|Octfx}} I'm fine with running tests as you have recently been doing and I highly encourage you to continue. Please note: &quot;When testing, bot operators must delay 60 seconds between edits.&quot; (see: [[WV:BOT]]) If you need assistance with this Dave or I can provide help with how to 'throttle' the edit rate to comply with this guideline. This makes it easier for custodians and 'crats to review the edits as they occur. Thank you so much for your contributions to improving Wikiversity, it is greatly appreciated. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 22:40, 1 June 2022 (UTC)
::Forgot to ping {{at|Dave Braunschweig}} for input. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 22:47, 1 June 2022 (UTC)
:: {{at|Mu301}} no problem, I’ll set the bot back to one edit per minute. The current delay was set while the bot flag was temporarily active, I forgot to change it back! —-[[User:Octfx|Octfx]] ([[User talk:Octfx|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Octfx|contribs]]) 06:49, 2 June 2022 (UTC)
:::Great, we very much appreciate your contributions to Wikiversity. Thank you for improving our site and let us know if you need additional tools to improve the quality of our website. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 07:56, 2 June 2022 (UTC)

I don't know the inner workings of this bot, but it often shuffles the order of publications and made them out of publishing sequence[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Volume_7_Issue_1&amp;diff=2417507&amp;oldid=2417404] [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 16:52, 23 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
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        <id>426084</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* WikiJournalBot */ Reply</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11127" xml:space="preserve">[[cs:Wikiverzita:Bot/Žádosti]]
[[fr:Wikiversité:Bot/Statut]]
[[it:Wikiversità:Bot/Autorizzazioni]]
[[pt:Wikiversidade:Robôs/Pedidos de aprovação]]
''This page allows bot operators to ask for approval to use a bot on the English-language Wikiversity.''

'''Please read [[Wikiversity:Bots|Wikiversity policy about bots]] first.'''

Bureaucrats are able to give and remove bot status using the [[Special:UserRights]] feature.  Request are usually handled after about 7-10 days, to allow time for comments and questions from the community.  If you do not receive a timely response to your request, feel free to leave a message on the talk page of a [http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3AListUsers&amp;username=&amp;group=bureaucrat&amp;limit=50 Bureaucrat].

Older status requests are [[/Archive/]]d.

The wikicode below is a suggestion for formating a bot request:

&lt;pre&gt;
== BotName ==
* '''Bot name''': {{User|BotName}}
* '''Bot operator''': {{User|Name}}
* '''Automatic or manually assisted''': 
* '''Purpose of the bot''': 
* '''Edit period(s)''': 
* '''Programming language(s) (and API) used''': 
* '''Other projects that are already using this bot''': 
* '''Additional information''': 
&lt;/pre&gt;

'''Requests for bot status'''

''Add new bot requests at the bottom''

{{archive top}}
== DannyS712 bot ==
* '''Bot name''': {{User|DannyS712 bot}}
* '''Bot operator''': {{User|DannyS712}}
* '''Automatic or manually assisted''': automatic (manually triggered)
* '''Purpose of the bot''': Tag pages that are uncategorized with {{tl|Uncategorized}}
* '''Edit period(s)''': One time run for 4000+ pages, then if needed will run on occasion (but rarely)
* '''Programming language(s) (and API) used''': AWB
* '''Other projects that are already using this bot''': No other wikis for this task, but lots of tasks on enwiki (and one on enwikibooks)
* '''Additional information''': Please ping when replying.

Thanks, --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 04:52, 12 September 2019 (UTC)

:{{At|DannyS712}} Please start a discussion in the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium]] to confirm which pages should be tagged as {{tl|Uncategorized}}. Looking at [[Special:UncategorizedPages]], I don't see any problems tagging main space landing pages, but tagging subpages doesn't appear to add value. Perhaps they could be updated with {{tlx|CourseCat}}, but the community should have an opportunity to discuss this first. Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 15:01, 12 September 2019 (UTC)
::I agree with Dave about the CourseCat for subpages and Uncategorized for top level pages. I'd like to hear what the community thinks is best. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 15:57, 24 September 2020 (UTC)

{{not done}} due to lack of reply. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 22:24, 14 January 2021 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

{{archive top}}
== &lt;s&gt;Listeriabot&lt;/s&gt; WikiJournalBot ==
===Listeriabot===
* '''Bot name''': {{User|ListeriaBot}}
* '''Bot operator''': {{User|Magnus Manske}} (Though {{User|Evolution and evolvability}} will supervise on this wiki)
* '''Automatic or manually assisted''': Automatic 
* '''Purpose of the bot''': Formatting up wikitables based on sparql queries
* '''Edit period(s)''': 1 week test, (if no problems, indefinitely)
* '''Programming language(s) (and API) used''':
**Languages = Rust
**API = https://www.wikidata.org/w/api.php
**Repository = [https://github.com/magnusmanske/listeria_rs magnusmanske/listeria_rs])
* '''Other projects that are already using this bot''': commons, meta, wikidata, wikispecies, ,43 languages of wikipedia (incliuding english) - [https://listeria.toolforge.org/botstatus.php full list]
* '''Additional information''': The bot creator ({{U|Magnus Manske}}) isn't good at replying to talkpage comments or emails, but does seem to fix raised issues reasonably rapidly. My main discomfort is that I don't speak Rust, so can't directly troubleshoot any issues. I've tested the bot quite extensively on other wikis and have found it to be very reliable (at the very least, it has only ever edited pages with the {{tlx|wikidata list}} template, so there is minimal risk of disruption). My very minimal test here was to run [https://listeria.toolforge.org/index.php?action=update&amp;lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;page=User:Evolution_and_evolvability/sandbox this command] on [[User:Evolution_and_evolvability/sandbox|my sandbox]] which caused {{U|ListeriaBot}} to apply for an account, but it has not attempted to make an edit. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 11:13, 24 February 2021 (UTC)

{{At|Evolution and evolvability}} Can we get a test of the bot here that we can see, or do we need to enable the bot flag first? -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:15, 24 February 2021 (UTC)
:{{re|Dave Braunschweig}} I think the bot flag needs to be applied for it to run a test. You can see a test case below:
:*[[User:Evolution and evolvability/sandbox|Testcase on Wikiversity]] (click &quot;Update now&quot; to test)
:*[https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Evolution_and_evolvability/sandbox&amp;oldid=21145459 Testcase on Meta] (showing what the result should be)
:[[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 22:31, 24 February 2021 (UTC)

{{At|Evolution and evolvability}} [[User:ListeriaBot]] is now tagged as a bot with a one-week expiration. Please update here if the test is successful and you want to go ahead with indefinite bot status. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:48, 24 February 2021 (UTC)

{{not done}} due to no activity in over one year. This is done without prejudice and we welcome a new application to suggest improvements to Wikiversity. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 22:19, 1 June 2022 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

===WikiJournalBot===
* '''Bot name''': {{User|WikiJournalBot}}
* '''Bot operator''': {{User|Evolution and evolvability}} &amp; {{User|Octfx}}
* '''Automatic or manually assisted''': Automatic 
* '''Purpose of the bot''': Formatting up lists of wikijournal articles based on sparql queries
* '''Edit period(s)''': 2 week test, (if no problems, indefinitely)
* '''Programming language(s) (and API) used''':
**Languages = PHP
**API = https://www.wikidata.org/w/api.php
**Repository = [https://github.com/octfx/WikiJournalBot octfx/WikiJournalBot])
* '''Other projects that are already using this bot''': none
* '''Additional information''': Having failed to get in contact with {{U|Magnus Manske}} to update listeriabot, I asked {{User|Octfx}}to put together a stripped-down version that is specialised for the wikijournal tasks we need. In particular, automating the lists:
* Currently: [[WikiJournal_of_Medicine]], [[WikiJournal_of_Science]], [[WikiJournal_of_Humanities]]
* Eventually: [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Potential_upcoming_articles]]
* Eventually: [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Editors]]
As with listeriabot, it only edits pages between the templates {{tlx|WikiJournalBotList}} and {{tlx|ListEnd}}, see sandbox tests [[User:Octfx/Volume_4_Issue_1]]. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 23:10, 16 March 2022 (UTC)

:{{At|Evolution and evolvability|Octfx}} Can someone create the WikiJournalBot user account and perform an edit under that account? So far, it doesn't appear to exist. Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:07, 17 March 2022 (UTC)
::@[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] Ah yes, rather easier to apply permissions to an existing account. Done. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 22:31, 17 March 2022 (UTC)
:::{{At|Evolution and evolvability|Octfx}} I followed the previous approach, bot for a week, presuming that was the intent. Let us know how testing goes. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 22:41, 17 March 2022 (UTC)
::::{{At|Dave Braunschweig|Evolution and evolvability}} I've created an OAuth consumer at meta and ran the bot through toolforge. Successful edits were made to the [[Wikiversity:Sandbox|Sandbox]] and two of my user pages [[User:Octfx/sandbox2|here]] and [[User:Octfx/Volume_4_Issue_1|here]]. --[[User:Octfx|Octfx]] ([[User talk:Octfx|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Octfx|contribs]]) 09:51, 18 March 2022 (UTC)
:{{At|Evolution and evolvability|Octfx}} I'm fine with running tests as you have recently been doing and I highly encourage you to continue. Please note: &quot;When testing, bot operators must delay 60 seconds between edits.&quot; (see: [[WV:BOT]]) If you need assistance with this Dave or I can provide help with how to 'throttle' the edit rate to comply with this guideline. This makes it easier for custodians and 'crats to review the edits as they occur. Thank you so much for your contributions to improving Wikiversity, it is greatly appreciated. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 22:40, 1 June 2022 (UTC)
::Forgot to ping {{at|Dave Braunschweig}} for input. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 22:47, 1 June 2022 (UTC)
:: {{at|Mu301}} no problem, I’ll set the bot back to one edit per minute. The current delay was set while the bot flag was temporarily active, I forgot to change it back! —-[[User:Octfx|Octfx]] ([[User talk:Octfx|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Octfx|contribs]]) 06:49, 2 June 2022 (UTC)
:::Great, we very much appreciate your contributions to Wikiversity. Thank you for improving our site and let us know if you need additional tools to improve the quality of our website. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 07:56, 2 June 2022 (UTC)

I don't know the inner workings of this bot, but it often shuffles the order of publications and made them out of publishing sequence[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Volume_7_Issue_1&amp;diff=2417507&amp;oldid=2417404] [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 16:52, 23 August 2022 (UTC)

:@[[User:OhanaUnited|OhanaUnited]] You need to notify the bot owner or leave a message the bot's talk page. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 20:55, 23 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
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== Fundamental Concepts ==
*[[/Introduction/]]
*[[/Basics/]]
*[[Scientific Method]] (also Experiment, Observation and Testing Hypotheses)
*[[Units and dimensions/Dimensional Analysis]]
*[[Metric system]]
*[[Precision]], [[Accuracy]], [[Rounding]], and [[Significant figure]]s
*[[Scientific notation]]
*[[Topic:High School Physics/Trigonometry|Trigonometry]]
*[[Vectors]]

== Mechanics ==
*[[Motion - Mechanics]]
*[[Motion - Kinematics]]
*[[Motion - Dynamics]]
*[[Energy]]

== Kinematics:  Objects in Motion ==

=== Translational Motion ===
* [[Motion in a straight line]]
* [[Newton's Laws of Motion]]
* [[Work, Power, and Energy]]
* [[Gravity]]
* [[Motion in two dimensions]]

=== Rotational Motion ===
* [[Circular Motion]]
* [[Angular Velocity]]
* [[Centripetal acceleration]]
* [[Center of mass]]
* [[Torque and Angular Acceleration]]
* [[Moment of Inertia]]

== Fluid Mechanics ==
* [[Hydrostatics: Fluids at Rest]]
* [[Hydrodynamics:  Fluids in Motion]]

==Thermodynamics==
* Basic Definitions
* [[Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics]]
* [[First Law of Thermodynamics]]
* [[Second Law of Thermodynamics]]
* [[Third Law of Thermodynamics]]

== Electricity and Magnetism ==
* [[Coulomb's Law]]
* [[/Electric Fields/]] and Forces
* [[Electric flux]] and [[Gauss's law]]
* [[Electricity/Electric circuits|Electric Circuits]]
* [[Magnetic Fields]] and Forces
* [[Electromagnets]]
* Permanent Magnets
* [[Magnetism]]
* Kirchhoff's current law, and Kirchhoff's loop law

== Oscillations and Waves ==
* Simple Harmonic Motion
* Pendulums
*[[Waves]]
* Sound
*[[Light and Optics]]

== Atomic, Nuclear, and Particle Physics ==
*[[The Atom]]
*[[Basic atomic physics]]
*[[Particle Physics]]

== Advanced Topics for Exploration ==
* [[Special Relativity]]
* [[General Relativity]]
* [[Cosmology]]
* [[Quantum mechanics|Quantum Mechanics]]

== Physics Study Guide ==

Also look at the [[b:Physics Study Guide|Physics Study Guide]]

[[Category:Physics]]
[[Category:Pages moved from Wikibooks]]
[[Category:High School]]
[[Category:High school physics]]

[[ja:Topic:高校の物理学]]
[[pt:Portal:Formação Intermediária/Física]]</text>
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        <id>426084</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/2400:2412:2820:3F00:9530:BAC0:6788:161A|2400:2412:2820:3F00:9530:BAC0:6788:161A]] ([[User_talk:2400:2412:2820:3F00:9530:BAC0:6788:161A|talk]]) to last version by [[User:PlyrStar93|PlyrStar93]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]]</comment>
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{{Portal:Research/Intro}}
{{editme|/Intro}}
&lt;/div&gt;
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|width=35% valign=top height=auto style=&quot;background-color:#FFFCF1&quot;|
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{{Portals/Guide intro}}{{#categorytree:Research|mode=all|depth=0}}
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{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox|theme=1|title=Related material on Wikiversity|icon=Gold piece.png|iconwidth=40px|height=10%}}
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{{Portal:Research/Admin}}
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{{Robelbox|theme=1|title=To-do list for Research |icon=Evolution-tasks.png|iconwidth=42px|height=16%}}
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&lt;/div&gt;
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|width=30% valign=top height=auto style=&quot;background-color:#FFF8FF&quot;|
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{{editme|/Participation}}
&lt;/div&gt;
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|-
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{{Gateways}}
|-
|}

__NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__


&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category:Portals|{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Research| {{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Exploring Wikiversity as a researcher]]
[[Category:Resources by level|6]]
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[[fr:Travaux de recherche]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Template:Welcome</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>2418067</id>
      <parentid>2295719</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:27:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Visual editor no longer in beta</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3051" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;
{{template shortcut|pre=subst:|w}}
==Usage==
Type &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:welcome}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; on the user's discussion page. No signature is required; it will be placed automatically.
&lt;/noinclude&gt;{{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]]&lt;includeonly&gt; {{{{{|safesubst:}}}PAGENAME}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or &lt;includeonly&gt;[[User talk:{{{{{|safesubst:}}}REVISIONUSER}}|me personally]]&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;me personally&lt;/noinclude&gt; when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity.

To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may
&lt;!-- The Left column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]].
* Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]].
* [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]].
* Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity.
* [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left.
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- The Right column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity.
* Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations.
* Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]].
* [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|&lt;kbd&gt;#wikiversity&lt;/kbd&gt;]].
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --~~&lt;includeonly&gt;&lt;/includeonly&gt;~~&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Template:Welcome --&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category:Welcome templates]]

[[de:Vorlage:Willkommen]]
[[el:Πρότυπο:Καλωσόρισμα]]
[[es:Plantilla:Bienvenido usuario]]
[[fr:Modèle:Bienvenue]]
[[it:Template:Benvenuto]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
      <sha1>5kiqbxp2d4w8lfcldcgm71s50sdnkzi</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>User:Mu301</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Dave Braunschweig</username>
        <id>426084</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Revert</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2073" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Ladd with Cherry blossoms.jpg|thumb|right|[[w:Ladd Observatory|Ladd Observatory]] with cherry trees in blossom]]

&lt;code lang=&quot;csh&quot;&gt;% whois !MU301&lt;/code&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc954]&lt;/sup&gt;

I am the Curator of the historic [[w:Ladd Observatory|Ladd Observatory]] at [[w:Brown University|Brown University]]. My research focus is late 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; and early 20&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century history of science and technology.

Visit my [[/Learning blog/]] and join in on the conversation. I also have a personal blog called [http://fornaxchimiae.blogspot.com/ Fornax Chimiæ] and I contribute to the [http://blogs.brown.edu/ladd/author/mumbrichbrown-edu/ Ladd Observatory blog].

[[File:Ada-Lovelace-Wikithon-2013-08.jpg|thumb|right|Presenting GLAM and Wikipedian in Residence at the Ada Lovelace Day Wikipedia edit-a-thon at Brown.[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Meetup/Ada_Lovelace_Edit-a-thon_2013_-_Brown] ]]
I'm a [[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|bureaucrat]] at en-wikiversity; &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{ping|Mu301}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; if you need assistance or help with anything here.

Where I'm currently most active
* '''[[User:Mu301|Wikiversity:User:Mu301]]'''
* '''[[Wikipedia:User:Mu301]]'''
* [[Outreach:User:Mu301]]

Projects that I'm involved with
* '''[[Outreach:GLAM]]''' ('''G'''alleries • '''L'''ibraries • '''A'''rchives • '''M'''useums)
* [[commons:Commons:Ladd Observatory|Commons:Ladd Observatory]]
* [[commons:Commons:Retro-Computing Society of Rhode Island|Commons:Retro-Computing Society of Rhode Island]]

&lt;small&gt;My Freenode irc nick and cloak is &lt;code lang=&quot;irc&quot;&gt;mikeu@wikimedia/mu301&lt;/code&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Mu301&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=1512387]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;My other accounts are [[User:Mikeu|Mikeu]] and [[User:Mu301Bot|Mu301Bot]] (w/bot flag for [[User:Mu301Bot|en-wv]] and [[betawikiversity:User:Mu301Bot|beta-wv]])&lt;/small&gt;

{{Userpage}}

[[Category:Wikiversity bureaucrats]]
[[Category:Wikiversity custodians]]
[[Category:Wikiversity bot owners]]
[[Category:Wikimedians]]
[[Category:Wikipedians]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Mindsets, control, and the self</title>
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      <comment>Replacing Girl_with_styrofoam_swimming_board.jpg with [[File:Girl_with_swimming_board.jpg]] (by [[:c:User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] because: [[:c:COM:FR|File renamed]]: [[:c:COM:FR#FR3|Criterion 3]] (obvious error) · unlikely to be styrofoam).</comment>
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      <text bytes="5865" xml:space="preserve">{{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 06: Mindsets, control, and the self|sixth}}
{{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}}
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --&gt;
[[File:Girl with swimming board.jpg|right|250px]]
==Overview==
This lecture discusses:
* mindsets
* personal control beliefs
* the self and its strivings

Take-home messages:
* Different mindsets lead to different goal striving strategies
* The core efficacy belief of &quot;I can do it&quot; and the outcome belief of &quot;it will work&quot; lead to competent, enthusiastic functioning
* Exerting self-control over short-term urges is needed to pursue long-term goals

==Readings==
# Chapter 09: Mindsets ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve, 2018]])
# Chapter 10: Personal control beliefs ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve, 2018]])
# Chapter 11: The self and its strivings ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve, 2018]])

==Multimedia==
* [https://www.youtube.com/embed/RcGyVTAoXEU?start=61&amp;end=802 How to make stress your friend] (Kelly McGonigal, TED talk, 2013) (12:21 min) explains that changing how we think about stress can actually make it good for us.

==Slides==
* Lecture slides
** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1910B6x2TYlnIxoTU1Iz6LT6_cgPOf2JXnOgF3OMv0g8/edit?usp=sharing Mindsets] (Google Slides)
** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/12yhu2Z52vL3teHP3hiFrlE5aZU9_HIyNM45sLeGFCFU/edit?usp=sharing Personal control beliefs] (Google Slides)
** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1qKeI_k0tYdTLXGOb2gn-gpsvJgzQQkCT16MgaT4_MZY/edit?usp=sharing The self and its strivings] (Google Slides)&lt;!-- 
Lecture slides:
* [https://www.slideshare.net/secret/ADOM7T6LbfBj1J Mindsets] (Slideshare)
* [https://www.slideshare.net/secret/42CwFm0EB60et5 Personal control beliefs] (Slideshare)
* [https://www.slideshare.net/secret/3fUbR6N0ndCqy8 The self and its strivings] (Slideshare)
&lt;!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/personal-control-and-the-self Lecture slides] (Slideshare) --&gt;
* Handouts
** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 06 - Mindsets, control, and the self 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 06 - Mindsets, control, and the self 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]]
** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 06 - Mindsets, control, and the self 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 06 - Mindsets, control, and the self 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]]
&lt;!-- * 2013 handouts:
** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 06 - Personal control and the self 2013 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 06 - Personal control and the self 2013 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]]
** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 06 - Personal control and the self 2013 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 06 - Personal control and the self 2013 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]]
* 2011 handouts:
** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 06 - Personal control and the self 2011 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 06 - Personal control and the self 2011 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]]
** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 06 - Personal control and the self 2011 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 06 - Personal control and the self 2011 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] &lt;!--
* 2010 handouts:
** [http://learnonline.canberra.edu.au/mod/resource/view.php?id=260514 1 slide per page]
** [http://learnonline.canberra.edu.au/mod/resource/view.php?id=258593 3 slides per page]
** [http://learnonline.canberra.edu.au/mod/resource/view.php?id=258592 6 slides per page]
--&gt;

==See also==
* [[/Images/]]

; Lectures
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Implicit motives and goals|Implicit motives and goals]] (Previous lecture)
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Nature of emotion|Nature of emotion]] (Next lecture)

; Tutorial
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]]

;Wikipedia
* [[w:learned helplessness|Learned helplessness]]
* [[w:mastery learning|Mastery learning]]
* [[w:self-efficacy|Self-efficacy]]
* [[w:self-concept|Self-concept]]
* [[w:Trier social stress test|Trier social stress test]]

;Wikiversity
* [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mindset|Mindset]] (Book chapters)
* [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Optimism|Optimism]] (Book chapters)
* [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pessimism|Pessimism]] (Book chapters)
* [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self|Self]] (Book chapters)

==Recording==
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/6c1bbc62edf3451c9ba57b9bfda9f0fd Lecture 06 recording] (2021)&lt;!--
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ed4acf1318d14ccdbe07070dd9034799 Lecture 06 recording] (2020)
* [https://echo360.org.au/media/2c56ff7b-9cb4-4b56-bc92-006a878bd728/public Lecture 06 recording] (2019)
* [https://echo360.org.au/media/8d406f5a-b301-47bc-82ca-6d7355048446/public Lecture 06 recording] (2018)
* [https://echo360.org.au/media/69e5d63c-1770-47a2-815a-d1f761561e56/public Lecture 06 recording] (2017) --&gt;
&lt;!--
==References
--&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.ted.com/talks/joachim_de_posada_says_don_t_eat_the_marshmallow_yet.html Don't eat the marshmallow!] (Joachim de Posada, TED talk, 2009) (6 min) shows a replication of the infamous [[w:Stanford marshmallow experiment|Stanford marshmellow experiment]] by Walter Mischel which found that children who can resist temptation (delay gratification) tend to have better life outcomes.
{{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}}

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== Overview ==
[[File:Babyfoot.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Emotional development begins during the first few moments of life and continues throughout childhood]]
Practically every facet of human life involves emotion, whether it is meeting friends for lunch, experiencing your first day of school, or getting married. As human beings, we are inherently interested in others’ emotions and constantly express our own. The ability to express, recognise and understand emotion enables us to behave in a socially competent and accepted way (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005). If an individual did not have such skills, they would experience significant difficulty interacting with other individuals in all walks of life. 

Emotion is evident very early in human life, with infants expressing distress through crying within their first few seconds of entering the world (Oatley, Keltner &amp; Jenkins, 2006). Within just a few months, infants express joy through smiling and laughing (Kalat &amp; Shiota, 2007). From here on, the development of emotion in children is rapid and significant.

This chapter will identify the framework of emotional development in children starting from the very first days of life. To begin, two theoretical perspectives pertaining to emotional development will be discussed. The emotions which exist in early infancy will be examined, leading to the aspects of social interaction and its influences upon emotional development. The understanding and recognition of emotions, a fundamental aspect of social interaction will then be evaluated. Further, the formation of emotional bonds and its importance to emotional development will be discussed. This chapter will also shed light on emotional development within children who experience autism spectrum disorders in contrast to normally developing children.

== Focus Questions ==

After studying this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions:
{{Roundboxtop|theme=7}}
* What is emotional development?
* What are the underlying theories of emotional development?
* What emotions do newborn infants experience?
* How does social interaction with others influence the development of emotion in children?
* When and how do children begin to understand emotion in others?
* How do infants develop emotional bonds with significant others?
* What is autism?
* How does the development of emotion differ between children with autism and typically developing children?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Definition of emotional development ==
To understand the numerous aspects of emotional development in children, it would be ideal to first gain an understanding of what emotional development itself. '''Emotional development''' is essentially the way emotions change or remain constant across the human lifespan (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005).

== Theoretical approaches to emotional development ==

The development of emotion has been investigated from numerous perspectives. Two theoretical frameworks will be presented in this chapter; biological and evolutionary and psychoanalytic perspective. 

[[File:Baby meets Moominmama.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The discrete emotion of interest in an infant, as described in differential emotions theory]]
=== Biological and evolutionary perspective ===

==== Differential emotions theory ====

One theory of emotional development which holds significant biological and evolutionary ties is differential emotions theory which is also referred to as [[w:Discrete emotions theory|discrete emotions theory]]. Differential emotions theory traces back to Charles Darwin, and his proposal that basic human emotions are the products of evolutionary history which serve us in an adaptive way (Shaffer, 2005).  For example, disgust displayed in infants when they taste something bitter is considered an inbuilt reaction that protects them from poisoned food by causing them to spit out the subnstance (Shaffer, 2005). Additionally, the distress expressed early in infancy alerts caregivers when they are hungry or tired, hence promoting their well-being (Shaffer, 2005). [[File:Charles Darwin 01.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Differential emotions theory stems from Charles Darwin's earlier work]]
Essentially, differential emotions theory stresses the innate, biological structure and universality of a core set of emotions in human beings (Mangelsdorf &amp; Wong, 2009). Differential emotions theory proposed that infants attain a limited and particular set of emotions during the first few months of life, which are organised into a system of independent functioning (Ackerman, Abe &amp; Izard, 1998). Additionally, emotions are considered to emerge during early development in a pre-adapted and conventional manner (Ackerman, Abe &amp; Izard, 1998). Moreover, differential emotions theory proposes that the biologically programmed emotions are accompanied by discrete bodily and facial processed, evident early in infancy (Schaffer, 2005). For example, interest in infants encompasses raised brows, rounded mouth and pursed lips (Shaffer, 2005). In addition to interest, there are nine other discrete emotions including; joy, surprise, fear, anger, disgust, distress, contempt, shame and guilt (Reeve, 2009).

=== Psychoanalytic perspective ===

Unlike most areas of psychology, Sigmund Freud has not been as influential within the field of emotional development. One factor in particular contributes to this. Freud’s theory of emotion is essentially a “one-affect” theory and is primarily a theory of anxiety (Magai &amp; McFadden, 1995). 

In contrast, Erik Erickson, who was a follower of Freud’s work, proposed a stage theory of emotional development in humans. Erickson's theory is sometimes referred to as [[w:Erikson's stages of psychosocial development|Erikson's stages of psychosocial development]]. Erickson puts forward that infants face imperative developmental tasks in emotional development in relation to eight successive stages. Each of these eight stages entails the completion of a certain task, with each task depending on the completion of the previous task (Hutchinson, 2003). The three stages relating directly to childhood are summarised below. 

'''Table 1'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;  style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|-
| '''Life stage''' || '''Developmental task''' || '''Characteristic'''
|-
| '''Infancy (Birth-1 year)''' || Basic trust vs. basic mistrust || Infants must form trusting relationships with caregivers or they will learn to distrust the world.
|-
| '''Early childhood (3-5 years)''' || Autonomy vs. shame and doubt || Toddler must develop self-confidence and a sense of accomplishment over themselves and their worlds and they use newly developed motor skills or they will develop shame and doubt about their inability to develop control.
|-
| '''Middle childhood (6-11 years)''' || Industry vs. inferiority || School aged children must develop a sense of competence to accomplish tasks or they learn to feel inferior or incompetent.
|-
|}
(Hutchinson, 2003).
{{Hide in print|
{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|5}}}|title=Test Your Knowledge}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Test your knowledge of the chapter so far.
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Newborn infants don't experience any emotions. It's not until early childhood that emotions emerge.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ False.
- True.

{Differential emotions theory belongs to which theoretical perspective?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Psychoanalytic.
+ Biological and evolutionary.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
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}}
== Development of emotional experience and expression ==

What emotions do infants have? With this question in mind, consider the following scenario;

Fifteen month-old Sarah is sitting on the lounge-room floor playing with her jack-in-the-box toy while her mother, Sandra, sits nearby reading her book. Sarah is spinning the handle of her jack-in-the-box. When the clown pops up, she turns toward her mother and laughs with delight. After a number of unsuccessful attempts to put the clown back in to the box, Sarah becomes frustrated. She begins fussing angrily and looks to her mother for help. Sandra comes over and shows Sarah how to close the box. Sarah then begins turning the handle, starting the process again. This time however, her hand gets caught under the lid when closing it. She cries and holds out her hand to her mother, who comes over and comforts her. Not long after this, Sarah loses interest in the jack-in-the-box and begins playing with another toy (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2002). 

Here, Sarah has experienced and expressed a range of emotions. Joy and happiness were expressed through laughter, frustration when the clown would not fit back in to the box and distress when her finger was injured. In a simple scenario such as this, we can begin to understand the range of emotions experienced by infants throughout day-to-day-life. 
[[File:Crying newborn.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Distress is the first emotion expressed by infants through crying]]
Emotional expressions are present from birth and form the basis of the communication between parent and child (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996). Shortly after birth, facial expressions of infants include interest, disgust, sadness, anger and joy (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996). Facial expressions are particularly imperative as they act as expressive signals of inner emotional experience (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996).  Biological needs such as hunger and pain for instance, are communicated through the expression of physical distress (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005). Furthermore, social world interactions are signalled through expressions of interest and joy (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005). Essentially, emotional expression provides a vital role in communication (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996). Infants use numerous mechanisms to express emotions. Probably the two most common are crying and smiling.  

==== Crying in infants ====

Crying or distress is one emotion that is present from birth. Infants cry when they are hungry, tired, and gassy or just generally feeling uncomfortable (Kalat &amp; Shiota, 2007). Crying is a particularly important communication tool that tells a parent that something is wrong (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005). 
[[File:Woman and a baby.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Social smiling is used by infants to initiate social interaction]]
==== Smiling in infants ====

Infant smiling reflects the up-and-coming emotional competencies in a young child (Messinger, 2009). There are two categories of smiling; the '''social smile''' and the '''reflex smile''' (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005). Social smiling in infants begins to emerge, at a caregiver's delight, within the first four to six weeks of life. Social smiling in young infants communicates pleasure at the identification of a familiar face, such as a caregiver, through coordination of oral-facial muscles in to a social signal 's(Slentz &amp; Krogh, 2001). Hence, caregiver's interpret an infant’s social smile as an indication of comfort and pleasure (Slentz &amp; Krogh, 2001). From now on, an infant will use smiling as a tool for initiating social interactions (Slentz &amp; Krogh, 2001). In contrast, the reflex smile appears in response to external stimuli, usually during irregular patters of sleep (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005).

==== Anger, sadness and fear in infants ====

As mentioned above, distress is evident early in infancy due to hunger or pain. However, specific anger and sadness begins to appear over the first six months of life (Shaffer, 2005).  Anger is most often displayed in situations where the infant becomes frustrated, such as an inability to wield control over toys (Shaffer, 2005). Sadness, like anger develops over the first six months of life, and is displayed in various situations, such as the inability to produce a positive response from a caregiver (Shaffer, 2005). Fear is one of the last primary emotions to emerge, and generally indicates that an infant considers a person, object or situation a threat (Shaffer, 2005).

== Social interaction and emotional development ==

Numerous aspects of the development of emotion are considered to be innate or general across cultures (Walden &amp; Knieps, 1996). Nevertheless, input from the social environment is considered essential for the development of emotional functioning (Walden &amp; Knieps, 1996). Growing children spend hours of their day observing others’ and their emotional reactions to various situations. As an onlooker to everyday events, an infant may watch a parent smile after tasting food, an older sibling cry as their tower of blocks falls to the ground, or a childcare workers look shocked when a drinking glass falls and breaks on the floor (Mumme &amp; Fernald, 2003). Furthermore, the child may also participate in these events themselves (Mumme &amp; Fernald, 2003). Whether the child is a participant in such events, or simply an onlooker, young children learn how to understand and predict the behaviours and emotions of other people and relate this understanding to regulate their own behaviour (Mumme &amp; Fernald, 2003).  One such way a young child learns through observation is through social referencing. 
[[File:MaternalBond.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Young children learn about emotional reactions through observing other individuals such as their caregivers]]

=== Social referencing ===

'''Social referencing''' is a communication process in which infants dynamically use and seek out observed perceptions and understanding of unclear situations in order to guide their own understanding of such circumstances (Vaish &amp; Striano, 2004).  Hence, social referencing entails two aspects of a social information-processing skill; seeking input from other individuals and consequently using (or in some instances, not using) this information to form one’s own behaviour (Walden, 1991). Social referencing is one important way in which infants learn emotional responses (Walden, 1991). For instance, infants have observed to interact less with ambiguous toys and to be less friendly to strangers when a parent displays aversive affect toward them (Walden, 1991). 

Imagine the following scenario;

A one year old infant is playing on the floor with his mother when an unfamiliar person enters the room. The mother stands up, smiles and extends her hand, and walks over to the stranger. The infant observes this behaviour, and loses interest, returning to his toys (Walker-Andrews, 1998). 

Here, the infant has demonstrated social referencing, thus illustrating his ability to use others’ emotional reactions to regulate his own behaviour (Walker-Andrews, 1998). If the mother has responded differently to the stranger, say with fear or anger in her facial expression, voice or gesture, the infant probably would have reacted with more caution (Walker-Andrews, 1998).

==== Measuring social referencing ====

Social referencing is most commonly measured or assessed by presenting a child with unclear stimuli and having a parent or other adult express positive or negative emotional reactions to the stimuli (Walden &amp; Knieps, 1996). A fundamental behavioural aspect of social referencing is information seeking acts such as referential looking or asking questions (Walden, Knieps, 1996). One primary example of social referencing in infants is demonstrated in the [[w:Visual cliff|visual cliff]], in which an infant is placed on a glass surface providing an invisible support over an apparent drop (Vaish &amp; Striano, 2004). The visual cliff serves as the unclear or ambiguous situation. Experiments using the visual cliff carry the general prediction that infant’s behaviour will differ in appropriate ways with various emotional signals conveyed by the caregiver (Mumme, Fernals &amp; Herrera, 1996). 
[[File:US Navy 100406-N-7478G-346 Operations Specialist 2nd Class Reginald Harlmon and Electronics Technician 3rd Class Maura Schulze play peek-a-boo with a child in the Children's Ward at Hospital Likas.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Studies have used the classic &quot;peek a boo&quot; game as a way of demonstrating social referencing in infants]]
Visual cliff experiments have demonstrated the occurrence of social referencing among infants since the early 1980’s. In a well known study (Sorce, Emde, Campos &amp; Klinnert, 1985) found infants to cross the cliff when the adult on the opposite side of the glass displayed interest or joy, while fewer infants crossed when the adult displayed fear or anger. When infants approached the edge of the visual cliff and saw fear expressed by the mother, none of the 17 infants crossed (Sorce et al, 1985).  However, when the infants saw happiness expressed by the mother, 14 out of 19 infants crossed the visual cliff (Sorce et al, 1985). Overall, Sorce et al (1985) demonstrated social referencing to have a significant effect upon infant behaviour and the way they learn emotional responses. 

Another method used to measure social referencing in infants is an adaption of the “peek-a-boo” game commonly used by caregivers. Walker-Andrews (1998) used the peek-a-boo game to investigate young infants’ perception of other individuals’ emotional expressions. Forty four and a half year old infants were assigned to one of four emotion change groups, including sad, anger, fear and as the control, consistent happy or surprise (Walker-Andrews, 1998).The infants were then shown three standard happy or surprise peek-a-boos followed by a fourth, which depended on the assigned group (Walker-Andrews, 1998). Results found the infants to discriminate facial and vocal expressions of anger, fear and sadness and happy or surprise when offered in a familiar situation (Walker-Andrews, 1998).

Findings from these studies have given insight and generally support the conception that infants can use emotional signals to regulate their own judgements and behaviour.

=== Interpreting facial expressions ===

Similar to social referencing is the ability of infants to interpret facial expressions of emotion through imitation. The ability to understand and recognise emotion through facial expression is an imperative aspect of social interaction (Heerey, Keltner &amp; Capps, 2003). Additionally, Facial expressions are a primary indicator for normally developing children to understand the emotions and actions of others (Grossman, Klin, Carter &amp; Volkmar, 2000). 

Interestingly, developing children are accustomed to faces almost from birth, showing immense interest in the faces around them (Thornton, 2002). In fact, infants as young as one month old have been found to imitate facial expressions and gestures, such as an adult poking out their tongue (Thornton, 2002). This phenomenon, known as facial mimicry, which occurs frequently in infants and children, is the tendency to imitate facially or vocally with individuals we interact with (Bourgeois &amp; Hess, 2008). 

Although it is clearly understood that interpretation of facial expressions is an important aspect of social interaction, it is generally unknown how this influences emotional development (Kalat &amp; Shiota, 2007).
{{Hide in print|
{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|5}}}|title=Test Your Knowledge}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Test your knowledge of the chapter so far.
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which type of smiling do infants use to initiate social interaction?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Reflexive smile.
+ Social smile.

{Social referencing, a communication process infants use to guide their own behaviour is commonly measured by which experiment?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ The visual cliff experiment.
- The Sally-Anne test.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
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== Understanding and recognition of emotions in infants and children ==
{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot; cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;float: right; width: 40%; background-color: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto&quot;
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{{big2|'''Box 1: Children's understanding of emotion through art'''}}
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A recent study has demonstrated that children as young as three are sensitive to and understand the emotional meaning expressed in other children's art. Misailidi &amp; Bonoti (2008) presented children aged between three and six years of age with a series of drawings expressing either happiness, sadness, anger or fear. Results from the study showed that;
* By three years of age, children showed an understanding of the emotion expressed in the drawings
* The emotions of happiness, sadness and fear were the most common to be recognised by the children
(Misailidi &amp; Bonoti, 2008)
[[File:Child's drawing.jpg|center|200px]]
|}

Understanding and recognition of emotions is how an individual construe and encode emotional signals from others (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005). Generally, infants begin to recognise emotional expressions in others’ by six months of age, and this is commonly demonstrated through social referencing (Walker-Andrews, 1998), which was mentioned earlier in the chapter. However, gaining a full understanding of others' emotional and mental state is a gradual process which doesn't fully development until years later. A fundamental aspect of the ability for a child to understand and recognise others’ emotions is the development of a theory of mind. 

=== Theory of mind ===

Imagine that the following scenario is described for a child: a girl comes home, places her doll in a cupboard and then leaves the room. Later on, her mother comes in to the room and moves the doll to a different cupboard. When the girl comes back to get her doll, where will she look? 

The correct answer to this question will ultimately depend on the child knowing about the beliefs of the girl in the scenario (Moore &amp; Frye, 1991). Put differently, it will depend on the child having a [[w:Theory of mind|theory or mind]]. Theory of mind is an understanding or awareness that people have mental states including beliefs, feelings and desires (Thornton, 2002). Having a theory of mind remains an essential ability to having a full and functional adult social interaction (Thornton, 2002). Try to imagine what it would be like having a relationship with another person that had no awareness of such mental states. It would be more like interacting with a mechanical device or robot than a person. What it's like for a person who doesn't have a theory of mind will be discussed further in the chapter. 

==== Measuring theory of mind ====

When do infants realise that they themselves, and other individuals, have minds? This particular question has been in the past debatable, and has generated a great deal of research and controversy (Thornton, 2002). Numerous experiments have been designed in an attempt to identify the age in which children develop a theory of mind. Such tasks are in general, a “pass or fail” nature (Taylor, 2005). Essentially, to pass them, infants must exhibit their understanding that reality can in fact be misunderstood and hence that the mind is a representational unit which actively constructs mental representations (Taylor, 2005). 

The most commonly known and used test for theory of mind in children is the “false belief task” (Doherty, 2009). Among the numerous tasks used to measure false belief in children, two models in particular, known as unexpected transfer tasks, have been used so extensively that they have become known as the standard false belief tasks; the Maxi-chocolate and Sally-Anne test (Krachun, Carpenter, Call &amp; Tomasello, 2010). Generally, false belief tasks are acted out for children with props and dolls (Doherty, 2009). However, other demonstrations use real people, pictures or videos of real people (Doherty, 2009). Nevertheless, the design of the experiment doesn’t seem to affect the basic finding (Doherty, 2009).
[[File:Sandbox Lawn Jam Our Community Place Harrisonburg VA June 2008.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Children generally understand the emotions, beliefs and mental states of others by age four; which is a vital component of functional social interaction]]

The first task, the Maxi-chocolate task, originally developed by Wimmer and Perner, is described to children in the following format;

Maxi is helping his mother to unpack the shopping bag. He puts the chocolate into the GREEN cupboard. Maxi remembers exactly where he put the chocolate so he can come back later and get some. Then he leaves for the playground. In his absence his mother needs some chocolate. She takes the chocolate out of the GREEN cupboard and uses some of it for her cake. Then she puts it back not into the GREEN cupboard but into the BLUE cupboard. She leaves to get some eggs and Maxi returns from the playground, hungry. Test question: Where will Maxi look for the chocolate? (Doherty, 2009). 

In general, findings show that children begin to pass this task at approximately 4 or 5 years old (Doherty, 2009). Almost indefinitely, children under the age of 4 will answer that Maxi will look in the blue cupboard (Taylor, 2005). Hence, children predict Maxi’s behaviour and actions upon the basis of their own true beliefs instead of Maxi’s false belief (Taylor, 2005). This is known as a “realist error”; when responses are based upon reality instead of on a substitute mis-representation of reality (Taylor, 2005). 

The [[w:Sally-Anne test|Sally-Anne test]] enacts the following situation with either dolls and props or real people: Sally has a basket and Anne has a box. Sally puts a marble into her basket, and then she goes outside to play. While Sally is outside, Anne takes the marble from the basket and puts it into her own box. When Sally comes back inside, she wants to play with her marble. Test question: Where will Sally look for the marble? (Frith, 2001). On the whole, to answer the questions posed in the Maxi-chocolate and Sally-Anne test correctly, a child needs to understand that Maxi and Sally’s mental state, rather than reality, will establish where Maxi and Sally will look (Thornton, 2002).

As above, children under the age of four will usually fail the Sally-Anne test, reporting that Sally will look in the box for the marble, finding it difficult to understand that Sally does not know the marble is now in Anne’s box simply because they now have this knowledge (Goodman &amp; Scott, 1997). Additionally, children over the age of four generally pass the test, reporting that Sally will look in her basket for the marble, predicting that Sally will act on her false belief (Goodman &amp; Scott, 1997).

Understanding and recognising emotion, beliefs and mental states in others’ is a complex process. It is unlikely that at one moment, children have no understanding of mental states and a good understanding the next (Thornton, 2002). Rather, the development of a theory of mind is gradual (Thornton, 2002). Overall, previous studies indicate that children develop a theory of mind by the age of four.

== Development of emotional bonds ==

=== Attachment ===
[[File:Crying-girl.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A girl crying during her mother's absence]]
Best known through Bowlby’s work throughout the 1970’s and 80’s, attachment theory is not a theory of emotional development as such, however it is centred on the influence of emotion upon the development of social relationships (Strongman, 2003). The creation of a secure attachment with important individuals is considered an imperative component of emotional development during the first year of infancy (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2002). [[w:Attachment theory| Attachment theory]] proposes that at the earliest opportunity, an infant is disposed to attach to a caregiver (Strongman, 2003). During the first few months of life, an infant who has developed social smiling will reactively smile back at any individual (Kalat &amp; Shiota, 2007). However, at around six to nine months, an infant will becomes more selective,  won’t smile at just anybody, and grows to know and trust certain individuals (Kalat &amp; Shiota, 2007). 

Essentially, attachment develops in young infants from the basic need for dependency on others for nurturance and protection (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2002). Infants generally develop attachment with a select few, most typically those who care for them (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2002). The type of attachment an infant forms with one significant person can differ compared to the attachment formed with another (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2002).

==== Measuring attachment ====

Attachment assessments are considered particularly important, especially in relation to clinical applications, just as they are for intelligence and psychological disorders (McKinsey-Crittenden, Claussen &amp; Kozlowska, 2007). A classic measurement of attachment in infants is known as the [[w:Strange Situation|Strange situation]] procedure, developed by Mary Ainsworth. 

The Strange Situation is implemented most commonly when the infant is 12 to 18 months old and is not normally used with infants with neurological problems (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2007). The procedure usually lasts around twenty minutes and takes place in an unfamiliar environment (McKinsey-Crittenden, Claussen &amp; Kozlowska, 2007). The strange situation involves up to seven episodes, with the episodes least stressful occurring first (Schaffer, 1996).  After an introductory episode, the infant and parent are simply observed in the unfamiliar room to determine how far the infant will move from the parent to explore its surroundings and play with toys (Salter-Ainsworth &amp; Wall, 1978). With the parent still present, a stranger enters the room (Kalat &amp; Shiota, 2007).  Once the stranger has moved closer to the infant, the parent will leave the room, return after a few minutes and the stranger will then leave (Salter-Ainsworth &amp; Wall, 1978).  The mother will then interest the infant in the toys again, before leaving the infant in the room by itself (Salter-Ainsworth &amp; Wall, 1978). Finally, the stranger enters the room again for some time before the parent returns (Salter-Ainsworth &amp; Wall, 1978). 

Of course, the experiment is stopped if the infant becomes too distressed, but the scenarios are intended to be mildly to moderately stressful for the infant in order to assess how the infant uses the parent to deal with such stress (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2007).  The infant’s attachment to the parent is then examined by looking at the infant’s behaviour during the experiment, such as how quickly the infant is comforted by the parent (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2007). 

From here, infants are coded based upon their behaviour and are classified as having one of three types of attachment. 

# Securely attached; Infant displayed reasonable amount of closeness seeking to parent. Infant is upset by parent’s departure, however greets them positively when they return. 
# Insecurely attached: avoidant; Infant avoids parent, particularly when parent returns after leaving. Infant is not significantly upset when left alone with the stranger
# Insecurely attached: resistant; Infant is greatly upset when parent leaves the room. When parent re-enters the room, the infant is difficult to comfort.
 
Shaffer (1996).

Overall, the development of attachment is varied among infants. It does however identify the aspects of the social bonds that infants develop with their caregivers.
{{Hide in print|
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Test your knowledge of the chapter so far.
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Theory of mind typically develops in children at what age?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ 4 years.
- 2 years.

{Which of the following is '''not''' a type of attachment?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Insecurely attached: avoidant.
+ Insecurely attached: depressed.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
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== Emotional difficulties in atypical development ==
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{{big2|'''Box 2: What's it like to have a autism spectrum disorder?'''}}
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Consider this real life account from a woman with Asperger’s disorder.

“Mum took me to the local play centre, but I was unable to interact with the other children. All I wanted to do was the stay in the book corner for the whole morning. One of the highlights for the other children was finger painting, but I would not touch the stuff, as I have revulsion of sticky substances on my skin. One day, the play centre organised a cartoon film viewing for the children; I was three years old. The moving animated figures of Tom and Jerry terrified me, and I screamed so much that I had to be taken out. The other children loved it”.

Birch, J. (2003). pp 14. 

|}

=== Autism and Aspergers Disorder ===

Despite widespread research and literature that suggests a natural developmental process among infants and children, children with atypical development experience a significant struggle with emotional expression and understanding. 

Emotional expression provides a vital role in human communication. Aspects such as facial expression communicate emotional states, hence influencing others’ to respond (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996). Furthermore, the ability to understand the emotions and mind of others is considered imperative to social communication (Kuusikko et al, 2009). Thus, a disturbance to such emotional signalling could have detrimental effects upon social interactions (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996).  One such disturbance in children includes autism. 

[[w:Autism|Autism]] is one of many related disorders, together known as autism spectrum disorders (ASD). The American Psychiatric Association (2000) defines autism as a complex developmental disorder characterised by three primary symptoms:
# Impaired development in social interaction
# Impaired development in communication, and
# Restricted repetitive stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interests and activities
In relation to social impairment, autistic children are generally uninterested in the characteristics of others and don’t tend to respond when other children attempts to initiate contact to gain their attention (Siegal, 2007). Additionally, autistic children engage in solitary activities and generally pay attention to objects instead of people (Siegal, 2007).
[[File:Autism-stacking-cans edit.jpg|left|thumb|250px|An example of restricted repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests and activities in a young autistic child; can stacking]]

The characteristics of autism have been discussed for decades. Kanner (1943) examined eleven children suspected of having autism. One of these children, Elaine, aged seven, was brought to Kanner by her parents as she had been experiencing troubles adjusting. Elaine didn’t understand other children’s games, didn’t show interest in stories read to her, often wandered off by herself, was particularly interested in animals of all kinds and often mimicked them (Kanner, 1943). This account captures all three of the primary symptoms of autism described above. 

Autism varies in degree of severity and can come about at all levels of ability, therefore is it now accepted that there is a “spectrum” of autistic disorders (Frith, 2001). At one end of the spectrum is Asperger’s Disorder, which is considered a milder form of autism (Frith, 2001). In contrast to autism, [[w:Asperger’s disorder|Asperger's disorder]] is characterised only by a significant impairment in social interaction and the development of restricted repetitive stereotyped patters of behaviour, interests and activities (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Compared to autism, there are no significant delays in language acquisition in Asperger's disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).  

Such a definition suggests that individuals with autism spectrum disorders are “cut off” from the world around them (Taylor, 2005).  Indeed, the severe impairment in social interaction makes it significantly difficult for children with autism to interact socially with other individuals.

==== Emotional expression in children with autism spectrum disorders ====
[[File:Leo-Kanner.jpeg|right|thumb|200px|Leo Kanner is an early figure in child autism research]]
As previously mentioned, the emotional expressions present in a young infant, such as smiling and crying, are the basis for communication between caregiver and child (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996). One key indicator of ASD in infants is the absence of facial expressions such as joy (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Absences of facial expressions in autistic children have been documented for a number of years. Kanner (1943) For instance, found children with autism to display vacant expressions with no communicative signals whatsoever. Hobson &amp; Lee (1998) found fewer autistic children, compared to non autistic children to smile or wave goodbye when interacting with others. Without the ability to express emotion, it is easy to see the difficultly for children with ASD to communicate with others, and vice versa.

==== Understanding and recognition of emotions in children with autism spectrum disorders ====

As mentioned earlier in the chapter, having a theory of mind is a vital component of emotional development. It is a general suggestion that children with autism do not develop a theory of mind until well after the age of four years (Siegal, 2007). This deficit is said to account for the non-social nature of autism (Siegal, 2007). The basis for theory of mind in children with ASD is that they do not grasp how the behaviour of others can be guided by a false belief (Siegal, 2007) such as those shown in the Maxi-chocolate and Sally-Anne tasks described earlier in the chapter. Unlike typically developing children, theory of mind abilities in children with ASD seem to be resistant and do not improve until much later in life (Siegal, 2007). In contrast, individuals with Asperger’s disorder have been found to pass theory of mind measurements which test false belief (Bowler, 1992). 

In addition to theory of mind, interpreting facial expressions has been discussed earlier in the chapter as a vital component of social interaction and emotional communication in children. Essentially, being able to “read” facial expression in others’ can tell us a lot, providing context and meaning to the words we hear (Thornton, 2002). Recent studies have suggested that children with autism have a significant impairment in face and facial expression recognition (Joseph &amp; Tanaka, 2003). Interestingly, researchers from the University of California suggest that areas of the brain in autistic children do not respond to visual cues that respond in those without autism (University of California, 2007).

On the whole, the development and experience of emotion in children with ASD is a entirely different experience compared to normally developing children. An inability to express and understand emotions makes social interaction incredibly hard, and in most cases non-existent for children with ASD.
{{Hide in print|
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Test your knowledge of the chapter so far.
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Children with ASD have great difficulty socially interacting with others.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True.
- False.

{Children with ASD don't develop a theory of mind until late in childhood
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- False.
+ True.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
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}}
== Summary ==

Emotions are an integral part of our lives. We experience them every day and they exist as the foundations of human social interaction. This chapter has made it clear that emotional development begins during the first few moments of life as a newborn infant cries due to stress of an unfamiliar environment. From this point on, emotional development becomes an intricate and rapid journey for a child. 

This chapter has identified and discussed two theoretical perspectives relating to emotional development: biological and evolutionary, and psychoanalytic. Both theories take quite diverse standpoints of the way in which emotion is developed. 
It seems that social interaction with others’ is imperative to emotional development, with social referencing providing a key example supporting this idea. Research has found that infants often use other people’s emotional reactions to inform their own behaviour, particularly in ambiguous situations. 

Additionally, having an understanding and the ability to recognise emotions in others is vital to both emotional development and social interaction. This is more commonly known as theory of mind within psychology, which is an understanding that other people have mental states, beliefs, emotions and desires. 

The development of emotional bonds is typically displayed through attachment. This chapter defines attachment as the close emotional bond infants’ form with a significant person, most commonly a caregiver. Although attachment theory is not a theory of emotion, it does highlight the influence emotion has upon the development of close bonds. 

Finally, ASD was discussed in relation to emotional development. Overall, children with ASD have great difficulty with social interaction resulting in an inability to develop a theory of mind. Moreover, research has found that children with ASD do not express emotion compared to typically developing children. 

On the whole, emotional development in children is a multifaceted process, which can take one of many paths.

== Key Terms ==

'''Emotional development''': the way emotions change or remain constant across the human lifespan (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005).

'''Social smiling''': the way young infants’ communicates pleasure at the identification of a familiar face, such as a parent, through coordination of oral-facial muscles in to a social signal (Slentz &amp; Krogh, 2001).

'''Social referencing''': a communication process in which infants dynamically use and seek out observed perceptions and understanding of ambiguous situations in order to guide their own understanding of such circumstances (Vaish &amp; Striano, 2004). Social referencing is most commonly measured in the visual cliff experiment. 

'''Theory of mind''': an understanding or awareness that people have mental states including, beliefs, emotions and desires (Thornton, 2002). Theory of mind is most commonly measured using the Maxi-chocolate and Sally-Anne tasks. 

'''Attachment theory''': proposes that throughout infancy, and infant is disposed to attach to their caregiver figure (Strongman, 2003). Attachment is commonly measured using the Strange Situation procedure, developed by Mary Ainsworth. There are three types of attachment; securely attached, insecurely attached: avoidant and insecurely attached: resistant. 

'''Autism''': a complex developmental disorder characterised by impaired development in social interaction, communication and restricted repetitive stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interests and activities (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).

'''Asperger’s Disorder''': characterised only by a significant impairment in social interaction and the development of restricted repetitive stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interests and activities (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
{{Hide in print|
== See also ==
* [[../Adolescence/]] (Textbook chapter)
}}
== References ==

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed. Text revision). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association

Birch, J. (2003). Congratulations! It’s Asperger Syndrome. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=MWdYMKNmYGUC&amp;printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false

Bourgeois, P., &amp; Hess, U. (2008). The impact of social contact on mimicry. Biological Psychology, 77, 343-352. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2007.11.008

Bowler, D. M. (1992). Theory of mind in asperger’s syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33, 877-893. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.1992.tb01962.

Benson, B. J., &amp; Haith, M. M. (2009). Social and emotional development in infancy and early childhood. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=VUvdHreepDYC&amp;pg=PA428&amp;dq=infant+social+interaction+and+emotional+development&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=LPnJTI-_J8SHcbit1MgO&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=1&amp;ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;q=infant%20social%20interaction%20and%20emotional%20development&amp;f=false 

Doherty, M. J. (2009). Theory of mind: how children understand others’ thoughts and feelings. Psychology Press, Hove, East Sussex
 
Frith, U. (2001). Mind blindness and the brain in autism. Neuron, 32, 969-979. Retrieved from: http://www.socialbehavior.uzh.ch/teaching/semsocialneurosciencews07/frith01.pdf
Garber, J., &amp; Dodge, A. K. : Walden, A. T. (1991). The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=7GQ7Xf5sZZgC&amp;pg=PA69&amp;dq=infant+development,+social+referencing&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=5fPJTM_5IIfJcZaxrdUO&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=3&amp;ved=0CD0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&amp;q=infant%20development%2C%20social%20referencing&amp;f=false 

Goodman, R., &amp; Scott, S. (1997). Child Psychiatry. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=taXfy9nw4q8C&amp;pg=PA47&amp;dq=theory+of+mind,+sally-anne+test&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=tYHLTNXhFI7fcZu5lJwO&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=5&amp;ved=0CEYQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&amp;q=theory%20of%20mind%2C%20sally-anne%20test&amp;f=false

Gowen, J. W., &amp; Nebrig, J. B. Enhancing early emotional development. Paul H. Brookes Publishing, Baltimore, Maryland.

Grossman, J. B, Klin, A., Carter, A. S., &amp; Volkmar, F. R. (2000). Verbal bias in recognition of facial emotions in children with Asperger’s syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41(3), 369-379. Retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10784084

Heerey, A. E., Keltner, D., &amp; Capps, M. L. (2003). Making sense of self-conscious emotion: linking theory of mind and emotion in children with autism. American Psychological Association Inc, 4, 394-400. doi: 10.1037/1528-3542.3.4.394

Hobson, R. P., &amp; Lee, A. (1998). Hello and goodbye: a study of social engagement in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 28(2), 117-27. Retrieved from: http://zh9bf5sp6t.scholar.serialssolutions.com/?sid=google&amp;auinit=RP&amp;aulast=Hobson&amp;atitle=Hello+and+goodbye:+A+study+of+social+engagement+in+autism&amp;id=doi:10.1023/A:1026088531558&amp;title=Journal+of+autism+and+developmental+disorders&amp;volume=28&amp;issue=2&amp;date=1998&amp;spage=117&amp;issn=0162-3257

Hutchinson, E. D. (2003). Dimensions of human behavior: the changing life course. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=vfbucdtrEh8C&amp;pg=PA129&amp;dq=erik+erikson%27s+stages+of+development&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=fi7WTN-CGpDovQP8xbX-CQ&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=4&amp;ved=0CDsQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&amp;q=erik%20erikson%27s%20stages%20of%20development&amp;f=false

Joseph, R. M., &amp; Tanaka, J. (2003). Holistic and part-based face recognition in children with autism. Journal of Child and Psychological Psychiatry, 44(4), 529-542. Retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12751845

Kalat, J. W., &amp; Shiota, M. N. (2007). Emotion. Thomson Wadsworth Publications, Belmont, CA. 

Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child, 2, 217-250. Retrieved from: http://affect.media.mit.edu/Rgrads/Articles/pdfs/Kanner-1943-OrigPaper.pdf

Kasari, C., &amp; Sigman, M. (1996). Expression and understanding of emotion in atypical development: Autism and Down syndrome. In M. Lewis M. W. Sullivan, Emotional development in atypical children (pp. 109-130). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, Mahwah, New Jersey

Krachun, C., Carpenter, M., Call, J., Tomasello, M. (2010). A new change-of-contents false belief test: children and chimpanzees compared. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 23, 145-165. Retrieved from: http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwscp/2010ijcpissue2/2.Krachun_FinalPDF.pdf

Magai, C., &amp; McFadden, S. H. (1995). The role of emotions in social and personality development: history, theory and research. Plenum Press,  New York, NY 

Mangelsdorf, C. S., &amp; Wong, S. M. (2009). Independence/Dependence. In Benson, B. J., &amp; Haith, M, M., Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Early Childhood. Elsevier Publications,  San Diego, CA

McKinsey-Crittenden, P. Claussen, A. H., &amp; Kozowska, K. (2007). Choosing a valid assessment of attachment for clinical use: a comparative study. ANZJFT, 28(2), 78-87. Retrieved from: http://www.iasa-dmm.org/images/uploads/Choosing%20a%20valid%20assessment%20of%20attachment.pdf

Messinger, D. (2009). Smiling, In Benson, B. J., &amp; Haith, M, M., Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Early Childhood. Elsevier Publications,  San Diego, CA

Misailidi, P., &amp; Bonoti, P. (2008). Emotion in children’s art: do young children understand the emotions expressed in other children’s drawings? Early Childhood Research, 6, 189-200. doi: 10.1177/1476718X08088677

Moore, C. &amp; Frye, D. (1991). The acquisition and utility of theories of mind. In D. Frye &amp; C. Moore, Children’s theories of mind: mental states and social understanding (pp. 1-15). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc, Hillsdale, New Jersey

Mumme, L. D., &amp; Fernald, A. (2003). The infant as onlooker: learning from emotional reactions observed in a television scenario. Child Development, 74, 221-237/ Retrieved from: http://www.temple.edu/devscilab/732_wiki/the_infant_as_onlooker_learning_from_emotional_reactions_observed_in_a_television_scenario.pdf 

Mumme, L. D., Fernald A., &amp; Herrera, C. (1996). Infant’s responses to facial ands vocal emotional signals in a social referencing paradigm. Child Development, 67(6), 3219-3237. Retrieved from: http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~babylab/pdfs/Mumme%20Fernald%20Herrera%201996.pdf

Oatley, K., Keltner, D., &amp; Jenkins, M. J. (2006). Understanding emotions. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=RGHghPqIO_8C&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PR14&amp;dq=Oatley+%26+Jenkins+1996,+emotion&amp;ots=n4gLfkydNA&amp;sig=LSDyetbGuWzdd9BNUf92D9kt-Nc#v=onepage&amp;q=Oatley%20%26%20Jenkins%201996%2C%20emotion&amp;f=false
Plutchik, R. (2003). Emotion. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=ExILFpIhgpAC&amp;pg=PA189&amp;dq=evolutionary+perspective,+emotions&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=UazQTPKyC8q3cJXCxIkK&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=1&amp;ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;q=evolutionary%20perspective%2C%20emotions&amp;f=false

Reeve, J. (2009). ''Understanding motivation and emotion''. Wiley &amp; Sons Inc, Hoboken, NJ

Salter-Ainsworth, M, D., Waters, E., &amp; Wall, S.(1978) Patterns of attachment: a psychological study of the strange situation. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=8wRu5InF79gC&amp;printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false

Shaffer, R. D. (2005). Social and personality development. Wadsworth Publications, Belmont, CA. 
Siegal, M. (2007). Marvelous minds: the discovery of what children know. Oxford University Press, New York, NY
Slentz, K., &amp; Krogh, S. (2001). Early childhood development and its variations. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=_8Typ-IJ9LsC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Slentz+and+Krogh&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=OpLWTLTDFoexcYeZ0dQL&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=1&amp;ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false

Sludds, K. (2008). Emotions: their cognitive base and ontological importance. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=K-eRtOecE4oC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Sludds,+cognitive,+emotions&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=uWTVTO6nCsyHcbai9K4L&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=1&amp;ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false

Sorce, J. F., Emde, R. N., Campos, J., &amp; Klinnert, M. D. (1985). Maternal emotional signalling: its effects on the visual cliff behavior of 1-year olds. Developmental Psychology, 21, 195-200. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.21.1.195 
Strongman, K. T. (2003). The Psychology of emotion: from everyday life to theory (5th ed.). John Wiley and Sons Publications, West Sussex, England 

Sutherland, P. (1992). Cognitive development today: Piaget and his critics. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=LuJIxtEb57UC&amp;printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false

Taylor, L. (2005). Introducing cognitive development. Psychology Press, Hove, East Sussex

Thornton, S. (2002). Growing minds: an introduction to cognitive development. Plagrave Macmillan Publications, New York, NY

University of California - Los Angeles (2007, May 7). A Frown Or A Smile? Children With Autism Can't Discern. Science Daily. Retrieved  from: http://www.sciencedaily.com¬ /releases/2007/05/070505164645.htm

Vaish, A. &amp; Striano, T. (2004). Is visual reference necessary? Contributions of facial versus vocal cues in 12-month –olds’ social referencing behavior. Developmental Science, 7(3), 261-269. Retreived from:  http://www.drstriano.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/ReadingGroupStriano.pdf

Walden, T. A. (1991). Infant social referencing. In J. Garber &amp; K. A. Dodge , The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation (pp. 69-89). Cambridge University Press, New York, NY 

Walden, T., &amp; Knieps, L. (1996). Reading and responding to social signals. In M. Lewis M. W. Sullivan, Emotional development in atypical children (pp. 109-130). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, Mahwah, New Jersey 

Walker-Andrews, A. S. (1998). Emotions and Social Development: Infants' Recognition of Emotions in Others. Paediatrics, 102, 1268-1271. doi:  10.1542/peds.102.5.SE1.1268

White, F., Hayes, B., &amp; Livesey, D. (2005). Developmental Psychology: From infancy to adulthood. Pearson Education Australia, Frenchs Forest NSW.

{{Hide in print|
== External links ==
*[http://www.smh.com.au/national/cartoon-trains-teach-autistic-children-about-emotions-20100106-ludl.html Cartoon trains teach autistic children about emotions]
*[http://www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2008/s2634743.htm Autism rates much higher than previously thought]}}

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== Overview ==
[[File:Babyfoot.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Emotional development begins during the first few moments of life and continues throughout childhood]]
Practically every facet of human life involves emotion, whether it is meeting friends for lunch, experiencing your first day of school, or getting married. As human beings, we are inherently interested in others’ emotions and constantly express our own. The ability to express, recognise and understand emotion enables us to behave in a socially competent and accepted way (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005). If an individual did not have such skills, they would experience significant difficulty interacting with other individuals in all walks of life. 

Emotion is evident very early in human life, with infants expressing distress through crying within their first few seconds of entering the world (Oatley, Keltner &amp; Jenkins, 2006). Within just a few months, infants express joy through smiling and laughing (Kalat &amp; Shiota, 2007). From here on, the development of emotion in children is rapid and significant.

This chapter will identify the framework of emotional development in children starting from the very first days of life. To begin, two theoretical perspectives pertaining to emotional development will be discussed. The emotions which exist in early infancy will be examined, leading to the aspects of social interaction and its influences upon emotional development. The understanding and recognition of emotions, a fundamental aspect of social interaction will then be evaluated. Further, the formation of emotional bonds and its importance to emotional development will be discussed. This chapter will also shed light on emotional development within children who experience autism spectrum disorders in contrast to normally developing children.

;Focus questions

After studying this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions:
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* What is emotional development?
* What are the underlying theories of emotional development?
* What emotions do newborn infants experience?
* How does social interaction with others influence the development of emotion in children?
* When and how do children begin to understand emotion in others?
* How do infants develop emotional bonds with significant others?
* What is autism?
* How does the development of emotion differ between children with autism and typically developing children?
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== Definition of emotional development ==
To understand the numerous aspects of emotional development in children, it would be ideal to first gain an understanding of what emotional development itself. '''Emotional development''' is essentially the way emotions change or remain constant across the human lifespan (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005).

== Theoretical approaches to emotional development ==

The development of emotion has been investigated from numerous perspectives. Two theoretical frameworks will be presented in this chapter; biological and evolutionary and psychoanalytic perspective. 

[[File:Baby meets Moominmama.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The discrete emotion of interest in an infant, as described in differential emotions theory]]
=== Biological and evolutionary perspective ===

==== Differential emotions theory ====

One theory of emotional development which holds significant biological and evolutionary ties is differential emotions theory which is also referred to as [[w:Discrete emotions theory|discrete emotions theory]]. Differential emotions theory traces back to Charles Darwin, and his proposal that basic human emotions are the products of evolutionary history which serve us in an adaptive way (Shaffer, 2005).  For example, disgust displayed in infants when they taste something bitter is considered an inbuilt reaction that protects them from poisoned food by causing them to spit out the subnstance (Shaffer, 2005). Additionally, the distress expressed early in infancy alerts caregivers when they are hungry or tired, hence promoting their well-being (Shaffer, 2005). [[File:Charles Darwin 01.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Differential emotions theory stems from Charles Darwin's earlier work]]
Essentially, differential emotions theory stresses the innate, biological structure and universality of a core set of emotions in human beings (Mangelsdorf &amp; Wong, 2009). Differential emotions theory proposed that infants attain a limited and particular set of emotions during the first few months of life, which are organised into a system of independent functioning (Ackerman, Abe &amp; Izard, 1998). Additionally, emotions are considered to emerge during early development in a pre-adapted and conventional manner (Ackerman, Abe &amp; Izard, 1998). Moreover, differential emotions theory proposes that the biologically programmed emotions are accompanied by discrete bodily and facial processed, evident early in infancy (Schaffer, 2005). For example, interest in infants encompasses raised brows, rounded mouth and pursed lips (Shaffer, 2005). In addition to interest, there are nine other discrete emotions including; joy, surprise, fear, anger, disgust, distress, contempt, shame and guilt (Reeve, 2009).

=== Psychoanalytic perspective ===

Unlike most areas of psychology, Sigmund Freud has not been as influential within the field of emotional development. One factor in particular contributes to this. Freud’s theory of emotion is essentially a “one-affect” theory and is primarily a theory of anxiety (Magai &amp; McFadden, 1995). 

In contrast, Erik Erickson, who was a follower of Freud’s work, proposed a stage theory of emotional development in humans. Erickson's theory is sometimes referred to as [[w:Erikson's stages of psychosocial development|Erikson's stages of psychosocial development]]. Erickson puts forward that infants face imperative developmental tasks in emotional development in relation to eight successive stages. Each of these eight stages entails the completion of a certain task, with each task depending on the completion of the previous task (Hutchinson, 2003). The three stages relating directly to childhood are summarised below. 

'''Table 1'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;  style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|-
| '''Life stage''' || '''Developmental task''' || '''Characteristic'''
|-
| '''Infancy (Birth-1 year)''' || Basic trust vs. basic mistrust || Infants must form trusting relationships with caregivers or they will learn to distrust the world.
|-
| '''Early childhood (3-5 years)''' || Autonomy vs. shame and doubt || Toddler must develop self-confidence and a sense of accomplishment over themselves and their worlds and they use newly developed motor skills or they will develop shame and doubt about their inability to develop control.
|-
| '''Middle childhood (6-11 years)''' || Industry vs. inferiority || School aged children must develop a sense of competence to accomplish tasks or they learn to feel inferior or incompetent.
|-
|}
(Hutchinson, 2003).
{{Hide in print|
{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|5}}}|title=Test Your Knowledge}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Test your knowledge of the chapter so far.
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Newborn infants don't experience any emotions. It's not until early childhood that emotions emerge.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ False.
- True.

{Differential emotions theory belongs to which theoretical perspective?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Psychoanalytic.
+ Biological and evolutionary.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
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}}
== Development of emotional experience and expression ==

What emotions do infants have? With this question in mind, consider the following scenario;

Fifteen month-old Sarah is sitting on the lounge-room floor playing with her jack-in-the-box toy while her mother, Sandra, sits nearby reading her book. Sarah is spinning the handle of her jack-in-the-box. When the clown pops up, she turns toward her mother and laughs with delight. After a number of unsuccessful attempts to put the clown back in to the box, Sarah becomes frustrated. She begins fussing angrily and looks to her mother for help. Sandra comes over and shows Sarah how to close the box. Sarah then begins turning the handle, starting the process again. This time however, her hand gets caught under the lid when closing it. She cries and holds out her hand to her mother, who comes over and comforts her. Not long after this, Sarah loses interest in the jack-in-the-box and begins playing with another toy (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2002). 

Here, Sarah has experienced and expressed a range of emotions. Joy and happiness were expressed through laughter, frustration when the clown would not fit back in to the box and distress when her finger was injured. In a simple scenario such as this, we can begin to understand the range of emotions experienced by infants throughout day-to-day-life. 
[[File:Crying newborn.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Distress is the first emotion expressed by infants through crying]]
Emotional expressions are present from birth and form the basis of the communication between parent and child (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996). Shortly after birth, facial expressions of infants include interest, disgust, sadness, anger and joy (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996). Facial expressions are particularly imperative as they act as expressive signals of inner emotional experience (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996).  Biological needs such as hunger and pain for instance, are communicated through the expression of physical distress (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005). Furthermore, social world interactions are signalled through expressions of interest and joy (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005). Essentially, emotional expression provides a vital role in communication (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996). Infants use numerous mechanisms to express emotions. Probably the two most common are crying and smiling.  

==== Crying in infants ====

Crying or distress is one emotion that is present from birth. Infants cry when they are hungry, tired, and gassy or just generally feeling uncomfortable (Kalat &amp; Shiota, 2007). Crying is a particularly important communication tool that tells a parent that something is wrong (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005). 
[[File:Woman and a baby.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Social smiling is used by infants to initiate social interaction]]
==== Smiling in infants ====

Infant smiling reflects the up-and-coming emotional competencies in a young child (Messinger, 2009). There are two categories of smiling; the '''social smile''' and the '''reflex smile''' (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005). Social smiling in infants begins to emerge, at a caregiver's delight, within the first four to six weeks of life. Social smiling in young infants communicates pleasure at the identification of a familiar face, such as a caregiver, through coordination of oral-facial muscles in to a social signal 's(Slentz &amp; Krogh, 2001). Hence, caregiver's interpret an infant’s social smile as an indication of comfort and pleasure (Slentz &amp; Krogh, 2001). From now on, an infant will use smiling as a tool for initiating social interactions (Slentz &amp; Krogh, 2001). In contrast, the reflex smile appears in response to external stimuli, usually during irregular patters of sleep (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005).

==== Anger, sadness and fear in infants ====

As mentioned above, distress is evident early in infancy due to hunger or pain. However, specific anger and sadness begins to appear over the first six months of life (Shaffer, 2005).  Anger is most often displayed in situations where the infant becomes frustrated, such as an inability to wield control over toys (Shaffer, 2005). Sadness, like anger develops over the first six months of life, and is displayed in various situations, such as the inability to produce a positive response from a caregiver (Shaffer, 2005). Fear is one of the last primary emotions to emerge, and generally indicates that an infant considers a person, object or situation a threat (Shaffer, 2005).

== Social interaction and emotional development ==

Numerous aspects of the development of emotion are considered to be innate or general across cultures (Walden &amp; Knieps, 1996). Nevertheless, input from the social environment is considered essential for the development of emotional functioning (Walden &amp; Knieps, 1996). Growing children spend hours of their day observing others’ and their emotional reactions to various situations. As an onlooker to everyday events, an infant may watch a parent smile after tasting food, an older sibling cry as their tower of blocks falls to the ground, or a childcare workers look shocked when a drinking glass falls and breaks on the floor (Mumme &amp; Fernald, 2003). Furthermore, the child may also participate in these events themselves (Mumme &amp; Fernald, 2003). Whether the child is a participant in such events, or simply an onlooker, young children learn how to understand and predict the behaviours and emotions of other people and relate this understanding to regulate their own behaviour (Mumme &amp; Fernald, 2003).  One such way a young child learns through observation is through social referencing. 
[[File:MaternalBond.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Young children learn about emotional reactions through observing other individuals such as their caregivers]]

=== Social referencing ===

'''Social referencing''' is a communication process in which infants dynamically use and seek out observed perceptions and understanding of unclear situations in order to guide their own understanding of such circumstances (Vaish &amp; Striano, 2004).  Hence, social referencing entails two aspects of a social information-processing skill; seeking input from other individuals and consequently using (or in some instances, not using) this information to form one’s own behaviour (Walden, 1991). Social referencing is one important way in which infants learn emotional responses (Walden, 1991). For instance, infants have observed to interact less with ambiguous toys and to be less friendly to strangers when a parent displays aversive affect toward them (Walden, 1991). 

Imagine the following scenario;

A one year old infant is playing on the floor with his mother when an unfamiliar person enters the room. The mother stands up, smiles and extends her hand, and walks over to the stranger. The infant observes this behaviour, and loses interest, returning to his toys (Walker-Andrews, 1998). 

Here, the infant has demonstrated social referencing, thus illustrating his ability to use others’ emotional reactions to regulate his own behaviour (Walker-Andrews, 1998). If the mother has responded differently to the stranger, say with fear or anger in her facial expression, voice or gesture, the infant probably would have reacted with more caution (Walker-Andrews, 1998).

==== Measuring social referencing ====

Social referencing is most commonly measured or assessed by presenting a child with unclear stimuli and having a parent or other adult express positive or negative emotional reactions to the stimuli (Walden &amp; Knieps, 1996). A fundamental behavioural aspect of social referencing is information seeking acts such as referential looking or asking questions (Walden, Knieps, 1996). One primary example of social referencing in infants is demonstrated in the [[w:Visual cliff|visual cliff]], in which an infant is placed on a glass surface providing an invisible support over an apparent drop (Vaish &amp; Striano, 2004). The visual cliff serves as the unclear or ambiguous situation. Experiments using the visual cliff carry the general prediction that infant’s behaviour will differ in appropriate ways with various emotional signals conveyed by the caregiver (Mumme, Fernals &amp; Herrera, 1996). 
[[File:US Navy 100406-N-7478G-346 Operations Specialist 2nd Class Reginald Harlmon and Electronics Technician 3rd Class Maura Schulze play peek-a-boo with a child in the Children's Ward at Hospital Likas.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Studies have used the classic &quot;peek a boo&quot; game as a way of demonstrating social referencing in infants]]
Visual cliff experiments have demonstrated the occurrence of social referencing among infants since the early 1980’s. In a well known study (Sorce, Emde, Campos &amp; Klinnert, 1985) found infants to cross the cliff when the adult on the opposite side of the glass displayed interest or joy, while fewer infants crossed when the adult displayed fear or anger. When infants approached the edge of the visual cliff and saw fear expressed by the mother, none of the 17 infants crossed (Sorce et al, 1985).  However, when the infants saw happiness expressed by the mother, 14 out of 19 infants crossed the visual cliff (Sorce et al, 1985). Overall, Sorce et al (1985) demonstrated social referencing to have a significant effect upon infant behaviour and the way they learn emotional responses. 

Another method used to measure social referencing in infants is an adaption of the “peek-a-boo” game commonly used by caregivers. Walker-Andrews (1998) used the peek-a-boo game to investigate young infants’ perception of other individuals’ emotional expressions. Forty four and a half year old infants were assigned to one of four emotion change groups, including sad, anger, fear and as the control, consistent happy or surprise (Walker-Andrews, 1998).The infants were then shown three standard happy or surprise peek-a-boos followed by a fourth, which depended on the assigned group (Walker-Andrews, 1998). Results found the infants to discriminate facial and vocal expressions of anger, fear and sadness and happy or surprise when offered in a familiar situation (Walker-Andrews, 1998).

Findings from these studies have given insight and generally support the conception that infants can use emotional signals to regulate their own judgements and behaviour.

=== Interpreting facial expressions ===

Similar to social referencing is the ability of infants to interpret facial expressions of emotion through imitation. The ability to understand and recognise emotion through facial expression is an imperative aspect of social interaction (Heerey, Keltner &amp; Capps, 2003). Additionally, Facial expressions are a primary indicator for normally developing children to understand the emotions and actions of others (Grossman, Klin, Carter &amp; Volkmar, 2000). 

Interestingly, developing children are accustomed to faces almost from birth, showing immense interest in the faces around them (Thornton, 2002). In fact, infants as young as one month old have been found to imitate facial expressions and gestures, such as an adult poking out their tongue (Thornton, 2002). This phenomenon, known as facial mimicry, which occurs frequently in infants and children, is the tendency to imitate facially or vocally with individuals we interact with (Bourgeois &amp; Hess, 2008). 

Although it is clearly understood that interpretation of facial expressions is an important aspect of social interaction, it is generally unknown how this influences emotional development (Kalat &amp; Shiota, 2007).
{{Hide in print|
{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|5}}}|title=Test Your Knowledge}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Test your knowledge of the chapter so far.
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which type of smiling do infants use to initiate social interaction?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Reflexive smile.
+ Social smile.

{Social referencing, a communication process infants use to guide their own behaviour is commonly measured by which experiment?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ The visual cliff experiment.
- The Sally-Anne test.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
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}}
== Understanding and recognition of emotions in infants and children ==
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{{big2|'''Box 1: Children's understanding of emotion through art'''}}
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A recent study has demonstrated that children as young as three are sensitive to and understand the emotional meaning expressed in other children's art. Misailidi &amp; Bonoti (2008) presented children aged between three and six years of age with a series of drawings expressing either happiness, sadness, anger or fear. Results from the study showed that;
* By three years of age, children showed an understanding of the emotion expressed in the drawings
* The emotions of happiness, sadness and fear were the most common to be recognised by the children
(Misailidi &amp; Bonoti, 2008)
[[File:Child's drawing.jpg|center|200px]]
|}

Understanding and recognition of emotions is how an individual construe and encode emotional signals from others (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005). Generally, infants begin to recognise emotional expressions in others’ by six months of age, and this is commonly demonstrated through social referencing (Walker-Andrews, 1998), which was mentioned earlier in the chapter. However, gaining a full understanding of others' emotional and mental state is a gradual process which doesn't fully development until years later. A fundamental aspect of the ability for a child to understand and recognise others’ emotions is the development of a theory of mind. 

=== Theory of mind ===

Imagine that the following scenario is described for a child: a girl comes home, places her doll in a cupboard and then leaves the room. Later on, her mother comes in to the room and moves the doll to a different cupboard. When the girl comes back to get her doll, where will she look? 

The correct answer to this question will ultimately depend on the child knowing about the beliefs of the girl in the scenario (Moore &amp; Frye, 1991). Put differently, it will depend on the child having a [[w:Theory of mind|theory or mind]]. Theory of mind is an understanding or awareness that people have mental states including beliefs, feelings and desires (Thornton, 2002). Having a theory of mind remains an essential ability to having a full and functional adult social interaction (Thornton, 2002). Try to imagine what it would be like having a relationship with another person that had no awareness of such mental states. It would be more like interacting with a mechanical device or robot than a person. What it's like for a person who doesn't have a theory of mind will be discussed further in the chapter. 

==== Measuring theory of mind ====

When do infants realise that they themselves, and other individuals, have minds? This particular question has been in the past debatable, and has generated a great deal of research and controversy (Thornton, 2002). Numerous experiments have been designed in an attempt to identify the age in which children develop a theory of mind. Such tasks are in general, a “pass or fail” nature (Taylor, 2005). Essentially, to pass them, infants must exhibit their understanding that reality can in fact be misunderstood and hence that the mind is a representational unit which actively constructs mental representations (Taylor, 2005). 

The most commonly known and used test for theory of mind in children is the “false belief task” (Doherty, 2009). Among the numerous tasks used to measure false belief in children, two models in particular, known as unexpected transfer tasks, have been used so extensively that they have become known as the standard false belief tasks; the Maxi-chocolate and Sally-Anne test (Krachun, Carpenter, Call &amp; Tomasello, 2010). Generally, false belief tasks are acted out for children with props and dolls (Doherty, 2009). However, other demonstrations use real people, pictures or videos of real people (Doherty, 2009). Nevertheless, the design of the experiment doesn’t seem to affect the basic finding (Doherty, 2009).
[[File:Sandbox Lawn Jam Our Community Place Harrisonburg VA June 2008.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Children generally understand the emotions, beliefs and mental states of others by age four; which is a vital component of functional social interaction]]

The first task, the Maxi-chocolate task, originally developed by Wimmer and Perner, is described to children in the following format;

Maxi is helping his mother to unpack the shopping bag. He puts the chocolate into the GREEN cupboard. Maxi remembers exactly where he put the chocolate so he can come back later and get some. Then he leaves for the playground. In his absence his mother needs some chocolate. She takes the chocolate out of the GREEN cupboard and uses some of it for her cake. Then she puts it back not into the GREEN cupboard but into the BLUE cupboard. She leaves to get some eggs and Maxi returns from the playground, hungry. Test question: Where will Maxi look for the chocolate? (Doherty, 2009). 

In general, findings show that children begin to pass this task at approximately 4 or 5 years old (Doherty, 2009). Almost indefinitely, children under the age of 4 will answer that Maxi will look in the blue cupboard (Taylor, 2005). Hence, children predict Maxi’s behaviour and actions upon the basis of their own true beliefs instead of Maxi’s false belief (Taylor, 2005). This is known as a “realist error”; when responses are based upon reality instead of on a substitute mis-representation of reality (Taylor, 2005). 

The [[w:Sally-Anne test|Sally-Anne test]] enacts the following situation with either dolls and props or real people: Sally has a basket and Anne has a box. Sally puts a marble into her basket, and then she goes outside to play. While Sally is outside, Anne takes the marble from the basket and puts it into her own box. When Sally comes back inside, she wants to play with her marble. Test question: Where will Sally look for the marble? (Frith, 2001). On the whole, to answer the questions posed in the Maxi-chocolate and Sally-Anne test correctly, a child needs to understand that Maxi and Sally’s mental state, rather than reality, will establish where Maxi and Sally will look (Thornton, 2002).

As above, children under the age of four will usually fail the Sally-Anne test, reporting that Sally will look in the box for the marble, finding it difficult to understand that Sally does not know the marble is now in Anne’s box simply because they now have this knowledge (Goodman &amp; Scott, 1997). Additionally, children over the age of four generally pass the test, reporting that Sally will look in her basket for the marble, predicting that Sally will act on her false belief (Goodman &amp; Scott, 1997).

Understanding and recognising emotion, beliefs and mental states in others’ is a complex process. It is unlikely that at one moment, children have no understanding of mental states and a good understanding the next (Thornton, 2002). Rather, the development of a theory of mind is gradual (Thornton, 2002). Overall, previous studies indicate that children develop a theory of mind by the age of four.

== Development of emotional bonds ==

=== Attachment ===
[[File:Crying-girl.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A girl crying during her mother's absence]]
Best known through Bowlby’s work throughout the 1970’s and 80’s, attachment theory is not a theory of emotional development as such, however it is centred on the influence of emotion upon the development of social relationships (Strongman, 2003). The creation of a secure attachment with important individuals is considered an imperative component of emotional development during the first year of infancy (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2002). [[w:Attachment theory| Attachment theory]] proposes that at the earliest opportunity, an infant is disposed to attach to a caregiver (Strongman, 2003). During the first few months of life, an infant who has developed social smiling will reactively smile back at any individual (Kalat &amp; Shiota, 2007). However, at around six to nine months, an infant will becomes more selective,  won’t smile at just anybody, and grows to know and trust certain individuals (Kalat &amp; Shiota, 2007). 

Essentially, attachment develops in young infants from the basic need for dependency on others for nurturance and protection (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2002). Infants generally develop attachment with a select few, most typically those who care for them (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2002). The type of attachment an infant forms with one significant person can differ compared to the attachment formed with another (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2002).

==== Measuring attachment ====

Attachment assessments are considered particularly important, especially in relation to clinical applications, just as they are for intelligence and psychological disorders (McKinsey-Crittenden, Claussen &amp; Kozlowska, 2007). A classic measurement of attachment in infants is known as the [[w:Strange Situation|Strange situation]] procedure, developed by Mary Ainsworth. 

The Strange Situation is implemented most commonly when the infant is 12 to 18 months old and is not normally used with infants with neurological problems (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2007). The procedure usually lasts around twenty minutes and takes place in an unfamiliar environment (McKinsey-Crittenden, Claussen &amp; Kozlowska, 2007). The strange situation involves up to seven episodes, with the episodes least stressful occurring first (Schaffer, 1996).  After an introductory episode, the infant and parent are simply observed in the unfamiliar room to determine how far the infant will move from the parent to explore its surroundings and play with toys (Salter-Ainsworth &amp; Wall, 1978). With the parent still present, a stranger enters the room (Kalat &amp; Shiota, 2007).  Once the stranger has moved closer to the infant, the parent will leave the room, return after a few minutes and the stranger will then leave (Salter-Ainsworth &amp; Wall, 1978).  The mother will then interest the infant in the toys again, before leaving the infant in the room by itself (Salter-Ainsworth &amp; Wall, 1978). Finally, the stranger enters the room again for some time before the parent returns (Salter-Ainsworth &amp; Wall, 1978). 

Of course, the experiment is stopped if the infant becomes too distressed, but the scenarios are intended to be mildly to moderately stressful for the infant in order to assess how the infant uses the parent to deal with such stress (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2007).  The infant’s attachment to the parent is then examined by looking at the infant’s behaviour during the experiment, such as how quickly the infant is comforted by the parent (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2007). 

From here, infants are coded based upon their behaviour and are classified as having one of three types of attachment. 

# Securely attached; Infant displayed reasonable amount of closeness seeking to parent. Infant is upset by parent’s departure, however greets them positively when they return. 
# Insecurely attached: avoidant; Infant avoids parent, particularly when parent returns after leaving. Infant is not significantly upset when left alone with the stranger
# Insecurely attached: resistant; Infant is greatly upset when parent leaves the room. When parent re-enters the room, the infant is difficult to comfort.
 
Shaffer (1996).

Overall, the development of attachment is varied among infants. It does however identify the aspects of the social bonds that infants develop with their caregivers.
{{Hide in print|
{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|5}}}|title=Test Your Knowledge}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Test your knowledge of the chapter so far.
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Theory of mind typically develops in children at what age?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ 4 years.
- 2 years.

{Which of the following is '''not''' a type of attachment?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Insecurely attached: avoidant.
+ Insecurely attached: depressed.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
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== Emotional difficulties in atypical development ==
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{{big2|'''Box 2: What's it like to have a autism spectrum disorder?'''}}
{{center bottom}}
Consider this real life account from a woman with Asperger’s disorder.

“Mum took me to the local play centre, but I was unable to interact with the other children. All I wanted to do was the stay in the book corner for the whole morning. One of the highlights for the other children was finger painting, but I would not touch the stuff, as I have revulsion of sticky substances on my skin. One day, the play centre organised a cartoon film viewing for the children; I was three years old. The moving animated figures of Tom and Jerry terrified me, and I screamed so much that I had to be taken out. The other children loved it”.

Birch, J. (2003). pp 14. 

|}

=== Autism and Aspergers Disorder ===

Despite widespread research and literature that suggests a natural developmental process among infants and children, children with atypical development experience a significant struggle with emotional expression and understanding. 

Emotional expression provides a vital role in human communication. Aspects such as facial expression communicate emotional states, hence influencing others’ to respond (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996). Furthermore, the ability to understand the emotions and mind of others is considered imperative to social communication (Kuusikko et al, 2009). Thus, a disturbance to such emotional signalling could have detrimental effects upon social interactions (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996).  One such disturbance in children includes autism. 

[[w:Autism|Autism]] is one of many related disorders, together known as autism spectrum disorders (ASD). The American Psychiatric Association (2000) defines autism as a complex developmental disorder characterised by three primary symptoms:
# Impaired development in social interaction
# Impaired development in communication, and
# Restricted repetitive stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interests and activities
In relation to social impairment, autistic children are generally uninterested in the characteristics of others and don’t tend to respond when other children attempts to initiate contact to gain their attention (Siegal, 2007). Additionally, autistic children engage in solitary activities and generally pay attention to objects instead of people (Siegal, 2007).
[[File:Autism-stacking-cans edit.jpg|left|thumb|250px|An example of restricted repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests and activities in a young autistic child; can stacking]]

The characteristics of autism have been discussed for decades. Kanner (1943) examined eleven children suspected of having autism. One of these children, Elaine, aged seven, was brought to Kanner by her parents as she had been experiencing troubles adjusting. Elaine didn’t understand other children’s games, didn’t show interest in stories read to her, often wandered off by herself, was particularly interested in animals of all kinds and often mimicked them (Kanner, 1943). This account captures all three of the primary symptoms of autism described above. 

Autism varies in degree of severity and can come about at all levels of ability, therefore is it now accepted that there is a “spectrum” of autistic disorders (Frith, 2001). At one end of the spectrum is Asperger’s Disorder, which is considered a milder form of autism (Frith, 2001). In contrast to autism, [[w:Asperger’s disorder|Asperger's disorder]] is characterised only by a significant impairment in social interaction and the development of restricted repetitive stereotyped patters of behaviour, interests and activities (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Compared to autism, there are no significant delays in language acquisition in Asperger's disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).  

Such a definition suggests that individuals with autism spectrum disorders are “cut off” from the world around them (Taylor, 2005).  Indeed, the severe impairment in social interaction makes it significantly difficult for children with autism to interact socially with other individuals.

==== Emotional expression in children with autism spectrum disorders ====
[[File:Leo-Kanner.jpeg|right|thumb|200px|Leo Kanner is an early figure in child autism research]]
As previously mentioned, the emotional expressions present in a young infant, such as smiling and crying, are the basis for communication between caregiver and child (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996). One key indicator of ASD in infants is the absence of facial expressions such as joy (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Absences of facial expressions in autistic children have been documented for a number of years. Kanner (1943) For instance, found children with autism to display vacant expressions with no communicative signals whatsoever. Hobson &amp; Lee (1998) found fewer autistic children, compared to non autistic children to smile or wave goodbye when interacting with others. Without the ability to express emotion, it is easy to see the difficultly for children with ASD to communicate with others, and vice versa.

==== Understanding and recognition of emotions in children with autism spectrum disorders ====

As mentioned earlier in the chapter, having a theory of mind is a vital component of emotional development. It is a general suggestion that children with autism do not develop a theory of mind until well after the age of four years (Siegal, 2007). This deficit is said to account for the non-social nature of autism (Siegal, 2007). The basis for theory of mind in children with ASD is that they do not grasp how the behaviour of others can be guided by a false belief (Siegal, 2007) such as those shown in the Maxi-chocolate and Sally-Anne tasks described earlier in the chapter. Unlike typically developing children, theory of mind abilities in children with ASD seem to be resistant and do not improve until much later in life (Siegal, 2007). In contrast, individuals with Asperger’s disorder have been found to pass theory of mind measurements which test false belief (Bowler, 1992). 

In addition to theory of mind, interpreting facial expressions has been discussed earlier in the chapter as a vital component of social interaction and emotional communication in children. Essentially, being able to “read” facial expression in others’ can tell us a lot, providing context and meaning to the words we hear (Thornton, 2002). Recent studies have suggested that children with autism have a significant impairment in face and facial expression recognition (Joseph &amp; Tanaka, 2003). Interestingly, researchers from the University of California suggest that areas of the brain in autistic children do not respond to visual cues that respond in those without autism (University of California, 2007).

On the whole, the development and experience of emotion in children with ASD is a entirely different experience compared to normally developing children. An inability to express and understand emotions makes social interaction incredibly hard, and in most cases non-existent for children with ASD.
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{Children with ASD have great difficulty socially interacting with others.
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== Summary ==

Emotions are an integral part of our lives. We experience them every day and they exist as the foundations of human social interaction. This chapter has made it clear that emotional development begins during the first few moments of life as a newborn infant cries due to stress of an unfamiliar environment. From this point on, emotional development becomes an intricate and rapid journey for a child. 

This chapter has identified and discussed two theoretical perspectives relating to emotional development: biological and evolutionary, and psychoanalytic. Both theories take quite diverse standpoints of the way in which emotion is developed. 
It seems that social interaction with others’ is imperative to emotional development, with social referencing providing a key example supporting this idea. Research has found that infants often use other people’s emotional reactions to inform their own behaviour, particularly in ambiguous situations. 

Additionally, having an understanding and the ability to recognise emotions in others is vital to both emotional development and social interaction. This is more commonly known as theory of mind within psychology, which is an understanding that other people have mental states, beliefs, emotions and desires. 

The development of emotional bonds is typically displayed through attachment. This chapter defines attachment as the close emotional bond infants’ form with a significant person, most commonly a caregiver. Although attachment theory is not a theory of emotion, it does highlight the influence emotion has upon the development of close bonds. 

Finally, ASD was discussed in relation to emotional development. Overall, children with ASD have great difficulty with social interaction resulting in an inability to develop a theory of mind. Moreover, research has found that children with ASD do not express emotion compared to typically developing children. 

On the whole, emotional development in children is a multifaceted process, which can take one of many paths.

== Key Terms ==

'''Emotional development''': the way emotions change or remain constant across the human lifespan (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005).

'''Social smiling''': the way young infants’ communicates pleasure at the identification of a familiar face, such as a parent, through coordination of oral-facial muscles in to a social signal (Slentz &amp; Krogh, 2001).

'''Social referencing''': a communication process in which infants dynamically use and seek out observed perceptions and understanding of ambiguous situations in order to guide their own understanding of such circumstances (Vaish &amp; Striano, 2004). Social referencing is most commonly measured in the visual cliff experiment. 

'''Theory of mind''': an understanding or awareness that people have mental states including, beliefs, emotions and desires (Thornton, 2002). Theory of mind is most commonly measured using the Maxi-chocolate and Sally-Anne tasks. 

'''Attachment theory''': proposes that throughout infancy, and infant is disposed to attach to their caregiver figure (Strongman, 2003). Attachment is commonly measured using the Strange Situation procedure, developed by Mary Ainsworth. There are three types of attachment; securely attached, insecurely attached: avoidant and insecurely attached: resistant. 

'''Autism''': a complex developmental disorder characterised by impaired development in social interaction, communication and restricted repetitive stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interests and activities (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).

'''Asperger’s Disorder''': characterised only by a significant impairment in social interaction and the development of restricted repetitive stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interests and activities (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
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== See also ==
* [[../Adolescence/]] (Textbook chapter)
}}
== References ==

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed. Text revision). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association

Birch, J. (2003). Congratulations! It’s Asperger Syndrome. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=MWdYMKNmYGUC&amp;printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false

Bourgeois, P., &amp; Hess, U. (2008). The impact of social contact on mimicry. Biological Psychology, 77, 343-352. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2007.11.008

Bowler, D. M. (1992). Theory of mind in asperger’s syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33, 877-893. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.1992.tb01962.

Benson, B. J., &amp; Haith, M. M. (2009). Social and emotional development in infancy and early childhood. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=VUvdHreepDYC&amp;pg=PA428&amp;dq=infant+social+interaction+and+emotional+development&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=LPnJTI-_J8SHcbit1MgO&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=1&amp;ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;q=infant%20social%20interaction%20and%20emotional%20development&amp;f=false 

Doherty, M. J. (2009). Theory of mind: how children understand others’ thoughts and feelings. Psychology Press, Hove, East Sussex
 
Frith, U. (2001). Mind blindness and the brain in autism. Neuron, 32, 969-979. Retrieved from: http://www.socialbehavior.uzh.ch/teaching/semsocialneurosciencews07/frith01.pdf
Garber, J., &amp; Dodge, A. K. : Walden, A. T. (1991). The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=7GQ7Xf5sZZgC&amp;pg=PA69&amp;dq=infant+development,+social+referencing&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=5fPJTM_5IIfJcZaxrdUO&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=3&amp;ved=0CD0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&amp;q=infant%20development%2C%20social%20referencing&amp;f=false 

Goodman, R., &amp; Scott, S. (1997). Child Psychiatry. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=taXfy9nw4q8C&amp;pg=PA47&amp;dq=theory+of+mind,+sally-anne+test&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=tYHLTNXhFI7fcZu5lJwO&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=5&amp;ved=0CEYQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&amp;q=theory%20of%20mind%2C%20sally-anne%20test&amp;f=false

Gowen, J. W., &amp; Nebrig, J. B. Enhancing early emotional development. Paul H. Brookes Publishing, Baltimore, Maryland.

Grossman, J. B, Klin, A., Carter, A. S., &amp; Volkmar, F. R. (2000). Verbal bias in recognition of facial emotions in children with Asperger’s syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41(3), 369-379. Retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10784084

Heerey, A. E., Keltner, D., &amp; Capps, M. L. (2003). Making sense of self-conscious emotion: linking theory of mind and emotion in children with autism. American Psychological Association Inc, 4, 394-400. doi: 10.1037/1528-3542.3.4.394

Hobson, R. P., &amp; Lee, A. (1998). Hello and goodbye: a study of social engagement in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 28(2), 117-27. Retrieved from: http://zh9bf5sp6t.scholar.serialssolutions.com/?sid=google&amp;auinit=RP&amp;aulast=Hobson&amp;atitle=Hello+and+goodbye:+A+study+of+social+engagement+in+autism&amp;id=doi:10.1023/A:1026088531558&amp;title=Journal+of+autism+and+developmental+disorders&amp;volume=28&amp;issue=2&amp;date=1998&amp;spage=117&amp;issn=0162-3257

Hutchinson, E. D. (2003). Dimensions of human behavior: the changing life course. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=vfbucdtrEh8C&amp;pg=PA129&amp;dq=erik+erikson%27s+stages+of+development&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=fi7WTN-CGpDovQP8xbX-CQ&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=4&amp;ved=0CDsQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&amp;q=erik%20erikson%27s%20stages%20of%20development&amp;f=false

Joseph, R. M., &amp; Tanaka, J. (2003). Holistic and part-based face recognition in children with autism. Journal of Child and Psychological Psychiatry, 44(4), 529-542. Retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12751845

Kalat, J. W., &amp; Shiota, M. N. (2007). Emotion. Thomson Wadsworth Publications, Belmont, CA. 

Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child, 2, 217-250. Retrieved from: http://affect.media.mit.edu/Rgrads/Articles/pdfs/Kanner-1943-OrigPaper.pdf

Kasari, C., &amp; Sigman, M. (1996). Expression and understanding of emotion in atypical development: Autism and Down syndrome. In M. Lewis M. W. Sullivan, Emotional development in atypical children (pp. 109-130). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, Mahwah, New Jersey

Krachun, C., Carpenter, M., Call, J., Tomasello, M. (2010). A new change-of-contents false belief test: children and chimpanzees compared. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 23, 145-165. Retrieved from: http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwscp/2010ijcpissue2/2.Krachun_FinalPDF.pdf

Magai, C., &amp; McFadden, S. H. (1995). The role of emotions in social and personality development: history, theory and research. Plenum Press,  New York, NY 

Mangelsdorf, C. S., &amp; Wong, S. M. (2009). Independence/Dependence. In Benson, B. J., &amp; Haith, M, M., Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Early Childhood. Elsevier Publications,  San Diego, CA

McKinsey-Crittenden, P. Claussen, A. H., &amp; Kozowska, K. (2007). Choosing a valid assessment of attachment for clinical use: a comparative study. ANZJFT, 28(2), 78-87. Retrieved from: http://www.iasa-dmm.org/images/uploads/Choosing%20a%20valid%20assessment%20of%20attachment.pdf

Messinger, D. (2009). Smiling, In Benson, B. J., &amp; Haith, M, M., Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Early Childhood. Elsevier Publications,  San Diego, CA

Misailidi, P., &amp; Bonoti, P. (2008). Emotion in children’s art: do young children understand the emotions expressed in other children’s drawings? Early Childhood Research, 6, 189-200. doi: 10.1177/1476718X08088677

Moore, C. &amp; Frye, D. (1991). The acquisition and utility of theories of mind. In D. Frye &amp; C. Moore, Children’s theories of mind: mental states and social understanding (pp. 1-15). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc, Hillsdale, New Jersey

Mumme, L. D., &amp; Fernald, A. (2003). The infant as onlooker: learning from emotional reactions observed in a television scenario. Child Development, 74, 221-237/ Retrieved from: http://www.temple.edu/devscilab/732_wiki/the_infant_as_onlooker_learning_from_emotional_reactions_observed_in_a_television_scenario.pdf 

Mumme, L. D., Fernald A., &amp; Herrera, C. (1996). Infant’s responses to facial ands vocal emotional signals in a social referencing paradigm. Child Development, 67(6), 3219-3237. Retrieved from: http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~babylab/pdfs/Mumme%20Fernald%20Herrera%201996.pdf

Oatley, K., Keltner, D., &amp; Jenkins, M. J. (2006). Understanding emotions. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=RGHghPqIO_8C&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PR14&amp;dq=Oatley+%26+Jenkins+1996,+emotion&amp;ots=n4gLfkydNA&amp;sig=LSDyetbGuWzdd9BNUf92D9kt-Nc#v=onepage&amp;q=Oatley%20%26%20Jenkins%201996%2C%20emotion&amp;f=false
Plutchik, R. (2003). Emotion. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=ExILFpIhgpAC&amp;pg=PA189&amp;dq=evolutionary+perspective,+emotions&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=UazQTPKyC8q3cJXCxIkK&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=1&amp;ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;q=evolutionary%20perspective%2C%20emotions&amp;f=false

Reeve, J. (2009). ''Understanding motivation and emotion''. Wiley &amp; Sons Inc, Hoboken, NJ

Salter-Ainsworth, M, D., Waters, E., &amp; Wall, S.(1978) Patterns of attachment: a psychological study of the strange situation. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=8wRu5InF79gC&amp;printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false

Shaffer, R. D. (2005). Social and personality development. Wadsworth Publications, Belmont, CA. 
Siegal, M. (2007). Marvelous minds: the discovery of what children know. Oxford University Press, New York, NY
Slentz, K., &amp; Krogh, S. (2001). Early childhood development and its variations. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=_8Typ-IJ9LsC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Slentz+and+Krogh&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=OpLWTLTDFoexcYeZ0dQL&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=1&amp;ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false

Sludds, K. (2008). Emotions: their cognitive base and ontological importance. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=K-eRtOecE4oC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Sludds,+cognitive,+emotions&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=uWTVTO6nCsyHcbai9K4L&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=1&amp;ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false

Sorce, J. F., Emde, R. N., Campos, J., &amp; Klinnert, M. D. (1985). Maternal emotional signalling: its effects on the visual cliff behavior of 1-year olds. Developmental Psychology, 21, 195-200. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.21.1.195 
Strongman, K. T. (2003). The Psychology of emotion: from everyday life to theory (5th ed.). John Wiley and Sons Publications, West Sussex, England 

Sutherland, P. (1992). Cognitive development today: Piaget and his critics. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=LuJIxtEb57UC&amp;printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false

Taylor, L. (2005). Introducing cognitive development. Psychology Press, Hove, East Sussex

Thornton, S. (2002). Growing minds: an introduction to cognitive development. Plagrave Macmillan Publications, New York, NY

University of California - Los Angeles (2007, May 7). A Frown Or A Smile? Children With Autism Can't Discern. Science Daily. Retrieved  from: http://www.sciencedaily.com¬ /releases/2007/05/070505164645.htm

Vaish, A. &amp; Striano, T. (2004). Is visual reference necessary? Contributions of facial versus vocal cues in 12-month –olds’ social referencing behavior. Developmental Science, 7(3), 261-269. Retreived from:  http://www.drstriano.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/ReadingGroupStriano.pdf

Walden, T. A. (1991). Infant social referencing. In J. Garber &amp; K. A. Dodge , The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation (pp. 69-89). Cambridge University Press, New York, NY 

Walden, T., &amp; Knieps, L. (1996). Reading and responding to social signals. In M. Lewis M. W. Sullivan, Emotional development in atypical children (pp. 109-130). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, Mahwah, New Jersey 

Walker-Andrews, A. S. (1998). Emotions and Social Development: Infants' Recognition of Emotions in Others. Paediatrics, 102, 1268-1271. doi:  10.1542/peds.102.5.SE1.1268

White, F., Hayes, B., &amp; Livesey, D. (2005). Developmental Psychology: From infancy to adulthood. Pearson Education Australia, Frenchs Forest NSW.

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== External links ==
*[http://www.smh.com.au/national/cartoon-trains-teach-autistic-children-about-emotions-20100106-ludl.html Cartoon trains teach autistic children about emotions]
*[http://www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2008/s2634743.htm Autism rates much higher than previously thought]}}

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== Overview ==
[[File:Babyfoot.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Emotional development begins during the first few moments of life and continues throughout childhood]]
Practically every facet of human life involves emotion, whether it is meeting friends for lunch, experiencing your first day of school, or getting married. As human beings, we are inherently interested in others’ emotions and constantly express our own. The ability to express, recognise and understand emotion enables us to behave in a socially competent and accepted way (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005). If an individual did not have such skills, they would experience significant difficulty interacting with other individuals in all walks of life. 

Emotion is evident very early in human life, with infants expressing distress through crying within their first few seconds of entering the world (Oatley, Keltner &amp; Jenkins, 2006). Within just a few months, infants express joy through smiling and laughing (Kalat &amp; Shiota, 2007). From here on, the development of emotion in children is rapid and significant.

This chapter will identify the framework of emotional development in children starting from the very first days of life. To begin, two theoretical perspectives pertaining to emotional development will be discussed. The emotions which exist in early infancy will be examined, leading to the aspects of social interaction and its influences upon emotional development. The understanding and recognition of emotions, a fundamental aspect of social interaction will then be evaluated. Further, the formation of emotional bonds and its importance to emotional development will be discussed. This chapter will also shed light on emotional development within children who experience autism spectrum disorders in contrast to normally developing children.

;Focus questions

After studying this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions:
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* What is emotional development?
* What are the underlying theories of emotional development?
* What emotions do newborn infants experience?
* How does social interaction with others influence the development of emotion in children?
* When and how do children begin to understand emotion in others?
* How do infants develop emotional bonds with significant others?
* What is autism?
* How does the development of emotion differ between children with autism and typically developing children?
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== Definition of emotional development ==
To understand the numerous aspects of emotional development in children, it would be ideal to first gain an understanding of what emotional development itself. '''Emotional development''' is essentially the way emotions change or remain constant across the human lifespan (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005).

== Theoretical approaches to emotional development ==

The development of emotion has been investigated from numerous perspectives. Two theoretical frameworks will be presented in this chapter; biological and evolutionary and psychoanalytic perspective. 

[[File:Baby meets Moominmama.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The discrete emotion of interest in an infant, as described in differential emotions theory]]
=== Biological and evolutionary perspective ===

==== Differential emotions theory ====

One theory of emotional development which holds significant biological and evolutionary ties is differential emotions theory which is also referred to as [[w:Discrete emotions theory|discrete emotions theory]]. Differential emotions theory traces back to Charles Darwin, and his proposal that basic human emotions are the products of evolutionary history which serve us in an adaptive way (Shaffer, 2005).  For example, disgust displayed in infants when they taste something bitter is considered an inbuilt reaction that protects them from poisoned food by causing them to spit out the subnstance (Shaffer, 2005). Additionally, the distress expressed early in infancy alerts caregivers when they are hungry or tired, hence promoting their well-being (Shaffer, 2005). [[File:Charles Darwin 01.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Differential emotions theory stems from Charles Darwin's earlier work]]
Essentially, differential emotions theory stresses the innate, biological structure and universality of a core set of emotions in human beings (Mangelsdorf &amp; Wong, 2009). Differential emotions theory proposed that infants attain a limited and particular set of emotions during the first few months of life, which are organised into a system of independent functioning (Ackerman, Abe &amp; Izard, 1998). Additionally, emotions are considered to emerge during early development in a pre-adapted and conventional manner (Ackerman, Abe &amp; Izard, 1998). Moreover, differential emotions theory proposes that the biologically programmed emotions are accompanied by discrete bodily and facial processed, evident early in infancy (Schaffer, 2005). For example, interest in infants encompasses raised brows, rounded mouth and pursed lips (Shaffer, 2005). In addition to interest, there are nine other discrete emotions including; joy, surprise, fear, anger, disgust, distress, contempt, shame and guilt (Reeve, 2009).

=== Psychoanalytic perspective ===

Unlike most areas of psychology, Sigmund Freud has not been as influential within the field of emotional development. One factor in particular contributes to this. Freud’s theory of emotion is essentially a “one-affect” theory and is primarily a theory of anxiety (Magai &amp; McFadden, 1995). 

In contrast, Erik Erickson, who was a follower of Freud’s work, proposed a stage theory of emotional development in humans. Erickson's theory is sometimes referred to as [[w:Erikson's stages of psychosocial development|Erikson's stages of psychosocial development]]. Erickson puts forward that infants face imperative developmental tasks in emotional development in relation to eight successive stages. Each of these eight stages entails the completion of a certain task, with each task depending on the completion of the previous task (Hutchinson, 2003). The three stages relating directly to childhood are summarised below. 

'''Table 1'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;  style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|-
| '''Life stage''' || '''Developmental task''' || '''Characteristic'''
|-
| '''Infancy (Birth-1 year)''' || Basic trust vs. basic mistrust || Infants must form trusting relationships with caregivers or they will learn to distrust the world.
|-
| '''Early childhood (3-5 years)''' || Autonomy vs. shame and doubt || Toddler must develop self-confidence and a sense of accomplishment over themselves and their worlds and they use newly developed motor skills or they will develop shame and doubt about their inability to develop control.
|-
| '''Middle childhood (6-11 years)''' || Industry vs. inferiority || School aged children must develop a sense of competence to accomplish tasks or they learn to feel inferior or incompetent.
|-
|}
(Hutchinson, 2003).
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Test your knowledge of the chapter so far.
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Newborn infants don't experience any emotions. It's not until early childhood that emotions emerge.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ False.
- True.

{Differential emotions theory belongs to which theoretical perspective?
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- Psychoanalytic.
+ Biological and evolutionary.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
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== Development of emotional experience and expression ==

What emotions do infants have? With this question in mind, consider the following scenario;

Fifteen month-old Sarah is sitting on the lounge-room floor playing with her jack-in-the-box toy while her mother, Sandra, sits nearby reading her book. Sarah is spinning the handle of her jack-in-the-box. When the clown pops up, she turns toward her mother and laughs with delight. After a number of unsuccessful attempts to put the clown back in to the box, Sarah becomes frustrated. She begins fussing angrily and looks to her mother for help. Sandra comes over and shows Sarah how to close the box. Sarah then begins turning the handle, starting the process again. This time however, her hand gets caught under the lid when closing it. She cries and holds out her hand to her mother, who comes over and comforts her. Not long after this, Sarah loses interest in the jack-in-the-box and begins playing with another toy (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2002). 

Here, Sarah has experienced and expressed a range of emotions. Joy and happiness were expressed through laughter, frustration when the clown would not fit back in to the box and distress when her finger was injured. In a simple scenario such as this, we can begin to understand the range of emotions experienced by infants throughout day-to-day-life. 
[[File:Crying newborn.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Distress is the first emotion expressed by infants through crying]]
Emotional expressions are present from birth and form the basis of the communication between parent and child (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996). Shortly after birth, facial expressions of infants include interest, disgust, sadness, anger and joy (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996). Facial expressions are particularly imperative as they act as expressive signals of inner emotional experience (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996).  Biological needs such as hunger and pain for instance, are communicated through the expression of physical distress (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005). Furthermore, social world interactions are signalled through expressions of interest and joy (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005). Essentially, emotional expression provides a vital role in communication (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996). Infants use numerous mechanisms to express emotions. Probably the two most common are crying and smiling.  

==== Crying in infants ====

Crying or distress is one emotion that is present from birth. Infants cry when they are hungry, tired, and gassy or just generally feeling uncomfortable (Kalat &amp; Shiota, 2007). Crying is a particularly important communication tool that tells a parent that something is wrong (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005). 
[[File:Woman and a baby.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Social smiling is used by infants to initiate social interaction]]
==== Smiling in infants ====

Infant smiling reflects the up-and-coming emotional competencies in a young child (Messinger, 2009). There are two categories of smiling; the '''social smile''' and the '''reflex smile''' (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005). Social smiling in infants begins to emerge, at a caregiver's delight, within the first four to six weeks of life. Social smiling in young infants communicates pleasure at the identification of a familiar face, such as a caregiver, through coordination of oral-facial muscles in to a social signal 's(Slentz &amp; Krogh, 2001). Hence, caregiver's interpret an infant’s social smile as an indication of comfort and pleasure (Slentz &amp; Krogh, 2001). From now on, an infant will use smiling as a tool for initiating social interactions (Slentz &amp; Krogh, 2001). In contrast, the reflex smile appears in response to external stimuli, usually during irregular patters of sleep (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005).

==== Anger, sadness and fear in infants ====

As mentioned above, distress is evident early in infancy due to hunger or pain. However, specific anger and sadness begins to appear over the first six months of life (Shaffer, 2005).  Anger is most often displayed in situations where the infant becomes frustrated, such as an inability to wield control over toys (Shaffer, 2005). Sadness, like anger develops over the first six months of life, and is displayed in various situations, such as the inability to produce a positive response from a caregiver (Shaffer, 2005). Fear is one of the last primary emotions to emerge, and generally indicates that an infant considers a person, object or situation a threat (Shaffer, 2005).

== Social interaction and emotional development ==

Numerous aspects of the development of emotion are considered to be innate or general across cultures (Walden &amp; Knieps, 1996). Nevertheless, input from the social environment is considered essential for the development of emotional functioning (Walden &amp; Knieps, 1996). Growing children spend hours of their day observing others’ and their emotional reactions to various situations. As an onlooker to everyday events, an infant may watch a parent smile after tasting food, an older sibling cry as their tower of blocks falls to the ground, or a childcare workers look shocked when a drinking glass falls and breaks on the floor (Mumme &amp; Fernald, 2003). Furthermore, the child may also participate in these events themselves (Mumme &amp; Fernald, 2003). Whether the child is a participant in such events, or simply an onlooker, young children learn how to understand and predict the behaviours and emotions of other people and relate this understanding to regulate their own behaviour (Mumme &amp; Fernald, 2003).  One such way a young child learns through observation is through social referencing. 
[[File:MaternalBond.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Young children learn about emotional reactions through observing other individuals such as their caregivers]]

=== Social referencing ===

'''Social referencing''' is a communication process in which infants dynamically use and seek out observed perceptions and understanding of unclear situations in order to guide their own understanding of such circumstances (Vaish &amp; Striano, 2004).  Hence, social referencing entails two aspects of a social information-processing skill; seeking input from other individuals and consequently using (or in some instances, not using) this information to form one’s own behaviour (Walden, 1991). Social referencing is one important way in which infants learn emotional responses (Walden, 1991). For instance, infants have observed to interact less with ambiguous toys and to be less friendly to strangers when a parent displays aversive affect toward them (Walden, 1991). 

Imagine the following scenario;

A one year old infant is playing on the floor with his mother when an unfamiliar person enters the room. The mother stands up, smiles and extends her hand, and walks over to the stranger. The infant observes this behaviour, and loses interest, returning to his toys (Walker-Andrews, 1998). 

Here, the infant has demonstrated social referencing, thus illustrating his ability to use others’ emotional reactions to regulate his own behaviour (Walker-Andrews, 1998). If the mother has responded differently to the stranger, say with fear or anger in her facial expression, voice or gesture, the infant probably would have reacted with more caution (Walker-Andrews, 1998).

==== Measuring social referencing ====

Social referencing is most commonly measured or assessed by presenting a child with unclear stimuli and having a parent or other adult express positive or negative emotional reactions to the stimuli (Walden &amp; Knieps, 1996). A fundamental behavioural aspect of social referencing is information seeking acts such as referential looking or asking questions (Walden, Knieps, 1996). One primary example of social referencing in infants is demonstrated in the [[w:Visual cliff|visual cliff]], in which an infant is placed on a glass surface providing an invisible support over an apparent drop (Vaish &amp; Striano, 2004). The visual cliff serves as the unclear or ambiguous situation. Experiments using the visual cliff carry the general prediction that infant’s behaviour will differ in appropriate ways with various emotional signals conveyed by the caregiver (Mumme, Fernals &amp; Herrera, 1996). 
[[File:US Navy 100406-N-7478G-346 Operations Specialist 2nd Class Reginald Harlmon and Electronics Technician 3rd Class Maura Schulze play peek-a-boo with a child in the Children's Ward at Hospital Likas.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Studies have used the classic &quot;peek a boo&quot; game as a way of demonstrating social referencing in infants]]
Visual cliff experiments have demonstrated the occurrence of social referencing among infants since the early 1980’s. In a well known study (Sorce, Emde, Campos &amp; Klinnert, 1985) found infants to cross the cliff when the adult on the opposite side of the glass displayed interest or joy, while fewer infants crossed when the adult displayed fear or anger. When infants approached the edge of the visual cliff and saw fear expressed by the mother, none of the 17 infants crossed (Sorce et al, 1985).  However, when the infants saw happiness expressed by the mother, 14 out of 19 infants crossed the visual cliff (Sorce et al, 1985). Overall, Sorce et al (1985) demonstrated social referencing to have a significant effect upon infant behaviour and the way they learn emotional responses. 

Another method used to measure social referencing in infants is an adaption of the “peek-a-boo” game commonly used by caregivers. Walker-Andrews (1998) used the peek-a-boo game to investigate young infants’ perception of other individuals’ emotional expressions. Forty four and a half year old infants were assigned to one of four emotion change groups, including sad, anger, fear and as the control, consistent happy or surprise (Walker-Andrews, 1998).The infants were then shown three standard happy or surprise peek-a-boos followed by a fourth, which depended on the assigned group (Walker-Andrews, 1998). Results found the infants to discriminate facial and vocal expressions of anger, fear and sadness and happy or surprise when offered in a familiar situation (Walker-Andrews, 1998).

Findings from these studies have given insight and generally support the conception that infants can use emotional signals to regulate their own judgements and behaviour.

=== Interpreting facial expressions ===

Similar to social referencing is the ability of infants to interpret facial expressions of emotion through imitation. The ability to understand and recognise emotion through facial expression is an imperative aspect of social interaction (Heerey, Keltner &amp; Capps, 2003). Additionally, Facial expressions are a primary indicator for normally developing children to understand the emotions and actions of others (Grossman, Klin, Carter &amp; Volkmar, 2000). 

Interestingly, developing children are accustomed to faces almost from birth, showing immense interest in the faces around them (Thornton, 2002). In fact, infants as young as one month old have been found to imitate facial expressions and gestures, such as an adult poking out their tongue (Thornton, 2002). This phenomenon, known as facial mimicry, which occurs frequently in infants and children, is the tendency to imitate facially or vocally with individuals we interact with (Bourgeois &amp; Hess, 2008). 

Although it is clearly understood that interpretation of facial expressions is an important aspect of social interaction, it is generally unknown how this influences emotional development (Kalat &amp; Shiota, 2007).
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{Which type of smiling do infants use to initiate social interaction?
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- Reflexive smile.
+ Social smile.

{Social referencing, a communication process infants use to guide their own behaviour is commonly measured by which experiment?
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+ The visual cliff experiment.
- The Sally-Anne test.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
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== Understanding and recognition of emotions in infants and children ==
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A recent study has demonstrated that children as young as three are sensitive to and understand the emotional meaning expressed in other children's art. Misailidi &amp; Bonoti (2008) presented children aged between three and six years of age with a series of drawings expressing either happiness, sadness, anger or fear. Results from the study showed that;
* By three years of age, children showed an understanding of the emotion expressed in the drawings
* The emotions of happiness, sadness and fear were the most common to be recognised by the children
(Misailidi &amp; Bonoti, 2008)
[[File:Child's drawing.jpg|center|200px]]
|}

Understanding and recognition of emotions is how an individual construe and encode emotional signals from others (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005). Generally, infants begin to recognise emotional expressions in others’ by six months of age, and this is commonly demonstrated through social referencing (Walker-Andrews, 1998), which was mentioned earlier in the chapter. However, gaining a full understanding of others' emotional and mental state is a gradual process which doesn't fully development until years later. A fundamental aspect of the ability for a child to understand and recognise others’ emotions is the development of a theory of mind. 

=== Theory of mind ===

Imagine that the following scenario is described for a child: a girl comes home, places her doll in a cupboard and then leaves the room. Later on, her mother comes in to the room and moves the doll to a different cupboard. When the girl comes back to get her doll, where will she look? 

The correct answer to this question will ultimately depend on the child knowing about the beliefs of the girl in the scenario (Moore &amp; Frye, 1991). Put differently, it will depend on the child having a [[w:Theory of mind|theory or mind]]. Theory of mind is an understanding or awareness that people have mental states including beliefs, feelings and desires (Thornton, 2002). Having a theory of mind remains an essential ability to having a full and functional adult social interaction (Thornton, 2002). Try to imagine what it would be like having a relationship with another person that had no awareness of such mental states. It would be more like interacting with a mechanical device or robot than a person. What it's like for a person who doesn't have a theory of mind will be discussed further in the chapter. 

==== Measuring theory of mind ====

When do infants realise that they themselves, and other individuals, have minds? This particular question has been in the past debatable, and has generated a great deal of research and controversy (Thornton, 2002). Numerous experiments have been designed in an attempt to identify the age in which children develop a theory of mind. Such tasks are in general, a “pass or fail” nature (Taylor, 2005). Essentially, to pass them, infants must exhibit their understanding that reality can in fact be misunderstood and hence that the mind is a representational unit which actively constructs mental representations (Taylor, 2005). 

The most commonly known and used test for theory of mind in children is the “false belief task” (Doherty, 2009). Among the numerous tasks used to measure false belief in children, two models in particular, known as unexpected transfer tasks, have been used so extensively that they have become known as the standard false belief tasks; the Maxi-chocolate and Sally-Anne test (Krachun, Carpenter, Call &amp; Tomasello, 2010). Generally, false belief tasks are acted out for children with props and dolls (Doherty, 2009). However, other demonstrations use real people, pictures or videos of real people (Doherty, 2009). Nevertheless, the design of the experiment doesn’t seem to affect the basic finding (Doherty, 2009).
[[File:Sandbox Lawn Jam Our Community Place Harrisonburg VA June 2008.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Children generally understand the emotions, beliefs and mental states of others by age four; which is a vital component of functional social interaction]]

The first task, the Maxi-chocolate task, originally developed by Wimmer and Perner, is described to children in the following format;

Maxi is helping his mother to unpack the shopping bag. He puts the chocolate into the GREEN cupboard. Maxi remembers exactly where he put the chocolate so he can come back later and get some. Then he leaves for the playground. In his absence his mother needs some chocolate. She takes the chocolate out of the GREEN cupboard and uses some of it for her cake. Then she puts it back not into the GREEN cupboard but into the BLUE cupboard. She leaves to get some eggs and Maxi returns from the playground, hungry. Test question: Where will Maxi look for the chocolate? (Doherty, 2009). 

In general, findings show that children begin to pass this task at approximately 4 or 5 years old (Doherty, 2009). Almost indefinitely, children under the age of 4 will answer that Maxi will look in the blue cupboard (Taylor, 2005). Hence, children predict Maxi’s behaviour and actions upon the basis of their own true beliefs instead of Maxi’s false belief (Taylor, 2005). This is known as a “realist error”; when responses are based upon reality instead of on a substitute mis-representation of reality (Taylor, 2005). 

The [[w:Sally-Anne test|Sally-Anne test]] enacts the following situation with either dolls and props or real people: Sally has a basket and Anne has a box. Sally puts a marble into her basket, and then she goes outside to play. While Sally is outside, Anne takes the marble from the basket and puts it into her own box. When Sally comes back inside, she wants to play with her marble. Test question: Where will Sally look for the marble? (Frith, 2001). On the whole, to answer the questions posed in the Maxi-chocolate and Sally-Anne test correctly, a child needs to understand that Maxi and Sally’s mental state, rather than reality, will establish where Maxi and Sally will look (Thornton, 2002).

As above, children under the age of four will usually fail the Sally-Anne test, reporting that Sally will look in the box for the marble, finding it difficult to understand that Sally does not know the marble is now in Anne’s box simply because they now have this knowledge (Goodman &amp; Scott, 1997). Additionally, children over the age of four generally pass the test, reporting that Sally will look in her basket for the marble, predicting that Sally will act on her false belief (Goodman &amp; Scott, 1997).

Understanding and recognising emotion, beliefs and mental states in others’ is a complex process. It is unlikely that at one moment, children have no understanding of mental states and a good understanding the next (Thornton, 2002). Rather, the development of a theory of mind is gradual (Thornton, 2002). Overall, previous studies indicate that children develop a theory of mind by the age of four.

== Development of emotional bonds ==

=== Attachment ===
[[File:Crying-girl.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A girl crying during her mother's absence]]
Best known through Bowlby’s work throughout the 1970’s and 80’s, attachment theory is not a theory of emotional development as such, however it is centred on the influence of emotion upon the development of social relationships (Strongman, 2003). The creation of a secure attachment with important individuals is considered an imperative component of emotional development during the first year of infancy (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2002). [[w:Attachment theory| Attachment theory]] proposes that at the earliest opportunity, an infant is disposed to attach to a caregiver (Strongman, 2003). During the first few months of life, an infant who has developed social smiling will reactively smile back at any individual (Kalat &amp; Shiota, 2007). However, at around six to nine months, an infant will becomes more selective,  won’t smile at just anybody, and grows to know and trust certain individuals (Kalat &amp; Shiota, 2007). 

Essentially, attachment develops in young infants from the basic need for dependency on others for nurturance and protection (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2002). Infants generally develop attachment with a select few, most typically those who care for them (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2002). The type of attachment an infant forms with one significant person can differ compared to the attachment formed with another (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2002).

==== Measuring attachment ====

Attachment assessments are considered particularly important, especially in relation to clinical applications, just as they are for intelligence and psychological disorders (McKinsey-Crittenden, Claussen &amp; Kozlowska, 2007). A classic measurement of attachment in infants is known as the [[w:Strange Situation|Strange situation]] procedure, developed by Mary Ainsworth. 

The Strange Situation is implemented most commonly when the infant is 12 to 18 months old and is not normally used with infants with neurological problems (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2007). The procedure usually lasts around twenty minutes and takes place in an unfamiliar environment (McKinsey-Crittenden, Claussen &amp; Kozlowska, 2007). The strange situation involves up to seven episodes, with the episodes least stressful occurring first (Schaffer, 1996).  After an introductory episode, the infant and parent are simply observed in the unfamiliar room to determine how far the infant will move from the parent to explore its surroundings and play with toys (Salter-Ainsworth &amp; Wall, 1978). With the parent still present, a stranger enters the room (Kalat &amp; Shiota, 2007).  Once the stranger has moved closer to the infant, the parent will leave the room, return after a few minutes and the stranger will then leave (Salter-Ainsworth &amp; Wall, 1978).  The mother will then interest the infant in the toys again, before leaving the infant in the room by itself (Salter-Ainsworth &amp; Wall, 1978). Finally, the stranger enters the room again for some time before the parent returns (Salter-Ainsworth &amp; Wall, 1978). 

Of course, the experiment is stopped if the infant becomes too distressed, but the scenarios are intended to be mildly to moderately stressful for the infant in order to assess how the infant uses the parent to deal with such stress (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2007).  The infant’s attachment to the parent is then examined by looking at the infant’s behaviour during the experiment, such as how quickly the infant is comforted by the parent (Gowen &amp; Nebrig, 2007). 

From here, infants are coded based upon their behaviour and are classified as having one of three types of attachment. 

# Securely attached; Infant displayed reasonable amount of closeness seeking to parent. Infant is upset by parent’s departure, however greets them positively when they return. 
# Insecurely attached: avoidant; Infant avoids parent, particularly when parent returns after leaving. Infant is not significantly upset when left alone with the stranger
# Insecurely attached: resistant; Infant is greatly upset when parent leaves the room. When parent re-enters the room, the infant is difficult to comfort.
 
Shaffer (1996).

Overall, the development of attachment is varied among infants. It does however identify the aspects of the social bonds that infants develop with their caregivers.
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Test your knowledge of the chapter so far.
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{Theory of mind typically develops in children at what age?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ 4 years.
- 2 years.

{Which of the following is '''not''' a type of attachment?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Insecurely attached: avoidant.
+ Insecurely attached: depressed.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
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== Emotional difficulties in atypical development ==
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{{big2|'''Box 2: What's it like to have a autism spectrum disorder?'''}}
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Consider this real life account from a woman with Asperger’s disorder.

“Mum took me to the local play centre, but I was unable to interact with the other children. All I wanted to do was the stay in the book corner for the whole morning. One of the highlights for the other children was finger painting, but I would not touch the stuff, as I have revulsion of sticky substances on my skin. One day, the play centre organised a cartoon film viewing for the children; I was three years old. The moving animated figures of Tom and Jerry terrified me, and I screamed so much that I had to be taken out. The other children loved it”.

Birch, J. (2003). pp 14. 

|}

=== Autism and Aspergers Disorder ===

Despite widespread research and literature that suggests a natural developmental process among infants and children, children with atypical development experience a significant struggle with emotional expression and understanding. 

Emotional expression provides a vital role in human communication. Aspects such as facial expression communicate emotional states, hence influencing others’ to respond (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996). Furthermore, the ability to understand the emotions and mind of others is considered imperative to social communication (Kuusikko et al, 2009). Thus, a disturbance to such emotional signalling could have detrimental effects upon social interactions (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996).  One such disturbance in children includes autism. 

[[w:Autism|Autism]] is one of many related disorders, together known as autism spectrum disorders (ASD). The American Psychiatric Association (2000) defines autism as a complex developmental disorder characterised by three primary symptoms:
# Impaired development in social interaction
# Impaired development in communication, and
# Restricted repetitive stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interests and activities
In relation to social impairment, autistic children are generally uninterested in the characteristics of others and don’t tend to respond when other children attempts to initiate contact to gain their attention (Siegal, 2007). Additionally, autistic children engage in solitary activities and generally pay attention to objects instead of people (Siegal, 2007).
[[File:Autism-stacking-cans edit.jpg|left|thumb|250px|An example of restricted repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests and activities in a young autistic child; can stacking]]

The characteristics of autism have been discussed for decades. Kanner (1943) examined eleven children suspected of having autism. One of these children, Elaine, aged seven, was brought to Kanner by her parents as she had been experiencing troubles adjusting. Elaine didn’t understand other children’s games, didn’t show interest in stories read to her, often wandered off by herself, was particularly interested in animals of all kinds and often mimicked them (Kanner, 1943). This account captures all three of the primary symptoms of autism described above. 

Autism varies in degree of severity and can come about at all levels of ability, therefore is it now accepted that there is a “spectrum” of autistic disorders (Frith, 2001). At one end of the spectrum is Asperger’s Disorder, which is considered a milder form of autism (Frith, 2001). In contrast to autism, [[w:Asperger’s disorder|Asperger's disorder]] is characterised only by a significant impairment in social interaction and the development of restricted repetitive stereotyped patters of behaviour, interests and activities (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Compared to autism, there are no significant delays in language acquisition in Asperger's disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).  

Such a definition suggests that individuals with autism spectrum disorders are “cut off” from the world around them (Taylor, 2005).  Indeed, the severe impairment in social interaction makes it significantly difficult for children with autism to interact socially with other individuals.

==== Emotional expression in children with autism spectrum disorders ====
[[File:Leo-Kanner.jpeg|right|thumb|200px|Leo Kanner is an early figure in child autism research]]
As previously mentioned, the emotional expressions present in a young infant, such as smiling and crying, are the basis for communication between caregiver and child (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996). One key indicator of ASD in infants is the absence of facial expressions such as joy (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Absences of facial expressions in autistic children have been documented for a number of years. Kanner (1943) For instance, found children with autism to display vacant expressions with no communicative signals whatsoever. Hobson &amp; Lee (1998) found fewer autistic children, compared to non autistic children to smile or wave goodbye when interacting with others. Without the ability to express emotion, it is easy to see the difficultly for children with ASD to communicate with others, and vice versa.

==== Understanding and recognition of emotions in children with autism spectrum disorders ====

As mentioned earlier in the chapter, having a theory of mind is a vital component of emotional development. It is a general suggestion that children with autism do not develop a theory of mind until well after the age of four years (Siegal, 2007). This deficit is said to account for the non-social nature of autism (Siegal, 2007). The basis for theory of mind in children with ASD is that they do not grasp how the behaviour of others can be guided by a false belief (Siegal, 2007) such as those shown in the Maxi-chocolate and Sally-Anne tasks described earlier in the chapter. Unlike typically developing children, theory of mind abilities in children with ASD seem to be resistant and do not improve until much later in life (Siegal, 2007). In contrast, individuals with Asperger’s disorder have been found to pass theory of mind measurements which test false belief (Bowler, 1992). 

In addition to theory of mind, interpreting facial expressions has been discussed earlier in the chapter as a vital component of social interaction and emotional communication in children. Essentially, being able to “read” facial expression in others’ can tell us a lot, providing context and meaning to the words we hear (Thornton, 2002). Recent studies have suggested that children with autism have a significant impairment in face and facial expression recognition (Joseph &amp; Tanaka, 2003). Interestingly, researchers from the University of California suggest that areas of the brain in autistic children do not respond to visual cues that respond in those without autism (University of California, 2007).

On the whole, the development and experience of emotion in children with ASD is a entirely different experience compared to normally developing children. An inability to express and understand emotions makes social interaction incredibly hard, and in most cases non-existent for children with ASD.
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{Children with ASD have great difficulty socially interacting with others.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True.
- False.

{Children with ASD don't develop a theory of mind until late in childhood
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- False.
+ True.
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== Summary ==

Emotions are an integral part of our lives. We experience them every day and they exist as the foundations of human social interaction. This chapter has made it clear that emotional development begins during the first few moments of life as a newborn infant cries due to stress of an unfamiliar environment. From this point on, emotional development becomes an intricate and rapid journey for a child. 

This chapter has identified and discussed two theoretical perspectives relating to emotional development: biological and evolutionary, and psychoanalytic. Both theories take quite diverse standpoints of the way in which emotion is developed. 
It seems that social interaction with others’ is imperative to emotional development, with social referencing providing a key example supporting this idea. Research has found that infants often use other people’s emotional reactions to inform their own behaviour, particularly in ambiguous situations. 

Additionally, having an understanding and the ability to recognise emotions in others is vital to both emotional development and social interaction. This is more commonly known as theory of mind within psychology, which is an understanding that other people have mental states, beliefs, emotions and desires. 

The development of emotional bonds is typically displayed through attachment. This chapter defines attachment as the close emotional bond infants’ form with a significant person, most commonly a caregiver. Although attachment theory is not a theory of emotion, it does highlight the influence emotion has upon the development of close bonds. 

Finally, ASD was discussed in relation to emotional development. Overall, children with ASD have great difficulty with social interaction resulting in an inability to develop a theory of mind. Moreover, research has found that children with ASD do not express emotion compared to typically developing children. 

On the whole, emotional development in children is a multifaceted process, which can take one of many paths.

== Key Terms ==

'''Emotional development''': the way emotions change or remain constant across the human lifespan (White, Hayes &amp; Livesey, 2005).

'''Social smiling''': the way young infants’ communicates pleasure at the identification of a familiar face, such as a parent, through coordination of oral-facial muscles in to a social signal (Slentz &amp; Krogh, 2001).

'''Social referencing''': a communication process in which infants dynamically use and seek out observed perceptions and understanding of ambiguous situations in order to guide their own understanding of such circumstances (Vaish &amp; Striano, 2004). Social referencing is most commonly measured in the visual cliff experiment. 

'''Theory of mind''': an understanding or awareness that people have mental states including, beliefs, emotions and desires (Thornton, 2002). Theory of mind is most commonly measured using the Maxi-chocolate and Sally-Anne tasks. 

'''Attachment theory''': proposes that throughout infancy, and infant is disposed to attach to their caregiver figure (Strongman, 2003). Attachment is commonly measured using the Strange Situation procedure, developed by Mary Ainsworth. There are three types of attachment; securely attached, insecurely attached: avoidant and insecurely attached: resistant. 

'''Autism''': a complex developmental disorder characterised by impaired development in social interaction, communication and restricted repetitive stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interests and activities (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).

'''Asperger’s Disorder''': characterised only by a significant impairment in social interaction and the development of restricted repetitive stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interests and activities (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
{{Hide in print|
== See also ==
* [[../Adolescence/]] (Textbook chapter)
}}
== References ==

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed. Text revision). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association

Birch, J. (2003). Congratulations! It’s Asperger Syndrome. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=MWdYMKNmYGUC&amp;printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false

Bourgeois, P., &amp; Hess, U. (2008). The impact of social contact on mimicry. Biological Psychology, 77, 343-352. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2007.11.008

Bowler, D. M. (1992). Theory of mind in asperger’s syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33, 877-893. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.1992.tb01962.

Benson, B. J., &amp; Haith, M. M. (2009). Social and emotional development in infancy and early childhood. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=VUvdHreepDYC&amp;pg=PA428&amp;dq=infant+social+interaction+and+emotional+development&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=LPnJTI-_J8SHcbit1MgO&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=1&amp;ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;q=infant%20social%20interaction%20and%20emotional%20development&amp;f=false 

Doherty, M. J. (2009). Theory of mind: how children understand others’ thoughts and feelings. Psychology Press, Hove, East Sussex
 
Frith, U. (2001). Mind blindness and the brain in autism. Neuron, 32, 969-979. Retrieved from: http://www.socialbehavior.uzh.ch/teaching/semsocialneurosciencews07/frith01.pdf
Garber, J., &amp; Dodge, A. K. : Walden, A. T. (1991). The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=7GQ7Xf5sZZgC&amp;pg=PA69&amp;dq=infant+development,+social+referencing&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=5fPJTM_5IIfJcZaxrdUO&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=3&amp;ved=0CD0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&amp;q=infant%20development%2C%20social%20referencing&amp;f=false 

Goodman, R., &amp; Scott, S. (1997). Child Psychiatry. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=taXfy9nw4q8C&amp;pg=PA47&amp;dq=theory+of+mind,+sally-anne+test&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=tYHLTNXhFI7fcZu5lJwO&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=5&amp;ved=0CEYQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&amp;q=theory%20of%20mind%2C%20sally-anne%20test&amp;f=false

Gowen, J. W., &amp; Nebrig, J. B. Enhancing early emotional development. Paul H. Brookes Publishing, Baltimore, Maryland.

Grossman, J. B, Klin, A., Carter, A. S., &amp; Volkmar, F. R. (2000). Verbal bias in recognition of facial emotions in children with Asperger’s syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41(3), 369-379. Retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10784084

Heerey, A. E., Keltner, D., &amp; Capps, M. L. (2003). Making sense of self-conscious emotion: linking theory of mind and emotion in children with autism. American Psychological Association Inc, 4, 394-400. doi: 10.1037/1528-3542.3.4.394

Hobson, R. P., &amp; Lee, A. (1998). Hello and goodbye: a study of social engagement in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 28(2), 117-27. Retrieved from: http://zh9bf5sp6t.scholar.serialssolutions.com/?sid=google&amp;auinit=RP&amp;aulast=Hobson&amp;atitle=Hello+and+goodbye:+A+study+of+social+engagement+in+autism&amp;id=doi:10.1023/A:1026088531558&amp;title=Journal+of+autism+and+developmental+disorders&amp;volume=28&amp;issue=2&amp;date=1998&amp;spage=117&amp;issn=0162-3257

Hutchinson, E. D. (2003). Dimensions of human behavior: the changing life course. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=vfbucdtrEh8C&amp;pg=PA129&amp;dq=erik+erikson%27s+stages+of+development&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=fi7WTN-CGpDovQP8xbX-CQ&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=4&amp;ved=0CDsQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&amp;q=erik%20erikson%27s%20stages%20of%20development&amp;f=false

Joseph, R. M., &amp; Tanaka, J. (2003). Holistic and part-based face recognition in children with autism. Journal of Child and Psychological Psychiatry, 44(4), 529-542. Retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12751845

Kalat, J. W., &amp; Shiota, M. N. (2007). Emotion. Thomson Wadsworth Publications, Belmont, CA. 

Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child, 2, 217-250. Retrieved from: http://affect.media.mit.edu/Rgrads/Articles/pdfs/Kanner-1943-OrigPaper.pdf

Kasari, C., &amp; Sigman, M. (1996). Expression and understanding of emotion in atypical development: Autism and Down syndrome. In M. Lewis M. W. Sullivan, Emotional development in atypical children (pp. 109-130). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, Mahwah, New Jersey

Krachun, C., Carpenter, M., Call, J., Tomasello, M. (2010). A new change-of-contents false belief test: children and chimpanzees compared. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 23, 145-165. Retrieved from: http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwscp/2010ijcpissue2/2.Krachun_FinalPDF.pdf

Magai, C., &amp; McFadden, S. H. (1995). The role of emotions in social and personality development: history, theory and research. Plenum Press,  New York, NY 

Mangelsdorf, C. S., &amp; Wong, S. M. (2009). Independence/Dependence. In Benson, B. J., &amp; Haith, M, M., Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Early Childhood. Elsevier Publications,  San Diego, CA

McKinsey-Crittenden, P. Claussen, A. H., &amp; Kozowska, K. (2007). Choosing a valid assessment of attachment for clinical use: a comparative study. ANZJFT, 28(2), 78-87. Retrieved from: http://www.iasa-dmm.org/images/uploads/Choosing%20a%20valid%20assessment%20of%20attachment.pdf

Messinger, D. (2009). Smiling, In Benson, B. J., &amp; Haith, M, M., Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Early Childhood. Elsevier Publications,  San Diego, CA

Misailidi, P., &amp; Bonoti, P. (2008). Emotion in children’s art: do young children understand the emotions expressed in other children’s drawings? Early Childhood Research, 6, 189-200. doi: 10.1177/1476718X08088677

Moore, C. &amp; Frye, D. (1991). The acquisition and utility of theories of mind. In D. Frye &amp; C. Moore, Children’s theories of mind: mental states and social understanding (pp. 1-15). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc, Hillsdale, New Jersey

Mumme, L. D., &amp; Fernald, A. (2003). The infant as onlooker: learning from emotional reactions observed in a television scenario. Child Development, 74, 221-237/ Retrieved from: http://www.temple.edu/devscilab/732_wiki/the_infant_as_onlooker_learning_from_emotional_reactions_observed_in_a_television_scenario.pdf 

Mumme, L. D., Fernald A., &amp; Herrera, C. (1996). Infant’s responses to facial ands vocal emotional signals in a social referencing paradigm. Child Development, 67(6), 3219-3237. Retrieved from: http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~babylab/pdfs/Mumme%20Fernald%20Herrera%201996.pdf

Oatley, K., Keltner, D., &amp; Jenkins, M. J. (2006). Understanding emotions. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=RGHghPqIO_8C&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PR14&amp;dq=Oatley+%26+Jenkins+1996,+emotion&amp;ots=n4gLfkydNA&amp;sig=LSDyetbGuWzdd9BNUf92D9kt-Nc#v=onepage&amp;q=Oatley%20%26%20Jenkins%201996%2C%20emotion&amp;f=false
Plutchik, R. (2003). Emotion. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=ExILFpIhgpAC&amp;pg=PA189&amp;dq=evolutionary+perspective,+emotions&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=UazQTPKyC8q3cJXCxIkK&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=1&amp;ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;q=evolutionary%20perspective%2C%20emotions&amp;f=false

Reeve, J. (2009). ''Understanding motivation and emotion''. Wiley &amp; Sons Inc, Hoboken, NJ

Salter-Ainsworth, M, D., Waters, E., &amp; Wall, S.(1978) Patterns of attachment: a psychological study of the strange situation. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=8wRu5InF79gC&amp;printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false

Shaffer, R. D. (2005). Social and personality development. Wadsworth Publications, Belmont, CA. 
Siegal, M. (2007). Marvelous minds: the discovery of what children know. Oxford University Press, New York, NY
Slentz, K., &amp; Krogh, S. (2001). Early childhood development and its variations. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=_8Typ-IJ9LsC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Slentz+and+Krogh&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=OpLWTLTDFoexcYeZ0dQL&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=1&amp;ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false

Sludds, K. (2008). Emotions: their cognitive base and ontological importance. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=K-eRtOecE4oC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Sludds,+cognitive,+emotions&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=uWTVTO6nCsyHcbai9K4L&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=1&amp;ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false

Sorce, J. F., Emde, R. N., Campos, J., &amp; Klinnert, M. D. (1985). Maternal emotional signalling: its effects on the visual cliff behavior of 1-year olds. Developmental Psychology, 21, 195-200. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.21.1.195 
Strongman, K. T. (2003). The Psychology of emotion: from everyday life to theory (5th ed.). John Wiley and Sons Publications, West Sussex, England 

Sutherland, P. (1992). Cognitive development today: Piaget and his critics. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=LuJIxtEb57UC&amp;printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false

Taylor, L. (2005). Introducing cognitive development. Psychology Press, Hove, East Sussex

Thornton, S. (2002). Growing minds: an introduction to cognitive development. Plagrave Macmillan Publications, New York, NY

University of California - Los Angeles (2007, May 7). A Frown Or A Smile? Children With Autism Can't Discern. Science Daily. Retrieved  from: http://www.sciencedaily.com¬ /releases/2007/05/070505164645.htm

Vaish, A. &amp; Striano, T. (2004). Is visual reference necessary? Contributions of facial versus vocal cues in 12-month –olds’ social referencing behavior. Developmental Science, 7(3), 261-269. Retreived from:  http://www.drstriano.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/ReadingGroupStriano.pdf

Walden, T. A. (1991). Infant social referencing. In J. Garber &amp; K. A. Dodge , The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation (pp. 69-89). Cambridge University Press, New York, NY 

Walden, T., &amp; Knieps, L. (1996). Reading and responding to social signals. In M. Lewis M. W. Sullivan, Emotional development in atypical children (pp. 109-130). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, Mahwah, New Jersey 

Walker-Andrews, A. S. (1998). Emotions and Social Development: Infants' Recognition of Emotions in Others. Paediatrics, 102, 1268-1271. doi:  10.1542/peds.102.5.SE1.1268

White, F., Hayes, B., &amp; Livesey, D. (2005). Developmental Psychology: From infancy to adulthood. Pearson Education Australia, Frenchs Forest NSW.

{{Hide in print|
== External links ==
*[http://www.smh.com.au/national/cartoon-trains-teach-autistic-children-about-emotions-20100106-ludl.html Cartoon trains teach autistic children about emotions]
*[http://www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2008/s2634743.htm Autism rates much higher than previously thought]}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]]
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  <page>
    <title>Characteristics of research</title>
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      <text bytes="1380" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Mitarbeiterin der EMPA in St-Gallen.jpg|right|220px|Research scientist]]
;Features of [[Research]]
# Empirical - based on observations and [[experimentation]]
# Systematic - follows orderly and sequential procedure.
# Controlled - all variables except those that are tested/experimented upon are kept constant.cess
# Analytical - There is critical analysis of all data used so that there is no error in their interpretation 
# Objective, Unbiased, &amp; Logical - all findings are logically based on empirical.
# Employs quantitative or statistical methods - data are transformed into numerical measures and are treated statistically.

== See Also ==
* [[Thinking Scientifically]]
* [[Writing discipline specific research papers]]
* [[Wikipedia: Research]]
* [[Wikibooks: Research Methods]]

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |isbn=978-0-201-11519-2 |title=The fifth generation: Artificial intelligence and Japan's computer challenge to the world |last1=Feigenbaum |first1=Edward A. |last2=McCorduck |first2=Pamela |year=1983 }}
* {{cite book |isbn=978-1-84628-475-5 |title=An Introduction to Knowledge Engineering |last1=Kendal |first1=Simon |last2=Creen |first2=Malcolm |date=2006-10-04}}
* {{cite book |isbn=0-13-103805-2 |title=Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach |last1=Russell |first1=Stuart Jonathan |last2=Norvig |first2=Peter |year=1995 }}

[[Category:Research]]</text>
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      <id>2417940</id>
      <parentid>2417939</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>120.28.230.184</ip>
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      <text bytes="1273" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Mitarbeiterin der EMPA in St-Gallen.jpg|right|220px|Research scientist]]
;Features of [[Research]]
# Empirical - based on observations and [[experimentation]]
# Systematic - follows orderly and sequential procedure.
# Controlled - all variables except those that are tested/experimented upon are kept constant.cess
# Analytical - There is critical analysis of all data used so that there is no error in their interpretation 
# Objective, Unbiased, &amp; Logical - all findings are logically based on empirical.
# statistically.

== See Also ==
* [[Thinking Scientifically]]
* [[Writing discipline specific research papers]]
* [[Wikipedia: Research]]
* [[Wikibooks: Research Methods]]

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |isbn=978-0-201-11519-2 |title=The fifth generation: Artificial intelligence and Japan's computer challenge to the world |last1=Feigenbaum |first1=Edward A. |last2=McCorduck |first2=Pamela |year=1983 }}
* {{cite book |isbn=978-1-84628-475-5 |title=An Introduction to Knowledge Engineering |last1=Kendal |first1=Simon |last2=Creen |first2=Malcolm |date=2006-10-04}}
* {{cite book |isbn=0-13-103805-2 |title=Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach |last1=Russell |first1=Stuart Jonathan |last2=Norvig |first2=Peter |year=1995 }}

[[Category:Research]]</text>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/120.28.230.184|120.28.230.184]] ([[User_talk:120.28.230.184|talk]]) to last version by [[User:111.68.99.9|111.68.99.9]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="1437" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Mitarbeiterin der EMPA in St-Gallen.jpg|right|220px|Research scientist]]
;Features of [[Research]]
# Empirical - based on observations and [[experimentation]]
# Systematic - follows orderly and sequential procedure.
# Controlled - all variables except those that are tested/experimented upon are kept constant.
# Employs [[hypothesis]] - guides the investigation process 
# Analytical - There is critical analysis of all data used so that there is no error in their interpretation 
# Objective, Unbiased, &amp; Logical - all findings are logically based on empirical.
# Employs quantitative or statistical methods - data are transformed into numerical measures and are treated statistically.

== See Also ==
* [[Thinking Scientifically]]
* [[Writing discipline specific research papers]]
* [[Wikipedia: Research]]
* [[Wikibooks: Research Methods]]

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |isbn=978-0-201-11519-2 |title=The fifth generation: Artificial intelligence and Japan's computer challenge to the world |last1=Feigenbaum |first1=Edward A. |last2=McCorduck |first2=Pamela |year=1983 }}
* {{cite book |isbn=978-1-84628-475-5 |title=An Introduction to Knowledge Engineering |last1=Kendal |first1=Simon |last2=Creen |first2=Malcolm |date=2006-10-04}}
* {{cite book |isbn=0-13-103805-2 |title=Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach |last1=Russell |first1=Stuart Jonathan |last2=Norvig |first2=Peter |year=1995 }}

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  <page>
    <title>Virtues/Courage</title>
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      <text bytes="7338" xml:space="preserve">==Introduction:==
{{TOC right | limit|limit=1}}
[[w:Courage|Courage]] is the resolve to act virtuously, especially when it is most difficult. It is acting for the [[Virtues/Good|good]], when it would be much easier not to this time.

A courageous person understands danger, and chooses to overcome their fear and proceed to face the danger and act according to their values. It is not fearlessness, recklessness, or rashness. It is a well-considered, wise, and brave decision to behave constructively despite the fear, discomfort, or temptation. Courage is a strength drawn from a wise balance between the weaknesses of [[w:Cowardice|cowardice]] and [[w:Recklessness_(psychology)|recklessness]]. It is the discipline to act on wisely-chosen values rather than an impulse.&lt;ref&gt; {{cite book |title=The Mystery of Courage |last=Miller |first=William Ian |year=2002 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674008267  |pages=360}} &lt;/ref&gt;

Courage may be manifest as:
* Valor and bravery - Often called ''physical courage''. 
* Perseverance, industry, or diligence - often called ''[[w:Endurance|endurance]]''. 
* Integrity, genuineness, or honesty - often called ''[[w:Moral_courage|moral courage]]''.

[[w:Aristotle|Aristotle]] believed that the epitome of courage is facing noble death at the hands of the enemy during your offensive attack in a [[w:Just_war_theory|just war]] for the people. Demonstrating physical prowess, overcoming fear—especially fear of death, and launching an attack or an offensive effort are often considered the hallmarks of courage.&lt;ref&gt; {{cite book |title=The Mystery of Courage |last=Miller |first=William Ian |year=2002 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674008267  |pages=360}} &lt;/ref&gt;

Sometimes the most difficult obstacles we face are fatigue, boredom, and other chronic stressors such as relentless bad weather, lack of food or shelter, disrespect, uncertainty, and other annoyances and difficulties. Enduring in the face of these obstacles requires courage.

Ordinary people courageously persevere over fatigue, temptation, and hardship to benefit others. The single mother who gets her children dressed for school each day before she goes to work herself, the unskilled worker who endures a low-paying, demeaning, and exhausting job to earn the money to send his children off to college, and the alcoholic who never indulges in a drink are all choosing to do the right thing despite the hardships.

In the nineteenth century [[w:Henry_Sidgwick|Henry Sidgwick]] first defined ''[[w:Moral_courage|moral courage]]'' as: “facing the pains and dangers of social disapproval in the performance of what they believe to be duty.” The moral hero often overcomes shame and humiliation, rejects conformity, risks ostracism, jeopardizes career and status, and sets out alone to take an unpopular stand and do the right thing. Moral courage is choosing to risk embarrassment rather than tolerate injustice.

Examples of moral courage include:
* Women's suffrage activist [[w:Emmeline_Pankhurst|Emmeline Pankhurst]] was arrested seven times before women gained the right to vote in the United Kingdom, 
* The December 1, 1955 refusal of 42-year-old [[w:Rosa_Parks|Rosa Parks]] to obey bus driver James Blake's order that she give up her seat to make room for a white passenger. She was arrested and unlike previous individual actions of civil disobedience, Parks' action sparked the [[w:Montgomery_Bus_Boycott|Montgomery Bus Boycott]].
* And moral courage of [[w:Martin_Luther_King,_Jr.|Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr]]., [[w:Nelson_Mandela|Nelson Mandela]], and the “[[w:Tank_Man|tank man]]” who stopped a line of tanks during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 are all legendary examples.

==The Virtue of Courage==
Because courage allows us to act on our values rather than our impulses, its virtue has long been recognized.

Courage is one of the four classic western [[w:Cardinal_virtues|cardinal virtues]]. [[w:Aristotle|Aristotle]] recognized courage as the virtue at the mean between rashness and cowardice. Courage requires moderation. The risks incurred must be in proportion to the ends sought.&lt;ref&gt; {{cite book |title=A Small Treatise on the Great Virtues: The Usesally neutral. Executing a daring bank heist requires bravery, but is morally reprehensible. Bravery can be demonstrated in the name of good or evil. Courage is a virtue when we choose to do good, especially when that is most difficult. Courage most demands our respect when it incurs risk without selfish motivation. Courage is moral strength in the face of danger.&lt;ref&gt; {{cite book |title=A Small Treatise on the Great Virtues: The Uses of Philosophy in Everyday Life |last=Comte-Sponville |first=André  |year=2002 |publisher=Picador |isbn=978-0805045567 |pages=368}} &lt;/ref&gt;

Courage is most virtuous when it is combined with knowledge, wisdom, and opinion. All of the virtues are interdependent, and they all depend on courage.&lt;ref&gt; {{cite book |title=A Small Treatise on the Great Virtues: The Uses of Philosophy in Everyday Life |last=Comte-Sponville |first=André  |year=2002 |publisher=Picador |isbn=978-0805045567 |pages=368}} &lt;/ref&gt;


==Everyday Courage==
Without risking imprisonment or making headlines, you can exercise the virtue of courage every day by:
* Being impeccable with your word,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=The Four Agreements: A Practical Guide to Personal Freedom |last=Ruiz |first=Don Miguel |authorlink=w:Miguel_%C3%81ngel_Ruiz  |year=1997 |publisher=Amber-Allen Publishing |isbn=978-1878424310  |pages=138}}
&lt;/ref&gt;
* Doing your best, 
* Acting on your well-chosen values; exercising the virtues.
* Demonstrating commitment to a good cause through your active participation,
* Refusing the temptation to comply with, assist with, or ignore: dishonest, unfair, coercive, cruel, bigoted, wasteful, or deceptive words or practices encountered during your everyday activities.
** Be willing to [http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/evidence.htm#Evidence_and_Power speak truth to power] to right a wrong.
* Doing the right thing when faced with defining moments in our lives, and every day. Don't accept bribes, cheat on your taxes, or pad your expense vouchers. 
* Courageously overcoming or at least controlling addictions.

==Assignment==
* Complete the Wikiversity course on [[Finding Courage]].
* Recall a time when you knew the right thing to do, it was difficult, yet you found the resolve to do the right thing. Describe the internal struggle and dialogue that allowed your values to prevail over your fears or other difficulties.
* Recall another time when you knew the right thing to do, it was difficult, and you did not get it done. Describe the internal struggle and dialogue that allowed you to subordinate your values in the face of fears or other difficulties.

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;
== Further Reading: ==
Students interested in learning more about courage may be interested in the following materials:
* {{cite book |title=The Mystery of Courage |last=Miller |first=William Ian |year=2002 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674008267  |pages=360}}
*{{cite book |title=Find Your Courage: 12 Acts for Becoming Fearless at Work and in Life |last=Warrell |first=Margie |year=2008 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-0071605373 |pages=304}}

{{Virtues}}

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  <page>
    <title>Happiness/Have a Happy Job</title>
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      <text bytes="12810" xml:space="preserve">{{Essay}}
&lt;[[Happiness]] [[File:Congressional Secretaries, 1920.JPG|thumb|500px|Happy time]]
'''How can we be happy in our profession?'''

[[w:Happiness at work|Wikipedia:]] ''Despite a large body of positive psychological research into the relationship between happiness and productivity, happiness at work has traditionally been seen as a potential by-product of positive outcomes at work, rather than a pathway to success in business. However a growing number of scholars, Boehm and Lyubomirsky included, state that it should be viewed as one of the major sources of positive outcomes in the workplace. The use of positive psychology in business has become an increasingly popular and valuable tool with which to manage and develop staff. One of the main benefits to a business with a well-planned and well-run program is increased productivity through greater output and less down time. Through a successful positive psychology program, staff can develop a deeper satisfaction in their workplace relationships, and therefore the quality of their work tends to improve, as well. A proactive business manager in today’s business world caters to the needs of his or her staff either by ensuring a well-run in-house program or by bringing in experts to facilitate the development of one.''

== The choice of profession ==
(Nils) My son has graduated the high school. Now he faces the big question, what profession he should adopt. What should I advise him? The choice of profession is a very important decision in one's life. I think about the situation. 

My son is grown now. This means that he is principally responsible for his own life. He must make his own decision. If he makes a bad decision, he will have to bear the resulting suffering. If he makes a good decision, he will receive the blessing. I'm aware that I am no longer responsible for his life. I give the responsibility for the right career choice entirely to my son. I let him decide this question. 

Nevertheless, I should have an opinion on the subject of career choice: ''&quot;The more information you have and the more thoroughly you think about a decision, the better is the decision. Especially with the career choice you should make the best possible decision. You should find out just about all imaginable professions. You should analyze your own interests and capabilities thoroughly. You should think about your personal life goals. You should take enough time and decide when the time is ripe for decision. Then you should consistently and successfully go your way. Thus live winners. This gives you a successful life.&quot;''

So what is my advice to my son? First, it occurs to me that he should think long term. He should not think only until tomorrow, but until the day after his death. He should have his whole life in the eye and ask what he wants to achieve in his life. Does he want a good career, a lot of money, lots of external consumption and enjoyment? Does he want to help with his work to build up a happy world? Or is it  the main goal for him to develop his inner happiness and to become enlightened?

A great master of inner happiness was [[w:Sivananda Saraswati|Swami Sivananda]]. He said: ''&quot;Let your hands work in service to humanity. Work that is done for your ego, bonds you. Work done for the common good, frees the soul.&quot;'' What does this mean? If we focus ourselves on the happiness of all beings, this resolves the long term our inner tensions. We strengthen the positive in ourselves. We are developing an awareness of the unity of the world. A unity consciousness activates the Kundalini energy and leads to enlightenment. The way of embracing love (Karma Yoga), in conjunction with enough rest and daily spiritual exercises (reading, prayer, yoga, mediation, walking) causes enlightenment. Our profession makes us happy, and even creates a happy world around us. 

If a person works on the other hand primarily for his individual benefit, it reinforces on the long run more and more his ego structures. It strengthens his attachment to the body, to external things, to other people, to worldly pleasures and worldly recognition. He lives primarily for his ego and by this he creates growing internal tensions. His inner happiness shrinks in the long term. He has less and less inner peace, inner strength and positivity. He grows more and more into the inner suffering. We can see this clearly at the most working people.

What is a karma-yoga job? A karma-yoga profession is a profession in which the main goal is not making money, but the work for the common good. Ultimately, almost all professions can be practiced as a karma-yoga job. Inner happiness comes more from the subjective view (positive thinking) as from the external activity. Although there is a correlation between the two areas. It is most important, that we can see our profession primarily as a karma-yoga job. The point is, when does your subconscious believe that you are living primarily for the happiness of the world. We should structure our lifes so that a karma-yoga-consciousness arises. We should do a sufficient number of daily karma yoga activities. We should begin each day with spiritual exercises and finish. Then we will be happy in our job and our life in the long term.

I worked my whole life for a happy world. The money came somehow always by its own. I only had to take it and to be economical with it. And I was always happy in my job. I did many jobs. As a schoolboy I was a class president. As a student I was a political leader. I was a lawyer. I was a researcher at an university. Then I worked as a psychotherapist, yoga teacher and writer. My relationship came to an end, my son was grown up and I turned to be a hermit. This for me is a fulfilled and a grace-full life. I got to know the whole life and my focus is on God. I look positively into the future. In my feeling the light is with me.

== Stress at work ==
[[File:Team work.jpg|thumb|400px]]
Too much stress is one of the main problems of today's professional life. Someone who is constantly under immense stress, in the long run harms their health and inner happiness.They foster negativity, becomes weak and often suffer with various illnesses as a result. Those who do not learn to deal with stress exhaust themselves physically and mentally.

The root cause of job stress lies in our current economic environment. It creates profit for a small number of people and the majority of the world population suffers from  increasing poverty and destitution. It produces on the one hand a lot of unemployment and on the other side many working people having an extreme pressure in their job. In the long term we need to make the inner happiness to the center of a new economic world order. The economy must be organized so that it provides everyone with sufficient food and labor, that the health of the working people is protected, that there is no destruction of the environment, and that the inner happiness grows. Not the profit (the money), but the love must be the engine of world economy. In the short term we will have to live with the unwisdom of the ruling politicians. The more important it is that all people care good for themselves and secondly, that we work as powerful as possible for a better world.

Every working person has to do enough exercises every day for his body and his soul. With a lot of stress at work for everyone a daily health and relaxation program is absolutely necessary. The law of life is relentless. Who does not care for his body has not very long something from it. A well maintained car lasts twice as long as a badly treated car. A human body can live 20 to 30 years longer if he is properly fed, sufficiently relaxed and moved well. Who wants to live healthy, must first take a clear decision. Only this gives him the self-discipline for a healthy life. He must clearly define his health goals and create a strong will to do the necessary things. Just then man has the strength to live a long healthy and positive life.

Second, one must look closely at his life situation. One has to recognize what his body and his mind exactly needs. One must consider how to organize his life so that long-term he maintains his health and increases his happiness. One must create a clear daily schedule of sport, relaxation and a healthy diet.

Third, you have to implement your health care plan at least two months every day consistently. Then your mind gets used to it. The daily health practices are then part of your life.

Incorporate the necessary health exercises creativity in your life. At least you should go for a walk on the weekend for an hour. You can meditate on the train or during breaks at work. You can use any contact with your fellow human beings to practice love and full of positive thinking. The big secret for more energy while working is to sensitively put many small breaks in the workday. Anyone who takes a break five minutes every hour, doubles his work force.

Chronic stress we must avoid. If we cannot work long term in our profession relaxed enough, we are not suited for the job. Then we have to change something in our life. We should always think long term. Our job should feed us, and he should contribute to the happiness of all beings. He should not destroy us in our health and inner well-being. If our work over calls us, we must reorganize something, work less, or if necessary, change our profession.

The most important thing in life is to live in the essence. The essence of life is health and happiness. We should take good care of us. Who cares good for himself, sometimes must say &quot;no&quot;. He must say &quot;no&quot; to self-defeating thoughts and self-injurious behavior. We alone are responsible for our life. We should organize our lifes so that we at the end are happy with us. Not our job is the center of our life, but the spirituality. If you look at things this way, you can live much more relaxed. You can work relaxed. And you can let go your profession, if it needs to be. You set the priorities in your life right. Those who live by the right goals, know when and how they have to act.

== The Happy Manager ==
[[File:Executive Secretary in a hotel in New Deli India.jpg|thumb|300px]]
(Quotes from Managerin glücklich.doc) How to discern the happy manager?

First. The happy manager is a lover of life. In practice, it depends on what you do with what you know. Knowledge is universal, situational practice, and each situation is unique. So the knowledge is never enough to cope with situations. This requires the wise person: self-willed, resourceful, inspired.

Second. The happy manager as role model. People orient themselves to humans, not methods. In the company it is not different to schools. Students learn, if they love their teachers. Employees work well, if they admire their boss.
Small example from the school sector. A class in Switzerland ruined in two years six teachers. Now comes the seventh one, a 25-year-old woman teacher. Will she make it? &quot;Yes,&quot; said one girl, &quot;I see it in her eyes.&quot; The eyes are the window to the soul. As will be seen: love of life, happiness, strength, humor. Students need an incarnate desire to learn. To see their teacher it can show them that it pays to get involved in learning.

Third. The professional knowledge is of little use, if we don´t love our work. We must like what we are doing: the product, the service. Otherwise we'll never find in our element. The happy manager has a libidinal relationship to his product. He treats his product as the lover his beloved, spoiled it, refined it, brings it in top form. The customers see it on the product that it is loved. And they use it, what makes the manager completely happy.

==See also==
*[[Positive thinking]]
*[[Everyone needs a spiritual centering]]
*[[The Five Principles of Health]]
*[[Happiness and Life]]
*[[A World of Peace, Love and Happiness]]

==External links==
{{wikipedia|Profession}}{{wikipedia|Stress management}}{{wikipedia|Happiness at work}}
*[http://www.wikihow.com/Category:Work-World WikiHow Work World]
*[http://humanresources.about.com/od/success/tp/happy_work.htm Top 10 Ways to Be Happy at Work]
*[http://www.lhj.com/lhj/quiz.jsp?quizId=/templatedata/lhj/quiz/data/AreYouHappyWithYourJobQuiz_02182003.xml Quiz: Are You Happy With Your Job?]
*[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/38453333/ns/business-careers/t/overworked-underpaid-relieved/#.T79Z79V1Ca8 Overworked, underpaid — and relieved]
*[http://kathrynvercillo.hubpages.com/hub/Are-You-Happy-with-Your-Job-Change-these-3-Things Do You Have a Happy Job? No? Change these Three Things About Your Work]
*[http://workawesome.com/management/happy-employees/ Happy Employees: How to Create Them]
*[http://www.answerstat.com/articles/5/21.html How to Be Happy in Your Job]
[[Category:Happiness]]</text>
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    <title>Understanding Arithmetic Circuits</title>
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      <comment>/* Adder */</comment>
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== Adder ==

* Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:adder.20131113.pdf  |pdf]]  )
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Adder type      !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design  !! CMOS Level Design  
|-
| '''1. Ripple Carry Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20211108.pdf  |pdf]] || 
|| [[Media:adder.rca.20140313.pdf  |pdf]] 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf |pdf]] 
|-
| '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CLA.20211106.pdf  |pdf]] || 
|| [[Media:adder.cla.20140313.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|-
| '''3. Carry Save Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| ||
|-
|| '''4. Carry Select Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| || 
|-
|| '''5. Carry Skip Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20211111.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf  |pdf]]
|- 
|| '''6. Carry Chain Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf |pdf]],  [[Media:adder.cca.20140313.pdf  |pdf]] 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf |pdf]] 
|- 
|| '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| [[Media:adder.ksa.20140409.pdf  |pdf]] || 
|-
|| '''8. Prefix Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9. Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA.20220823.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| || 
|}
&lt;/br&gt;
 
=== Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === 
* FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf |pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf |pdf]])
* FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf |pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf |pdf]])
* Carry-Skip Adder
&lt;/br&gt;

== Barrel Shifter ==
* Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:bshift.20131105.pdf  |bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf  |bshfit.makefile]])
&lt;/br&gt;

'''Mux Based Barrel Shifter'''
* Analysis  ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf  |pdf]]) 
* Implementation 
&lt;/br&gt;

== Multiplier == 
=== Array Multipliers ===
* Analysis  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf  |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Tree Mulltipliers ===
* Lattice Multiplication  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf  |pdf]])
* Wallace Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf  |pdf]])
* Dadda Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf  |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Booth Multipliers ===
* [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf  |Booth Encoding Note]]
* Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf |H1.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

== Divider == 
* Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf  |pdf]])&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:Computer architecture]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Radiation astronomy/Muons</title>
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      <text bytes="105276" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Moons shodow in muons.gif|thumb|right|250px|The Moon's cosmic ray shadow, as seen in secondary muons generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere, and detected 700 meters below ground, at the [[w:Soudan II|Soudan II]] detector. Credit: J. H. Cobb et al. (The Soudan 2 Collaboration). {{tlx|fairuse}}]]
&quot;[T]here is a window of opportunity for '''muon astronomy''' with the AMANDA, Lake Baikal, and MILAGRO detectors.&quot;&lt;ref name=Halzen&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Francis Halzen
|author2=Todor Stanev
|author3=Gaurang B. Yodh
|title=γ ray astronomy with muons
|journal=Physical Review D Particles, Fields, Gravitation, and Cosmology
|month=April 1,
|year=1997
|volume=55
|issue=7
|pages=4475-9
|url=http://prd.aps.org/abstract/PRD/v55/i7/p4475_1
|arxiv=astro-ph/9608201
|bibcode=1997PhRvD..55.4475H
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.55.4475
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-01-18 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Muons are produced, along with other particles, when cosmic rays (high-energy particles originating in outer space) interact with atomic nuclei in Earth’s atmosphere to produce ‘showers’ of secondary particles.&quot;&lt;ref name=Strolin/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Astronomy==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Astronomy}}
[[Image:Issue27muons1 l.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an image obtained from muon radiography of Japan's Asama volcano. Credit: H T M Tanaka.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:Issue27muons7 l.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image shows the principle of muon radiography. Credit: Nicola Graf.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:Issue27muons2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of a muon telescope. Credit: Paolo Strolin.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
&quot;The muons inherit the high energy of the parent cosmic rays, which enables them to penetrate and pass through the rock of the volcano and to be detected on the other side of the mountain. Because denser materials absorb more muons (just as dense materials such as bone absorb more X-rays), this provides a basis for producing shadow images of the volcano’s interior.&quot;&lt;ref name=Strolin&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Paolo Strolin
|title=The secret life of volcanoes: using muon radiography
|publisher=EIROforum
|location=
|date=August 15, 2013
|url=http://www.scienceinschool.org/2013/issue27/muons
|accessdate=2014-03-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Muon radiography was first used in 1971 – not for volcanoes, but for investigating the interior of the pyramid of Chefren at Giza, Egypt. The Nobel-prize winning physicist Louis Alvarez placed a muon detector inside the pyramid to pick up changes in muon flux (rate of muon flow) that could indicate the presence of a hidden burial chamber. However, none was found.&quot;&lt;ref name=Strolin/&gt;

&quot;In 2007, Hiroyuki Tanaka and collaborators from the University of Tokyo were the first to apply this technique to volcanoes. They carried out radiography of the top part of the Asama volcano in Honshu, Japan, which revealed a region with rock of low density under the bottom of the crater. The presence of low-density regions can be used in computer simulations that predict how possible eruptions could develop, indicating the most dangerous areas around the volcano. Their observations showed that muon radiography could indeed produce useful images of the internal structure of volcanoes.&quot;&lt;ref name=Strolin/&gt;

&quot;The really important advantages of muon radiography of volcanoes are two-fold. First, whereas current indirect methods can provide information to a spatial resolution of some 100 m, muon radiography can be up to ten times more specific, mapping internal structures to a resolution of some 10 m. Second, muon radiography offers the possibility of continuous monitoring, thus potentially revealing the evolution of structures over time. The time resolution depends on the thickness of the rock traversed by the muons: the thicker it is, the fainter the muon flux and the longer it takes to accumulate enough muons for a picture. The time needed can thus be weeks, months or years.&quot;&lt;ref name=Strolin/&gt;

Vesuvius &quot;is a special challenge, not only because it represents the highest volcanic risk in Europe, but also because of the mountain’s unusual structure. Vesuvius is in fact situated within the remnants of a much larger volcano, Mount Somma. Moreover, inside the summit of Vesuvius is a crater that is 500 m wide and 300 m deep: this means that, to look below the bottom of the crater, muons have to penetrate deep into the mountain, through almost two kilometres of rock, to reach the detector on the opposite side of the volcano. Only muons of very high energy travelling in a near-horizontal direction are able to pass through all this rock, so their flux at the detector is very low, making imaging extremely difficult.&quot;&lt;ref name=Strolin/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Radiation==
{{main|Radiation}}
[[Image:Muon.svg|thumb|left|250px|This lepton box provides information about muons. Credit: [[c:User:MissMJ|MissMJ]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Muon Decay.svg|thumb|right|250px|This is a Feynman Diagram of the most common of Muon Decays. Credit: Richard Feynman.{{tlx|free media}}]]
&quot;TeV muons from γ ray primaries ... are rare because they are only produced by higher energy γ rays whose flux is suppressed by the decreasing flux at the source and by absorption on interstellar light.&quot;&lt;ref name=Halzen/&gt;

The '''muon''' from the Greek letter mu (μ) used to represent it) is an elementary particle similar to the electron, with unitary negative electric charge (−1) and a spin of {{frac|1|2}}. Together with the electron, the tau, and the three neutrinos, it is classified as a lepton. As is the case with other leptons, the muon is not believed to have any sub-structure at all (i.e., is not thought to be composed of any simpler particles).

The muon is an unstable [[w:subatomic particle|subatomic particle]] with a [[w:mean lifetime|mean lifetime]] of {{val|2.2|ul=us}}. This comparatively long decay lifetime (the second longest known) is due to being mediated by the weak interaction. The only longer lifetime for an unstable subatomic particle is that for the free neutron, a baryon particle composed of quarks, which also decays via the weak force. Muon decay produces three particles, an electron plus two neutrinos of different types.

Like all elementary particles, the muon has a corresponding antiparticle of opposite charge (+1) but equal mass and spin: the '''antimuon''' (also called a ''positive muon''). Muons are denoted by {{SubatomicParticle|Muon-}} and antimuons by {{SubatomicParticle|Muon+}}.
{{clear}}

==Planetary sciences==
{{main|Planetary sciences}}
&quot;The nuclear processes that produce cosmogenic &lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;Cl in rocks are spallation, neutron capture, and muon capture. The first two processes dominate production on the land surface; muon production in Ca and K becomes more important with increasing depth (Rama and Honda, 1961).&quot;&lt;ref name=Swanson&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Terry W. Swanson
|author2=Marc L. Caffee
|title=Determination of &lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;Cl Production Rates Derived from the Well-Dated Deglaciation Surfaces of Whidbey and Fidalgo Islands, Washington
|journal=Quaternary Research
|year=2001
|volume=56
|issue=
|pages=366-82
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0033589401922781
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1006/qres.2001.2278
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-10-31 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The decay of radioactive U and Th also give rise to the production of &lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;Cl, via neutron capture (Bentley ''et al.'', 1986).&quot;&lt;ref name=Swanson/&gt;

&quot;The production rate of cosmogenic &lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;Cl in bedrock and regolith exposed at Earth's surface is dependent on its calcium, potassium, and chloride content and can be expressed by the equation

:&lt;math&gt;P = \psi_{Ca}(C_{Ca}) + \psi_K(C_K) + \psi_n(\sigma_{35}N_{35}/\Sigma \sigma_iN_i),&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\psi_K&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\psi_{Ca}&lt;/math&gt; are the total production rates (including production due to slow negative muons) of &lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;Cl due to potassium and calcium, respectively; &lt;math&gt;C_K&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;C_{Ca}&lt;/math&gt; are the elemental concentrations of potassium and calcium, respectively; and &lt;math&gt;\psi_n&lt;/math&gt; is the thermal neutron capture rate, which is dependent on the fraction of neutrons stopped by &lt;sup&gt;35&lt;/sup&gt;Cl &lt;math&gt;(\sigma_{35} N_{35}/\Sigma \sigma_i N_i),&lt;/math&gt; as determined by the effective cross sections of &lt;sup&gt;35&lt;/sup&gt;Cl&lt;math&gt;(\sigma_{35})&lt;/math&gt; and all other absorbing elements &lt;math&gt;(\Sigma \sigma)&lt;/math&gt; and their respective abundances &lt;math&gt;(N_{35}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;N_i)&lt;/math&gt;.&quot;&lt;ref name=Swanson/&gt;

==Colors==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Colors}}
'''Neutrino oscillation''' is a [[w:quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] phenomenon predicted by [[w:Bruno Pontecorvo|Bruno Pontecorvo]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Pontecorvo1957&quot;&gt;{{ cite journal
 |author=B. Pontecorvo
 |title=Mesonium and anti-mesonium
 |journal=Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz.
 |volume=33
 |pages=549–551
 |year=1957
 |doi= }} reproduced and translated in {{ cite journal
 |journal=Sov. Phys. JETP
 |volume=6
 |pages=429
 |year=1957
 |doi= }} and 
{{ cite journal
 |author=B. Pontecorvo
 |title=Neutrino Experiments and the Problem of Conservation of Leptonic Charge
 |journal=Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz.
 |volume=53
 |pages=1717
 |year=1967
 |doi= }} reproduced and translated in {{ cite journal
 |journal=Sov. Phys. JETP
 |volume=26
 |pages=984
 |year=1968
 |doi=
|bibcode = 1968JETP...26..984P }}&lt;/ref&gt; whereby a neutrino created with a specific lepton flavor (electron, muon or tau) can later be measured to have a different flavor. The probability of measuring a particular flavor for a neutrino varies periodically as it propagates. Neutrino oscillation is of theoretical and experimental interest since observation of the phenomenon implies that the neutrino has a non-zero mass.

==Minerals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Minerals}}
[[Image:Cosmo03.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a diagram of muon target minerals. Credit: Derek Fabel.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
&quot;The Earth is continually being bombarded by high-energy cosmic rays that originate predominantly from super nova explosions within our galaxy. Interactions between these high energy cosmic rays and the Earth's atmosphere creates secondary and tertiary cosmic rays, including neutrons and muons.&quot;&lt;ref name=Fabel&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Derek Fabel
|title=In-situ produced terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides
|publisher=University of Glasgow
|location=
|date=December 18, 2008
|url=http://web2.ges.gla.ac.uk/~dfabel/CN_intro.html
|accessdate=2014-03-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;When reaching the Earth's surface these high energy particles can penetrate meters into rock and sediment.&quot;&lt;ref name=Fabel/&gt;

&quot;Nuclear interactions between neutrons and muons and minerals [as in the diagram at the right] such as quartz, calcite, K-feldspar, and olivine, produce long-lived radionuclides such as Be-10, Al-26 and Cl-36.&quot;&lt;ref name=Fabel/&gt;

&quot;The production rates of these &quot;in-situ produced terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides&quot; are almost unimaginably small - a few atoms per gram of rock per year, however using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) we can detect and count cosmogenic nuclides down to levels of a few thousand atoms per gram (parts per million of parts per billion!).&quot;&lt;ref name=Fabel/&gt;

&quot;The build-up of cosmogenic nuclides through time provides us with a way to measure exposure ages for rock surfaces such as fault scarps, lava flows and glacial pavements.Where surfaces are gradually evolving, cosmogenic nuclide measurements allow us to calculate erosion or soil accumulation rates.Where previously exposed rock or sediment is re-buried the relative decay between different cosmogenic nuclides can be used to date the burial time.&quot;&lt;ref name=Fabel/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Theoretical muon astronomy==

'''Def.''' an &quot;unstable [elementary particle in the lepton family,]&lt;ref name=MuonWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Poccil|Poccil]]
|title= muon
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=18 October 2004
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/muon
|accessdate=17 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt; having similar properties to the electron but with a mass [207]&lt;ref name=MuonWikt2&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Vedant Koladiya|Vedant Koladiya]]
|title=muon
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 July 2019
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/muon
|accessdate=17 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt; times greater&quot;&lt;ref name=MuonWikt1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Widsith|Widsith]]
|title= muon
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=8 September 2007
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/muon
|accessdate=17 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''muon'''.

'''Def.''' the &quot;antiparticle corresponding to a muon&quot;&lt;ref name=AntimuonWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Equinox|Equinox]]
|title=antimuon
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=5 October 2008
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/antimuon
|accessdate=17 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''antimuon'''.

Here's a [[Definitions/Theory#Theoretical definition|theoretical definition]]:

'''Def.''' radiation astronomy of and using muons is called '''muon radiation astronomy''', or '''muon astronomy'''.

==Electromagnetic loops==

&quot;The particle known as the muon has the same negative charge as the electron and the same spin (intrinsic angular momentum) but is considerably heavier than the electron. It may well be that the muon is a single wavelength photon twisted into a tight 4-loop helix. The pattern of magnetic and electric vectors would still be the same as for the electron. This argument may also be extended to the tauon — a super heavy version of the electron.&quot;&lt;ref name=Ranzan&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Conrad Ranzan
|title=The Nature of Gravitational Collapse
|journal=American Journal of Astronomy and Astrophysics
|date=4 June 2016
|volume=4
|issue=2
|pages=15-33
|url=http://www.cellularuniverse.org/G8(ajaa)GravityCollapse-Ranzan.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.11648/j.ajaa.20160402.11
|pmid=
|accessdate=16 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;There is also a way to model the property of spin. Every elementary particle must possess, in addition to a characteristic mass, a certain spin (its intrinsic angular momentum). The looping and twisting motion of the confined photon is ideal for establishing a correspondence with a particle’s spin property.&quot;&lt;ref name=Ranzan/&gt;

&quot;According to the new paradigm, all particles consist of electromagnetic loops (or loops of loops) — all particles are essentially confined photons. When these loops are complete, resonant, and harmonic they represent independent particles, such as the electron, muon, and tauon (and their antiparticle versions).&quot;&lt;ref name=Ranzan/&gt;

==Leptogenesis==
[[Image:Higgs boson mass peak in four-lepton final state (ATLAS).pdf|thumb|right|250px|The observed (data points) and expected (colored bands) four-lepton invariant mass distributions for the Higgs boson candidates in ATLAS detector at the LHC (CERN). Credit: CERN for the benefit of the ATLAS collaboration.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The observed (data points) and expected (colored bands) four-lepton invariant mass distributions for the Higgs boson candidates in ATLAS detector at the LHC (CERN). A prominent blue peak is due to Higgs boson decays, while the other colors depict various Standard Model backgrounds.

&quot;In realistic unified models involving so-called SO(10)-inspired patterns of Dirac and heavy right-handed (RH) neutrino masses, the lightest right-handed neutrino N&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; is too light to yield successful thermal leptogenesis, barring highly fine tuned solutions, while the second heaviest right-handed neutrino N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is typically in the correct mass range.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bari&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Pasquale Di Bari
|author2=Stephen F. King
|title=Successful N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; leptogenesis with flavour coupling effects in realistic unified models
|journal=Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics
|date=2 October 2015
|volume=10
|issue=
|pages=008
|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1475-7516/2015/10/008/pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1088/1475-7516/2015/10/008
|pmid=
|accessdate=16 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Flavour &quot;coupling effects in the Boltzmann equations may be crucial to the success of such N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; dominated leptogenesis, by helping to ensure that the flavour asymmetries produced at the N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; scale survive N&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; washout.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bari/&gt;

The &quot;only relevant asymmetry is that one produced at the N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; scale in the tauon flavour&quot;.&lt;ref name=Bari/&gt;

&quot;This implies that, at least at lower order, the observed asymmetry can only be produced in the tauon flavour&quot;.&lt;ref name=Bari/&gt;

The &quot;asymmetry is mainly produced by the next-to-lightest RH neutrinos in the tauon flavour but this asymmetry is fully washed-out by the lightest RH neutrinos since the condition K&lt;sub&gt;1τ&lt;/sub&gt; ≲􏰗 1 is not compatible with the measured values of the mixing parameters.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bari/&gt;

One &quot;has also to consider that part of the asymmetry in the tauon flavour is transferred to the electron and muon flavours by flavour coupling effects due primarily to the fact that N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-decays produce in addition to an asymmetry in the tauon lepton doublets also an (hyper charge) asymmetry in the Higgs bosons. This Higgs asymmetry unavoidably induces, through the inverse decays, also an asymmetry in the lepton doublets that at the production are a coherent admixture of electron and muon components. Therefore, in this case, inverse decays actually produce an asymmetry instead of wash it out as in a traditional picture.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bari/&gt;

&quot;It should be noticed how the source of the electron and muon asymmetries is in any case
the tauon asymmetry, but part of this induces a muon and an electron asymmetry thanks to
flavour coupling.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bari/&gt;

&quot;The A to Z model can not only provide a satisfactory fit to all parameters in the leptonic mixing matrix but can also reproduce the correct value of the matter-antimatter asymmetry with N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-dominated leptogenesis. In this respect it is crucial to account for flavour coupling effects due to the redistribution of the asymmetry in particles that do not participate directly to the generation of the asymmetry, in primis the Higgs asymmetry. In particular a “flavour swap” scenario is realised whereby the asymmetry generated in the tauon flavour emerges as a surviving asymmetry dominantly in the muon flavour. The solution works even in the simplest case where the neutrino Dirac mass matrix is equal to the up quark mass matrix.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bari/&gt;

&quot;The muon and the tauon are unstable and after a while they decay into electrons.&quot;&lt;ref name=Barrett&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Ross Barrett
|author2=Pier Paolo Delsanto
|author3=Angelo Tartaglia
|title=Fields and Particles, In: ''Physics: The Ultimate Adventure''
|publisher=Springer
|location=Cham
|date=8 May 2016
|editor=
|pages=137-151
|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-31691-8_10
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-31691-8_10
|pmid=
|isbn=978-3-319-31690-1
|accessdate=17 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Muonic hydrogen==
[[Image:Scherrer Insitute proton accelerator.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is of the proton accelerator at the Paul Scherrer Institute, which was used to create the muons used to make muonic hydrogen. Credit: Paul Scherrer Institute, Switzerland.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:Superkamiokande electron muon discriminator.png|thumb|left|250px|Distribution of the particle identification (PID) parameter used to classify Cherenkov rings as electron-like and muon-like. Credit: T2K Collaboration.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Distribution of the particle identification (PID) parameter used to classify Cherenkov rings as electron-like and muon-like. Events to the left of the blue line are classified as electron-like and those to the right as muon-like. The filled histograms show the expected number of single ring events after neutrino oscillations. The PID algorithm uses properties of the light distribution such as the blurriness of the Cherenkov ring to classify events. The insets show examples of an electron-like (left) and muon-like (right) Cherenkov ring.

&quot;How big is a proton? Unlike an electron or neutrino, which are fundamental particles that behave like points, a proton is a messy collection of quarks, gluons, and virtual particles that occupies what should be a measurable amount of space. And just how much space can be rather significant; as the authors of a new paper on the proton's size put it, &quot;The proton structure is important because an electron in an S [ground] state has a nonzero probability to be inside the proton.&quot;&quot;&lt;ref name=Timmer&gt;{{ cite book
|author=John Timmer
|title=Hydrogen made with muons reveals proton size conundrum A measurement that's off by 7 standard deviations may hint at new physics.
|publisher=Ars Technica
|location=
|date=January 24, 2013
|url=http://arstechnica.com/science/2013/01/hydrogen-made-with-muons-reveals-proton-size-conundrum/
|accessdate=2014-03-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Within experimental error, various measurements of the proton's size have all put it about 0.88 femtometers (an fm is 10&lt;sup&gt;-15&lt;/sup&gt; meters). But a team of researchers, working at a particle accelerator in Switzerland, has found a different way of measuring the proton's size: put a muon—a heavy, unstable, relative of the electron—in orbit around a proton. The resulting atom, called muonic hydrogen, can be measured during the brief time it exists before the muon decays. Those measurements have produced a new, very high-precision value for the proton's radius. Just one small problem: it ''differs'' from the other measurements by nearly seven standard deviations.&quot;&lt;ref name=Timmer/&gt;

&quot;The fact that hydrogen only emits or absorbs specific frequencies as its electrons hop between orbitals was critical to the development of quantum mechanics. Better precision measurements revealed that many of these absorption or emissions lines were actually two closely spaced frequencies; that provided experimental validation of the Dirac equation. Small deviations from this equation eventually helped trigger the development of quantum electrodynamics.&quot;&lt;ref name=Timmer/&gt;

&quot;Because the physics of a hydrogen atom is so well defined, it's possible to use these precise measures of how it absorbs and emits light to generate measures of the atom's components. These include things like the size, magnetic radius, and charge radius of the proton at the center of it all. These have produced values generally in the area of 0.88fm, which is great, because that agrees with measures of the proton's radius obtained by scattering electrons off it. Everything looked good.&quot;&lt;ref name=Timmer/&gt;

&quot;Muons come from the same family of particles as electrons. They carry an identical charge but are 207 times heavier than their more familiar cousins. They also typically decay in about 2 x 10&lt;sup&gt;-6&lt;/sup&gt; seconds. Still, if everything is timed perfectly, it's possible to put one into orbit around a proton, creating an atom of muonic hydrogen (also called µp).&quot;&lt;ref name=Timmer/&gt;

&quot;In this case, the research team had some lasers poised to go off, waiting on a trigger provided by a muon detector. As soon as the muonic hydrogen was likely to be present, the lasers fired, allowing spectroscopic measurements of this atom. Because of the muon's (relatively) large mass, these measurements provided very precise values for some of the basic properties of the protons they were orbiting. The researchers also measured two different energy level transitions, allowing them to get a second set of independent values.&quot;&lt;ref name=Timmer/&gt;

&quot;Both of them placed the proton's radius at 0.84fm. That may not seem like a huge difference, but the high precision meant that there was very little statistical error. So little, in fact, that the value they calculate is about seven standard deviations (or seven sigma) out from the value obtained by the other methods. [...] muons interact with protons in a fundamentally different way than electrons.&quot;&lt;ref name=Timmer/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Entities==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Entities}}
&quot;By virtue of it large volume, AMANDA can search for relativistic magnetic monopoles with unprecedented sensitivity. Our technique relies on fact that the equivalent charge of a magnetic monopole is 68.5, and since the amount of Cherenkov light depends on the square of the charge, the light produced by monopoles is prodigious. By constraining the search to monopoles that pass through the earth, we simplify the analysis.  The downside of this restriction is that the mass of the monopole must be large to possess enough kinetic energy to pass through the earth.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

==Sources==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Sources}}
[[Image:Point00 sens vs angle.gif|thumb|right|250px|The plot shows 90% CL upper limits (averaged over right ascension) for a source with an assumed differential spectrum of E&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;. Credit: Amanda Collaboration.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:Point00-expect.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Experimental limits on muon fluxes from high energy neutrinos, and projected sensitivity for AMANDA-II. Credit: Amanda Collaboration.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:Point00 skyplot.gif|thumb|right|250px|The figure shows the neutrino sky as seen by AMANDA-II. Credit: Amanda Collaboration.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:Point00 contour.gif|thumb|right|250px|Statistically significant excesses, if found, are shown in the contour plot. Credit: Amanda Collaboration.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:Point00 Mrk501.gif|thumb|right|250px|The differential flux limit for two different assumptions of the spectral index, alpha is shown. Credit: Amanda Collaboration.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:Point00 table.gif|thumb|right|250px|The table provides upper limits for a selection of candidate sources. Credit: Amanda Collaboration.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
&quot;The point source analysis optimizes the selection criteria on hard spectra (differential energy spectra proportionally to E&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;), although it has reasonable sensitivity to softer spectra. The critical features of the point source analysis: demonstrate good angular resolution and absolute pointing and maintain good effective size for as much of the sky as possible. For the point source analysis, the AMANDA-II detector achieves:&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;
# ~25,000 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; if the muon energy at the detector is greater than 10 TeV.
# space angle resolution of 2 deg (median),
# Neutrino flux sensitivity of ~0.22 x10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt; cm&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; s&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;.

&quot;Sensitivity achieved by the AMANDA-II point source analysis. The plot [at right] shows 90% CL upper limits (averaged over right ascension) for a source with an assumed differential spectrum of E^-2. The neutrino signal is then integrated for energies above 10 GeV to determine the limit on the neutrino flux. The units for the vertical scale are 10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt; cm&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; s&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;Experimental limits on muon fluxes from high energy neutrinos, and projected sensitivity [second figure at the right] for AMANDA-II assuming data is analyzed from several years of operation.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;The [third figure at the right] shows the neutrino sky as seen by AMANDA-II using data from just the first year of operation (Feb -Oct of 2000). The point source analysis was developed by randomizing the true azimuthal (or right ascension, RA) distribution of events to insure that human expectation does not bias the analysis. Nearly all events in the northern sky are compatible with atmospheric neutrinos (plus a small admixture poorly reconstructed atmospheric muons). While the angular distribution of this data reveals NO evidence for extraterrestrial neutrino sources, it provides important constraints on theoretical models.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;A total of 1555 events are shown in the [third figure at the right] (in equatorial coordinates). Compared to the previous sky map from AMANDA-B10, the coverage near the horizon (declination = 0 degrees) is markedly improved. The angular resolution of AMANDA-II is much improved so the angular dimensions of a search bin are likely to be reduced to 6x6 square degrees. The downgoing atmospheric muon background is responsible for the thick band of events below the horizon. Less than 3% of the events above a declination of 5 degrees are due to atmospheric muon contamination.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;The angular distribution of events in the [third figure at the right] skyplot was examined for statistically significant excesses. None were found, leading to preliminary limits shown in the contour plot [fourth figure at the right.] The units of the color legend are 10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt; cm&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; s&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;.The horizontal units are hours of right ascension and vertical units are degrees of declination.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;In the [fifth figure at the right is shown] the differential flux limit for two different assumptions of the spectral index, alpha. We compare this result to AMANDA-B10 and to the average gamma ray flux from Mrk 501 as observed in 1997, a period of high activity. Also shown is the intrinsic source flux after correction of [infrared] IR absorption (de Jager and Stecker).&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;Although Mrk 501 was not very active in 2000, the figure suggests that AMANDA-II has achieved the requisite sensitivity to observe neutrinos during the active period if the neutrino to photon ratio is one.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;The [table] provides upper limits for a selection of candidate sources, and compares the results to limits previously published for AMANDA-B10. The units for columns 3 and 4 are 10&lt;sup&gt;-8&lt;/sup&gt; cm&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;s&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Objects==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Objects|Object astronomy}}
&quot;The extremely low ambient photon flux in deep ice provides the opportunity to monitor the galaxy for supernova explosions. Supernova events are expected to generate neutrinos at low energies (&lt; 20 MeV), nominally too low of an energy to trigger AMANDA electronics. However, a nearby supernova blast would generate so many neutrinos that enough of them would interact within 10m of each AMANDA OM and produce Cherenkov light. The extra photons could contribute the average &quot;noise&quot; rate from each OM. By summing the signals from each OM, a statistically significant signature of a supernova can be obtained. We have installed special electronics to read out and sum the &quot;noise&quot; rates from each OM.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;AMANDA-B10 can monitor about 68% of the stars in our galaxy, and AMANDA-II can reach 95% of the stars in our galaxy.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

==Electromagnetics==
{{main|Charges/Interactions/Electromagnetics}}
&quot;Charged-current charged pion production (CC þ) is a process in which a neutrino interacts with an atomic nucleus and produces a muon, a charged pion, and recoiling nuclear fragments.&quot;&lt;ref name=Arevalo&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=A. A. Aguilar-Arevalo
|author2=C. E. Anderson
|author3=A. O. Bazarko
|author4=et al.
|title=Measurement of neutrino-induced charged-current charged pion production cross sections on mineral oil at E&lt;sub&gt;v&lt;/sub&gt; ~ 1 GeV
|journal=Physical Review D
|month=March
|year=2011
|volume=83
|issue=5
|pages=052007
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PhRvD..83e2007A
|arxiv=1011.3572
|bibcode=2011PhRvD..83e2007A
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.83.052007
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-11-06 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Absorptions==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Absorptions|Absorption astronomy}}
[[Image:Abs vs depth.gif|thumb|right|250px|The figure shows the absorption length as a function of depth. Credit: P. Buford Price and the Amanda Collaboration.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:Scat vs depth.gif|thumb|right|250px|The figure shows the average scattering coefficent (1/scattering length) as a function of depth. Credit: P. Buford Price and the Amanda Collaboration.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
&quot;The right figure shows the absorption length as a function of depth. The bulk of the scientifically-useful optical sensors in AMANDA are embedded between 1500 and 1900 m beneath the surface.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price&gt;{{ cite book
|author=P. Buford Price
|author2=the Amanda Collaboration
|title=AMANDA-II Science Results
|publisher=University of California Irvine
|location=Irvine, California USA
|date=September 8, 2005
|url=http://www.amanda.uci.edu/results.html
|accessdate=2014-03-23 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The optical properties of in situ ice beneath the south pole are measured by a combination of in situ N2 lasers, DC lamps, and YAG laser pulses from the surface. The properties vary with depth due to climatological variation such as ice ages. [...] The two properties that most strongly affect the reconstruction capabilities of AMANDA-II are absorption and scattering.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;The absorption strongly depends on wavelength. Notice [in the figure at right] that the absorption also depends on depth at wavelengths where the absorption coefficient is relatively small. For short wavelengths, the absorption coefficient is small and dust contributes significantly, which is responsible for the depth dependence. At 532nm, the absorption coefficient is large, and the value is largely determined by intrinsic properties of ice (i.e, the roll of dust is less obvious).&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;The [second figure at right] shows the average scattering coefficent (1/scattering_length) as a function of depth. Note that the effective scattering length, L_eff, is (approximately) the average length to isotropize the direction of all but 1/e of the photons. This important parameter for diffusion calculations is related to the geometric scattering length by L_eff=L_geo/(1-&lt;cos(angle)&gt;). The solid curve shows the coefficient of the scattering length for 400 nm light. Other colors behave differently due to the slight dependence of the scattering length on wavelength.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;At depths below 1400m, dust is responsible for light scattering in ice. The rapid rise in scattering at shallow depths (relative to the surface) is due to onset of air bubbles trapped in the ice. The dashed blue line shows the intrinsic scattering from dust in the region dominated by air bubbles.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

The &quot;maximum absorption length is slightly more than 100m at AMANDA-II depths, but the scattering length is only 20m for wavelengths that correspond to the longest absorption lengths.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Backgrounds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Backgrounds}}
&quot;To reduce the background of ordinary cosmic ray showers, several large air shower experiments emphasize measurement of the muon content of the shower. Ironically, early indications are that the signal seems to have the same muon content as the background.&quot;&lt;ref name=Gaisser&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Thomas K. Gaisser
|title=Cosmic Rays and Particle Physics
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|location=
|date=1990
|editor=
|pages=279
|url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=qJ7Z6oIMqeUC&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PR15&amp;ots=IxjwLxBwXu&amp;sig=voHKIYstBlBYla4jcbur_b-Zwxs
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=0521339316
|accessdate=2014-01-11 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The main background to the upgoing muon flux is atmospheric neutrinos generated by cosmic ray collisions.  At high energy energies, direct production by charm decay becomes important, although the predicted fluxes have large uncertainty. As the neutrino energies increase beyond 10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; GeV, most of the signal comes from above or very near the horizon and perhaps prompt MUONs from charm quark decay become a significant background. The importance of the background depends on the magnitude of the flux and detector energy and angular resolution. Fortunately, the sensitivity of AMANDA-II is not impacted by charm contributions for the most of the favored models of charm production in the atmosphere.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

==Meteors==
{{main|Radiation/Meteors}}
&quot;Scaling the lower-latitude, higher-altitude measurements from the Sierra Nevada and Meteor Crater to sea level and high latitude involves choosing an effective geomagnetic latitude for the duration of exposure, determining the contribution of muons to
&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;Be and &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;Al production as a function of altitude and latitude, and determining how instantaneous production rates have changed over the duration of exposure at each site.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bierman1996&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Paul Bierman
|author2=Patrick Larsen
|author3=Erik Clapp
|author4=Douglas Clark
|title=Refining Estimates of &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;Be and &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;Al Production Rates, In: ''Radiocarbon''
|volume=
|publisher=
|location=
|year=1996
|editor=
|pages=1742
|url=http://www.uvm.edu/cosmolab/papers/Bierman_1996_1742.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=
|accessdate=2014-03-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By &quot;assuming muon production is inconsequential at sea level (Brown et al., 1995), scaling the three data sets for spallation only, and incorporating a geomagnetically-driven production rate forcing model (Clark et al., 1995; Clapp and Bierman, in review), the three different production rate estimates can be reconciled to within several percent if the exposure age of the Sierra Nevada calibration sites is taken to be 13.5 ky as suggested by Clark et al. (1995).&quot;&lt;ref name=Bierman1996/&gt;

==Cosmic rays==
{{main|Radiation/Cosmic rays}}
&quot;The muons created through decays of secondary pions and kaons are fully polarized, which results in electron/positron decay asymmetry, which in turn causes a difference in their production spectra.&quot;&lt;ref name=Moskalenko&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=I. V. Moskalenko
|author2=A. W. Strong
|title=Production and propagation of cosmic-ray positrons and electrons
|journal=The Astrophysical Journal
|month=February 1,
|year=1998
|volume=493
|issue=2
|pages=694-707
|url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/493/2/694
|arxiv=astro-ph/9710124
|bibcode=1998ApJ...493..694M
|doi=10.1086/305152
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-02-01 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Neutrals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Neutrals|Neutrals astronomy}}
Single π&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; production occurs &quot;in neutral current neutrino interactions with water by a 1.3 GeV wide band neutrino beam.&quot;&lt;ref name=Nakayama&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=S. Nakayama
|author2=C. Mauger
|author3=M.H. Ahn
|author4=S. Aoki
|author5=Y. Ashie
|author6=H. Bhang
|author7=S. Boyd
|author8=D. Casper
|author9=J.H. Choi
|author10=S. Fukuda
|author11=Y. Fukuda
|author12=R. Gran
|author13=T. Hara
|author14=M. Hasegawa
|author15=T. Hasegawa
|author16=K. Hayashi
|author17=Y. Hayato
|author18=J. Hill
|author19=A.K. Ichikawa
|author20=A. Ikeda
|author21=T. Inagaki
|author22=T. Ishida
|author23=T. Ishii
|author24=M. Ishitsuka
|author25=Y. Itow
|author26=T. Iwashita
|author27=H.I. Jang
|author28=J.S. Jang
|author29=E.J. Jeon
|author30=K.K. Joo
|author31=C.K. Jung
|author32=T. Kajita
|author33=J. Kameda
|author34=K. Kaneyuki
|author35=I. Kato
|author36=E. Kearns
|author37=A. Kibayashi
|author38=D. Kielczewska
|author39=B.J. Kim
|author40=C.O. Kim
|author41=J.Y. Kim
|author42=S.B. Kim
|author43=K. Kobayashi
|author44=T. Kobayashi
|author45=Y. Koshio
|author46=W.R. Kropp
|author47=J.G. Learned
|author48=S.H. Lim
|author49=I.T. Lim
|author50=H. Maesaka
|author51=T. Maruyama
|author52=S. Matsuno
|author53=C. Mcgrew
|author54=A. Minamino
|author55=S. Mine
|author56=M. Miura
|author57=K. Miyano
|author58=T. Morita
|author59=S. Moriyama
|author60=M. Nakahata
|author61=K. Nakamura
|author62=I. Nakano
|author63=F. Nakata
|author64=T. Nakaya
|author65=T. Namba
|author66=R. Nambu
|author67=K. Nishikawa
|author68=S. Nishiyama
|author69=K .Nitta
|author70=S. Noda
|author71=Y. Obayashi
|author72=A. Okada
|author73=Y. Oyama
|author74=M.Y. Pac
|author75=H. Park
|author76=C. Saji
|author77=M. Sakuda
|author78=A. Sarrat
|author79=T. Sasaki
|author80=N. Sasao
|author81=K. Scholberg
|author82=M. Sekiguchi
|author83=E. Sharkey
|author84=M. Shiozawa
|author85=K.K. Shiraishi
|author86=M. Smy
|author87=H.W. Sobel
|author88=J.L. Stone
|author89=Y. Suga
|author90=L.R. Sulak
|author91=A. Suzuki
|author92=Y. Suzuki
|author93=Y. Takeuchi
|author94=N. Tamura
|author95=M. Tanaka
|author96=Y. Totsuka
|author97=S. Ueda
|author98=M.R. Vagins
|author99=C.W. Walter
|author100=W. Wang
|author101=R.J. Wilkes
|author102=S. Yamada
|author103=S. Yamamoto
|author104=C. Yanagisawa
|author105=H. Yokoyama
|author106=J. Yoo
|author107=M. Yoshida
|author108=J. Zalipska
|title=Measurement of single π&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; production in neutral current neutrino interactions with water by a 1.3 GeV wide band muon neutrino beam
|journal=Physics Letters B
|month=July
|year=2005
|volume=619
|issue=3-4
|pages=255-62
|url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/hep-ex/0408134.pdf?origin=publication_detail
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Subatomics==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Subatomics|Subatomic astronomy}}
&quot;High energy neutrinos may interact to produce a large cascade of particles. In this case, the production of Cherenkov light remains localized and the photons propagation radially outward (well, almost). The effective volume of AMANDA is much smaller for cascades than muons and the angular resolution is very poor, but there are several interesting features of cascades that make them useful to study. First, the energy resolution of the cascade event can be measured with much better precision relative to the muon signature if the vertex of the interaction is contained. Second, the backgrounds from atmospheric electron neutrinos is much smaller than muon neutrinos at these energies because the decay of atmospheric muons is suppressed by time dilation. Third, cascades are produced by electron neutrinos and tau neutrinos so the ratio of cascades to muon neutrino events provides insight on the properties of neutrino oscillation. Fourth, even downgoing neutrinos can be observed if the energy is larger than ~10 TeV. Thus, the cascade technique is sensitive to neutrinos from any direction.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;Like with accelerator physics, most of the interest [in] neutrino astrophysics is at the extreme energy frontier, which we label &quot;extreme high energy&quot; or EHE. Perhaps the most reliable flux predictions (after atmospheric neutrinos) involve the GZK mechanism.  Neutrinos are produced by the inevitable collisions between cosmic rays and the cosmic microwave background. Although the physics required by GZK mechanism is straightforward, the GZK mechanism is still in doubt because one of its predictions has not yet been confirmed. The GZK mechanism predicts are rather strong upper limit on the energy of the cosmic ray, but this upper limit has not yet been clearly identified.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;Experimentally, neutrinos at EHE energies are difficult to detect. As the neutrino energies increase to 1 PeV (10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; eV), the earth becomes opaque except near the horizon. We have developed a new technique to search for &quot;downgoing&quot; nearly horizontal muons. They can be distinguished from the blizzard of downgoing muons from cosmic ray collisions because the energies are much higher than muons generated by cosmic ray collisions. Consequently, the topologies of the events [...] are quite different from the typical event. [A] large number of OMs [...] observe Cherenkov light. The effective detection area for muons at these energies is very large, typically 0.2 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for AMANDA-B10!&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;The effective detection area of AMANDA-II is even larger than B10. In addition, we upgraded the data acquisition system of AMANDA-II. The new system records the complete waveform from all (usable) OMs in the array. This should dramatically improve the dynamic range of the photon measurement and allow far better energy reconstruction for these high energy events.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;The EHE analysis relies on training a neural net (NN2) to separate background from signal.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

Without a nucleus to absorb momentum, a photon decaying into electron-positron pair (or other pairs for that matter such as a muon and anti-muon or a tau and anti-tau can never conserve energy and momentum simultaneously.&lt;ref name=Hubbell&gt;{{ cite journal
 | last=Hubbell | first=J. H. | title=Electron positron pair production by photons: A historical overview
 | journal=Radiation Physics and Chemistry
 | year=2006 | month=June | volume=75 | issue=6
 | pages=614–623 | doi=10.1016/j.radphyschem.2005.10.008
 | bibcode=2006RaPC...75..614H }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Neutrons==
{{main|Radiation/Neutrons}}
[[Image:Solar neutron detector.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image is a schematic view of the Mount Norikura solar neutron telescope. Credit: Y. Muraki, K. Murakami, M. Miyazaki, K. Mitsui. S. Shibata, S. Sakakibara, T. Sakai, T. Takahashi, T. Yamada, and K. Yamaguchi.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
A &quot;new detector to observe solar neutrons [has been in operation] since 1990 October 17 [...] at the Mount Norikura Cosmic Ray Laboratory (CRL) of [the] Institute for cosmic Ray Research, the University of Tokyo.&quot;&lt;ref name=Muraki&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Y. Muraki
|author2=K. Murakami
|author3=M. Miyazaki
|author4=K. Mitsui. S. Shibata
|author5=S. Sakakibara
|author6=T. Sakai
|author7=T. Takahashi
|author8=T. Yamada
|author9=K. Yamaguchi
|title=Observation of solar neutrons associated with the large flare on 1991 June 4
|journal=The Astrophysical Journal
|month=December 1,
|year=1992
|volume=400
|issue=2
|pages=L75-8
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJ...400L..75M
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1992ApJ...400L..75M
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-12-07 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The solar neutron telescope [image at right] consists of 10 blocks of scintillator [...] and several lead plates which are used to place kinetic energies ''T''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; of incoming particles into three bands (50-360 MeV, 280-500 MeV, and ≥ 390 MeV).&quot;&lt;ref name=Muraki/&gt; The telescope is inclined to the direction of the Sun by 15°.&lt;ref name=Muraki/&gt; The plane area of the detector is 1.0 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and protected by lead plates (Pb) to eliminate gamma-ray and muon background from the side of the detector.&lt;ref name=Muraki/&gt; The anti-coincident counter (A) is used to reject the muons and gamma rays, coming from the side of the detector and the top scintillators.&lt;ref name=Muraki/&gt; (P) and (G) are used to identify the proton events and gamma rays.&lt;ref name=Muraki/&gt; The central scintillator blocks are optically separated into 10 units.&lt;ref name=Muraki/&gt;

&quot;The horizontal scintillator just above the 10 vertical scintillators distinguishes neutral particles (neutrons) from the charged particles (mainly muons, protons and electrons).&quot;&lt;ref name=Muraki/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Protons==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Protons|Proton astronomy}}
'''Nucleon spin structure''' describes the partonic structure of proton intrinsic angular momentum ([[w:Spin (physics)|spin]]). The key question is how the nucleon's spin, whose magnitude is 1/2ħ, is carried by its [suggested] constituent [[w:parton (particle physics)|parton]]s ([[w:quark|quark]]s and [[w:gluon|gluon]]s). In the late 1980s, the European Muon Collaboration (EMC) conducted experiments that suggested the spin carried by quarks is not sufficient to account for the total spin of [protons]. This finding astonished particle physicists at that time, and the problem of where the missing spin lies is sometimes referred to as the &quot;proton spin crisis&quot;.

Experimental research on these topics has been continued by the Spin Muon Collaboration (SMC) and the [[w:COMPASS experiment|COMPASS experiment]] at [[w:CERN|CERN]], experiments E154 and E155 at [SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory] SLAC, [[w:DESY#HERMES|HERMES]] at [[w:DESY|DESY]], experiments at [Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility] JLab and [[w:RHIC|RHIC]], and others. Global analysis of data from all major experiments confirmed the original EMC discovery and showed that the quark spin may contribute about 30% to the total spin of the nucleon.

For antiproton-proton annihilation at rest, a meson result is, for example,

:&lt;math&gt;p^+ + \bar{p}^- \rightarrow \pi^+ + \pi^-&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=Klempt&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Eberhard Klempt
|author2=Chris Batty
|author3=Jean-Marc Richard
|title=The antinucleon-nucleon interaction at low energy: annihilation dynamics
|journal=Physics Reports
|month=July
|year=2005
|volume=413
|issue=4-5
|pages=197-317
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PhR...413..197K
|arxiv=hep-ex/0501020
|bibcode=2005PhR...413..197K
|doi=10.1016/j.physrep.2005.03.002
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and

:&lt;math&gt;{\pi}^+ \rightarrow {\mu}^+ + {\nu}_{\mu} \rightarrow e^+ + {\nu}_e + {\bar{\nu}}_{\mu} + {\nu}_{\mu}.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=Waxman&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Eli Waxman
|author2=John Bahcall
|title=High energy neutrinos from astrophysical sources: An upper bound
|journal=Physical Review D
|month=December 14,
|year=1998
|volume=59
|issue=2
|pages=e023002
|url=http://prd.aps.org/abstract/PRD/v59/i2/e023002
|arxiv=hep--ph/9807282
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.59.023002
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Electrons==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Electrons|Electron astronomy}}
[[Image:Delta electron.png|thumb|right|250px|The diagram shows a delta electron knocked out by a 180 GeV muon at the SPS at CERN Credit: [[c:User:Wilcokoppert|Wilcokoppert]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
&quot;Each [optical module] OM contains a 10 inch [photo-multiplier tube] PMT that detects individual photons of Cerenkov light generated in the optically clear ice by muons and electrons moving with velocities near the speed of light.&quot;&lt;ref name=Halzen2002&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Francis Halzen
|author2=Dan Hooper
|title=High-energy neutrino astronomy: the cosmic ray connection
|journal=Reports on Progress in Physics
|month=June 12,
|year=2002
|volume=65
|issue=7
|pages=1025-107
|url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0034-4885/65/7/201
|arxiv=astro-ph/0204527
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1088/0034-4885/65/7/201
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-02-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Neutrinos==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Neutrinos|Neutrino astronomy}}
[[Image:figs_all-nu-spectrum-mod.png|thumb|right|250px|The diagram plots the measured and expected fluxes of natural and reactor neutrinos. Credit: Christian Spiering.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:figs_KGF-skymap.png|thumb|right|250px|This is the first neutrino sky map. Credit: Christian Spiering and Krishnaswamy.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:figs_nt200+goldplated.png|thumb|right|200px|One of the first upward moving muons from a neutrino interaction is illustrated. Credit: Christian Spiering.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:figs_antares-muonzenith.png|thumb|right|250px|The figure shows the muon reconstructed zenith. Credit: Christian Spiering.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:figs_antares-skymap.png|thumb|right|250px|Equatorial skymap of neutrino-induced muon events from 295 days of ANTARES data in 2007/2008. Credit: Christian Spiering.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
A neutrino created with a specific lepton flavor (electron, muon or tau) can later be measured to have a different flavor.

The image at right shows the measured &quot;and expected fluxes of natural and reactor neutrinos [...] The energy range from keV to several GeV is the domain of underground detectors. The region from tens of GeV to about 100 PeV, with its much smaller fluxes, is addressed by Cherenkov light detectors underwater and in ice. The highest energies are only accessible with huge detector volumes&quot;.&lt;ref name=Spiering&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Christian Spiering
|title=Towards High-Energy Neutrino Astronomy. A Historical Review
|publisher=INSPIRE, the High Energy Physics information system
|location=
|date=2013
|url=http://inspirehep.net/record/1123342/plots
|accessdate=2014-03-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The second image at right is the &quot;first neutrino sky map with the celestial coordinates of 18 KGF neutrino events [...] Due to uncertainties in the azimuth, the coordinates for some events are arcs rather than points. The labels reflect the numbers and registration mode of the events (e.g. &quot;S&quot; for spectrograph). Only for the ringed events the sense of the direction of the registered muon is known.&quot;&lt;ref name=Spiering/&gt;

&quot;Sufficiently energetic muons produced in [...] interactions [in the Earth atmosphere are called] ''atmospheric muons'' [...] Upward-going muons must have been produced in neutrino interactions.&quot;&lt;ref name=Spiering/&gt;

The third image at right illustrates the &quot;Baikal Neutrino Telescope NT200. [...] One of the first upward moving muons from a neutrino interaction recorded with the 4-string stage of the detector in 1996 [...] The Cherenkov light from the muon is recorded by 19 channels.&quot;&lt;ref name=Spiering/&gt;

The fourth image at right contains the number &quot;of reconstructed muons in the 2008 ANTARES data, as a function of the reconstructed zenith angle (black error bars). Also indicated are the simulation results for atmospheric muons (red dashed), and muons induced by atmospheric neutrinos (blue). The shaded band indicates the systematic uncertainties.&quot;&lt;ref name=Spiering/&gt;

The fifth image at right shows an equatorial &quot;skymap of neutrino-induced muon events from 295 days of ANTARES data in 2007/2008. The background color scale indicates the sky visibility in percent of the time. The most significant accumulation of events, marked with a red circle, is fully compatible with the background expectation&quot;&lt;ref name=Spiering/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Gamma rays==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Gamma rays|Gamma-ray astronomy}}
&quot;Gamma Ray Bursts (or GRBs) are the most spectacular and powerful explosions in the sky. Their duration lasts from milliseconds to hundreds of seconds, and they tend to cluster into two distinct populations. They are also extremely distant, with redshifts exceeding Z=1, although most of what is known about distances is deduced from the longer duration GRBs. We search for correlation between the GRB event time and location provided by gamma ray satellites. Unfortunately, one of the most powerful detectors (called BATSE on the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory) ceased operation in May of 2000. To increase our search exposure, we have examined BATSE bursts that were uncovered offline by additional analysis (termed &quot;non-triggered&quot; bursts) and GRBs identified by the Interplanetary Network (IPN) of satellites.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;The most critical feature of GRB analysis is the very modest background rejection requirements. GRB emit gamma radiation over short duration, typically less than 100s. Satellites provide time and direction information so the analysis needs to reject only non-neutrino events that happen to occur at the right time and reconstruct with the right direction. The upshot: the effective size of AMANDA-II for GRB analysis approaches 50,000 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for muons created by neutrinos.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

==X-rays==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-ray astronomy}}
&quot;Resonant formation of ''dμt'' molecules in collisions of muonic tritium (''μt'') on D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; was investigated using a beam of ''μt'' atoms, demonstrating a new direct approach in muon catalyzed fusion studies. [...] Reactions of muonic hydrogen atoms and molecules present a sensitive testing ground for few-body theories involving strong, weak, and electromagnetic interactions. [...] muon catalyzed fusion (''μ''CF) in a deuterium–tritium mixture has [...] one muon [...] catalyze more than 100 nuclear fusions between deuteron and triton (d + t → α + n) [1,2]. [...] The Ge detector monitored target impurities via muonic X-rays&quot;.&lt;ref name= Fujiwara &gt;{{ cite journal
|author=M. C. Fujiwara
|author2=A. Adamczak
|author3=J. M. Bailey
|author4=G. A. Beer
|author5=J. L. Beveridge
|author6=M. P. Faifman
|author7=T. M. Huber
|author8=P. Kammel
|author9=S. K. Kim
|author10=9 P. E. Knowles
|author11=A. R. Kunselman
|author12=M. Maier
|author13=V. E. Markushin
|author14=G. M. Marshall
|author15=C. J. Martoff
|author16=G. R. Mason
|author17=F. Mulhauser
|author18=A. Olin
|author19=C. Petitjean
|author20=T. A. Porcelli
|author21=J. Wozniak
|author22=J. Zmeskal
|title=Resonant formation of ''dμt'' molecules in deuterium: an atomic beam measurement of muon catalyzed ''dt'' fusion
|journal=Physical Review Letters
|year=2000
|volume=85
|issue=8
|pages=1642-3
|url=http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v85/i8/p1642_1
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-23 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The muonic X -rays lines serve as highly accurate calibration lines.&quot;&lt;ref name=Borchert&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=G. L. Borchert
|author2=B. Manil
|author3=D. Anagnostopoulos
|author4=J. P. Egger
|author5=D. Gotta
|author6=M. Hennebach
|author7=P. Indelicato
|author8=Y. W. Liu
|author9=N. Nelms
|author10=L. M. Simons
|title=Precision Measurement of the Charged Pion Mass by High Resolution X-Ray Spectroscopy, In: ''Atomic Physics at Accelerators: Mass Spectrometry''
|volume=
|publisher=Springer
|location=
|year=2001
|editor=David Lunney, Georges Audi, and H.-Jürgen Kluge
|pages=195-207
|url=http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-015-1270-1_15
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1007/978-94-015-1270-1_15
|pmid=
|isbn=978-90-481-5825-6
|accessdate=2014-03-23 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Opticals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Opticals|Optical astronomy}}
&quot;The arrival times of the Cerenkov photons in 6 optical sensors determine the direction of the muon track.&quot;&lt;ref name=Halzen2002/&gt;

&quot;The optical requirements on the detector medium are severe. A large absorption length is needed because it determines the required spacing of the optical sensors and, to a significant extent, the cost of the detector. A long scattering length is needed to preserve the geometry of the Cerenkov pattern. Nature has been kind and offered ice and water as natural Cerenkov media. Their optical properties are, in fact, complementary. Water and ice have similar attenuation length, with the roles of scattering and absorption reversed. Optics seems, at present, to drive the evolution of ice and water detectors in predictable directions: towards very large telescope area in ice exploiting the long absorption length, and towards lower threshold and good muon track reconstruction in water exploiting the long scattering length.&quot;&lt;ref name=Halzen2002/&gt;

==Superluminals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy}}
&quot;[S]uperluminal neutrinos may lose energy rapidly via the bremsstrahlung [Cherenkov radiation] of electron-positron pairs &lt;math&gt;(\nu \rightarrow \nu + e^- + e^+).&lt;/math&gt;&quot;&lt;ref name=Cohen&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Andrew G.
|author2=Sheldon L. Glashow
|title=Pair Creation Constrains Superluminal Neutrino Propagation
|journal=Physical Review Letters
|month=October
|year=2011
|volume=107
|issue=18
|pages=181803
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PhRvL.107r1803C
|arxiv=1109.6562
|bibcode=2011PhRvL.107r1803C
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.181803
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-08-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Assumption:

&quot;muon neutrinos with energies of order tens of GeV travel at superluminal velocity.&quot;&lt;ref name=Cohen/&gt;

For &quot;all cases of superluminal propagation, certain otherwise forbidden processes are kinematically permitted, even in vacuum.&quot;&lt;ref name=Cohen/&gt;

Consider

: &lt;math&gt; \nu_{\mu} \rightarrow \begin{bmatrix}
     {\nu_{\mu} + \gamma} &amp; (a) \\
     {\nu_{\mu} + \nu_e + \overline\nu_e } &amp; (b) \\
      {\nu_{\mu} + e^+ + e^-} &amp; (c) 
 \end{bmatrix} &lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=Cohen/&gt;

&quot;These processes cause superluminal neutrinos to lose energy as they propagate and ... process (c) places a severe constraint upon potentially superluminal neutrino velocities. ... Process (c), pair bremsstrahlung, proceeds through the neutral current weak interaction.&quot;&lt;ref name=Cohen/&gt;

&quot;Throughout the shower development, the electrons and positrons which travel faster than the speed of light in the air emit Cherenkov radiation.&quot;&lt;ref name=Moralejo&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=A. Moralejo for the MAGIC collaboration
|title=The MAGIC telescope for gamma-ray astronomy above 30 GeV
|journal=Memorie della Societa Astronomica Italiana
|year=2004
|volume=75
|issue=
|pages=232-9
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004MmSAI..75..232M
|arxiv=
|bibcode=2004MmSAI..75..232M
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-07-28 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;High energy processes such as Compton, Bhabha, and Moller scattering, along with positron annihilation rapidly lead to a ~20% negative charge asymmetry in the electron-photon part of a cascade ... initiated by a ... 100 PeV neutrino&quot;&lt;ref name=Gorham&gt;{{ cite journal
|author= P. W. Gorham
|author2=S. W. Barwick
|author3=J. J. Beatty
|author4=D. Z.Besson
|author5=W. R. Binns
|author6=C. Chen
|author7=P. Chen
|author8=J. M. Clem
|author9=A. Connolly
|author10=P. F. Dowkontt
|author11=M. A. DuVernois
|author12=R. C. Field
|author13=D. Goldstein
|author14=A. Goodhue
|author15=C. Hast
|author16=C. L. Hebert
|author17=S. Hoover
|author18=M. H. Israel
|author19=J. Kowalski
|author20=J. G. Learned
|author21=K. M. Liewer
|author22=J. T. Link
|author23=E. Lusczek
|author24=S. Matsuno
|author25=B. Mercurio
|author26=C. Miki
|author27=P. Miocinovic
|author28=J. Nam
|author29=C. J. Naudet
|author30=J. Ng
|author31=R. Nichol
|author32=K. Palladino
|author33=K. Reil
|author34=A. Romero-Wolf
|author35=M. Rosen
|author36=L. Ruckman
|author37=D. Saltzberg
|author38=D. Seckel
|author39=G. S. Varner
|author40=D. Walz
|author41=F. Wu
|title=Observations of the Askaryan Effect in Ice
|journal=Physical Review Letters
|month=October 25,
|year=2007
|volume=99
|issue=17
|pages=5
|url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/hep-ex/0611008.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.171101
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-07-28 }}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==Plasma objects==
{{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects|Plasma objects}}
When analyzing the outcome of some experiments with muons incident on a hydrogen bubble chamber in 1956, muon-catalysis of exothermic p-d, proton and deuteron, nuclear fusion [was observed], which results in a [[w:helion (chemistry)|helion]], a gamma ray, and a release of about 5.5 MeV of energy.&lt;ref name=Alvarez&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Luis Walter Alvarez
|title=Catalysis of Nuclear Reactions by μ Mesons
|journal=Physical Review
|month=February
|year=1957
|volume=105
|issue=3
|pages=1127-8
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1957PhRv..105.1127A
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1957PhRv..105.1127A
|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.105.1127
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In muon-catalyzed fusion there are more fusions because the presence of the muon causes deuterium nuclei to be 207 times closer than in ordinary deuterium gas.&lt;ref name=Close&gt;Close, Frank E. (1992). &quot;Too Hot to Handle: The Race for Cold Fusion&quot;. London: Penguin.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Huizenga&gt;Huizenga, John R. (1993). &quot;Cold Fusion: The Scientific Fiasco of the Century&quot;. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Rocky objects==
{{main|Rocks/Rocky objects}}
&quot;Isotopes termed &quot;cosmogenic&quot; are produced primarily by four types of interactions between particles and target nuclei: spallation, muon capture, neutron activation, and alpha particle interaction. Different production pathways dominate at different depths below Earth's surface. [...] Muons, charged particles of low mass, can interact with the nucleus of target atoms. For instance, interactions between muons and &lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;Ca and &lt;sup&gt;28&lt;/sup&gt;Si produce &lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;Cl and &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;Al, respectively. Muons interact less strongly with matter than fast neutrons; therefore muon-induced isotope production rates are lower and muon penetration depths greater than those characteristic of neutron spallation.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bierman&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Paul R. Bierman
|title=Using in situ produced cosmogenic isotopes to estimate rates of landscape evolution: A review from the geomorphic perspective
|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research
|month=July 10,
|year=1994
|volume=99
|issue=B7
|pages=13,885-96
|url=https://www.uvm.edu/~pbierman/classes/gradsem/seminar2003/for_background.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Thermal neutrons which are absorbed to produce &lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;Cl from &lt;sup&gt;35&lt;/sup&gt;Cl and &lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;Ca from &lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;Ca &quot;result either from the interaction and slowing of fast neutrons and muons or, indirectly, from the decay of U, th, and their daughter nuclides.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bierman/&gt;

&quot;Understanding the depth distribution of cosmogenic isotope production is important for deciphering cosmogenic isotope abundances both in terms of erosion rates and exposure ages.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bierman/&gt;

Isotopes &quot;such as &lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;Cl and &lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;Ca [...] are produced in significant quantities by thermal neutron activation [...] the distribution of thermal neutrons with depth is not well modeled by an exponential expression [...] isotope production by thermal neutrons actually increases between the surface and a depth of about 15 cm resulting in the possible overestimation of &lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;Cl exposure ages if samples are inadvertently collected from ending surfaces.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bierman/&gt;

&quot;In order to measure cosmogenic &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;Al reliably, the mineral phase [of quartz] must contain low levels of the stable isotope, &lt;sup&gt;27&lt;/sup&gt;Al; quartz is ideal as it usually contains less than 100 ppm of Al.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bierman/&gt;

Atmospheric &quot;production of [...] &lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;Cl is significant [...] For young samples, exposed at low elevations, radiogenic production can account for significant portion of the measured &lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;Cl&quot;.&lt;ref name=Bierman/&gt;

Several &quot;boulders in a roadcut through a moraine in the Bishop Creek drainage, east side of the Sierra Nevada, California [...] shielded by &gt;8 m of till, have ratios of &lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;Cl/Cl between 50 and 100 x 10&lt;sup&gt;-15&lt;/sup&gt;, of which only about half can be explained by radiogenic production.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bierman/&gt;

&quot;Some isotopes, such as &lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;Cl and &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;Al, have important muon production pathways and are produced in significant abundances several meters below the ground surface. As a result, one would suspect that the likelihood of inheriting &lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;Cl or &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;Al might be higher [than] the likelihood of inheriting &lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt;C from a prior exposure. [... There is] the potential for significant &lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;Cl inheritance if boulders had previous exposure histories within several meters of Earth's surface.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bierman/&gt;

&quot;Cosmogenically determined (&lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;Cl) erosion rates for granitic landforms in the southern United States are similar to those reported from other locations.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bierman/&gt;

==Astrochemistry==
{{main|Astrochemistry}}
&quot;There is both direct and indirect evidence that magnetic field intensity and therefore isotope production rates have changed significantly and irregularly over the Pleistocene Epoch [...] There is also evidence for short periods of exceptionally high rates of isotope production [...] if an accurate, average production rate could be determined for the past 30 kyr, production rate variations would result in age deviations no larger than 16 % for Holocene samples and less than 10 % for Pleistocene samples [... For] samples younger than 15 kyr [...], a period of higher than average field strength and thus lower than average isotope production [may have yielded different production rate calibrations].&quot;&lt;ref name=Bierman/&gt;

Combining isotope dating techniques may often lead to consistent results. For example, prior  &quot;exposure of clasts on alluvial fans and beach ridges is suggested by the &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;Al and &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;Be data [...] and by the depth/production rate calculations for &lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;Cl&quot;.&lt;ref name=Bierman/&gt;

==Hydrogens==
{{main|Chemicals/Hydrogens}}
'''Muonium''' is an exotic atom made up of an antimuon and an electron&lt;ref name=&quot;Gold&quot;&gt;{{cite book
 |author=International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
 |date=1997
 |editor=A.D. McNaught, A. Wilkinson
 |title=Muonium, In: ''Compendium of Chemical Terminology''
 |url=http://goldbook.iupac.org/M04069.html
 |publisher=Blackwell Scientific Publications
 |isbn=0-86542-684-8
 |doi=10.1351/goldbook.M04069 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the muon's 2.2 µs lifetime, muonium can enter into compounds such as muonium chloride (MuCl) or sodium muonide (NaMu).&lt;ref name=&quot;iupac&quot;&gt;{{ cite journal
 |doi=10.1351/pac200173020377
 |author=W.H. Koppenol (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry)
 |year=2001
 |title=Names for muonium and hydrogen atoms and their ions
 |url=http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/2001/pdf/7302x0377.pdf
 |journal=Pure and Applied Chemistry
 |volume=73
|issue=2
|pages=377–380}}&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the mass difference between the antimuon and the electron, muonium (&lt;math&gt;\bar{\mu}^+e^-&lt;/math&gt;) is more similar to atomic hydrogen (p&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;e&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;) than positronium] (e&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;e&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;). Its Bohr radius and ionization energy are within 0.5% of hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
| page=4
| url=http://books.google.com/?id=PM88AAAAIAAJ
| title=Muon and Muonium Chemistry
| isbn=978-0-521-24241-7
| author1=Walker
| first1=David C
| date=1983-09-08
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although muonium is short-lived, physical chemists use it in a modified form of electron spin resonance spectroscopy for the analysis of chemical transformations and the structure of compounds with novel or potentially valuable electronic properties. (This form of electron spin resonance (eSR) is called muon spin resonance (μSR).)

There are variants of μSR, e.g. muon spin rotation, which is affected by the presence of a magnetic field applied transverse to the muon beam direction (since muons are typically produced in a spin-polarized state from the decay of pions), and avoided level crossing (ALC), which is also called level crossing resonance (LCR).

The latter employs a magnetic field applied longitudinally to the beam direction, and monitors the relaxation of muon spins caused by magnetic oscillations with another magnetic nucleus.

Because the muon is a lepton, the atomic energy levels of muonium can be calculated with great precision from quantum electrodynamics (QED), unlike the case of hydrogen, where the precision is limited by uncertainies related to the internal structure of the proton. For this reason, muonium is an ideal system for studying bound-state QED and also for searching for physics beyond the standard model.&lt;ref name=&quot;Jungmann&quot;&gt;{{ cite journal
 |author=K.P. Jungmann
 |year=2004
 |title=Past, Present and Future of Muonium
 |arxiv=nucl-ex/0404013
 |journal=Proc. of Memorial Symp. in Honor of V. W. Hughes, New Haven, Connecticut, 14–15 Nov 2003
|bibcode = 2004shvw.conf..134J |doi = 10.1142/9789812702425_0009
 |isbn=978-981-256-050-6
 |pages=134 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Nitrogens==
{{main|Chemicals/Nitrogens}}
&quot;The [cosmic-ray] shower can be observed by: i) sampling the electromagnetic and hadronic components when they reach the ground with an array of particle detectors such as scintillators, ii) detecting the fluorescent light emitted by atmospheric nitrogen excited by the passage of the shower particles, iii) detecting the Cerenkov light emitted by the large number of particles at shower maximum, and iv) detecting muons and neutrinos underground.&quot;&lt;ref name=Halzen2002/&gt;

==Ions==
{{main|Plasmas/Ions|Ions}}
&quot;Muons are the most numerous energetic charged particles at sea level. A charged particle cannot avoid losing energy by ionization. As it passes through matter the charged particle interacts with the electric fields and typically knocks loose some of the loosely bound outer electrons. A muon interacts very little with matter except by ionization. Because of this, muons can travel large distances and commonly reach the ground. However, they lose energy proportional to the amount of matter they pass. This is proportional to the density (g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) times the path length (cm). This &quot;interaction length&quot; has units of grams per square centimeter.&quot;&lt;ref name=Kliewer&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Steve Kliewer
|title=Muons
|publisher=Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
|location=Berkeley, California USA
|date=1997
|url=http://cosmic.lbl.gov/SKliewer/Cosmic_Rays/Muons.htm
|accessdate=2014-03-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Muons lose energy at a fairly constant rate of about 2 MeV per g/cm2. Since the vertical depth of the atmosphere is about 1000 g/cm2, muons will lose about 2 GeV to ionization before reaching the ground. The mean energy of muons at sea level is still 4 GeV. Therefore the mean energy at creation is probably about 6 GeV.&quot;&lt;ref name=Kliewer/&gt;

&quot;The atmosphere is so tenuous at higher altitudes that even at 15,000 m it is still only 175 g/cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; deep. Typically, it is about here that most muons are generated. Muons arrive at sea level with an average flux of about 1 muon per square centimeter per minute. This is about half of the typical total natural radiation background.&quot;&lt;ref name=Kliewer/&gt;

&quot;Muons (and other particles) are generated within a cone-shaped shower, with all particles staying within about 1 degree of the primary particle's path.&quot;&lt;ref name=Kliewer/&gt;

&quot;Muons arriving at some angle q from the vertical will have traveled a pathlength that increases as 
1/cos (q). [...] This assumes that the Earth is essentially flat (less than 1% error for q &lt; 70°) and that muons do not decay over the extended path length.&quot;&lt;ref name=Kliewer/&gt;

&quot;If we assume that twice the path length would attenuate the muons to half as many, then we would expect the muon flux to vary as the cos (q). However, the observed distribution is proportional to cos2 (q). This is a difference of less than 10% at an angle of 27° and 20% at 43°. This disparity may be primarily due to the impending decays of muons, as the path length exceeds their range.&quot;&lt;ref name=Kliewer/&gt;

==Atmospheres==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Atmospheres|Atmospheric astronomy}}
[[Image:Atm nu flux.gif|thumb|right|250px|The figure shows the differential flux of atmospheric neutrinos. Credit: Amanda Collaboration.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:Atmnu00 sin.gif|thumb|right|250px|The zenith angle distribution is compared with [Monte Carlo] MC predictions in the figure. Credit: Amanda Collaboration.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
&quot;The figure [at right] shows the differential flux of atmospheric neutrinos. The enormous effective volume allows AMANDA-II to measure the flux to much higher energies than any previous detector. The solid black lines show the theoretical expectation for both horizontal (upper) and vertical (lower) orientations.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;The atmospheric neutrino analysis concentrates on signal purity. The distribution [shown] on the right is from [the] 2000 data sample. It is consistent with expectations from atmospheric neutrinos because 1) the observed events are distributed approximately isotropically, 2) the distribution of the number of [optical modules] OMs participating in the event (which is correlated with energy) is consistent with a soft spectra, 3) the shape of the zenith angle distribution of events is consistent with expectation (see figure for Diffuse Flux), 4) the absolute number of events is within 30% of expectation, consistent with systematic uncertainty of the predictions, and 5) upon visual inspection, the events topology is consistent with upgoing neutrino events. Recently, we have developed an accurate energy estimator, allowing us to plot the differential flux of the sum of atmospheric muon neutrinos and anti-neutrinos.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;The zenith angle distribution is compared with [Monte Carlo] MC predictions in the [second figure at the right]. Horizontal events have sin(declination)=0, and upward vertical events have sin(declination)= +1. AMANDA-II has vastly improved sensitivity near the horizon compared to AMANDA-B10 due to the fact that it is much wider. Note that AMANDA-II has very little sensitivity to neutrino oscillations due to its relatively large energy threshold, although we have included such effects in the predicted flux.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;The major problems associated with the balloon borne positron measurements are (i) the unique identification against a vast background of protons, and (ii) corrections for the positrons produced in the residual atmosphere.&quot;&lt;ref name=Barbiellini&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=G. Barbiellini
|author2=G. Basini
|author3=R. Bellotti
|author4=M. Bpcciolini
|author5=M. Boezio
|author6=F. Massimo Brancaccio
|author7=U. Bravar
|author8=F. Cafagna
|author9=M. Candusso
|author10=P. Carlson
|author11=M. Casolino
|author12=M. Castellano
|author13=M. Circella
|author14=A. Codino
|author15=G. De Cataldo
|author16=C. De Marzo
|author17=M.P. De Pascale
|author18=N. Finetti
|author19=T. Francke
|author20=N. Giglietto
|author21=R.L. Golden
|author22=C. Grimani
|author23=M. Hof
|author24=B. Marangelli
|author25=W. Menn
|author26=J.W. Mitchell
|author27=A. Morselli
|author28=J.F. Ormes
|author29=P. Papini
|author30=a. Perego
|author31=S. Piccardi
|author32=P. Picozza
|author33=M. Ricci
|author34=P. Schiavon
|author35=M. Simon
|author36=R. Sparvoli
|author37=P. Spillatini
|author38=P. Spinelli
|author39=S.A. Stephens
|author40=S.J. Stochaj
|author41=R.E. Streitmatter
|author42=M. Suffert
|author43=A. Vacchi
|author44=N. Weber
|author45=N. Zampa
|title=The cosmic-ray positron-to-electron ratio in the energy range 0.85 to 14 GeV
|journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics
|month=May
|year=1996
|volume=309
|issue=05
|pages=L15-8
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996A&amp;A...309L..15B
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1996A&amp;A...309L..15B
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-08-11 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;[T]o account for the atmospheric corrections ... first [use] the instrument to determine the negative muon spectrum at float altitude. ... [Use this] spectrum ... to normalize the analytically determined atmospheric electron-positron spectra. ... most of the atmospheric electrons and positrons at small atmospheric depths are produced from muon decay at [the energies from 0.85 to 14 GeV].&quot;&lt;ref name=Barbiellini/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Spectrometers==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Spectrometers}}
[[Image:HiFi muon spectrometer.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is the HiFi muon spectrometer. Credit: Peter Baker and James Lord.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
&quot;Positive muons are used to investigate magnetic order and dynamics in many magnetic systems. They are implanted into the sample where they stop at sites of high electronegativity and the time-evolution of their spin direction is monitored by measuring the direction of positrons emitted when they subsequently decay. Previously there had not been any studies of magnetization plateaux using the technique and it was interesting to find out what information could be obtained from such an experiment. Ca&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;Co&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; was an ideal starting point because it has a broad magnetization plateau in a field range accessible to the new HiFi muon spin relaxation spectrometer at ISIS.&quot;&lt;ref name=Baker&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Peter Baker
|author2=James Lord
|title=Muons explore a new plateau The dynamics of a frustrated magnet are revealed.
|publisher=IoP Science
|location=
|year=2014
|url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0953-8984/labtalk-article/46752
|accessdate=2014-03-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Coronal clouds==
{{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects/Coronal clouds}}
&quot;Neutrinos can be produced by energetic protons accelerated in solar magnetic fields. Such protons produce pions, and therefore muons, hence also neutrinos as a decay product, in the solar atmosphere.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bahcall1987&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=J. N. Bahcall
|author2=G. B. Field
|author3=W. H. Press
|title=Is solar neutrino capture rate correlated with sunspot number?
|journal=The Astrophysical Journal
|month=September 1,
|year=1987
|volume=320
|issue=9
|pages=L69-73
|url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1987ApJ...320L..69B/L000069.000.html
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1987ApJ...320L..69B
|doi=10.1086/184978
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-07-07 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Earth==
{{main|Gases/Gaseous objects/Earth}}
A &quot;measurement of the ratio of positive to negative muon fluxes from cosmic ray interactions in the atmosphere [has been made], using data collected by the CMS detector both at ground level and in the underground experimental cavern at the CERN LHC. Muons were detected in the momentum range from 5 GeV/c to 1 TeV/c. The surface flux ratio is measured to be 1.2766±0.0032 (stat.) ±0.0032 (syst.), independent of the muon momentum, below 100 GeV/c.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=V Khachatryan
|author2=AM Sirunyan
|author3=A Tumasyan
|author4=W Adam
|author5=et al.
|title=Measurement of the charge ratio of atmospheric muons with the CMS detector
|journal=Physics Letters B
|month=August,
|year=2010
|volume=692
|issue=2
|pages=83-104
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370269310008725
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The muon charge ratio R is defined as the ratio of the number of positive- to negative-charge atmospheric muons arriving at the Earth’s surface.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;These muons arise from showers produced in interactions of high-energy cosmic ray particles with air nuclei in the upper layers of the atmosphere. The magnitude and the momentum dependence of R are determined by the production and interaction cross sections of mesons (mainly pions and kaons), and by their decay lengths. As most cosmic rays and the nuclei with which they interact are positively charged, positive meson production is favoured, hence more positive muons are expected. Previous measurements from various experiments [1–8] showed the muon charge ratio to be constant up to a momentum of about 200 GeV/c, and then to increase at higher momenta, in agreement with the predicted rise in the fraction of muons from kaon decays. Measurements of the charge ratio can be used to constrain hadronic interaction models and to predict better the atmospheric neutrino flux.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;The Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) [9] is one of the detectors installed at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) [10] at CERN. The main goal of the CMS experiment is to search for signals of new physics in proton-proton collisions at centre-of-mass energies from 7 to 14 TeV [11].&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;Cosmic rays were used extensively to commission the CMS detector [12, 13]. These data can also be used to performmeasurements of physical quantities related to cosmic ray muons.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;About 25 million cosmic-muon events were recorded [on the Earth's surface] during the first phase of the MTCC with the magnet at a number of field values ranging from 3.67 to 4.00 T.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;The CRAFT08 campaign was a sustained data-taking exercise in October and November 2008 with the CMS detector fully assembled in its final underground position. The full detector, ready for collecting data from LHC, participated in the run, with the magnet at the nominal field of 3.8 T. Approximately 270 million cosmic-muon events were recorded.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;Single cosmic muons are simulated using the Monte Carlo event generator CMSCGEN [18, 19], which makes use of parameterizations of the distributions of the muon energy and incidence angle based on the air shower program CORSIKA [20]. The CMS detector response is simulated using the GEANT4 program [21], which takes into account the effects of energy loss, multiple scattering, and showering in the detector. A map [19] describing the various materials between the Earth’s surface and the CMS detector is used to obtain the average expected energy loss of simulated muons as a function of their energy, impact point, and incidence direction at the surface.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;Muon tracking in CMS can be performed with the all-silicon tracker at the heart of the detector, and with either three or four stations of muon chambers installed outside the solenoid, sandwiched between steel layers serving both as hadron absorbers and as a return yoke for the magnetic field.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;Three types of muon-track reconstruction were designed for cosmic muons not originating from an LHC proton-proton collision [22]: a standalone-muon track includes only hits from the muon detectors; a tracker track includes only hits from the silicon tracker; and a global muon track combines hits from the muon system and the silicon tracker in a combined track fit. For a cosmic muon that crosses the whole CMS detector, illustrated in Fig. 1 (top), each of the above types of tracks can be fitted separately in the top and bottom halves of CMS. Alternatively, a single track fit can be made including hits from the top and bottom halves of CMS. The direction of the muon is assumed to be downwards, and the muon charge is defined accordingly.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;The analysis based on 2006 MTCC data uses standalone muons.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;Since the muons were measured only in one half of the detector, the momentum
resolution is poorer than in the standalone-muon analysis using the complete detector.
Having the detector on the surface, however, permitted the collection of a large number of
low-momentum muons, down to a momentum of 5 GeV/c, allowing for a precise measurement of the charge ratio in the low-momentum range.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

==Moon==
{{main|Liquids/Liquid objects/Moon}}
[[Image:Moon shadow 750.png|thumb|right|250px|This is a contour plot of the muon deficit measured by IceCube in the region around the Moon's position. Credit: Silvia Bravo.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
At right of the top of the resource is an image of the Moon's cosmic ray shadow, as seen in secondary muons generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere, and detected 700 meters below ground, at the Soudan II detector.

&quot;Earth-based telescopes such as IceCube use the cosmic-ray shadow cast by the Moon to calibrate their angular resolution and their pointing accuracy for identifying point-like sources. The first impacts on the size of source signal in the detector, while the second constrains the precision with which the detector can estimate the direction of the incoming particles.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bravo&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Silvia Bravo
|title=The cosmic-ray Moon shadow seen by IceCube
|publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison
|location=Madison, Wisconsin USA
|date=May 30, 2013
|url=http://icecube.wisc.edu/news/view/131
|accessdate=2014-03-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The observation of a cosmic-ray deficit from the direction of the Moon with the IceCube Neutrino Observatory is thus an important milestone in proving its potential in the search for point-like sources of astrophysical neutrinos. A recent measurement of the Moon shadow in TeV cosmic rays with the IceCube telescope sets an upper limit on the detector’s absolute pointing accuracy to 0.2 degrees. The Antarctic telescope has observed the Moon shadow with a high significance (over 6 sigma), and the Moon’s center has been measured to be statistically consistent with its actual location.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bravo/&gt;

&quot;The search for neutrinos coming from gamma-ray bursts (GRBs), for example, is very sensitive to the absolute pointing accuracy of IceCube.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bravo/&gt;

&quot;In this case, the position in the sky of the GRB is compared to nearby events detected within a time window around the burst. If off by a few degrees, the sensitivity of IceCube to detect these potential sources of high-energy neutrinos would be significantly reduced.&quot;&lt;ref name=Santander&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Marcos Santander
|title=The cosmic-ray Moon shadow seen by IceCube
|publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison
|location=Madison, Wisconsin USA
|date=May 30, 2013
|url=http://icecube.wisc.edu/news/view/131
|accessdate=2014-03-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The importance of the pointing accuracy is also highlighted in studies such as the cosmic-ray anisotropy map, which IceCube measured for the first time in the Southern Hemisphere.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bravo/&gt;

&quot;Even though the search for point-like sources of astrophysical neutrinos uses data samples with a different energy distribution, the Moon shadow results indicate that high-energy neutrinos detected with IceCube will allow for identifying astrophysical point sources if enough statistics are available.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bravo/&gt;

&quot;Two independent analysis methods were applied to data taken between April 2008 and May 2010, before the completion of the IceCube neutrino telescope. Both methods and data samples show consistent results, and they are the first statistically significant detection of the shadow of the Moon using a high-energy neutrino telescope.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bravo/&gt;

&quot;The Moon shadow was measured as a deficit of downgoing muon events, which are the majority of events detected by IceCube and are generated by the interaction of cosmic rays with the Earth’s atmosphere. Only muons reaching the detector when the Moon was at least 15 degrees above the horizon were selected for analysis. Over 300 million events passed this initial cut, with about 68% of the events estimated to be produced by proton cosmic rays and another 23% by helium cosmic rays.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bravo/&gt;

&quot;The width of the Moon shadow as measured by IceCube in its partial 40-string and 59-string configurations was around 0.7 degrees, in agreement with simulation studies.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bravo/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Technology==
{{main|Technology}}
[[Image:Shower detection.png|thumb|right|400px|This diagram depicts an air shower resulting from cosmic rays. Credit: Konrad Bernlöhr.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Cherenkov telescopes do not actually detect the gamma rays directly but instead detect the flashes of visible light produced when gamma rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=Penston&gt;{{ cite book
|author = Margaret J. Penston
|date = 14 August 2002
|url=http://www.pparc.ac.uk/frontiers/latest/feature.asp?article=14F1&amp;style=feature
|title = The electromagnetic spectrum
|publisher = Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council
|accessdate = 17 August 2006 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Observatories==
{{main|Observatories/Astronomy}}
[[Image:Icecube-architecture-diagram2009.PNG|thumb|left|250px|This is an architecture diagram of IceCube. Credit: [[w:User:Nasa-verve|Nasa-verve]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Magicmirror.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is the MAGIC telescope at La Palma, Canary Islands. Credit: [[c:User:Pachango|Pachango]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:VERITAS array.jpg|thumb|right|300px|VERITAS is located at the basecamp of the Smithsonian Astrophysics Observatory's Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory (FLWO) in southern Arizona. Credit: VERITAS.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Hegra and not bob tubbs 2001.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Two HEGRA reflectors, with the Nordic Optical Telescope (NOT) in the background. Credit: Bob Tubbs.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HESS-dark-full.jpg|thumb|right|250px|All four of the HESS telescope array in Namibia are in operation at night. Credit: H.E.S.S. collaboration.{{tlx|free media}}]]
&quot;The '''IceCube Neutrino Observatory''' (or simply '''IceCube''') is a [[w:neutrino telescope|neutrino telescope]] constructed at the [[w:Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station|Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station]] in [[w:Antarctica|Antarctica]].[1] Similar to its predecessor, the Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array (AMANDA)&lt;!-- which relied on analog data transmission except for one digital development string --&gt;, IceCube contains thousands of spherical optical sensors called Digital Optical Modules (DOMs), each with a [[w:photomultiplier tube|photomultiplier tube]] (PMT)&lt;ref name=Abbasi&gt;{{cite journal
 |author=R. Abbasi ''et al.'' (IceCube Collaboration)
 |year=2010
 |title=Calibration and Characterization of the IceCube Photomultiplier Tube
 |journal = Nuclear Instruments and Methods A
 | volume = 618| pages= 139–152
 | doi = 10.1016/j.nima.2010.03.102 
 |arxiv=1002.2442
 |bibcode=2010NIMPA.618..139A }}&lt;/ref&gt;
and a single board data acquisition computer which sends digital data to the counting house on the surface above the array.&lt;ref name=Abbasi09&gt;{{ cite journal
 |author=R. Abbasi ''et al.'' (IceCube Collaboration)
 |year=2009
 |title=The IceCube Data Acquisition System: Signal Capture, Digitization, and Timestamping
 |journal=Nuclear Instruments and Methods A
 |volume=601 |pages=294–316
 |doi=10.1016/j.nima.2009.01.001
 |bibcode = 2009NIMPA.601..294T
 |arxiv=0810.4930 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  
IceCube was completed on 18 December, 2010, New Zealand time.&lt;ref&gt;[http://icecube.wisc.edu/ IceCube Neutrino Observatory&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;

As it rockets through the ice at nearly the speed of light, a muon produces a trail of blue light known as Cherenkov radiation that acts like an arrow pointing back in the direction of the neutrino’s origin.&quot;&lt;ref name=Oleson&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Timothy Oleson
|title=Astronomy under the ice: Scientists use Antarctic ice to study some of the tiniest particles in the cosmos
|publisher=American Geosciences Institute
|location=
|date=January 1, 2012
|url=http://www.earthmagazine.org/article/astronomy-under-ice-scientists-use-antarctic-ice-study-some-tiniest-particles-cosmos
|accessdate=2014-03-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The trick is to distinguish muons coming from the relatively few high-energy neutrinos from a sea of background muons, generated constantly by showers of lower-energy atmospheric neutrinos and other subatomic interactions. To help differentiate cosmic neutrinos from the background, IceCube’s DOMs are positioned to “look down” through the planet to the Northern Hemisphere. In effect, Earth’s interior acts as a filter. Because muons decay over distances of only a few kilometers, any muons that arrive at the detector from below must arise from neutrinos that have passed through the planet.&quot;&lt;ref name=Oleson/&gt;

&quot;Neutrinos are further differentiated based on their energy: In general, the more energy a neutrino has, the more energy it imparts to a muon and the more blue light is emitted and detected. Still, sorting the data gathered by the detector is not simple, and a high degree of precision is required. Complex algorithms are needed to discern the direction and arrival times of thousands of muons per second.&quot;&lt;ref name=Oleson/&gt;

&quot;A few hours later [after being turned on], ANTARES looked up at the sky for the first time and caught sight of its first muons.&quot;&lt;ref name=Stolarczyk&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=T. Stolarczyk
|title=The ANTARES telescope turns its gaze to the sky
|journal=Europhysics News
|month=November-December
|year=2006
|volume=37
|issue=6
|pages=18-22
|url=http://www.europhysicsnews.org/articles/epn/pdf/2006/06/epn06601.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1051/epn:2006601
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-01-10 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Cherenkov telescopes do not actually detect the gamma rays directly but instead detect the flashes of visible light produced when gamma rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=Penston&gt;{{ cite book
|author = Margaret J. Penston
|date = 14 August 2002
|url=http://www.pparc.ac.uk/frontiers/latest/feature.asp?article=14F1&amp;style=feature
|title = The electromagnetic spectrum
|publisher = Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council
|accessdate = 17 August 2006 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first astronomical observations started in the fall of 2004. However, the facility had its last observing runs in November 2005 as funds for observational operations from the [[w:National Science Foundation|National Science Foundation]] were no longer available.

CACTUS [Converted Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescope Using Solar-2] is sensitive in the 50-500 GeV energy range.&lt;ref name=Chertok&gt;{{ cite book
|author=M. Chertok
|author2=P. Afonso
|author3=J. Lizarazo
|author4=P. Marleau
|author5=S. Maruyama
|author6=J. Stilley
|author7=S.M. Tripathi
|title=Search for Dark Matter Annihilations in Draco with CACTUS
|date=2006
|volume=
|issue=
|pages=
|url=http://www.panic05.lanl.gov/abstracts/610/proc_cactus_panic05_revised.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-03-03 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The CACTUS atmospheric Cherenkov telescope collaboration recently reported a gamma-ray excess from the Draco dwarf spheroidal galaxy.&quot;&lt;ref name=Profumo&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Stefano Profumo
|author2=Marc Kamionkowski
|title=Dark matter and the CACTUS gamma-ray excess from Draco
|journal=Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics
|month=March
|year=2006
|volume=2006
|issue=03
|pages=
|url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1475-7516/2006/03/003
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1088/1475-7516/2006/03/003
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-03-03 }}&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[T]he bulk of the signal detected by CACTUS [may come] from direct [weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs)] WIMP annihilation to two photons&quot;&lt;ref name=Profumo/&gt;.

The '''Pierre Auger Observatory''' is an international cosmic ray observatory designed to detect [[w:ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|ultra-high-energy cosmic ray]]s: single [[w:sub-atomic particle|sub-atomic particle]]s ([[w:proton|proton]]s or [[w:Atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]]) with energies beyond 10&lt;sup&gt;20&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[w:electronvolt|eV]] (about the energy of a [[w:tennis ball|tennis ball]] traveling at 80&amp;nbsp;km/h). These high energy particles have an estimated arrival rate of just 1 per km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; per century, therefore the Auger Observatory has created a detection area the size of [[w:Rhode Island|Rhode Island]] — over 3,000 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (1,200 sq mi) — in order to record a large number of these events. It is located in western [[w:Argentina|Argentina]]'s [[w:Mendoza Province|Mendoza Province]], in one of the South American [[w:Pampas|Pampas]].

The basic set-up consists of 1600 water tanks ([[w:Cherenkov detector|water Cherenkov Detectors]], similar to the [[w:Haverah Park experiment|Haverah Park experiment]]) distributed over 3,000 square kilometres (1,200 sq mi), along with four atmospheric [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] detectors (similar to the [[w:High Resolution Fly's Eye Cosmic Ray Detector|High Resolution Fly's Eye]]) overseeing the surface array.

'''MAGIC''' ('''Major Atmospheric Gamma-ray Imaging Cherenkov Telescopes''') is a system of two [[w:IACT|Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov telescope]]s situated at the [[w:Roque de los Muchachos Observatory|Roque de los Muchachos Observatory]] on [[w:La Palma|[La Palma]], one of the [[w:Canary Islands|Canary Islands]], at about 2200 m above sea level. MAGIC detects particle showers released by gamma rays, using the [[w:Cherenkov radiation|Cherenkov radiation]], i.e., faint light radiated by the charged particles in the showers. With a diameter of 17 meters for the reflecting surface, it is the largest in the world. ... MAGIC is sensitive to cosmic gamma rays with energies between 50 [[w:GeV|GeV]] and 30 [[w:TeV|TeV]] due to its large mirror; other ground-based gamma-ray telescopes typically observe gamma energies above 200-300 GeV. Satellite-based detectors detect gamma-rays in the energy range from keV up to several GeV. ... MAGIC has found pulsed gamma-rays at energies higher than 25 GeV coming from the [[w:Crab Pulsar|Crab Pulsar]].&lt;ref name=ScienceU&gt;&quot;Observation of Pulsed Gamma-Rays Above 25 GeV from the Crab Pulsar with MAGIC&quot;, MAGIC collaboration, Science 322 (2008) 1221.&lt;/ref&gt; The presence of such high energies indicates that the gamma-ray source is far out in the pulsar's [[w:magnetosphere|magnetosphere]], in contradiction with many models. ... A much more controversial observation is an energy dependence in the speed of light of cosmic rays coming from a short burst of the [[w:blazar|blazar]] [[w:Markarian 501|Markarian 501]] on July 9, 2005. Photons with energies between 1.2 and 10 TeV arrived 4 minutes after those in a band between .25 and .6 TeV.  The average delay was .030±.012 seconds per GeV of energy of the photon. If the relation between the space velocity of a photon and its energy is linear, then this translates into the fractional difference in the speed of light being equal to minus the photon's energy divided by 2 x 10&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt; GeV.

&quot;VERITAS (Very Energetic Radiation Imaging Telescope Array System) is a ground-based gamma-ray instrument operating at the Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory (FLWO) in southern Arizona, USA. It is an array of four 12m optical reflectors for gamma-ray astronomy in the GeV - TeV energy range. These imaging Cherenkov [a bluish light] telescopes are deployed such that they have the highest sensitivity in the VHE energy band (50 GeV - 50 TeV), with maximum sensitivity from 100 GeV to 10 TeV. This VHE observatory effectively complements the NASA Fermi mission.&quot;&lt;ref name=Fortin&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Pascal Fortin
|title=VERITAS Very Energetic Radiation Imaging Telescope Array System
|publisher=Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory
|location=Amado, Arizona USA
|date=April 14, 2013
|url=http://veritas.sao.arizona.edu/
|accessdate=2013-06-01 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Collaboration between Australia and Nippon for a Gamma Ray Observatory in the Outback, (CANGAROO) is for very high energy cosmic gamma ray observation by telescope detecting Cherenkov light. It is located on the [[w:Woomera Prohibited Area|Woomera Prohibited Area]] in South Australia. &lt;ref name=CANGAROO&gt;{{ cite book
|url=http://www.physics.adelaide.edu.au/astrophysics/cangaroo/index.html
|title=The CANGAROO Project
|publisher=The University of Adelaide
|accessdate=17 September 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''HEGRA''', which stands for ''High-Energy-Gamma-Ray Astronomy'', was an atmospheric [[w:Cherenkov effect|Cherenkov]] telescope for Gamma-ray astronomy. With its various types of detectors, HEGRA took data between 1987 and 2002, at which point it was dismantled in order to build its successor, [[w:MAGIC (telescope)|MAGIC]], at the same site. HEGRA is at 2200 masl.

'''High Energy Stereoscopic System''' or H.E.S.S. is a next-generation system of '''Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes''' ([[w:IACT|IACT]]) for the investigation of cosmic [[w:gamma ray|gamma ray]]s in the 100 GeV and TeV energy range.  The [[w:acronym|acronym]] was chosen in honour of [[w:Victor Hess|Victor Hess]], who was the first to observe [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s.

The name also emphasizes two main features of the currently-operating installation, namely the simultaneous observation of air showers with several telescopes, under different viewing angles, and the combination of telescopes to a large system to increase the effective detection area for gamma rays. H.E.S.S. permits the exploration of gamma-ray sources with intensities at a level of a few thousandth parts of the flux of the [[w:Crab Nebula|Crab Nebula]].

H.E.S.S. is located on the Cranz family farm, Göllschau, in [[w:Namibia|Namibia]], near the [[w:Gamsberg|Gamsberg]], an area well known for its excellent optical quality. The first of the four telescopes of Phase I of the H.E.S.S. project went into operation in Summer 2002; all four were operational in December 2003.
{{clear}}

==Detectors==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Detectors}}
[[Image:CMScollaborationPoster1.gif|thumb|250px|right|The Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) is an example of a large particle detector. Notice the person for scale. Credit: CERN.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
&quot;With γ ray energy 50 times higher than the muon energy and a probability of muon production by the γ's of about 1%, muon detectors can match the detection efficiency of a GeV satellite detector if their effective area is larger by 10&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;.&quot;&lt;ref name=Halzen/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Hypotheses==
{{main|Hypotheses}}
# Muons may be the key to sustained fusion at any temperature.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Alpha particles|Alpha-particle astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Baryons|Baryon astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Beta particles|Beta particle astronomy]]
* [[Radiation/Cosmic rays]]
* [[Electron astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Hadrons|Hadron astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Mesons|Meson astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Molecules|Molecule astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Neutrinos|Neutrino astronomy]]
* [[Radiation/Neutrons|Neutron astronomy]]
* [[Positron astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Subatomics|Subatomic astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Tauons|Tauon astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* {{ cite book
|author=P. Buford Price
|author2=the Amanda Collaboration
|title=AMANDA-II Science Results
|publisher=University of California Irvine
|location=Irvine, California USA
|date=September 8, 2005
|url=http://www.amanda.uci.edu/results.html
|accessdate=2014-03-23 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

&lt;!-- footer templates --&gt;
{{tlx|Charge ontology}}{{tlx|Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{tlx|Technology resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Muon astronomy}}

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[[Category:Radiation astronomy/Lectures]]
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  <page>
    <title>Quantum mechanics/Harmonic oscillator</title>
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      <text bytes="13673" xml:space="preserve">{{chemistry}}
{{lesson}}

A harmonic oscillator (quantum or classical) is a particle in a potential energy well given by ''V''(''x'')=½''kx''². ''k'' is called the '''force constant'''. It can be seen as the motion of a small mass attached to a string, or a particle oscillating in a well shaped as a parabola. This is a very important model because most potential energies can be approximated as parabolas near their minima, and the model allows us to understand the vibrations in molecular systems.

ASVBDSGVB N,NMJ/V CVB NMJHGJEDF VFGGT

== The classical harmonic oscillator ==
The classical harmonic oscillator is often studied in elementary physics. The solution of Newton's equation gives ''x''(''t'') = ''A'' sin(''ωt'' + ''φ'') &lt;small&gt;(Eq. 1)&lt;/small&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\omega = \sqrt{\frac{k}{m}}&lt;/math&gt; is the '''angular frequency''' &lt;small&gt;(Eq. 2)&lt;/small&gt;, ''A'' is the amplitude of the motion and ''φ'' is its phase.

The total energy does not depend on time.
&lt;/br&gt;&lt;math&gt;E_{tot} = E_{kinetic} + E_{potential} = \frac{1}{2} m \left ( \frac{dx}{dt} \right )^2 + \frac{1}{2} kx^2&lt;/math&gt;  &lt;small&gt;(Eq. 3)&lt;/small&gt; 
&lt;math&gt;E_{tot} = \frac{1}{2} m A^2 \omega^2 \cos^2 \left ( \omega t + \varphi \right ) + \frac{1}{2} m A^2 \omega^2 \sin^2 \left ( \omega t + \varphi \right ) = \frac{1}{2} m \omega^2 A^2&lt;/math&gt;

''E&lt;sub&gt;tot&lt;/sub&gt;'' is proportional to the square of the amplitude and can be '''any''' positive number.


== The quantum harmonic oscillator ==
To find the eigenvalues and eigenfunction of the quantum harmonic oscillator you should solve the following problem:
&lt;math&gt;\left \{ - \frac{\hbar^2}{2m} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial x^2} + \frac{1}{2}kx^2 \right \} \psi (x) = E \psi (x)&lt;/math&gt; &lt;small&gt;(Eq. 4)&lt;/small&gt;

In this case, the solution will be given without proof. The eigenvalues of the harmonic oscillator are: ''E&lt;sub&gt;v&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ''ħω''(½ + ''v'') where ''v''=0,1,2,... &lt;small&gt;(Eq. 5)&lt;/small&gt;

The vibrational quantum number is indicated by ''v'' and can take any integer starting from zero. ''ω'' is the same angular frequency used for the classical oscillator.

To express the eigenfunctions in a simpler form it is convenient to divide Equation 4 by ''ħω'' which gives &lt;math&gt;\left \{ -\frac{\hbar}{2m\omega} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial x^2} + \frac{1}{2} \frac{m\omega x^2}{\hbar} \right \} \psi (x) = \frac{E}{\hbar \omega} \psi (x)&lt;/math&gt; &lt;small&gt;(Eq. 6)&lt;/small&gt;

And by defining a new adimensional variable &lt;math&gt;y = \sqrt{\frac{m\omega}{\hbar}}x&lt;/math&gt;, the equation takes a very simple form (the same for all oscillators): &lt;math&gt;\left \{ -\frac{1}{2} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial y^2} + \frac{1}{2} y^2 \right \} \psi (y) = \frac{E}{\hbar \omega} \psi (y)&lt;/math&gt; &lt;small&gt;(Eq. 7)&lt;/small&gt;

This is just done to give the eigenfunctions a simpler form. The first four eigenfunctions of the harmonic oscillator Hamiltonian are:
* &lt;math&gt;\psi_0 (y) = N_0 \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt; &lt;small&gt;(Eq. 8)&lt;/small&gt;
* &lt;math&gt;\psi_1 (y) = N_1 y \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt;
* &lt;math&gt;\psi_2 (y) = N_2 (2y^2 - 1) \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt;
* &lt;math&gt;\psi_3 (y) = N_3 (2y^3 - 3y) \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt;

''N'' are just normalization constants. The general structure of the harmonic oscillator wavefunction is: &lt;math&gt;\psi (y) = N_v H_v (y) \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt; &lt;small&gt;(Eq. 9)&lt;/small&gt;

In other words, they are the product of a Gaussian function and a polynomial ''H&lt;sub&gt;v&lt;/sub&gt;''(''y'') (known by mathematicians as Hermite polynomials and are given in tables for consultation).

[[File:Harmonic oscillator potential and wavefunctions.png|800px|Harmonic oscillator potential and wavefunctions]]

Note that, as in the case of the particle in the box, the number of nodes increases with increasing quantum number and energy.

However, unlike the classical harmonic oscillator, not only are there discrete levels but the ground state does not have zero energy, rather a finite amount (½''ħω''). This minimal amount of energy is known as the '''zero point energy'''.

== Tunnelling in classically forbidden region ==
From the wavefunction ''ψ&lt;sub&gt;v&lt;/sub&gt;''(''x'') you can calculate the probability of finding a particle at a given point by taking the modulus squared |''ψ&lt;sub&gt;v&lt;/sub&gt;''(''x'')|². Consider for example the normalized probability density for the ground state. A classical oscillator with the same energy ''E&lt;sub&gt;v=0&lt;/sub&gt;''=½''ħω'' would oscillate between two turning points -''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' and +''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' where &lt;math&gt;x_T = \sqrt{\frac{\hbar}{m\omega}}&lt;/math&gt;. But the quantum oscillator has some probability of being found at ''x''&lt;-''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' and ''x''&gt;''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' in the '''classically forbidden region'''. A particle can be in the classically forbidden region only if it is allowed to have negative kinetic energy, which is impossible in classical mechanics. The phenomenon of quantum particles being able to be in regions of space forbidden to the classical particle is called '''quantum mechanical tunnelling'''.


== The correspondence principle ==
We have been listing phenomena (tunnelling, nodal plane, discrete levels of energy) which make quantum mechanic behaviour very different than classical behaviour. Why does classical physics seem to work fine for macroscopic objects? The answer is complicated but a good starting point is the '''correspondence principle''': at very high quantum numbers and energies, the quantum mechanical behaviour coincides with the classical behaviour.

When we observe a macroscopic oscillator, it could be described quantum mechanically but the quantum number would be enormous (see Exercise). If the correspondence principle is correct the quantum and classical probability of finding a particle in a particular position should approach each other for very high energies. This is what happens (question 10).


{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|6}}}|icon=Nuvola apps kwrite.png|title=Exercise}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
# Calculate the 3 lowest energy levels of a particle with mass ''m''=1.7x10&lt;sup&gt;-24&lt;/sup&gt; kg in a one dimensional harmonic potential ''V''(''x'')=½''kx''². Use ''k''=100 N/m.
# The vibration of a diatomic molecule A-B can be approximated as the motion of a harmonic oscillator with potential ''V''(''x'')=½''kx''². ''x'' in this case represents the displacement from equilibrium distance. Instead of the mass, you have to use the reduced mass ''μ'' related to the mass of A and the mass of B: &lt;math&gt;\mu = \frac{m_A m_B}{m_A + m_B}&lt;/math&gt;. Calculate the vibrational energy ''ħω'' of the H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; molecule for which ''k''=510 N/m.
# Draw the probability density of the first 5 levels of the harmonic oscillator and the first 5 levels of the particle in the box. Compare them.
# Consider the harmonic oscillator Schrödinger equation written in the adimensional coordinate ''y'' as &lt;math&gt;\left \{ -\frac{1}{2} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial y^2} + \frac{1}{2} y^2 \right \} \psi (y) = \frac{E}{\hbar \omega} \psi (y)&lt;/math&gt;. Show that &lt;math&gt;\psi_0 (y) = \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\psi_1 (y) = y \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt; are eigenfunctions of ''H''(''y'') and find the corresponding eigenvalues.
# Find the values of ''x'' where it is most likely to find a particle in the first excited state of a harmonic oscillator.
#
#* Show that the classical turning point, ''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' for an oscillator with energy ''E&lt;sub&gt;v&lt;/sub&gt;'' = (½ + ''v'')''ħω'' is &lt;math&gt;x_T = \sqrt{\frac{2 \left ( \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} + v \right )\hbar}{m\omega}}&lt;/math&gt;.
#* What is the classically forbidden region?
#* What integral should be solved to find the probability of finding a quantum oscillator in the classically forbidden region? (You don't need to solve the integral.)
# The harmonic oscillator wavefunctions have the following property: &lt;math&gt;y \psi_v (y) = \sqrt{v} \psi_{v-1} (y) + \sqrt{v+1} \psi_{v+1} (y)&lt;/math&gt; i.e. by multiplying ''ψ&lt;sub&gt;v&lt;/sub&gt;''(''y'') by ''y'' gives a linear combination of ''ψ&lt;sub&gt;v-1&lt;/sub&gt;''(''y'') and ''ψ&lt;sub&gt;v+1&lt;/sub&gt;''(''y''). Prove that this is true for ''v''=1 (you should include the normalization constant).
# Is there a zero point energy for the 
#* particle in the box?
#* free particle?
# A macroscopic pendulum has ''ω''=1 s&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;, ''m''=1 kg and total energy 0.1 J. What would be its quantum number if described quantum mechanically?
# The classical probability of finding an oscillator at one particular position is proportional to its inverse velocity.
#* Why?
#* Show that the classical velocity as a function of the position is &lt;math&gt;\omega \sqrt{x_T^2 - x^2}&lt;/math&gt; and the probability density is therefore proportional to &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{x_T^2 - x^2}}&lt;/math&gt;.


{| class=&quot;wikitable collapsible collapsed&quot;
! Solutions
|-
| 
# 1
# 2
# 3
# We need to show that &lt;math&gt;\left \{ -\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial y^2} + \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} y^2 \right \} \psi_0 (y) = E \psi_0 (y)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\psi_0 (y) = \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt;. Substitution gives: &lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix} \left \{ -\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial y^2} + \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} y^2 \right \} \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) = -\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial y^2} \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) + \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} y^2 \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) \\ = -\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} \frac{\partial}{\partial y} \left ( -y \exp \left (-\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) \right ) + \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} y^2 \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) \\ = -\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} \left ( -\exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) + y^2 \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) \right ) + \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} y^2 \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) = \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) \end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt; Comparison of the first and last term confirms that &lt;math&gt;\left \{ -\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial y^2} + \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} y^2 \right \} \psi_0 (y) = E \psi_0 (y)&lt;/math&gt; where E = ½.
# The probability density is proportional to |''ψ''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;(''y'')|² = ''y''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; exp(-''y''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) = ''P'' (''P'' is the probability). This is maximum or minimum when ''dP''/''dy''=0. The derivative is &lt;math&gt;\frac{dP}{dy} = 2y \exp(-y^2) - 2y^3 \exp(-y^2) = 2y \exp(-y^2)(1-y^2)&lt;/math&gt;. This is zero for ''y''=0 (where there is a minimum) and ''y''=±1 (where the two maxima are). 
# 
#* The maximum displacement (turning point) of a classical oscillator is when the potential energy ½''kx&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = ½''mω''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is equal to the total energy. We get, for ''E'' = (½ + ''v'')''ħω'', (½ + ''v'')''ħω'' = ½''mω''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and therefore &lt;math&gt;x_T = \sqrt{\frac{2 \left ( \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} + v \right )\hbar}{m\omega}}&lt;/math&gt;.
#* The classical region is ''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' &lt; ''x'' &lt; -''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;''.
#* The probability of being '''outside''' this region, i.e. in the interval between -∞ &lt; ''x'' &lt; -''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' and ''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' &lt; ''x'' &lt; +∞ is &lt;math&gt;\int_{-\infty}^{-x_T} \psi_v (x)^* \psi_v (x)\, dx + \int_{x_T}^{+\infty} \psi_v (x)^* \psi_v (x)\, dx&lt;/math&gt;.
# Substituting ''v''=1 in &lt;math&gt;y \psi_v (y) = \sqrt{\frac{v}{2}} \psi_{v-1} (y) + \sqrt{\frac{v+1}{2}} \psi_{v+1} (y)&lt;/math&gt;. Left and right hand side are equal, i.e. &lt;math&gt;y \psi_1 (y) = \frac{\sqrt{2}}{\pi^{1/4}} y^2 \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt; so you get &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}} \psi_0 (y) + \sqrt{\begin{matrix} \frac{2}{2} \end{matrix}} \psi_2 (y) = \frac{1}{\pi^{1/4}} \left [ \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) + \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} (2y^2 -1) \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) \right ] = \frac{\sqrt{2}}{\pi^{1/4}} y^2 \exp \left ( \frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt;.
#
#* Yes.
#* No, quantization derives from the boundary condition. Without boundaries, there is no quantization and ''E''=0 is allowed.
# ''E''&lt;sub&gt;v&lt;/sub&gt; = (½ + ''v'')''ħω'' → ''v'' = ''E''&lt;sub&gt;v&lt;/sub&gt; ÷ ''ħω'' - ½ = 0.2 ÷ (1.05x10&lt;sup&gt;-34&lt;/sup&gt; x 1) - ½ ≈ 1.90x10&lt;sup&gt;33&lt;/sup&gt; (i.e. very large).
#
#* You are more likely to observe a particle in a position where it moves slowly. (Think - does a rollercoaster spend more time on the top or at the bottom of its track?)
#* The total energy is ''E&lt;sub&gt;total&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ''E&lt;sub&gt;kinetic&lt;/sub&gt;'' + ''E&lt;sub&gt;potential&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ½''mv''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + ½''kx''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and it must be constant. The velocity at a given position ''x'' is therefore ''v'' = [2/''m'' (''E&lt;sub&gt;total&lt;/sub&gt;'' - ½''kx''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)]&lt;sup&gt;1/2&lt;/sup&gt;. When the particle is at the turning point ''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'', the velocity is zero so ''E&lt;sub&gt;total&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 0 + ½''kx&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and the velocity can be written as ''v'' = [2/''m'' (½''kx&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; - ½''kx''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)]&lt;sup&gt;1/2&lt;/sup&gt; = [''k/m'']&lt;sup&gt;1/2&lt;/sup&gt;(''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; - ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;1/2&lt;/sup&gt; = ''ω''(''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; - ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;1/2&lt;/sup&gt;.
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&lt;big&gt;'''Next:''' Lesson 5 - [[Quantum mechanics/Further particles in the box and polar coordinates|Further Particles in the Box and Polar Coordinates]]&lt;/big&gt;


[[Category:Chemistry]]
[[Category:Physical chemistry]]
[[Category:Quantum mechanics]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2418224</id>
      <parentid>2418221</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:13:20Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>HHFSAF</comment>
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      <text bytes="13634" xml:space="preserve">{{chemistry}}
{{lesson}}

A harmonic oscillator (quantum or classical) is a particle in a potential energy well given by ''V''(''x'')=½''kx''². ''k'' is called the '''force constant'''. It can be seen as the motion of a small mass attached to a string, or a particle oscillating in a well shaped as a parabola. This is a very important model because most potential energies can be approximated as parabolas near their minima, and the model allows us to understand the vibrations in molecular systems.

== The classical harmonic oscillator ==
The classical harmonic oscillator is often studied in elementary physics. The solution of Newton's equation gives ''x''(''t'') = ''A'' sin(''ωt'' + ''φ'') &lt;small&gt;(Eq. 1)&lt;/small&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\omega = \sqrt{\frac{k}{m}}&lt;/math&gt; is the '''angular frequency''' &lt;small&gt;(Eq. 2)&lt;/small&gt;, ''A'' is the amplitude of the motion and ''φ'' is its phase.

The total energy does not depend on time.
&lt;/br&gt;&lt;math&gt;E_{tot} = E_{kinetic} + E_{potential} = \frac{1}{2} m \left ( \frac{dx}{dt} \right )^2 + \frac{1}{2} kx^2&lt;/math&gt;  &lt;small&gt;(Eq. 3)&lt;/small&gt; 
&lt;math&gt;E_{tot} = \frac{1}{2} m A^2 \omega^2 \cos^2 \left ( \omega t + \varphi \right ) + \frac{1}{2} m A^2 \omega^2 \sin^2 \left ( \omega t + \varphi \right ) = \frac{1}{2} m \omega^2 A^2&lt;/math&gt;

''E&lt;sub&gt;tot&lt;/sub&gt;'' is proportional to the square of the amplitude and can be '''any''' positive number.


== The quantum harmonic oscillator ==
To find the eigenvalues and eigenfunction of the quantum harmonic oscillator you should solve the following problem:
&lt;math&gt;\left \{ - \frac{\hbar^2}{2m} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial x^2} + \frac{1}{2}kx^2 \right \} \psi (x) = E \psi (x)&lt;/math&gt; &lt;small&gt;(Eq. 4)&lt;/small&gt;

In this case, the solution will be given without proof. The eigenvalues of the harmonic oscillator are: ''E&lt;sub&gt;v&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ''ħω''(½ + ''v'') where ''v''=0,1,2,... &lt;small&gt;(Eq. 5)&lt;/small&gt;

The vibrational quantum number is indicated by ''v'' and can take any integer starting from zero. ''ω'' is the same angular frequency used for the classical oscillator.

To express the eigenfunctions in a simpler form it is convenient to divide Equation 4 by ''ħω'' which gives &lt;math&gt;\left \{ -\frac{\hbar}{2m\omega} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial x^2} + \frac{1}{2} \frac{m\omega x^2}{\hbar} \right \} \psi (x) = \frac{E}{\hbar \omega} \psi (x)&lt;/math&gt; &lt;small&gt;(Eq. 6)&lt;/small&gt;

And by defining a new adimensional variable &lt;math&gt;y = \sqrt{\frac{m\omega}{\hbar}}x&lt;/math&gt;, the equation takes a very simple form (the same for all oscillators): &lt;math&gt;\left \{ -\frac{1}{2} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial y^2} + \frac{1}{2} y^2 \right \} \psi (y) = \frac{E}{\hbar \omega} \psi (y)&lt;/math&gt; &lt;small&gt;(Eq. 7)&lt;/small&gt;

This is just done to give the eigenfunctions a simpler form. The first four eigenfunctions of the harmonic oscillator Hamiltonian are:
* &lt;math&gt;\psi_0 (y) = N_0 \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt; &lt;small&gt;(Eq. 8)&lt;/small&gt;
* &lt;math&gt;\psi_1 (y) = N_1 y \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt;
* &lt;math&gt;\psi_2 (y) = N_2 (2y^2 - 1) \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt;
* &lt;math&gt;\psi_3 (y) = N_3 (2y^3 - 3y) \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt;

''N'' are just normalization constants. The general structure of the harmonic oscillator wavefunction is: &lt;math&gt;\psi (y) = N_v H_v (y) \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt; &lt;small&gt;(Eq. 9)&lt;/small&gt;

In other words, they are the product of a Gaussian function and a polynomial ''H&lt;sub&gt;v&lt;/sub&gt;''(''y'') (known by mathematicians as Hermite polynomials and are given in tables for consultation).

[[File:Harmonic oscillator potential and wavefunctions.png|800px|Harmonic oscillator potential and wavefunctions]]

Note that, as in the case of the particle in the box, the number of nodes increases with increasing quantum number and energy.

However, unlike the classical harmonic oscillator, not only are there discrete levels but the ground state does not have zero energy, rather a finite amount (½''ħω''). This minimal amount of energy is known as the '''zero point energy'''.

== Tunnelling in classically forbidden region ==
From the wavefunction ''ψ&lt;sub&gt;v&lt;/sub&gt;''(''x'') you can calculate the probability of finding a particle at a given point by taking the modulus squared |''ψ&lt;sub&gt;v&lt;/sub&gt;''(''x'')|². Consider for example the normalized probability density for the ground state. A classical oscillator with the same energy ''E&lt;sub&gt;v=0&lt;/sub&gt;''=½''ħω'' would oscillate between two turning points -''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' and +''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' where &lt;math&gt;x_T = \sqrt{\frac{\hbar}{m\omega}}&lt;/math&gt;. But the quantum oscillator has some probability of being found at ''x''&lt;-''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' and ''x''&gt;''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' in the '''classically forbidden region'''. A particle can be in the classically forbidden region only if it is allowed to have negative kinetic energy, which is impossible in classical mechanics. The phenomenon of quantum particles being able to be in regions of space forbidden to the classical particle is called '''quantum mechanical tunnelling'''.


== The correspondence principle ==
We have been listing phenomena (tunnelling, nodal plane, discrete levels of energy) which make quantum mechanic behaviour very different than classical behaviour. Why does classical physics seem to work fine for macroscopic objects? The answer is complicated but a good starting point is the '''correspondence principle''': at very high quantum numbers and energies, the quantum mechanical behaviour coincides with the classical behaviour.

When we observe a macroscopic oscillator, it could be described quantum mechanically but the quantum number would be enormous (see Exercise). If the correspondence principle is correct the quantum and classical probability of finding a particle in a particular position should approach each other for very high energies. This is what happens (question 10).


{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|6}}}|icon=Nuvola apps kwrite.png|title=Exercise}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
# Calculate the 3 lowest energy levels of a particle with mass ''m''=1.7x10&lt;sup&gt;-24&lt;/sup&gt; kg in a one dimensional harmonic potential ''V''(''x'')=½''kx''². Use ''k''=100 N/m.
# The vibration of a diatomic molecule A-B can be approximated as the motion of a harmonic oscillator with potential ''V''(''x'')=½''kx''². ''x'' in this case represents the displacement from equilibrium distance. Instead of the mass, you have to use the reduced mass ''μ'' related to the mass of A and the mass of B: &lt;math&gt;\mu = \frac{m_A m_B}{m_A + m_B}&lt;/math&gt;. Calculate the vibrational energy ''ħω'' of the H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; molecule for which ''k''=510 N/m.
# Draw the probability density of the first 5 levels of the harmonic oscillator and the first 5 levels of the particle in the box. Compare them.
# Consider the harmonic oscillator Schrödinger equation written in the adimensional coordinate ''y'' as &lt;math&gt;\left \{ -\frac{1}{2} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial y^2} + \frac{1}{2} y^2 \right \} \psi (y) = \frac{E}{\hbar \omega} \psi (y)&lt;/math&gt;. Show that &lt;math&gt;\psi_0 (y) = \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\psi_1 (y) = y \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt; are eigenfunctions of ''H''(''y'') and find the corresponding eigenvalues.
# Find the values of ''x'' where it is most likely to find a particle in the first excited state of a harmonic oscillator.
#
#* Show that the classical turning point, ''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' for an oscillator with energy ''E&lt;sub&gt;v&lt;/sub&gt;'' = (½ + ''v'')''ħω'' is &lt;math&gt;x_T = \sqrt{\frac{2 \left ( \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} + v \right )\hbar}{m\omega}}&lt;/math&gt;.
#* What is the classically forbidden region?
#* What integral should be solved to find the probability of finding a quantum oscillator in the classically forbidden region? (You don't need to solve the integral.)
# The harmonic oscillator wavefunctions have the following property: &lt;math&gt;y \psi_v (y) = \sqrt{v} \psi_{v-1} (y) + \sqrt{v+1} \psi_{v+1} (y)&lt;/math&gt; i.e. by multiplying ''ψ&lt;sub&gt;v&lt;/sub&gt;''(''y'') by ''y'' gives a linear combination of ''ψ&lt;sub&gt;v-1&lt;/sub&gt;''(''y'') and ''ψ&lt;sub&gt;v+1&lt;/sub&gt;''(''y''). Prove that this is true for ''v''=1 (you should include the normalization constant).
# Is there a zero point energy for the 
#* particle in the box?
#* free particle?
# A macroscopic pendulum has ''ω''=1 s&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;, ''m''=1 kg and total energy 0.1 J. What would be its quantum number if described quantum mechanically?
# The classical probability of finding an oscillator at one particular position is proportional to its inverse velocity.
#* Why?
#* Show that the classical velocity as a function of the position is &lt;math&gt;\omega \sqrt{x_T^2 - x^2}&lt;/math&gt; and the probability density is therefore proportional to &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{x_T^2 - x^2}}&lt;/math&gt;.


{| class=&quot;wikitable collapsible collapsed&quot;
! Solutions
|-
| 
# 1
# 2
# 3
# We need to show that &lt;math&gt;\left \{ -\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial y^2} + \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} y^2 \right \} \psi_0 (y) = E \psi_0 (y)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\psi_0 (y) = \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt;. Substitution gives: &lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix} \left \{ -\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial y^2} + \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} y^2 \right \} \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) = -\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial y^2} \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) + \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} y^2 \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) \\ = -\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} \frac{\partial}{\partial y} \left ( -y \exp \left (-\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) \right ) + \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} y^2 \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) \\ = -\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} \left ( -\exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) + y^2 \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) \right ) + \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} y^2 \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) = \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) \end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt; Comparison of the first and last term confirms that &lt;math&gt;\left \{ -\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial y^2} + \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} y^2 \right \} \psi_0 (y) = E \psi_0 (y)&lt;/math&gt; where E = ½.
# The probability density is proportional to |''ψ''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;(''y'')|² = ''y''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; exp(-''y''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) = ''P'' (''P'' is the probability). This is maximum or minimum when ''dP''/''dy''=0. The derivative is &lt;math&gt;\frac{dP}{dy} = 2y \exp(-y^2) - 2y^3 \exp(-y^2) = 2y \exp(-y^2)(1-y^2)&lt;/math&gt;. This is zero for ''y''=0 (where there is a minimum) and ''y''=±1 (where the two maxima are). 
# 
#* The maximum displacement (turning point) of a classical oscillator is when the potential energy ½''kx&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = ½''mω''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is equal to the total energy. We get, for ''E'' = (½ + ''v'')''ħω'', (½ + ''v'')''ħω'' = ½''mω''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and therefore &lt;math&gt;x_T = \sqrt{\frac{2 \left ( \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} + v \right )\hbar}{m\omega}}&lt;/math&gt;.
#* The classical region is ''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' &lt; ''x'' &lt; -''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;''.
#* The probability of being '''outside''' this region, i.e. in the interval between -∞ &lt; ''x'' &lt; -''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' and ''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' &lt; ''x'' &lt; +∞ is &lt;math&gt;\int_{-\infty}^{-x_T} \psi_v (x)^* \psi_v (x)\, dx + \int_{x_T}^{+\infty} \psi_v (x)^* \psi_v (x)\, dx&lt;/math&gt;.
# Substituting ''v''=1 in &lt;math&gt;y \psi_v (y) = \sqrt{\frac{v}{2}} \psi_{v-1} (y) + \sqrt{\frac{v+1}{2}} \psi_{v+1} (y)&lt;/math&gt;. Left and right hand side are equal, i.e. &lt;math&gt;y \psi_1 (y) = \frac{\sqrt{2}}{\pi^{1/4}} y^2 \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt; so you get &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}} \psi_0 (y) + \sqrt{\begin{matrix} \frac{2}{2} \end{matrix}} \psi_2 (y) = \frac{1}{\pi^{1/4}} \left [ \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) + \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} (2y^2 -1) \exp \left ( -\frac{y^2}{2} \right ) \right ] = \frac{\sqrt{2}}{\pi^{1/4}} y^2 \exp \left ( \frac{y^2}{2} \right )&lt;/math&gt;.
#
#* Yes.
#* No, quantization derives from the boundary condition. Without boundaries, there is no quantization and ''E''=0 is allowed.
# ''E''&lt;sub&gt;v&lt;/sub&gt; = (½ + ''v'')''ħω'' → ''v'' = ''E''&lt;sub&gt;v&lt;/sub&gt; ÷ ''ħω'' - ½ = 0.2 ÷ (1.05x10&lt;sup&gt;-34&lt;/sup&gt; x 1) - ½ ≈ 1.90x10&lt;sup&gt;33&lt;/sup&gt; (i.e. very large).
#
#* You are more likely to observe a particle in a position where it moves slowly. (Think - does a rollercoaster spend more time on the top or at the bottom of its track?)
#* The total energy is ''E&lt;sub&gt;total&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ''E&lt;sub&gt;kinetic&lt;/sub&gt;'' + ''E&lt;sub&gt;potential&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ½''mv''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + ½''kx''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and it must be constant. The velocity at a given position ''x'' is therefore ''v'' = [2/''m'' (''E&lt;sub&gt;total&lt;/sub&gt;'' - ½''kx''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)]&lt;sup&gt;1/2&lt;/sup&gt;. When the particle is at the turning point ''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'', the velocity is zero so ''E&lt;sub&gt;total&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 0 + ½''kx&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and the velocity can be written as ''v'' = [2/''m'' (½''kx&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; - ½''kx''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)]&lt;sup&gt;1/2&lt;/sup&gt; = [''k/m'']&lt;sup&gt;1/2&lt;/sup&gt;(''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; - ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;1/2&lt;/sup&gt; = ''ω''(''x&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; - ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;1/2&lt;/sup&gt;.
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&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;big&gt;'''Next:''' Lesson 5 - [[Quantum mechanics/Further particles in the box and polar coordinates|Further Particles in the Box and Polar Coordinates]]&lt;/big&gt;


[[Category:Chemistry]]
[[Category:Physical chemistry]]
[[Category:Quantum mechanics]]</text>
      <sha1>h1ioqaneehx069b45c4sxrix9zgf9nk</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Radiation astronomy/Protons/Quiz</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>149319</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2417953</id>
      <parentid>1965847</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T19:12:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marshallsumter</username>
        <id>311529</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9271" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:VanAllenP Auto1F.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An artist's view of the Van Allen Probes spacecraft constellation is illustrated. Credit: JHU/APL.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
'''[[Proton astronomy]]''' is a lecture and an article as part of the [[Radiation/Astronomy|radiation astronomy]] course on the [[principles of radiation astronomy]].

You are free to take this quiz based on [[proton astronomy]] at any time.

To improve your score, read and study the lecture, the links contained within, listed under [[Radiation astronomy/Protons/Quiz#See also|'''See also''']], [[Radiation astronomy/Protons/Quiz#External links|'''External links''']], and in the {{tlx|principles of radiation astronomy}} template. This should give you adequate background to get 100 %.

As a &quot;learning by doing&quot; resource, this quiz helps you to assess your knowledge and understanding of the information, and it is a quiz you may take over and over as a learning resource to improve your knowledge, understanding, test-taking skills, and your score.

'''Suggestion:''' Have the lecture available in a separate window.

To master the information and use only your memory while taking the quiz, try rewriting the information from more familiar points of view, or be creative with association.

Enjoy learning by doing!
{{clear}}

==Quiz==

&lt;quiz&gt;

{Complete the text:
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
At the high end of the proton energy spectrum (above ≈ 10&lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt; eV) the  { Larmor (i) } radius deflection becomes { small (i) } enough that proton astronomy becomes { possible (i) }.

{Yes or No, It has recently been suggested by Cane et al. 2002 that a class of type III solar radio bursts, called type III-l, is reliably associated with intense solar energetic particle (SEP) events.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Yes
- No

{The slowing down of a projectile proton due to the inelastic collisions between bound electrons in the medium and the proton moving through it?
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
{ electronic stopping power (i) }

{True or False, An antiproton is a proton moving backward in time.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE
+ FALSE

{Complete the text:
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
Match up the radiation letter with each of the detector possibilities below:
Meteors - A
Cosmic rays - B
Neutrons - C
Protons - D
Electrons - E
Positrons - F
Neutrinos - G
Muons - H
Gamma rays - I
X-rays - J
Ultraviolet rays - K
Optical rays - L
Visual rays - M
Violet rays - N
Blue rays - O
Cyan rays - P
Green rays - Q
Yellow rays - R
Orange rays - S
Red rays - T
Infrared rays - U
Submillimeter rays - V
Radio rays - W
Superluminal rays - X
multialkali (Na-K-Sb-Cs) photocathode materials { L (i) }.
F547M { Q (i) }.
511 keV gamma-ray peak { F (i) }.
F675W { T (i) }.
broad-band filter centered at 404 nm { N (i) }.
a cloud chamber { B (i) }.
ring-imaging Cherenkov { X (i) }.
coherers { W (i) }.
effective area is larger by 10&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; { H (i) }.
F588N { R (i) }.
pyroelectrics { U (i) }.
a blemish about 8,000 km long { A (i) }.
a metal-mesh achromatic half-wave plate { V (i) }.
coated with lithium fluoride over aluminum { K (i) }.
thallium bromide (TlBr) crystals { O (i) }.
F606W { S (i) }.
aluminum nitride { J (i) }.
heavy water { G (i) }.
18 micrometers FWHM at 490 nm { P (i) }.
wide-gap II-VI semiconductor ZnO doped with Co&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; (Zn&lt;sub&gt;1-x&lt;/sub&gt;Co&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt;O) { M (i) }.
a recoiling nucleus { C (i) }
high-purity germanium { I (i) }.
magnetic deflection to separate out incoming ions { E (i) }.
2.2-kilogauss magnet used to sweep out electrons { D (i) }.

{True or False, A small amount of aluminum-26 is produced by collisions of magnesium atoms with cosmic-ray protons.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE
+ FALSE

{Complete the text:
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below:
Meteors - A
Cosmic rays - B
Neutrons - C
Protons - D
Electrons - E
Positrons - F
Gamma rays - G
Superluminals - H
X-ray jets { C (i) }
the index of refraction is often greater than 1 just below a resonance frequency { H (i) }.
iron, nickel, cobalt, and traces of iridium { A (i) }.
Sagittarius X-1 { G (i) }.
escape from a typical hard low-mass X-ray binary { F (i) }.
collisions with argon atoms { B (i) }.
X-rays are emitted as they slow down { E (i) }.
Henry Moseley using X-ray spectra { D (i) }.

{True or False, The spin carried by quarks is not sufficient to account for the total spin of protons.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Which of the following is not in the history of neutrino astronomy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Enrico Fermi coined the term &quot;neutrino&quot;
+ Wolfgang Pauli postulated the [[w:Lepton|muon neutrino]]
- in the Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment, antineutrinos are created
- a hydrogen bubble chamber was used to detect neutrinos 
- Niels Bohr was opposed to the neutrino interpretation of beta decay 
- a neutrino hitting a proton is detectable

{What is a pfu?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
- a measure of neutron half-life suggested by Enrico Fermi
+ a particle flux
+ a unit per steradian (sr)
- the number of bubbles generated in a hydrogen bubble chamber used to detect neutrinos 
- Niels Bohr was opposed to the pfu interpretation of beta decay 
- a measure of the scatter energy of a neutrino hitting a proton

{True or False, The radius of the proton is 4 percent smaller than previously estimated.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Space radiation may be classified according to origin as?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ galactic cosmic radiation
- charged particles in large clouds
+ solar particle radiation
- interaction with the geo-electric field 
- protons and electrons 
+ geomagnetically trapped particle radiation

{True or False, The infrared spectra of olivine and enstatite are essentially unchanged after proton bombardment.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{A collimated stream, spurt or flow of liquid or gas or plasma in a narrow cone of particles?
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
{ jet|a jet (i) }

{If there was no nuclear force, all nuclei with two or more protons would fly apart because of the electromagnetic?
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
{ repulsion (i) }

{True or False, A proton and neutron will have lower energy when their spins are anti-parallel, not parallel.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE
+ FALSE

{As an analysis method NRA may be associated with which phenomena?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ a concentration vs. depth distribution
- charged particles in large clouds
+ target elements may undergo a nuclear reaction
- projectile stopping power is unknown 
- proton elastic scattering 
+ a nuclear method in materials science

{The evolution of organics to carbonaceous material induced by proton irradiation is a well established phenomenon independent of the type of original carbon containing material.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Complete the text:
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
Diamond nanocrystals (size 100 nm) emit bright  { luminescence (i) } at 600–800 nm when exposed to green and yellow photons. The photoluminescence, arising from excitation of the { nitrogen-vacancy|nitrogen vacancy (i) }defect centers created by proton-beam { irradiation (i) } and thermal annealing, closely resembles the extended red emission (ERE) bands observed in reflection nebulae and { planetary (i) } nebulae. The central wavelength of the emission is 700 nm.

{The cosmic infrared background (CIB) causes a significant attenuation for very high energy protons through inverse Compton scattering, photopion and electron-positron pair production.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Hypotheses==
{{main|Hypotheses}}
# More technical details in questions may be better.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Alpha particles/Quiz|Alpha-particle astronomy quiz]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Atomics/Quiz|Atomic astronomy quiz]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Baryons/Quiz|Baryon astronomy quiz]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Beta particles/Quiz|Beta-particles astronomy/Quiz]]
* [[Cosmic-ray astronomy/Quiz]]
* [[Electron astronomy/Quiz]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Mesons/Quiz|Meson astronomy quiz]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Molecules/Quiz|Molecule astronomy quiz]]
* [[Muon astronomy/Quiz]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Neutrals/Quiz|Neutrals astronomy quiz]]
* [[Neutrino astronomy/Quiz]]
* [[Neutron astronomy/Quiz]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Particles/Quiz|Particle astronomy quiz]]
* [[Positron astronomy/Quiz]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Subatomics/Quiz|Subatomic astronomy quiz]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Tauons/Quiz|Tauon astronomy quiz]]
{{Div col end}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

&lt;!-- footer templates --&gt;
{{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{tlx|Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Proton astronomy}}

&lt;!-- categories --&gt;
[[Category:Astrophysics quizzes]]
[[Category:Radiation astronomy quizzes]]
[[Category:Radiation quizzes]]</text>
      <sha1>1pnr8gkek0cql40g56gzjisdbyiw0nq</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Stars/Vega/Spectrum</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>149822</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2417952</id>
      <parentid>2390392</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T19:06:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marshallsumter</username>
        <id>311529</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="12468" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Vega Normalized Calibrated spectrum.gif|thumb|right|250px|This is a full spectrum of Vega (instrumental responsivity corrected). Credit: Buil/AstroSurf.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Vega is a nearby star that has one of its poles facing Earth. A number of spectra for this star have been recorded, with at least one in the public domain.

This laboratory is an activity for you to analyze the spectrum of Vega, or any star of your choice that you can find a spectrum for. While it is part of the astronomy course [[Radiation astronomy/Courses/Principles|principles of radiation astronomy]], it is also independent.

Some suggested entities to consider are emission lines, continua, background, absorption, reflection, or protoplanetary disk.

More importantly, there are '''your''' choice of entities. Vega is 2.1 times the mass of our sun.

You may choose to define your primordial entities or not.

Usually, research follows someone else's ideas of how to do something. But, in this laboratory you can create these too.

Okay, this is an astronomy spectroscopy [[laboratory]], but you may create what a '''spectrum''' is and its limits.

Yes, this laboratory is structured.

I will provide the example of Vega for analysis. The rest is up to you.

Questions, if any, are best placed on the discussion page.
{{clear}}

==Notations==

You are free to create your own notation or use those available.

==Control groups==

For creating an analysis of the spectrum of Vega, what would make an acceptable control group? Think about a control group to compare your spectral analysis or your process of creating such an analysis to.

==Sampling==
{{main|Sampling}}
[[Image:Vega1.gif|thumb|right|200px|This graph shows the labeled peaks for the 380.0-500.0 nm domain. Credit: Buil/Astrosurf.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:Vega2.gif|thumb|right|200px|The spectrum shows the annotated lines for the 500.0-600.0 nm domain. Credit: Buil/Astrosurf.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:Vega3.gif|thumb|right|200px|This annotated spectrum contains the 600.0-700.0 nm domain. Credit: Buil/Astrosurf.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:Vega4.gif|thumb|right|200px|This annotated spectrum displays the 700.0-800.0 nm domain. Credit: Buil/Astrosurf.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:Vega5.gif|thumb|right|200px|This annotated spectrum displays the 800.0-900.0 nm domain. Credit: Buil/Astrosurf.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:Vega6.gif|thumb|right|200px|This annotated spectrum displays the 900.0-1020.0 nm domain. Credit: Buil/Astrosurf.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
At the top right of this resource is an instrumentally corrected full spectrum of the star Vega.

The second part of the laboratory is to produce or locate an annotated spectrum or set of spectra that indicate which lines come from what elements.

Each of the annotated spectra at right display portions of the spectrum at the top of this resource:
# the wavelength domain from 380.0 nm to 500.0 nm,
# the 500.0-600.0 nm domain,
# the 600.0-700.0 nm domain,
# the 700.0-800.0 nm domain,
# the 800.0-900.0 nm domain, and
# the 900.0-1020.0 nm domain.

Each of these images at right has various element lines labeled: calcium, hydrogen, iron, magnesium, nitrogen, oxygen,  silicon, sodium, and titanium.

Molecular lines occur for H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O and O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; which are Telluric absorption lines from Earth's atmosphere.

The applicable astronomies are
# [[Radiation astronomy/Violets|violet astronomy]], [[Radiation astronomy/Blues|blue astronomy]], [[Radiation astronomy/Cyans|cyan astronomy]], and [[Radiation astronomy/Greens|green astronomy]],
# [[Radiation astronomy/Greens|green astronomy]], [[Radiation astronomy/Yellows|yellow astronomy]], and [[Radiation astronomy/Reds|red astronomy]],
# [[Radiation astronomy/Reds|red astronomy]] and near [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|infrared astronomy]], and
# near [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|infrared astronomy]],
# near [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|infrared astronomy]], and
# near [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|infrared astronomy]].

The principal low atomic number elements of interest, whose lines need to be identified are
# hydrogen,
# helium,
# lithium,
# beryllium,
# boron,
# carbon,
# nitrogen,
# oxygen,
# fluorine, and
# neon.

Identification of ionization state should be made where possible.
{{clear}}

==Verification==

Element lines and wavelengths can be verified using these resources:
* {{ cite book
|author=Alexander Kramida
|author2=Yuri Ralchenko
|author3=Joseph Reader
|title=NIST Atomic Spectra Database, Version 5
|publisher=National Institutes of Standards and Technology (NIST)
|location=Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA
|date=September 24, 2012
|url=http://www.nist.gov/pml/data/asd.cfm
|accessdate=2013-01-20 }}
* {{ cite book
|author=Jean E. Sansonetti
|author2=W. C. Martin
|author3=S. L. Young
|title=Handbook of Basic Atomic Spectroscopic Data
|publisher=Physical Measurement Laboratory, NIST
|location=Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA
|date=December 9, 2011
|url=http://www.nist.gov/pml/data/handbook/index.cfm
|accessdate=2013-01-24 }}

The element lines to look for and verify whether present or not are
# hydrogen, all high intensity lines detected and state properly labeled.
# helium, the two major lines at 388.86 and 706.519 nm are possible but may overlap the hydrogen line at 388.90 nm.
# lithium - no lines detected.
# beryllium - no lines detected.
# boron - two strong lines are possible, the 412.1933 nm as a shoulder on H I 410.17 nm line, while the other 448.705 nm overlaps the labeled 448.11 Mg II line.
# carbon, the line at 723.642 nm is possible but unlabeled.
# nitrogen, high intensity lines labeled, but the 868.028 N I is possible as an unlabeled shoulder.
# oxygen - the 777.42 nm O I may be mislabeled and should be 777.194 nm O I which is the stronger line.
# fluorine - the 685.603 nm F I line is possible.
# neon - not detected.

For the heavier elements:
# sodium - the two Na I lines are properly labeled.
# magnesium - all of the lines may be wrong and mislabeled.
# calcium - all high intensity lines present and labeled, the Ca K is a Ca II line.
# titanium - the Ti II line at 439.50 nm is properly labeled as are the others.
# silicon - lines are properly labeled.
# iron - all are labeled properly, because the 501.84 nm line is only Fe II, which differentiates Fe I lines from Fe II lines.

==Report==

'''Title:'''
The element lines of the spectrum of Vega between 388.0 nm and 1020.0 nm.

by [[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 19:35, 24 March 2014 (UTC)

'''Abstract'''

A detailed spectrum of starlight from the star Vega was collected on July 4, 2002, using a commercially available spectrometer. The lines were indexed and labeled as to element and ionization state. This analysis is a subsequent examination of the spectrum for possible misidentification, improper ionization state, and potential red shift or blue shift.

'''Introduction'''

Vega is a nearby optical spectral type A0V star at about 25 lyrs. Its polar effective temperature is near 10,000 K, while its equatorial effective temperature is 7,600 K. Vega is a known soft X-ray source. If an [[Stars/X-ray classification|X-ray classification of stars]] is possible, the cloud that became Vega may have any composition initially. Any surface fusion ongoing above the photosphere may be expected to produce some lighter elements. An examination of its spectrum may indicate some of these light elements.

'''Experiment'''

The full optical spectrum of Vega between 388.0 nm and 1020.0 nm should reveal the protostar cloud initial composition plus atmospheric fusion products. Its soft X-ray output suggests only lower energy fusion products, if any. Spectral components from about 380.0-500.0 nm, 500.0-600.0 nm, 600.0-700.0 nm, 700.0-800.0 nm, 800.0-900.0 nm, and 900.0-1020.0 nm were examined for proper and complete labeling of peaks.

'''Results'''

All high intensity hydrogen lines were detected and together with ionization states properly labeled. Helium lines (two) may be present but overlap the hydrogen lines. No lithium or beryllium was detected. Boron lines may be mislabeled as magnesium lines. The carbon line at 732.642 nm is a possible detection but is unlabeled. The nitrogen high intensity lines are present and labeled, and 868.028 nm N I line is possible as an unlabeled shoulder. Oxygen is present as monatomic although the 777.42 nm O I line may be mislabeled and should be the 777.194 nm O I line which is stronger. The high intensity fluorine line at 685.603 nm F I is possible, appears to be present, but is unlabeled. Neon was not detected.

Of the heavier elements, the alkali and alkali-earth sodium and calcium were detected. The metals titanium and iron are properly labeled and the Fe II line 501.84 nm is present and allows the differentiation between Fe I and Fe II ionization states. Silicon lines are present and properly labeled.

No red shift of blue shift is apparent.

'''Discussion'''

The over riding presence of hydrogen suggests that very little atmospheric surface fusion has taken place. This is supported by the possible presence of boron. The presence of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and likely fluorine suggests that subsequent lower energy fusion has been consuming, or may have consumed the helium, lithium, and beryllium. Without neon being detected it is likely that the heavier elements are dust and debris captured by Vega or present as dust in the initial cloud before it was energized.

'''Conclusion'''

Vega is an optical spectral type A0V star that appears to have very little ongoing atmospheric surface fusion. Its current spectrum suggests only that the original cloud has been energized and contained heavier elements. The high surface temperature suggests that any ''electron beam heating'' is primarily directed toward the photosphere. As Vega has a pole towards Earth that may also be in a coronal hole, assessment of its potential X-ray classification is difficult.

==Evaluations==

To assess your spectral analysis, including your justification, analysis and discussion, I will provide such an assessment of my example for comparison.

'''Evaluation'''

No evidence is presented for declaring that the magnesium labeled lines are likely boron except comparison with NIST computer generated lines matched with observations. More detailed examination of the lines present, including the possible missing helium may suggest a different evolution for Vega than the one presented. Evidence allowing a choice between alternative evolutions was not presented or discussed.

==Hypotheses==
{{main|Hypotheses}}
# The spectrum of Vega is influenced by its pole pointing toward Earth.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=}}
* [[Stars/Astronomy|Stellar astronomy]]
* [[Stars/Sciences|Stellar science]]
* [[Stars/Vega|Vega]]
{{Div col end}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA.]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl  Universal coordinate converter]

&lt;!-- footer templates --&gt;
{{tlx|Chemistry resources}}{{tlx|Charge ontology}}{{tlx|History of science resources}}{{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{tlx|Radiation astronomy resources}}{{tlx|Reasoning resources}}{{tlx|Semantics resources}}{{tlx|Terminology resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Spectrum of Vega}}{{Sisterlinks|Laboratory}}

&lt;!-- categories --&gt;
[[Category:Astrophysics/Laboratories]]
[[Category:Chemistry/Laboratories]]
[[Category:Radiation astronomy/Laboratories]]
[[Category:Stars/Laboratories]]
[[Category:Technology/Laboratories]]</text>
      <sha1>88i6zt2d8ma69n4pnu2f9izjteiln9b</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Parenting and emotional development in children</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>151427</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418173</id>
      <parentid>2223623</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T07:20:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="24053" xml:space="preserve">{{Title|Parenting and emotional development in children – How do parenting styles affect the emotional development of children?}}
{{MECR|1=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wnKKHkzwv_o}}

== Overview ==
The aim of this chapter is to explain how different parenting styles have an affect on the emotional development of their children.  Parents generally want to be able to provide their children with a balanced amount of discipline and freedom, however this may not always be the easiest task.  It takes a lot to raise children, and because of this many parents are left with the task of trying to figure out how to raise their children properly in order for them to be well rounded, happy, satisfied people.  Psychologically speaking, there are many different parenting styles that have been studied in order to try to figure this out.

There are many outside factors that play a role in how a child’s emotional development progresses, and parenting plays a very major role in this development.  It is very normal for many parents (especially first time parents) to feel nervous, anxious, and even scared when it comes to figuring out how to parent, the problem occurs when parents cannot find a proper balance of a mix of parenting styles and they lean towards one certain style; this can create immense emotional distress for the child.  Parents’ reactions and interactions with their child (ren) basically create the emotional groundwork for their child’s future, and this is a very sensitive part of every human being.  Many basic personality and attitude characteristics are built upon the initial impact of how one’s parents have influenced their lives through their upbringing.  Of course, many personality traits are also a result of the outside world as well, but the effects of parenting are a very major and basic part of one’s being.

== What are the different parenting styles? ==
There are different styles involved in parenting, and many theorists have studied this particular subject, nevertheless, a good way to measure parenting style would be to turn to the work of psychologist Diana Baumrind.  After doing extensive research on parents and their children, she came up with one of the most widely used models of parenting.  Her model distinguishes between three different parenting styles: authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative.  Authoritarian parents are characterized as being very demanding, having a low responsiveness, and they value obedience in their children.  They do not encourage verbal interaction and they use punitive measures to control the behaviors of their children (Dominguez &amp; Carton, 1997).  Permissive parents are on the very other side of the parental scale, they are characterized as making few demands of their children and they use little or no punishment.  They do not really play an active role in shaping their children’s lives or determining their behavior; children of permissive parents have been described as being “spoiled”.  The final style of parenting that Baumrind distinguished was the authoritative style, which falls in between the other two, and is considered to be the balance for parenting.  Authoritative parents tend to moderate demandingness and responsiveness; they are responsive to their child’s needs however they do not indulge them.  They use reasoning and shaping in order to direct their children’s behaviors in a rational and healthy demeanor, and they set firm limits without being rigid (Dominguez &amp; Carlton, 1997).
[[File:Child &amp; caregiver patterns.jpg|thumbnail|Child &amp; caregiver behaviour patterns before the age of 18 months]]
Many psychologists have used Baumrind’s categorization of parenting types in order to study the effects of these styles on children.  Her measures for these styles have proven to be a good background for research on the parent-child emotional relationship.  Of course not all parents fall into these categories, however most parents do fall somewhere in the range of these three categories.  The use of Baumrind’s parenting styles is mainly for being able to understand how different actions and attitudes of parents have proven to create certain reactions and to cause children to grow up and act in certain ways.  Her classification of these styles has also shown that she favors the authoritative style of parenting, and many studies have shown that children with authoritative parents are in a better place emotionally than children with parents in the other two categories.

== Emotional Development in Children ==
In the past couple of years there has been an increase in social and emotional difficulties in children, these difficulties have been proven to appear as early as 2-5 years of age in children.  In the society that kids are being raised in today, there is much focus on how to prevent them from physical illnesses and afflictions; however, there has been an immense lack of attention when it comes to the psychological and emotional well being of young children.  Recently, more research has been done on this, and more and more focus is being put on the emotional and psychological aspect of children’s needs.  Parent-child check up interventions has become an important part of trying to figure out how to increase positive outcomes in child emotionality and growth as part of the health systems in the world.  These interventions are known as Well-Child Check Up Revised protocols, and the goal of these interventions are to implement screening tools that will help in assessing parent-child interaction (Talen et al., 2007).  This of course would help in promoting healthy family relationships and in turn, emotionally and psychologically healthier children.
[[File: Baby tears.jpg|thumbnail|Insecure attachement can cause emotional distress in children]]

The way these Well-Child Check Up Revised protocols work is that parents are asked to participate in certain tasks with their children, and these tasks help provide health care providers with a global assessment of the parent-child relationship.  These tasks include three playful parent-child tasks for assessing children’s social-emotional development and relationship styles (Talen et al., 2007).  The categories of the tasks are affection, behavior management, and child development and challenge.  The great thing about these protocols is that parents get to learn how to develop the proper skills involved in how to act and react to certain situations with their children in order to provide them with the proper emotional responses and attitudes that will foster proper positive family life and emotional development.  Studies have shown that a large number of children suffer through disconnected social support systems now a days, and it is excruciatingly important for parents to learn how to properly deal with them in order to stop this disconnection from happening.

A very big factor that plays into the disconnected social support system is personal family problems.  These problems include family stressors such as substance abuse, violence, social isolation and many more.  As these family stressors increase, so do the mental and physical disorders of young children.  The past 10 years alone have shown a significant increase in disorders in children that have dealt with experiencing family stressors.  The rates of children that experience child abuse, neglect, and abandonment are also alarmingly high now (Talen et al., 2007).  With all of this happening, it is no surprise that family dynamics have become an important topic of study and research.

It is important to be able to provide children with relationships that include positive characteristics such as emotional closeness, early secure attachments, parental sensitivity and responsiveness to the child’s needs, a sense of parental self-efficacy and self-competency.  All of these factors play a very essential role in providing children with the needs that must be met emotionally and psychologically for healthy development.  This combination of things should result in healthy, stress-resistant, and resilient children.  It is also very crucial for them to have emotional warmth, support, engagement, stimulation and a lack of violence, stress, and family conflicts.  Another important factor that plays into healthy child emotionality is having parents that provide them with shared feelings and thoughts (Talen et al., 2007).  As in, parents that interact with their children in a healthy demeanor, so as to make them feel included, show them that their creative input is important and open the road to healthy communication with them have better outcomes when it comes to emotionally and psychologically healthy kids.

== Differential Parenting Style ==
Another factor that plays a very important role in how children develop emotionally is differential parenting style.  There is a substantial impact that parenting styles have on child health development.  All of the characteristics that are an important part of the parent-child relationship need to be worked on with parenting techniques, because different parents have different ways of “parenting” their children.  Positive parenting techniques help children develop in areas such as cognitive function and behavioral regulation.  However, negative parenting can result in the development of emotional-behavioral problems.  In fact, negative parenting can create children who have high levels of aggression and show signs of anti-social behavioral problems.
The idea of differential parenting within families originates from a study that was done analyzing this style, done by Plomin and Daniels (1987), who argued that the residual differences among siblings in their health and development must be due to nonshared environmental forces (Boyle et al., 2004).  The general idea that is involved in this study is mainly that unequal parenting treatment can have a negative effect on a child’s self-esteem and can cause adjustment problems for children who already see themselves as worse off than their sibling in regards to parental love and affection.  On the other hand, with this information, it can also be inferred that differential parenting has a positive impact on the sibling that is perceived as better off (Boyle et al., 2004).
[[File:secure attachment.jpg|thumbnail|Secure attachment is a very important part of emotional development in children]]
The study that was done by Plomin and Daniels (1987) resulted in the selection of two children per family, and it focused on the effects of child-specific, within-family differences.  The studies of children in regards to this differential parenting indicated that children who are subject to less positive and more negative treatment, in relativity to their sibling(s), display poor adjustment, as well as poor relationship quality.  Negative feelings in children, especially in regards to differential parenting, such as discomfort, personal insecurity, and social anxiety increase as they begin to engage in competitive practices over parental behavior.  These children may also experience fear or anxiety over losing their “position” in the family in the future, or experiencing diminishing sibling relationships (Boyle et al., 2004).  In cases such as this, verbal reasoning is good ways for parents to deal with children in order to help them better understand certain actions.  This will keep the children from making automatic assumptions about their parents having to “split” their love or attention between themselves and their sibling(s).

== Psychological Control ==
Psychological control refers to parental behaviors that intrude on the psychological and emotional development of the child (Mantzouranis et al., 2011).  It refers to the conscious or unconscious invasive parental methods such as love withdrawal, shame induction, and even conditional approval from parents in order to make adolescents and children think and behave in a conforming way that is suitable to the parents’ demands (Mantzouranis et al., 2011).  This form of psychological control can be related back to Baumrind’s different parenting styles, specifically the authoritarian type parents.

Soenens et al. have proposed two expressions of psychological control in 2010, and they are Dependency-oriented Psychological Control (DPC) and Achievement-oriented Psychological Control (APC). DPC is characterized by parents who pressure their children and adolescents in order to keep them within close physical and emotional relatedness.  Parents that utilize this form of control are usually overprotective, possessive, and they may cause their children and adolescents to experience separation anxiety.  They tend to restrict their children’s autonomy and they exploit the relational bond with their children when they begin to distance themselves too much from family (Mantzouranis et al., 2011).  Parents perceived as having high DPC do favor and require parent-adolescent closeness, so they are not necessarily unresponsive or lacking of warmth, they just lack the proper knowledge on how to express this to their children in a healthy manner.

APC is characterized by parents who are highly demanding and pressure their children and adolescents to excel in performance-relevant contexts, for example academics or sports (Mantzouranis et al., 2011).  The types of parents that utilize this form of control use intrusive methods, shame, and guilt, when their children and adolescents do not meet their demands.  Parents perceived as having high APC are likely to be perceived as aloof or cold (Mantzouranis et al., 2011).  A study that was done on DPC and APC and it’s effects on family relationships has shown that behavioral control is usually done in an autonomy-inhibiting fashion, and parents become characterized by dependency-oriented psychological control.  This results in parents trying to regulate and structure a child’s behavior, which is very unhealthy to emotional development.  This can cause a lack of trust to form, which can result in children experiencing negative emotions in regards to feeling that their parents’ love or affection is unauthentic (Mantzouranis et al., 2011).

This distorted emotional development that is related to high DPC or APC levels can also be compared to children with parents that exhibit a need for perfectionism in their kids.  The issue with perfectionism is of course that it inhibits creativity in children, and creativity plays a very essential role in emotional development.  Creativity in children is one of the most basic and important characteristics when it comes to their abilities of expression.  The ability to think creatively helps children with producing novel and appropriate responses in a variety of situations.  Creative thinking is the basis for children learning how to become high-ability individuals; it fosters individuality and innovation (Miller et al., 2012).  Being able to be a creative thinker also creates the groundwork for being successful in future endeavors, especially when it comes to careers in adulthood.  High-ability individuals are very likely to enter professions such as medicine, engineering, and technological fields that demand not only the mastery of content, but also creative thinking skills (Miller et al., 2012).  With this knowledge in hand, parents and educators try hard to work on what actions can foster these creative thinking skills in order to help children hone them.

Different parenting styles do affect children’s creativity because some styles may promote creativity whereas others may suppress or ignore it completely.  Harsh treatment of children leads to lower levels of creativity.  Authoritarian parents are less likely to provide a suitable home environment that is conductive to creativity.  Environments such as this inhibit creative and independent growth of children (Miller et al., 2012).  An important factor in crafting a healthy environment that fosters high levels of creativity first includes understanding what factors make creativity flourish.  Studies done by Snowden and Christian (1999) have shown that authoritative parenting style was important for fostering creativity in young gifted children.  Showing interest in a child’s behavior without overwhelming them with rules to govern them, and high levels of acceptance from parents have proven to be successful ways to nourish their creativity.  Responsiveness to children’s behavior in this was is a characteristic of the authoritarian parenting style, and it may be one of the most important dimensions for creative expression (Miller et al., 2012).  There is a positive correlation between parenting styles with high responsiveness attitudes and high levels of creativity in children.

== Socioemotional Development of Children ==
Studies have shown that children’s socioemotional development is related to parental emotional socialization, which are parents’ implicit and explicit expectations about the control of their children’s expressiveness (Berlin, 2003).  Parental emotion socialization is examined in terms of several different aspects of parenting behavior; such as a parent’s own expressiveness and their ability to cope with their children’s negative emotions.  Research done on emotion socialization highlights two main guiding principles: first, emotional socialization includes heightening and suppressing processes, as in, practices that both encourage and discourage children’s emotional expressiveness.  Second, healthy emotion socialization is defined by the acceptance of both positive and negative emotions and parent’s adequate control of their children’s expressiveness.  A study done on mother’s self-reported control of their preschool children’s emotional expression has managed to show how infant-mother attachment associations do actually have a connection with children’s emotional regulation.  There are three different principal attachment patterns that have been proposed to have connections to this by Cassidy (1994): secure, insecure avoidant, and insecure-ambivalent (Ainsworth et al., 1978).

It was suggested by Cassidy (1994) that mothers of securely attached children socialize their children’s emotions in order to help provide a secure base for them to explore (Ainsworth, 1963).  Mother’s of insecure-avoidant children have been proposed to socialize their children’s emotions in the service of minimizing attachment behavior and emphasizing independence (Berlin, 2003).  This of course creates a situation in which mothers are recanting their children’s negative emotions, and in turn this suppresses negative expressiveness.  This practice is very unhealthy because it minimizes a child’s need for finding comfort and closeness in their parent(s).  On the other hand, mothers of insecure-ambivalent children have been shown to socialize their children’s emotions in order to maximize attachment behaviors and emphasize dependence (Berlin, 2003).  This in turn heightens children’s negative expressiveness, and it can cause a child to become overly attached.  Studies have shown that children who have mothers that practice great control over their positive or negative expressiveness tend to have problems with sharing their emotions.

== Emotion Knowledge ==
Emotion knowledge is defined as the ability to discriminate emotional expressions and the contexts in which they are appropriate (Woven, Carmody, &amp; Lewis, 2010).  This type of knowledge is acquired through both direct socialization and through experiencing emotions and their consequences in regards to a child’s parent.  Skills such as this trigger children’s abilities to understand and predict the behaviors of others.  As this knowledge develops throughout childhood, so does the ability to understand emotional vocabulary, facial expressions, and different emotional context associations (Woven, Carmody, &amp; Lewis, 2010).  This knowledge is a very basic need for children; it helps them develop future social and emotional functioning as well as helping them manage their own emotions appropriately.

Child-parent relationships are very important when it comes to building a child’s emotional knowledge.  Children with disordered relations with their parents show poorer emotion knowledge than other children.  Harsh, abusive parenting also interferes with children’s abilities to recognize and process emotions, specifically negative emotions.  This can be taken as far as physical abuse.  Studies have shown that high levels of physical abuse tends to sensitize children to anger, which leads to its recognition even when cues to it are indistinct (Woven, Carmody, &amp; Lewis, 2010).  Children who experience high levels of physical punitiveness (i.e. spanking, slapping, hitting the child with open hand or object) and psychological aggression (i.e. swearing, threatening) from their parents have similar effects on their growing emotional knowledge.  Abused children tend to have an increase in aggressive behavior because of this misattribution when it comes to the hostile intentions of others (Woven, Carmody, &amp; Lewis, 2010).

== Conclusion ==
Studies have shown that the most successful way to help children develop in a healthy emotional way is to find a balance between parenting styles.  Leaning too far into any certain style will cause emotional instability and cause psychological harm to children.

== References ==
# Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1963). The development of infant–mother interaction among the Ganda.In B. M. Foss (Ed.), Determinants of infant behavior, Vol. 2. London: Methuen.
# Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., &amp; Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
# Berlin, L. (2003). Mothers’ Self-Reported Control of Their Preschool Children's Emotional Expressiveness: A Longitudinal Study of Associations with Infant–Mother Attachment and Children's Emotion Regulation. Social Development, 12(4), 477-495.
# Boyle, M. (2004). Differential-Maternal Parenting Behavior: Estimating Within- and Between-Family Effects on Children. Child Development, 75(5), 1457-1476.
# Cassidy, J. &amp; Berlin, L. J. (1994). The insecure-ambivalent pattern of attachment: Theory and research. Child Development, 65, 971–991.
# Dominguez, M., &amp; Carton, J. S. (1997). The Relationship Between Self-Actualization and Parenting Style. Journal Of Social Behavior &amp; Personality, 12(4), 1093-1100.
# Mantzouranis, G. (2012). A Further Examination of the Distinction Between Dependency-Oriented and Achievement-Oriented Parental Psychological Control: Psychometric Properties of the DAPCS with French-Speaking Late Adolescents. Journal Of Child &amp; Family Studies, 21(5), 726-733.
# Miller, A. L., Lambert, A. D., &amp; Neumeister, K. (2012). Parenting style, perfectionism, and creativity in high-ability and high-achieving young adults. Journal For The Education Of The Gifted, 35(4), 344-365. doi:10.1177/0162353212459257
# Morris, A. (2007). The Role of the Family Context in the Development of Emotion Regulation. Social Development, 16(2), 361-388.
# Snowden, P. L., &amp; Christian, L. G. (1999). Parenting the young gifted child: Supportive behaviors. Roeper Review, 21, 215-222. doi:10.1080/02783199909553964
# Speirs Neumeister, K. L. (2004). Factors influencing the development of perfectionism in gifted college students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 48, 259-274. doi:10.1177/001698620404800402
# Sullivan, M. (2010). How Neglect and Punitiveness Influence Emotion Knowledge. Child Psychiatry &amp; Human Development, 41(3), 285-298.
# Talen, M. R., Stephens, L., Marik, P., &amp; Buchholz, M. (2007). Well-child check-up revised: An efficient protocol for assessing children's social-emotional development. Families, Systems, &amp; Health, 25(1), 23-35. doi:10.1037/1091-7527.25.1.23

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== Overview ==
The aim of this chapter is to explain how different parenting styles have an affect on the emotional development of their children.  Parents generally want to be able to provide their children with a balanced amount of discipline and freedom, however this may not always be the easiest task.  It takes a lot to raise children, and because of this many parents are left with the task of trying to figure out how to raise their children properly in order for them to be well rounded, happy, satisfied people.  Psychologically speaking, there are many different parenting styles that have been studied in order to try to figure this out.

There are many outside factors that play a role in how a child’s emotional development progresses, and parenting plays a very major role in this development.  It is very normal for many parents (especially first time parents) to feel nervous, anxious, and even scared when it comes to figuring out how to parent, the problem occurs when parents cannot find a proper balance of a mix of parenting styles and they lean towards one certain style; this can create immense emotional distress for the child.  Parents’ reactions and interactions with their child (ren) basically create the emotional groundwork for their child’s future, and this is a very sensitive part of every human being.  Many basic personality and attitude characteristics are built upon the initial impact of how one’s parents have influenced their lives through their upbringing.  Of course, many personality traits are also a result of the outside world as well, but the effects of parenting are a very major and basic part of one’s being.

== What are the different parenting styles? ==
There are different styles involved in parenting, and many theorists have studied this particular subject, nevertheless, a good way to measure parenting style would be to turn to the work of psychologist Diana Baumrind.  After doing extensive research on parents and their children, she came up with one of the most widely used models of parenting.  Her model distinguishes between three different parenting styles: authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative.  Authoritarian parents are characterized as being very demanding, having a low responsiveness, and they value obedience in their children.  They do not encourage verbal interaction and they use punitive measures to control the behaviors of their children (Dominguez &amp; Carton, 1997).  Permissive parents are on the very other side of the parental scale, they are characterized as making few demands of their children and they use little or no punishment.  They do not really play an active role in shaping their children’s lives or determining their behavior; children of permissive parents have been described as being “spoiled”.  The final style of parenting that Baumrind distinguished was the authoritative style, which falls in between the other two, and is considered to be the balance for parenting.  Authoritative parents tend to moderate demandingness and responsiveness; they are responsive to their child’s needs however they do not indulge them.  They use reasoning and shaping in order to direct their children’s behaviors in a rational and healthy demeanor, and they set firm limits without being rigid (Dominguez &amp; Carlton, 1997).
[[File:Child &amp; caregiver patterns.jpg|thumbnail|Child &amp; caregiver behaviour patterns before the age of 18 months]]
Many psychologists have used Baumrind’s categorization of parenting types in order to study the effects of these styles on children.  Her measures for these styles have proven to be a good background for research on the parent-child emotional relationship.  Of course not all parents fall into these categories, however most parents do fall somewhere in the range of these three categories.  The use of Baumrind’s parenting styles is mainly for being able to understand how different actions and attitudes of parents have proven to create certain reactions and to cause children to grow up and act in certain ways.  Her classification of these styles has also shown that she favors the authoritative style of parenting, and many studies have shown that children with authoritative parents are in a better place emotionally than children with parents in the other two categories.

== Emotional Development in Children ==
In the past couple of years there has been an increase in social and emotional difficulties in children, these difficulties have been proven to appear as early as 2-5 years of age in children.  In the society that kids are being raised in today, there is much focus on how to prevent them from physical illnesses and afflictions; however, there has been an immense lack of attention when it comes to the psychological and emotional well being of young children.  Recently, more research has been done on this, and more and more focus is being put on the emotional and psychological aspect of children’s needs.  Parent-child check up interventions has become an important part of trying to figure out how to increase positive outcomes in child emotionality and growth as part of the health systems in the world.  These interventions are known as Well-Child Check Up Revised protocols, and the goal of these interventions are to implement screening tools that will help in assessing parent-child interaction (Talen et al., 2007).  This of course would help in promoting healthy family relationships and in turn, emotionally and psychologically healthier children.
[[File: Baby tears.jpg|thumbnail|Insecure attachement can cause emotional distress in children]]

The way these Well-Child Check Up Revised protocols work is that parents are asked to participate in certain tasks with their children, and these tasks help provide health care providers with a global assessment of the parent-child relationship.  These tasks include three playful parent-child tasks for assessing children’s social-emotional development and relationship styles (Talen et al., 2007).  The categories of the tasks are affection, behavior management, and child development and challenge.  The great thing about these protocols is that parents get to learn how to develop the proper skills involved in how to act and react to certain situations with their children in order to provide them with the proper emotional responses and attitudes that will foster proper positive family life and emotional development.  Studies have shown that a large number of children suffer through disconnected social support systems now a days, and it is excruciatingly important for parents to learn how to properly deal with them in order to stop this disconnection from happening.

A very big factor that plays into the disconnected social support system is personal family problems.  These problems include family stressors such as substance abuse, violence, social isolation and many more.  As these family stressors increase, so do the mental and physical disorders of young children.  The past 10 years alone have shown a significant increase in disorders in children that have dealt with experiencing family stressors.  The rates of children that experience child abuse, neglect, and abandonment are also alarmingly high now (Talen et al., 2007).  With all of this happening, it is no surprise that family dynamics have become an important topic of study and research.

It is important to be able to provide children with relationships that include positive characteristics such as emotional closeness, early secure attachments, parental sensitivity and responsiveness to the child’s needs, a sense of parental self-efficacy and self-competency.  All of these factors play a very essential role in providing children with the needs that must be met emotionally and psychologically for healthy development.  This combination of things should result in healthy, stress-resistant, and resilient children.  It is also very crucial for them to have emotional warmth, support, engagement, stimulation and a lack of violence, stress, and family conflicts.  Another important factor that plays into healthy child emotionality is having parents that provide them with shared feelings and thoughts (Talen et al., 2007).  As in, parents that interact with their children in a healthy demeanor, so as to make them feel included, show them that their creative input is important and open the road to healthy communication with them have better outcomes when it comes to emotionally and psychologically healthy kids.

== Differential Parenting Style ==
Another factor that plays a very important role in how children develop emotionally is differential parenting style.  There is a substantial impact that parenting styles have on child health development.  All of the characteristics that are an important part of the parent-child relationship need to be worked on with parenting techniques, because different parents have different ways of “parenting” their children.  Positive parenting techniques help children develop in areas such as cognitive function and behavioral regulation.  However, negative parenting can result in the development of emotional-behavioral problems.  In fact, negative parenting can create children who have high levels of aggression and show signs of anti-social behavioral problems.
The idea of differential parenting within families originates from a study that was done analyzing this style, done by Plomin and Daniels (1987), who argued that the residual differences among siblings in their health and development must be due to nonshared environmental forces (Boyle et al., 2004).  The general idea that is involved in this study is mainly that unequal parenting treatment can have a negative effect on a child’s self-esteem and can cause adjustment problems for children who already see themselves as worse off than their sibling in regards to parental love and affection.  On the other hand, with this information, it can also be inferred that differential parenting has a positive impact on the sibling that is perceived as better off (Boyle et al., 2004).
[[File:secure attachment.jpg|thumbnail|Secure attachment is a very important part of emotional development in children]]
The study that was done by Plomin and Daniels (1987) resulted in the selection of two children per family, and it focused on the effects of child-specific, within-family differences.  The studies of children in regards to this differential parenting indicated that children who are subject to less positive and more negative treatment, in relativity to their sibling(s), display poor adjustment, as well as poor relationship quality.  Negative feelings in children, especially in regards to differential parenting, such as discomfort, personal insecurity, and social anxiety increase as they begin to engage in competitive practices over parental behavior.  These children may also experience fear or anxiety over losing their “position” in the family in the future, or experiencing diminishing sibling relationships (Boyle et al., 2004).  In cases such as this, verbal reasoning is good ways for parents to deal with children in order to help them better understand certain actions.  This will keep the children from making automatic assumptions about their parents having to “split” their love or attention between themselves and their sibling(s).

== Psychological Control ==
Psychological control refers to parental behaviors that intrude on the psychological and emotional development of the child (Mantzouranis et al., 2011).  It refers to the conscious or unconscious invasive parental methods such as love withdrawal, shame induction, and even conditional approval from parents in order to make adolescents and children think and behave in a conforming way that is suitable to the parents’ demands (Mantzouranis et al., 2011).  This form of psychological control can be related back to Baumrind’s different parenting styles, specifically the authoritarian type parents.

Soenens et al. have proposed two expressions of psychological control in 2010, and they are Dependency-oriented Psychological Control (DPC) and Achievement-oriented Psychological Control (APC). DPC is characterized by parents who pressure their children and adolescents in order to keep them within close physical and emotional relatedness.  Parents that utilize this form of control are usually overprotective, possessive, and they may cause their children and adolescents to experience separation anxiety.  They tend to restrict their children’s autonomy and they exploit the relational bond with their children when they begin to distance themselves too much from family (Mantzouranis et al., 2011).  Parents perceived as having high DPC do favor and require parent-adolescent closeness, so they are not necessarily unresponsive or lacking of warmth, they just lack the proper knowledge on how to express this to their children in a healthy manner.

APC is characterized by parents who are highly demanding and pressure their children and adolescents to excel in performance-relevant contexts, for example academics or sports (Mantzouranis et al., 2011).  The types of parents that utilize this form of control use intrusive methods, shame, and guilt, when their children and adolescents do not meet their demands.  Parents perceived as having high APC are likely to be perceived as aloof or cold (Mantzouranis et al., 2011).  A study that was done on DPC and APC and it’s effects on family relationships has shown that behavioral control is usually done in an autonomy-inhibiting fashion, and parents become characterized by dependency-oriented psychological control.  This results in parents trying to regulate and structure a child’s behavior, which is very unhealthy to emotional development.  This can cause a lack of trust to form, which can result in children experiencing negative emotions in regards to feeling that their parents’ love or affection is unauthentic (Mantzouranis et al., 2011).

This distorted emotional development that is related to high DPC or APC levels can also be compared to children with parents that exhibit a need for perfectionism in their kids.  The issue with perfectionism is of course that it inhibits creativity in children, and creativity plays a very essential role in emotional development.  Creativity in children is one of the most basic and important characteristics when it comes to their abilities of expression.  The ability to think creatively helps children with producing novel and appropriate responses in a variety of situations.  Creative thinking is the basis for children learning how to become high-ability individuals; it fosters individuality and innovation (Miller et al., 2012).  Being able to be a creative thinker also creates the groundwork for being successful in future endeavors, especially when it comes to careers in adulthood.  High-ability individuals are very likely to enter professions such as medicine, engineering, and technological fields that demand not only the mastery of content, but also creative thinking skills (Miller et al., 2012).  With this knowledge in hand, parents and educators try hard to work on what actions can foster these creative thinking skills in order to help children hone them.

Different parenting styles do affect children’s creativity because some styles may promote creativity whereas others may suppress or ignore it completely.  Harsh treatment of children leads to lower levels of creativity.  Authoritarian parents are less likely to provide a suitable home environment that is conductive to creativity.  Environments such as this inhibit creative and independent growth of children (Miller et al., 2012).  An important factor in crafting a healthy environment that fosters high levels of creativity first includes understanding what factors make creativity flourish.  Studies done by Snowden and Christian (1999) have shown that authoritative parenting style was important for fostering creativity in young gifted children.  Showing interest in a child’s behavior without overwhelming them with rules to govern them, and high levels of acceptance from parents have proven to be successful ways to nourish their creativity.  Responsiveness to children’s behavior in this was is a characteristic of the authoritarian parenting style, and it may be one of the most important dimensions for creative expression (Miller et al., 2012).  There is a positive correlation between parenting styles with high responsiveness attitudes and high levels of creativity in children.

== Socioemotional Development of Children ==
Studies have shown that children’s socioemotional development is related to parental emotional socialization, which are parents’ implicit and explicit expectations about the control of their children’s expressiveness (Berlin, 2003).  Parental emotion socialization is examined in terms of several different aspects of parenting behavior; such as a parent’s own expressiveness and their ability to cope with their children’s negative emotions.  Research done on emotion socialization highlights two main guiding principles: first, emotional socialization includes heightening and suppressing processes, as in, practices that both encourage and discourage children’s emotional expressiveness.  Second, healthy emotion socialization is defined by the acceptance of both positive and negative emotions and parent’s adequate control of their children’s expressiveness.  A study done on mother’s self-reported control of their preschool children’s emotional expression has managed to show how infant-mother attachment associations do actually have a connection with children’s emotional regulation.  There are three different principal attachment patterns that have been proposed to have connections to this by Cassidy (1994): secure, insecure avoidant, and insecure-ambivalent (Ainsworth et al., 1978).

It was suggested by Cassidy (1994) that mothers of securely attached children socialize their children’s emotions in order to help provide a secure base for them to explore (Ainsworth, 1963).  Mother’s of insecure-avoidant children have been proposed to socialize their children’s emotions in the service of minimizing attachment behavior and emphasizing independence (Berlin, 2003).  This of course creates a situation in which mothers are recanting their children’s negative emotions, and in turn this suppresses negative expressiveness.  This practice is very unhealthy because it minimizes a child’s need for finding comfort and closeness in their parent(s).  On the other hand, mothers of insecure-ambivalent children have been shown to socialize their children’s emotions in order to maximize attachment behaviors and emphasize dependence (Berlin, 2003).  This in turn heightens children’s negative expressiveness, and it can cause a child to become overly attached.  Studies have shown that children who have mothers that practice great control over their positive or negative expressiveness tend to have problems with sharing their emotions.

== Emotion Knowledge ==
Emotion knowledge is defined as the ability to discriminate emotional expressions and the contexts in which they are appropriate (Woven, Carmody, &amp; Lewis, 2010).  This type of knowledge is acquired through both direct socialization and through experiencing emotions and their consequences in regards to a child’s parent.  Skills such as this trigger children’s abilities to understand and predict the behaviors of others.  As this knowledge develops throughout childhood, so does the ability to understand emotional vocabulary, facial expressions, and different emotional context associations (Woven, Carmody, &amp; Lewis, 2010).  This knowledge is a very basic need for children; it helps them develop future social and emotional functioning as well as helping them manage their own emotions appropriately.

Child-parent relationships are very important when it comes to building a child’s emotional knowledge.  Children with disordered relations with their parents show poorer emotion knowledge than other children.  Harsh, abusive parenting also interferes with children’s abilities to recognize and process emotions, specifically negative emotions.  This can be taken as far as physical abuse.  Studies have shown that high levels of physical abuse tends to sensitize children to anger, which leads to its recognition even when cues to it are indistinct (Woven, Carmody, &amp; Lewis, 2010).  Children who experience high levels of physical punitiveness (i.e. spanking, slapping, hitting the child with open hand or object) and psychological aggression (i.e. swearing, threatening) from their parents have similar effects on their growing emotional knowledge.  Abused children tend to have an increase in aggressive behavior because of this misattribution when it comes to the hostile intentions of others (Woven, Carmody, &amp; Lewis, 2010).

== Conclusion ==
Studies have shown that the most successful way to help children develop in a healthy emotional way is to find a balance between parenting styles.  Leaning too far into any certain style will cause emotional instability and cause psychological harm to children.

== References ==
# Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1963). The development of infant–mother interaction among the Ganda.In B. M. Foss (Ed.), Determinants of infant behavior, Vol. 2. London: Methuen.
# Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., &amp; Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
# Berlin, L. (2003). Mothers’ Self-Reported Control of Their Preschool Children's Emotional Expressiveness: A Longitudinal Study of Associations with Infant–Mother Attachment and Children's Emotion Regulation. Social Development, 12(4), 477-495.
# Boyle, M. (2004). Differential-Maternal Parenting Behavior: Estimating Within- and Between-Family Effects on Children. Child Development, 75(5), 1457-1476.
# Cassidy, J. &amp; Berlin, L. J. (1994). The insecure-ambivalent pattern of attachment: Theory and research. Child Development, 65, 971–991.
# Dominguez, M., &amp; Carton, J. S. (1997). The Relationship Between Self-Actualization and Parenting Style. Journal Of Social Behavior &amp; Personality, 12(4), 1093-1100.
# Mantzouranis, G. (2012). A Further Examination of the Distinction Between Dependency-Oriented and Achievement-Oriented Parental Psychological Control: Psychometric Properties of the DAPCS with French-Speaking Late Adolescents. Journal Of Child &amp; Family Studies, 21(5), 726-733.
# Miller, A. L., Lambert, A. D., &amp; Neumeister, K. (2012). Parenting style, perfectionism, and creativity in high-ability and high-achieving young adults. Journal For The Education Of The Gifted, 35(4), 344-365. doi:10.1177/0162353212459257
# Morris, A. (2007). The Role of the Family Context in the Development of Emotion Regulation. Social Development, 16(2), 361-388.
# Snowden, P. L., &amp; Christian, L. G. (1999). Parenting the young gifted child: Supportive behaviors. Roeper Review, 21, 215-222. doi:10.1080/02783199909553964
# Speirs Neumeister, K. L. (2004). Factors influencing the development of perfectionism in gifted college students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 48, 259-274. doi:10.1177/001698620404800402
# Sullivan, M. (2010). How Neglect and Punitiveness Influence Emotion Knowledge. Child Psychiatry &amp; Human Development, 41(3), 285-298.
# Talen, M. R., Stephens, L., Marik, P., &amp; Buchholz, M. (2007). Well-child check-up revised: An efficient protocol for assessing children's social-emotional development. Families, Systems, &amp; Health, 25(1), 23-35. doi:10.1037/1091-7527.25.1.23

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      <text bytes="24265" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:The Cool Clouds of Carina o 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Observations made with the APEX telescope reveal the cold dusty clouds from which stars form. Credit: ESO/APEX/T. Preibisch et al. (Submillimetre); N. Smith, University of Minnesota/NOAO/AURA/NSF (Optical).{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
The '''first submillimeter source in Carina''' is unknown.

The field of [[submillimeter astronomy]] is the result of observations and theories about submillimeter sources detected in the sky above.

The first astronomical submillimeter source discovered may have been the [[Stars/Sun|Sun]].

But, submillimeter waves from the Sun are intermingled with other radiation so that the Sun may appear as other than a primary source for submillimeter waves.

The early use of sounding rockets and balloons to carry submillimeter detectors high enough may have detected submillimeter waves from the Sun as early as the 1940s.

This is a lesson in map reading, coordinate matching, and researching. It is also a research project in the history of submillimeter astronomy looking for the first astronomical submillimeter source discovered in the constellation of Carina.

Nearly all the background you need to participate and learn by doing you've probably already been introduced to at a secondary level and perhaps even a primary education level.

Some of the material and information is at the college or university level, and as you progress in finding submillimeter sources, you'll run into concepts and experimental tests that are actual research.
{{clear}}

==First step==

The first step is to succeed in finding a submillimeter source in Carina.

Next, you'll need to determine the time stamp of its discovery and compare it with any that have already been discovered.

Over the history of submillimeter astronomy a number of sources have been found, many as point sources in the night sky. These points are located on the celestial sphere using coordinate systems. Familiarity with these coordinate systems is not a prerequisite. Here the challenge is geometrical, astrophysical, and historical. The coordinates are usually supplied by the submillimeter source observers.

==Sources==
{{main|Sources/Astronomy}}
'''Def.''' a natural [[wikt:source|source]] usually of radiation in the sky especially at night is called an '''astronomical source'''.

A source of astronomical information on older detections of submillimeter sources is included in the '''Science''' section of the lecture/article [[submillimeter astronomy]].

==Traveling submillimeter sources==
[[Image:Image 4543 1e-ALMA-Sun.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A map of the whole disc of the Sun was made with a single ALMA antenna, using a technique called fast-scanning, at a wavelength of 1.25 mm. Credit: ALMA / ESO / NAOJ / NRAO.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Many submillimeter sources do not remain in a constellation for lengthy periods. Some of these are the Sun and sources apparently in orbit around the Sun. The Sun travels through the 13 constellations along the ecliptic (the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun): the 12 of the Zodiac and the constellation Ophiuchus. These are described in [[source astronomy]].
{{clear}}

==Backgrounds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Backgrounds}}
To introduce yourself to some aspects of the challenge may I suggest reading the highlighted links mentioned above, and if you're curious, those listed under the section [[Radiation astronomy/First submillimeter source in Carina#See also|'''See also''']] below.

Submillimeter waves are a form of radiation that is currently part of electromagnetic radiation intersecting the Earth. More information about radiation is in [[Radiation/Astronomy|radiation astronomy]].

==Constellations==
[[Image:Carina IAU.svg|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) sky map of the constellation Carina. Credit: IAU and Sky &amp; Telescope magazine (Roger Sinnott &amp; Rick Fienberg).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Argo Navis Hevelius.jpg|thumb|250px|Carina is in Hevelius' map (1690). Credit: Johannes Hevelius.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Wikipedia article about the constellation [[w:Carina (constellation)|Carina]] contains a high school level description. The figure at top right shows the sky map of Carina. Around the edges of the map are coordinates related to longitude and latitude, but with the Earth rotating on its axis every 24 hours the celestial coordinates must remain fixed relative to the background light sources in the sky.

Carina the Keel was formerly part of the larger constellation of Argo Navis (the ship Argo) until that constellation was divided in 1763 into three pieces, the other two being Puppis (the poop deck), and Vela (the sails of the ship).

The Argo Navis constellation [at second right] is from Uranographia by Johannes Hevelius in 1690. The view is mirrored following the tradition of celestial globes, showing the celestial sphere in a view from &quot;outside&quot;.

Argo Navis is the only one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy that is no longer officially recognized as a constellation.

The Maori had several names for what was the constellation Argo, including ''Te Waka-o-Tamarereti'', ''Te Kohi-a-Autahi'', and ''Te Kohi''.&lt;ref name=Makemson&gt;{{ cite book
  | author = Maud Worcester Makemson
  | date = 1941
  | publisher = Yale University Press
  | title = The Morning Star Rises: an account of Polynesian astronomy }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The shape, size, and to some extent its location as a constellation has changed over time. The second figure at right is an earlier version.

Also, in the Wikipedia article is a [[w:List of stars in Carina|list of stars in Carina]].
{{clear}}

==Catalogs==

In the lecture/article [[submillimeter astronomy]] in its science section is a list of older catalogs of submillimeter sources. Using the constellation description in the previous section and the range of coordinates for the constellation in [[source astronomy]], scan through the coordinates for these submillimeter sources to see if any may be within Carina.

If you find any that are, skip down to the section '''Submillimeter sources''' in Carina and make an entry. Be sure to check the coordinate era, most B1950 coordinates have changed slightly to the new J2000 set. Try the catalog designation at either SIMBAD website.

==Testing a source==

There are many web sites that may have an submillimeter source listed for the constellation Carina. Some that you may wish to try are in the External links section near the bottom of this lesson.

===Wikipedia sources===

'''A. Constellation article'''

Under &quot;Notable features&quot; in the Wikipedia article on the constellation Carina is the list of stars in Carina. Click on this link. In the table of this Wikipedia article is Canopus (α Car). To the right are coordinates:

Right ascension (RA): 06&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt; 23&lt;sup&gt;m&lt;/sup&gt; 57.09&lt;sup&gt;s&lt;/sup&gt; and
Declination (Dec): -52° 41' 44.6&quot;.

Find these coordinates on the Carina map at the right.

To evaluate the star as a submillimeter source, skip ahead to section &quot;Submillimeter sources&quot;.

'''B. Wikipedia search'''

Another way to look for submillimeter sources in the constellation is to perform a search on Wikipedia. Try &quot;submillimeter carina&quot; without the quotes. This yields 7 returns which include the Hubble Space Telescope, several submillimeter telescopes, and several entries that mention Carina and submillimeter.

Scroll down the list of 7 looking for some clear text stating that a submillimeter source in Carina is discussed, like HD 95086 b.

When you find one, skip ahead to the section &quot;Submillimeter sources&quot;.

===SIMBAD sources===

Another way to find possible submillimeter sources in Carina is to use search queries on [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD].

Click on either SIMBAD link under &quot;External links&quot; below, then click on &quot;Criteria query&quot;, or &quot;by criteria&quot;.

In the tan box, type in &quot;region(06 23 57.09 -52 41 44.6,10m)&quot;, without the quotes. This tells the SIMBAD computer you are interested in a circular region of the celestial sphere centered on the coordinates for alpha Carinae, or Canopus, with a radius of 10 arcminutes (10m), or try 10d for 10 degrees.

Notice on the page over at the right from the tan colored box: &quot;'''Return'''&quot;. The default is &quot;object count&quot;. Click on &quot;submit query&quot;. In a few moments a result something like &quot;'''Number of objects: 3'''&quot; should appear. Click &quot;Back&quot; to see the tan box again.

Adding an object type such as &amp; otype='smm' to the region request reduces the returned number to those that are submillimeter sources, zero within 10 m of alpha Carinae. Using 10d instead with &amp; otype='smm' yields 19 submillimeter sources. But, all of the otypes listed at [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-display?data=otypes Object classification in SIMBAD] may contain submillimeter stars, yet may not state that any are submillimeter sources.

The SIMBAD criteria search allows you to specify spectral types for possible stars. The criteria &quot;sptype&quot; (the exact spectral type): returns only the objects having the requested spectral type (i.e. sptype = 'k0' does not return 'K0III',...). And, &quot;sptypes&quot; should be used to retrive all objects having a spectral type containing the one specified; i.e., sptypes = 'K0' will return all objects having 'K0' as a spectral type, but also 'K0III' or 'K0IIIp', ...). This may also be comgined using an &quot;&amp;&quot; to pick sources you might like.

Here again no information about possible submillimeter sources may be listed. You have to click on one of objects in the list.

If a flare star is a likely source of submillimeter waves, which it may because flares also generate submillimeter rays, then entering otype='Fl*' should locate likely submillimeter sources.

Using only otype='Fl*' on SIMBAD yields 2582 in all of SIMBAD.

===SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System===

In the naming of sources per constellation, the genitive is in common use. For Carina, the genitive is Carinae.

Click on the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System link below in the &quot;External links&quot;. Try &quot;Carina submillimeter waves&quot; without the quotes, &quot;Canopus submillimeter&quot;, or &quot;alpha carinae&quot; with quotes, followed by submillimeter. The first returns two primary source articles that may contain submillimeter sources in Carina. The second returns zero.

Click on a link below '''# Bibcode Authors'''. If the '''Abstract''' describes the detection of submillimeter waves from a source in the constellation Carina, go to the next section under &quot;SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System&quot;.

If it does not try another bibcode link.

==Submillimeter sources==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Submillimeters}}
There are several ways to evaluate a submillimeter source for the constellation Carina.

===Wikipedia sources===

Click on the link to the Wikipedia article. After you've enjoyed reading about the source, use the 'find' command of your browser to see if this Wikipedia page mentions anything about submillimeter waves. Does the article mention whether or not the source is a submillimeter source?

What is the current time stamp for the Wikipedia article on the source? [Hint]: look for something like &quot;This page was last modified on 25 December 2013 at 20:12.&quot; very near the bottom of the page. For now this is an adequate time stamp.

From reading the Wikipedia article on the source, if you believe the text demonstrates that the source is not a submillimeter source in Carina edit the &quot;Non-submillimeter sources in Carina&quot; section near the bottom of the page with an entry similar to &quot;# Alpha Carinae 25 December 2013 at 20:12 Wikipedia article &quot;Alpha Carinae&quot;, without the quotes, and finish the entry with four &quot;~&quot;s without the quotes after the period. The date included with your designation or username is a time stamp for the entry. The last portion of the entry is the source of your information.

On the other hand, if there are one or more sentences in the article that you believe demonstrates that the source is a submillimeter source in Carina edit the section below &quot;Submillimeter sources in Carina&quot; with a similar entry.

Go to the section entitled, &quot;Challenging an entry&quot;.

From the lecture/article on [[submillimeter astronomy]], the submillimeter radiation band may not have an appropriate wavelength temperature pair.

Is the primary star of alpha Carinae a submillimeter star, or a submillimeter source?

===Wikimedia commons===

Another possible website for submillimeter sources is [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons]. Try entering &quot;submillimeter Carina&quot; without the quotes.

This returns the one image at the top of the page.

===SIMBAD sources===

To check any source (even one from Wikipedia) on SIMBAD, click of the &quot;External link&quot; to the &quot;SIMBAD Astronomical Database&quot;.

At the lower right side of the SIMBAD Astronomical Database page is a &quot;Basic search&quot; box. There are several ways to try your target:
# source name: without the quotes or
# source coordinates: without the quotes, for example, &quot;02 02 02.820 +02 45 49.54&quot;.
If you are looking at a SIMBAD generated table which lists possible targets, click on one.

Having SIMBAD list all of its 2582 flare stars produces an apparently formidable task. Try searching with your browser using &quot;Car&quot;.

Many of the flare stars listed do not include a constellation designation. Letting SIMBAD plot all of these flare stars and comparing the plot with the constellation sky chart may help.

There are 10336 otype='smm' listed in SIMBAD. Plotting them may be helpful or scanning them using +2, per the example, with your browser may eventually reveal at least one submillimeter source.

If you have already found a submillimeter source (or a table of them) using SIMBAD, click on the blue link identifier for the first to look for the date of observations.

===SIMBAD time stamp===

Peruse the SIMBAD page for a time stamp or date of last revision. [Hint: it may look something like &quot;2012.01.09CET20:10:02&quot; and be in the upper right.]

If the entry at SIMBAD convinces you that the source is not a submillimeter source, edit the &quot;Non-submillimeter sources in Carina&quot; section near the bottom of this page and type in an entry similar to &quot;# Source Name 2012.01.09CET20:10:02 SIMBAD article &quot;SIMBAD source name&quot;.&quot;, without the first set of quotes, followed by four ~s.

If your SIMBAD analysis convinces you that you may have found a submillimeter source in Carina (did you check the coordinates vs. the map of Carina?), make an entry something like the ones in the section &quot;Submillimeter sources in Carina&quot;.

===SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System sources===

If the abstract states that a submillimeter source in Carina is detected or studied, consider entering it in the section &quot;Submillimeter sources in Carina&quot; below.

===Abstract time stamp===

On the abstract page is a '''Publication Date''':. This may serve as a time stamp for establishing that the source is detected as a submillimeter source on or before the date of publication. The time stamp followed by four ~s for your verification as determiner in the section &quot;Submillimeter sources in Carina&quot; completes your entry.

==Challenging an entry==

Any entry in either the section &quot;Submillimeter sources in Carina&quot; or &quot;Non-submillimeter sources in Carina&quot; can be challenged. The time stamp can be challenged to see if there is an earlier one. The source can be challenged by an earlier source.

===Wikipedia challenges===

Is Wikipedia a '[[w:Primary source|primary source]]', or does the Wikipedia article cite a source?

Even though Wikipedia has an article on the source, is it a good place to stop in testing whether the source has been detected as an astronomical submillimeter source?

If the Wikipedia article cites a primary source, skip down to the section on &quot;Primary sources&quot;.

===SIMBAD challenges===

Is SIMBAD a 'primary source'?

SIMBAD is an astronomical database provided by the Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg. It is an authoritative source, but they do occasionally make a mistake.

If you find a submillimeter source within the constellation on SIMBAD, the next step is to find the earliest time stamp of discovery.

===SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System challenge===

Is the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System abstract entry a primary source?

The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System is an astronomical database provided by the High Energy Astrophysics Division at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics of Harvard University. The abstract has been copied from the actual article in a scientific journal or other publication. Mistakes can be made and the article may record within its text exact dates when the observation or detection of millimeter waves actually occurred. Such a record may provide an earlier time stamp.

==Primary sources==

Primary sources may be searched for possible additional information perhaps not yet evaluated by SIMBAD or not presented in a Wikipedia article about a source.

===Wikipedia test sources===

For a Wikipedia article that cites a primary source, scroll down to the reference and open the reference. Read through the article looking for where the source mentioned in the Wikipedia article occurs. Some primary source authors may use source designations that are not mentioned in the Wikipedia article. To look for other designations, click on the link to SIMBAD in the &quot;External links&quot; on this page, enter the source name from the Wikipedia article, and see if other names are mentioned in the article.

When none of the names are mentioned, click on the link for &quot;Google Advanced Search&quot; in the list of &quot;External links&quot;, enter the source name or designation(s) such as &quot;Gliese 866&quot;, with submillimeter waves to see if the source has a reference indicating it is a submillimeter source source. And, look for the earliest one. Compose an entry using the primary source.

===SIMBAD test sources===

Further down the SIMBAD page is a list of &quot;Identifiers&quot;. Click on the blue bold portion.

On the page that appears should be a primary source listed after '''Ref:'''. Click on the blue link with the oldest year. This yields an earlier time stamp and entry citation like the current one in the section &quot;Submillimeter sources in Carina&quot;. If you find another source or an earlier time stamp, compose a similar entry and edit the section. Additional information to add into the reference can be found by clicking on &quot;ADS services&quot; from the SIMBAD page.

===SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System sources test===

Click on either the &quot;Electronic Refereed Journal Article (HTML)&quot; or &quot;Full Refereed Journal Article (PDF/Postscript)&quot;, if available.

Depending on the article display, if the abstract is repeated and the article is listed as '''FREE''', click on either the PDF or HTML version.

While scanning or reading the article look for &quot;Observations&quot; (or use the Find function of your browser) and the possible inclusion of dates for these. If more than one submillimeter source in Carina are detected, which one(s) would you list in the section &quot;Submillimeter sources in Carina&quot; below?

An example of an article reference is provided in that section.

==Changing an entry==

From your analysis of the source so far, is it a submillimeter source?

If you have found an earlier time stamp for the source than the one listed in the section below &quot;Non-submillimeter sources in Carina&quot; and the answer to the above question is &quot;no&quot;, you can edit the section with your result. Or, you can leave the entries as is and try another star.

If you have found an earlier time stamp for the source than the one listed in the section below &quot;Submillimeter sources in Carina&quot;, edit the section with your result. Or, if you found another submillimeter source with a comparable or earlier time stamp, edit the section with your result.

==Submillimeter sources in Carina==

# &quot;Observations made with the APEX telescope in submillimetre-wavelength light at a wavelength of 870 µm reveal the cold dusty clouds from which stars form in the Carina Nebula. This site of violent star formation, which plays host to some of the highest-mass stars in our galaxy, is an ideal arena in which to study the interactions between these young stars and their parent molecular clouds.&quot;&lt;ref name=Preibisch&gt;{{ cite book
|author=T. Preibisch
|display-authors=etal
|title=The Cool Clouds of Carina
|publisher=ESO
|location=
|date=November 16, 2011
|url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1145a/
|accessdate=2014-03-13 }}&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The APEX observations, made with its LABOCA camera, are shown here in orange tones, combined with a visible light image from the Curtis Schmidt telescope at the Cerro Tololo Interamerican Observatory. The result is a dramatic, wide-field picture that provides a spectacular view of Carina’s star formation sites. The nebula contains stars equivalent to over 25 000 Suns, and the total mass of gas and dust clouds is that of about 140 000 Suns.&quot;&lt;ref name=Preibisch/&gt; The article is dated to November 16, 2011. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 04:31, 15 March 2014 (UTC)

==Non-submillimeter sources in Carina==

==Oldest record==

2011: The &quot;cold dusty clouds from which stars form in the Carina Nebula.&quot;&lt;ref name=Preibisch/&gt;

==SIMBAD annotations==

For any particular source, the SIMBAD record may indicate that it is not a submillimeter source yet above you may have found at least two refereed journal articles to indicate that it is. Use the second SIMBAD External links to directly display the SIMBAD database in France.

Enter the name source you have found into the search box. Scroll down to the '''Annotations :'''. Look for the link &quot;add an annotation to this object&quot;. With browser open to the literature citations available, click on this link. You may need to register as a user. It's free. Post your annotation containing the literature references.

==Hypotheses==
{{main|Hypotheses}}
# The first submillimeter source in Carina was probably discovered since 70 b2k.
# If stellar flares have origins similar to solar flares, then flare stars produce submillimeter waves.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[First blue source in Boötes]]
* [[First cyan source in Caelum]]
* [[Sources/First gamma-ray source in Triangulum Australe|First gamma-ray source in Triangulum Australe]]
* [[Sources/First green source in Tucana|First green source in Tucana]]
* [[Sources/First infrared source in Crux|First infrared source in Crux]]
* [[First neutron source in Volans]]
* [[First orange source in Cancer]]
* [[First positron source in Phoenix]]
* [[First radio source in Pisces]]
* [[First red source in Canis Major]]
* [[First submillimeter source in Carina]]
* [[First superluminal source in Indus]]
* [[Sources/First ultraviolet source in Sagittarius|First ultraviolet source in Sagittarius]]
* [[First violet source in Leo]]
* [[First X-ray source in Apus]]
* [[First X-ray source in Andromeda]]
* [[First yellow source in Aquila]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

&lt;!-- footer templates --&gt;
{{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{tlx|Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Constellation of Carina}}{{Sisterlinks|Astronomical submillimeter source}}

&lt;!-- categories --&gt;
[[Category:Radiation astronomy/Lessons]]
[[Category:Sources/Lessons]]</text>
      <sha1>ebpaluq875hohhhb79qkjktlk78l15p</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Scherrer Insitute proton accelerator.jpg</title>
    <ns>6</ns>
    <id>158733</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418111</id>
      <parentid>1413509</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:42:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <minor />
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="941" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
This image is of the proton accelerator at the Paul Scherrer Institute, which was used to create the muons used to make muonic hydrogen.
[[Category:Muon astronomy images]]
== Licensing ==
{{Information1
|Description = This image is of the proton accelerator at the Paul Scherrer Institute, which was used to create the muons used to make muonic hydrogen.
|Source = The image appears on a website entitled, &quot;&quot;Hydrogen made with muons reveals proton size conundrum A measurement that's off by 7 standard deviations may hint at new physics&quot; at url=http://arstechnica.com/science/2013/01/hydrogen-made-with-muons-reveals-proton-size-conundrum/
|Date = January 24, 2013
|Author = John Timmer
|Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show the proton accelerator at the Paul Scherrer Institute, which was used to create the muons used to make muonic hydrogen.
|Permission = Fair Use
}}
{{Fairuse}}</text>
      <sha1>jlgkbn84i2vgdpe7o85sd081c7xnh0v</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>File:Moon shadow 750.png</title>
    <ns>6</ns>
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    <revision>
      <id>2418129</id>
      <parentid>1234582</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T06:09:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <minor />
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="697" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
This is a contour plot of the muon deficit measured by IceCube in the region around the Moon's position.
[[Category:Moon images]]
== Licensing ==
{{Information1
|Description = This is a contour plot of the muon deficit measured by IceCube in the region around the Moon's position.
|Source = The image appears on a website entitled, &quot;The cosmic-ray Moon shadow seen by IceCube&quot; at url=http://icecube.wisc.edu/news/view/131.
|Date = 30 May 2013
|Author = Silvia Bravo
|Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show a contour plot of the muon deficit measured by IceCube in the region around the Moon's position.
|Permission = Fair Use
}}
{{Fairuse}}</text>
      <sha1>ly6ikpwqfs24v400nam3txe63gdejny</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>File:Scat vs depth.gif</title>
    <ns>6</ns>
    <id>158824</id>
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      <id>2418124</id>
      <parentid>1412176</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T06:01:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <minor />
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="705" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
The figure shows the average scattering coefficent (1/scattering length) as a function of depth.
[[Category:Astronomy images]]
== Licensing ==
{{Information1
|Description = The figure shows the average scattering coefficent (1/scattering length) as a function of depth.
|Source = The image appears on a website entitled, &quot;AMANDA-II Science Results&quot; at url=http://www.amanda.uci.edu/results.html.
|Date = September 8, 2005
|Author = P. Buford Price and the Amanda Collaboration
|Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show the figure of the average scattering coefficent (1/scattering length) as a function of depth.
|Permission = Fair Use
}}
{{Fairuse}}</text>
      <sha1>kkij204vafdf8as9177rljjrehnfl9u</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>File:Point00 sens vs angle.gif</title>
    <ns>6</ns>
    <id>158835</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418114</id>
      <parentid>1412164</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:54:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marshallsumter</username>
        <id>311529</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Licensing */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="801" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
The plot shows 90% CL upper limits (averaged over right ascension) for a source with an assumed differential spectrum of E&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;.
[[Category:Astronomy images]]
== Licensing ==
{{Information1
|Description = The plot shows 90% CL upper limits (averaged over right ascension) for a source with an assumed differential spectrum of E&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;.
|Source = The image appears on a website entitled, &quot;AMANDA-II Science Results&quot; at url=http://www.amanda.uci.edu/results.html.
|Date = September 8, 2005
|Author = Amanda Collaboration
|Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show the plot of 90% CL upper limits (averaged over right ascension) for a source with an assumed differential spectrum of E&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;.
|Permission = Fair Use
}}
{{Fairuse}}</text>
      <sha1>g32d71lnfagjtkurxqhpni4w1rfjalk</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>File:Point00-expect.jpg</title>
    <ns>6</ns>
    <id>158836</id>
    <revision>
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      <parentid>1245562</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:55:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marshallsumter</username>
        <id>311529</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Licensing */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="739" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
Experimental limits on muon fluxes from high energy neutrinos, and projected sensitivity [second figure at the right] for AMANDA-II.
[[Category:Muon astronomy images]]
== Licensing ==
{{Information1
|Description = Experimental limits on muon fluxes from high energy neutrinos, and projected sensitivity for AMANDA-II.
|Source = The image appears on a website entitled, &quot;AMANDA-II Science Results&quot; at url=http://www.amanda.uci.edu/results.html.
|Date = September 8, 2005
|Author = Amanda Collaboration
|Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show experimental limits on muon fluxes from high energy neutrinos, and projected sensitivity for AMANDA-II.
|Permission = Fair Use
}}
{{Fairuse}}</text>
      <sha1>plt8ltwz9tq9qrymukzyk9zwr9kiaau</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>File:Point00 skyplot.gif</title>
    <ns>6</ns>
    <id>158837</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418117</id>
      <parentid>1412170</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:56:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marshallsumter</username>
        <id>311529</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Licensing */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="558" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
The figure shows the neutrino sky as seen by AMANDA-II.
[[Category:Astronomy images]]
== Licensing ==
{{Information1
|Description = The figure shows the neutrino sky as seen by AMANDA-II.
|Source = The image appears on a website entitled, &quot;AMANDA-II Science Results&quot; at url=http://www.amanda.uci.edu/results.html.
|Date = September 8, 2005
|Author = Amanda Collaboration
|Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show the figure of the neutrino sky as seen by AMANDA-II.
|Permission = Fair Use
}}
{{Fairuse}}</text>
      <sha1>hjf6vjdiyqxetrxuy61v16t0k070jrq</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>File:Point00 contour.gif</title>
    <ns>6</ns>
    <id>158838</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418118</id>
      <parentid>1412160</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:57:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marshallsumter</username>
        <id>311529</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Licensing */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="613" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
Statistically significant excesses if found, are shown in the contour plot.
[[Category:Astronomy images]]
== Licensing ==
{{Information1
|Description = Statistically significant excesses, if found, are shown in the contour plot.
|Source = The image appears on a website entitled, &quot;AMANDA-II Science Results&quot; at url=http://www.amanda.uci.edu/results.html.
|Date = September 8, 2005
|Author = Amanda Collaboration
|Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show statistically significant excesses, if found, in the contour plot.
|Permission = Fair Use
}}
{{Fairuse}}</text>
      <sha1>gguvwqwfypt3v7g3dns7iuo6zrh7cqb</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>File:Point00 Mrk501.gif</title>
    <ns>6</ns>
    <id>158840</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418119</id>
      <parentid>1412172</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:58:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marshallsumter</username>
        <id>311529</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Licensing */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="675" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
The differential flux limit for two different assumptions of the spectral index, alpha is shown.
[[Category:Astronomy images]]
== Licensing ==
{{Information1
|Description = The differential flux limit for two different assumptions of the spectral index, alpha is shown.
|Source = The image appears on a website entitled, &quot;AMANDA-II Science Results&quot; at url=http://www.amanda.uci.edu/results.html.
|Date = September 8, 2005
|Author = Amanda Collaboration
|Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show the differential flux limit for two different assumptions of the spectral index, alpha.
|Permission = Fair Use
}}
{{Fairuse}}</text>
      <sha1>iwscsfsz4zch448ey3fa1cp3w21qujm</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>File:Point00 table.gif</title>
    <ns>6</ns>
    <id>158842</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418121</id>
      <parentid>1412146</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Marshallsumter</username>
        <id>311529</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Licensing */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="608" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
The table provides upper limits for a selection of candidate sources.
[[Category:Astronomy images]]
== Licensing ==
{{Information1
|Description = The table provides upper limits for a selection of candidate sources.
|Source = The image appears on a website entitled, &quot;AMANDA-II Science Results&quot; at url=http://www.amanda.uci.edu/results.html.
|Date = September 8, 2005
|Author = Amanda Collaboration
|Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show the table that provides upper limits for a selection of candidate sources.
|Permission = Fair Use
}}
{{Fairuse}}</text>
      <sha1>0q2uiinay5g7lgl3lqsdwgjfjqqwyax</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>File:Vega Normalized Calibrated spectrum.gif</title>
    <ns>6</ns>
    <id>158867</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2417951</id>
      <parentid>1494280</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T19:02:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="613" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
This is a full spectrum of Vega (instrumental responsivity corrected).
[[Category:Spectroscopy images]]
[[Category:Vega images]]
== Licensing ==
{{Information1
|Description = This is a full spectrum of Vega (instrumental responsivity corrected).
|Source = The image appears on a website entitled, &quot;Vega Spectrum Atlas&quot; at url=http://www.astrosurf.com/buil/us/vatlas/vatlas.htm.
|Date = March 23, 2014
|Author = Buil
|Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show a full spectrum of Vega (instrumental responsivity corrected).
|Permission = Fair Use
}}
{{Fairuse}}</text>
      <sha1>jht7vncsk1u3n5bfbwlp13h16fplwre</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Radiation astronomy/Mesons</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>170451</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2417950</id>
      <parentid>2368919</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T18:47:17Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="110214" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Neusun1 superk1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This &quot;neutrino image&quot; of the Sun is produced by using the Super-Kamiokande to detect the neutrinos from nuclear fusion coming from the Sun. Credit: R. Svoboda and K. Gordan (LSU).{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Astronomy that benefits from the detection of mesons, directly or indirectly, is '''meson astronomy'''.

For antiproton-proton annihilation at rest, a meson result is, for example,

:&lt;math&gt;p^+ + \bar{p}^- \rightarrow \pi^+ + \pi^-,&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=Klempt&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Eberhard Klempt
|author2=Chris Batty
|author3=Jean-Marc Richard
|title=The antinucleon-nucleon interaction at low energy: annihilation dynamics
|journal=Physics Reports
|month=July
|year=2005
|volume=413
|issue=4-5
|pages=197-317
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PhR...413..197K
|arxiv=hep-ex/0501020
|bibcode=2005PhR...413..197K
|doi=10.1016/j.physrep.2005.03.002
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;{\pi}^+ \rightarrow {\mu}^+ + {\nu}_{\mu} \rightarrow e^+ + {\nu}_e + {\bar{\nu}}_{\mu} + {\nu}_{\mu},&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=Waxman&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Eli Waxman
|author2=John Bahcall
|title=High energy neutrinos from astrophysical sources: An upper bound
|journal=Physical Review D
|month=December 14,
|year=1998
|volume=59
|issue=2
|pages=e023002
|url=http://prd.aps.org/abstract/PRD/v59/i2/e023002
|arxiv=hep--ph/9807282
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.59.023002
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and

:&lt;math&gt;D_S \rightarrow \tau + \bar{\nu}_{\tau} \rightarrow \nu_{\tau} + \bar{\nu}_{\tau}.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=Kodama&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=K. Kodama
|author2=N. Ushida1
|author3=C. Andreopoulos
|author4=N. Saoulidou
|author5=G. Tzanakos
|author6=P. Yager
|author7=B. Baller
|author8=D. Boehnlein
|author9=W. Freeman
|author10=B. Lundberg
|author11=J. Morfin
|author12=R. Rameika
|author13=J.C. Yun
|author14=J.S. Song
|author15=C.S. Yoon
|author16=S.H.Chung
|author17=P. Berghaus
|author18=M. Kubanstev
|author19=N.W. Reay
|author20=R. Sidwell
|author21=N. Stanton
|author22=S. Yoshida
|author23=S. Aoki
|author24=T. Hara
|author25=J.T. Rhee
|author26=D. Ciampa
|author27=C. Erickson
|author28=M. Graham
|author29=K. Heller
|author30=R. Rusack
|author31=R. Schwienhorst
|author32=J. Sielaff
|author33=J. Trammell
|author34=J. Wilcox
|author35=K. Hoshino
|author36=H. Jiko
|author37=M. Miyanishi
|author38=M. Komatsu
|author39=M. Nakamura
|author40=T. Nakano
|author41=K. Niwa
|author42=N. Nonaka
|author43=K. Okada
|author44=O. Sato
|author45=T. Akdogan
|author46=V. Paolone
|author47=C. Rosenfeld
|author48=A. Kulik
|author49=T. Kafka
|author50=W. Oliver
|author51=T. Patzak
|author52=J. Schneps
|title=Observation of tau neutrino interactions
|journal=Physics Letters B
|month=April 12,
|year=2001
|volume=504
|issue=3
|pages=218-24
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370269301003070
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-10 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Radiation==
{{main|Radiation}}
A meson is a subatomic particle that is intermediate in mass between an electron and a proton and transmits the strong interaction that binds nucleons together in the atomic nucleus.

Mesons travel at speeds slower than the speed of light.

'''Mesons''' are hadronic subatomic particles, bound together by the [[Charges/Interactions/Strong|strong interaction]]. Because mesons are composed of sub-particles, they have a physical size, with a radius roughly one femtometre, which is about {{frac|2|3}} the size of a proton or neutron.

Charged mesons decay (sometimes through intermediate particles) to form electrons and neutrinos. Uncharged mesons may decay to photons.

Mesons are not produced by radioactive decay, but appear in nature only as short-lived products of very high-energy interactions in matter. In cosmic ray interactions, for example, such particles are ordinary protons and neutrons. Mesons are also frequently produced artificially in high-energy particle accelerators that collide protons, anti-protons, or other particles.

In nature, the importance of lighter mesons is that they are the associated quantum-field particles that transmit the nuclear force, in the same way that photons are the particles that transmit the electromagnetic force.

Each type of meson has a corresponding antiparticle (antimeson) in which by theory quarks are replaced by their corresponding antiquarks and vice-versa.

Mesons are subject to both the weak and strong interactions. Mesons with net electric charge also participate in the electromagnetic interaction.

While no meson is stable, those of lower mass are nonetheless more stable than the most massive mesons, and are easier to observe and study in particle accelerators or in cosmic ray experiments. They are also typically less massive than baryons, meaning that they are more easily produced in experiments, and thus exhibit certain higher energy phenomena more readily than baryons composed of the same quarks would.

Potential mesons to be detected astronomically include: π, ρ, η, η′, φ, ω, J/ψ, ϒ, θ, K, B, D, and T.

==Hadrons==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Hadrons}}
[[Image:Installing the ATLAS Calorimeter.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The eight toroid magnets can be seen surrounding the calorimeter that is later moved into the middle of the detector. Credit: Maximilien Brice.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Bosons-Hadrons-Fermions-RGB-pdf.pdf|right|thumb|300px|Hadrons are within a high-level classification of particles. Credit: [[c:user:Hugo Spinelli|Hugo Spinelli]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Hadrons''' are subatomic particles of a type including [[Radiation astronomy/Baryons|baryons]] and [[Radiation astronomy/Mesons|mesons]] that can take part in the [[strong interaction]] and may be useful in radiation astronomy.

At right a person works lower center left in front of the huge ATLAS detector, one of six detectors attached to the Large Hadron Collider at CERN.
A '''hadron''', like an atomic nucleus, is a composite particle held together by the strong force. Hadrons are categorized into two families: baryons (such as protons and neutrons) and mesons.

'''Def.''' a &quot;composite particle [...] held together by the strong force and (consequently) can interact with other particles via said force; a meson or a baryon&quot;&lt;ref name=HadronWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Pingku|Pingku]]
|title=hadron
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=2 July 2019
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hadron
|accessdate=9 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''hadron'''.

The &quot;fact that the regime of (star-relevant) high densities and low temperatures cannot be accessed by lattice or perturbative calculations makes the quark matter EoS even less constrained than the hadronic one, where at least there is some information on ground state matter properties.&quot;&lt;ref name=Gomes/&gt;

&quot;Hybrid stars have been applied to investigate a broad range of topics regarding compact stars, such as nucleation in hadronic matter [24, 41, 42], color superconductivity in quark matter [22–26], stability [22, 43, 44], rotation of neutron stars [43, 45–51], magnetic neutrons stars [52–55], thermal evolution [56–59], proto-neutron stars [60–62], supernovae [27, 63], radial oscillations [44, 64, 65], etc. The deconfinement phase transition has been extensively studied with different models such as Nambu-Jona-Lasinio [28, 61, 66–72], MIT bag model [23, 44, 55, 73–76], quark-meson coupling models [9, 72, 77, 78], and other approaches [58, 79–84], showing that the features of the models used to describe both phases have implications for the determination of the macroscopic properties and composition of stars.&quot;&lt;ref name=Gomes/&gt;

&quot;The hadronic phase (with nucleons, hyperons and leptons) is described by the many-body forces model (MBF model), which simulates the effects of many-body forces via non-linear scalar fields contributions in the effective coupling [2].&quot;&lt;ref name=Gomes/&gt;

&quot;The many-body forces (MBF) model [2] is a relativistic mean field model in which meson field dependences are introduced in the couplings of baryons to mesons.&quot;&lt;ref name=Gomes/&gt;

The &quot;introduction of hyperons in a hadronic model softens drastically the EoS of hadronic matter, generating a sequence of stars with much smaller maximum mass, as discussed several times on literature. For the same reason, as hyperons start to populate the core of stars, for masses above 1.5M&lt;sub&gt;⊙&lt;/sub&gt;, the stars become more compact, i.e., present a smaller radius. Similarly, comparting hadronic stars [...] to all hybrid ones (all others), one can see a reduction in radius of 14.44 km to 12.32 km (Set 6) for the 1.4 M&lt;sub&gt;⊙&lt;/sub&gt; star, for example.&quot;&lt;ref name=Gomes/&gt;

&quot;For the corresponding stars modeled in a Maxwell construction [...], the phase transition takes place for chemical potentials higher than the ones in a Gibbs construction, and consequently the gap between critical and maximum masses is smaller. For this case, stars are mostly hadronic, containing only a small quark core. In particular, the critical and maximum masses are the same [...], indicating that all stars in this family are hadronic [...], as the phase transition never takes place for stable stars.&quot;&lt;ref name=Gomes/&gt;

&quot;For the 1.4M&lt;sub&gt;⊙&lt;/sub&gt; star, [...] one can see that the difference in radius can vary by more than 2 km when comparing hadronic and hybrid stars.&quot;&lt;ref name=Gomes/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Hyperons==
[[Image:Baryon decuplet.svg|250px|thumb|A combination of three u, d or s-quarks with a total spin of 3/2 form the so-called ''baryon decuplet''. The lower six are hyperons. Credit: [[w:user:Wierdw123|Wierdw123]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
A hyperon is any baryonic form of matter that may exist in a stable form within the core of some neutron stars.&lt;ref name=SchaffnerBielich2002&gt;{{citation
 | title=Phase Transition to Hyperon Matter in Neutron Stars
 | last1=Schaffner-Bielich | first1=Jürgen | last2=Hanauske | first2=Matthias
 | last3=Stöcker | first3=Horst | last4=Greiner | first4=Walter
 | journal=Physical Review Letters | display-authors=1
 | volume=89 | issue=17 | id=171101 | year=2002 | postscript=.
 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.89.171101 | bibcode=2002PhRvL..89q1101S | arxiv=astro-ph/0005490}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The impact of exotic compositions on the structure of isolated neutron stars has been studied in the past for stars composed of hyperons [1–9], Delta baryon resonances [10–14], meson condensates [15–21], quarks or even color superconducting quark matter [22–26]. Such degrees of freedom are usually associated with a softening of the equation of state (EoS), impacting the maximum mass and stability of stars [27, 28].&quot;&lt;ref name=Gomes&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=R.O. Gomes
|author2=P. Char
|author3=S. Schramm
|title=Constraining strangeness in dense matter with GW170817
|journal=The Astrophysical Journal
|date=4 June 2019
|volume=877
|issue=2
|pages=1-13
|url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/1806.04763
|arxiv=1806.04763
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=11 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;When hyperons are taken into account in relativistic mean field models, especial attention must be given to the hyperon-hyperon interaction modeling due to their internal strangeness degree of freedom. This is done through the introduction of φ and σ&lt;sup&gt;∗&lt;/sup&gt; mesons, which mediate the interaction among these particles by describing repulsion and attraction features, respectively [29]. The competition between softness and stiffness of the EoS due to the presence of hyperons has been widely discussed in the literature under the name of hyperon puzzle [2–4, 7, 8, 30– 36].&quot;&lt;ref name=Gomes/&gt;

&quot;The MBF model reproduces both nuclear matter prop- erties at saturation and the observational properties of neutron stars with hyperons [2] and magnetic hybrid stars [55, 131].&quot;&quot;&lt;ref name=Gomes/&gt;

Here's a [[Definitions/Theory#Theoretical definition|theoretical definition]]:

'''Def.''' any hadron that can decompose into another hadron or baryons is called a '''hyperon'''.

==Mesons==
[[Image:HD.6D.672 (12000668143).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Photomicrograph shows the path of a meson. Credit: [https://www.flickr.com/people/37916456@N02 ENERGY.GOV].{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a composite subatomic particle bound together by the strong interaction &quot;intermediate between electrons and protons&quot;&lt;ref name=MesonWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Widsith|Widsith]]
|title=meson
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=8 September 2007
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/meson
|accessdate=9 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''meson'''.

Because mesons are composed of sub-particles, they have a physical size, with a radius roughly one femtometre, which is about 2/3 the size of a proton or neutron. All mesons are unstable, with the longest-lived lasting for only a few hundredths of a microsecond. Charged mesons decay (sometimes through intermediate particles) to form electrons and neutrinos. Uncharged mesons may decay to photons.

Mesons are not produced by radioactive decay, but appear in nature only as short-lived products of very high-energy interactions in matter. In cosmic ray interactions, for example, such particles are ordinary protons and neutrons. Mesons are also frequently produced artificially in high-energy particle accelerators that collide protons, anti-protons, or other particles.

In nature, the importance of lighter mesons is that they are the associated quantum-field particles that transmit the nuclear force, in the same way that photons are the particles that transmit the electromagnetic force.

Each type of meson has a corresponding antiparticle (antimeson) in which quarks are replaced by their corresponding antiquarks and vice-versa.

Mesons are subject to both the weak and strong interactions. Mesons with net electric charge also participate in the electromagnetic interaction.

While no meson is stable, those of lower mass are nonetheless more stable than the most massive mesons, and are easier to observe and study in particle accelerators or in cosmic ray experiments. They are also typically less massive than baryons, meaning that they are more easily produced in experiments, and thus exhibit certain higher energy phenomena more readily than baryons composed of the same quarks would.
{{clear}}

==B mesons==
[[Image:LHCb data on B0 meson production.png|right|thumb|300px|Comparison of the LHCb data on B&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; meson production, both for central and for forward rapidities, with the theoretical predictions from POWHEG and aMC@NLO. Credit: Rhorry Gauld, Juan Rojo, Luca Rottoli and Jim Talbert.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:CP violation in B meson decays.svg|thumb|left|250px|The plot shows invariant mass of B meson decays to (top) DK and (bottom) Dpi final states. Difference in measured yields (peak height) of B– (left) and B+ (right) mesons on the top is a clear sign of CP violation. Bottom: example process without significant CP violation. Credit: CERN on behalf of the LHCb collaboration.{{tlx|free media}}]]
&quot;The K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;-K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; bar, D&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;-D&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; bar, and B&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;-B&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; bar oscillations are extremely sensitive to the K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; and K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; bar energy at rest. The energy is determined by the values mc&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; with the related mass as well as the energy of the gravitational interaction. Assuming the CPT theorem for the inertial masses and estimating the gravitational potential through the dominant contribution of the gravitational potential of our Galaxy center, we obtain from the experimental data on the K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;-K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; bar oscillations the following constraint: |(m&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt;/m&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; - (m&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt;/m&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; bar&lt;/sub&gt;| ≤ 8·10&lt;sup&gt;-13&lt;/sup&gt;, CL=90%. This estimation is model dependent and in particular it depends on a way we estimate the gravitational potential. Examining the K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;-K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; bar, B&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;-B&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; bar, and D&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;-D&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; bar oscillations provides us also with weaker, but model independent constraints, which in particular rule out the very possibility of antigravity for antimatter.&quot;&lt;ref name=Karshenboim&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Savely G. Karshenboim
|title=Oscillations of neutral mesons and the equivalence principle for particles and antiparticles
|journal=Pis'ma v Zhurnal 'Fizika Ehlementarnykh Chastits i Atomnogo Yadra'
|year=2009
|volume=6
|issue=155
|pages=745-53
|url=https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:41133347
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-10-02 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;In spite of the apparent parity non-invariance of the ordinary particles, the universe could still be left-right symmetric if [charge conjugation parity] CP were an exact symmetry[11]. But this option is [...] ruled out by experiments on kaons and B-mesons!).&quot;&lt;ref name=Foot&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=R. Foot
|author2=Z. K. Silagadze
|title=Supernova explosions, 511 keV photons, gamma ray bursts and mirror matter
|journal=International Journal of Modern Physics D Gravitation; Astrophysics and Cosmology
|month=January
|year=2005
|volume=14
|issue=01
|pages=143-52
|url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0404515
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1142/S0218271805006523
|pmid=
|accessdate=2017-04-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the graphs on the right, the Large Hadron Collider beauty (LHCb) detector data for the production of B&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; mesons, both for central and for forward rapidities, by pp collisions is compared with the theoretical predictions from the Positive Weight Hardest Emission Generator (POWHEG) and the automation of Monte Carlo (MC) at next-to-leading order (NLO) (aMC@NLO).

&quot;The indicated theory uncertainty band includes only the scale uncertainties, and we have verified that parton distribution function (PDF) uncertainties are not so relevant in this case. As in the case of charm, satisfactory agreement between theory and data for B meson production in the forward region is found.&quot;&lt;ref name=Gauld&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Rhorry Gauld
|author2=Juan Rojo
|author3=Luca Rottoli
|author4=Jim Talbert
|title=Charm production in the forward region: constraints on the small-x gluon and backgrounds for neutrino astronomy
|journal=Journal of High Energy Physics
|date=4 November 2015
|volume=11
|issue=9
|pages=
|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/JHEP11(2015)009#citeas
|arxiv=1506.08025
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1007/JHEP11(2015)009
|pmid=
|accessdate=11 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Psions==
[[Image:Jpsi-fit-mass.gif|thumb|right|250px|J/Ψ production is graphed. Credit: Fermilab.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is a graph of the production of psi mesons (psions) at Fermilab.

The &quot;discovery of the psi meson in 1974, independently by Samuel C.C. Ting and Burton Richter [22, 23] [pointed out] its lifetime, which was about a thousand times longer than any other similar particle’s lifetime.&quot;&lt;ref name=Apers&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Simon Apers
|title=Improving the IceCube sensitivity with a wavelength
|date=2 June 2014
|publisher=Universiteit Gent
|location=Ghent, Belgium
|pages=88
|url=http://lib.ugent.be/fulltxt/RUG01/002/153/467/RUG01-002153467_2014_0001_AC.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2017-04-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The &quot;SLAC-LBL group looked between a pair of 100-MeV &quot;milestones&quot; and discovered the extremely narrow psi resonance that sent the counting rate up by more than a factor of 100, within the space of 1 MeV and within an observing time interval of 2 hours.&quot;&lt;ref name=Alvarez&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Luis W. Alvarez
|title=Experimental evidence that an asteroid impact led to the extinction of many species 65 million years ago
|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
|month=January
|year=1983
|volume=80
|issue=
|pages=627-42
|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC393431/pdf/pnas00628-0326.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2017-04-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==D mesons==
[[Image:D0 and D± production in pp collisions.png|right|thumb|300px|Comparison of GM-VFNS predictions with experimental data on open D&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; ({{SubatomicParticle|AntiD0}}) and {{SubatomicParticle|D+-}} production in pp collisions collected by the ALICE Collaboration at √''S'' = 7 TeV. Credit: Michael Benzke, Maria V. Garzelli and Bernd A. Kniehl.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
In the graphs on the right are comparisons of general-mass variable-flavor-number scheme (GM-VFNS) predictions with experimental data on open D&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; ({{SubatomicParticle|AntiD0}}) and {{SubatomicParticle|D+-}} production in pp collisions collected by the A Large Ion Collider Experiment (ALICE) Collaboration at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN at √''S'' = 7 TeV. These data represent likely fluxes arising from the decay of pp collisions produced by the interactions of high-energy cosmic rays in the Earth’s atmosphere.

:&lt;math&gt;D_S \rightarrow \tau + \bar{\nu}_{\tau} \rightarrow \nu_{\tau} + \bar{\nu}_{\tau}.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=Kodama&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=K. Kodama
|author2=N. Ushida1
|author3=C. Andreopoulos
|author4=N. Saoulidou
|author5=G. Tzanakos
|author6=P. Yager
|author7=B. Baller
|author8=D. Boehnlein
|author9=W. Freeman
|author10=B. Lundberg
|author11=J. Morfin
|author12=R. Rameika
|author13=J.C. Yun
|author14=J.S. Song
|author15=C.S. Yoon
|author16=S.H.Chung
|author17=P. Berghaus
|author18=M. Kubanstev
|author19=N.W. Reay
|author20=R. Sidwell
|author21=N. Stanton
|author22=S. Yoshida
|author23=S. Aoki
|author24=T. Hara
|author25=J.T. Rhee
|author26=D. Ciampa
|author27=C. Erickson
|author28=M. Graham
|author29=K. Heller
|author30=R. Rusack
|author31=R. Schwienhorst
|author32=J. Sielaff
|author33=J. Trammell
|author34=J. Wilcox
|author35=K. Hoshino
|author36=H. Jiko
|author37=M. Miyanishi
|author38=M. Komatsu
|author39=M. Nakamura
|author40=T. Nakano
|author41=K. Niwa
|author42=N. Nonaka
|author43=K. Okada
|author44=O. Sato
|author45=T. Akdogan
|author46=V. Paolone
|author47=C. Rosenfeld
|author48=A. Kulik
|author49=T. Kafka
|author50=W. Oliver
|author51=T. Patzak
|author52=J. Schneps
|title=Observation of tau neutrino interactions
|journal=Physics Letters B
|month=April 12,
|year=2001
|volume=504
|issue=3
|pages=218-24
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370269301003070
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-10 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+D mesons
|-
! class=unsortable|Particle name
! Particle &lt;br&gt;symbol
! Antiparticle &lt;br&gt;symbol
! [[w:Rest mass|Rest mass]] ([[w:electron volt|MeV]]/[[w:Speed of light|speed of light|c]]&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
! width=&quot;50&quot;|[[w:Isospin|I]]&lt;sup&gt;[[w:G parity|G]]&lt;/sup&gt;
! width=&quot;50&quot;|[[w:Total angular momentum|J]]&lt;sup&gt;[[w:Parity (physics)|P]][[w:C parity|C]]&lt;/sup&gt;
! width=&quot;50&quot;|[[w:strangeness|S]]
! width=&quot;50&quot;|[[w:charm (quantum number)|C]]
! width=&quot;50&quot;|[[w:bottomness|B']]
! [[w:Mean lifetime|Mean lifetime]] ([[second|s]])
! class=unsortable|Commonly decays to&lt;br&gt;
(&gt;5% of decays)
|-
| D meson&lt;ref name=PDGD+&gt;C. Amsler ''et al.''. (2008): [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/s031.pdf Particle listings – {{Subatomic particle|D+-}}]&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|D+}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|D-}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 1,869.62&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.20
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{frac|1|2}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|1.040 ± 0.007 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−12&lt;/sup&gt;}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/s031.pdf See {{Subatomic particle|D+}} decay modes]
|-
| D meson&lt;ref name=PDGD0&gt;C. Amsler ''et al.''. (2008): [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/s032.pdf Particle listings – {{Subatomic particle|D0}}]&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|D0}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|AntiD0}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 1,864.84&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.17
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{frac|1|2}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|4.101 ± 0.015 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−13&lt;/sup&gt;}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/s032.pdf See {{Subatomic particle|D0}} decay modes]
|-
| Strange D meson&lt;ref name=PDGDs&gt;N. Nakamura ''et al''. (2010): [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2010/listings/rpp2010-list-Ds-plus-minus.pdf Particle listings – {{Subatomic particle|Strange D+-}}]&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|Strange D+}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|Strange D-}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|1968.47|0.33}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| (5.00±0.07) x 10&lt;sup&gt;-13&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2010/listings/rpp2010-list-Ds-plus-minus.pdf See {{Subatomic particle|Strange D+}} decay modes]
|-
| D meson&lt;ref name=PDGD*+&gt;C. Amsler ''et al.''. (2008): [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/m062.pdf Particle listings – {{Subatomic particle|D*+-}}(2010)]&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|D*+}}(2010)
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|D*-}}(2010)
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 2,010.27.62&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.17
|align=&quot;center&quot;| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{frac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|6.9 ± 1.9 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−21&lt;/sup&gt;}}&lt;sup&gt;[a]&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|{{Subatomic particle|D0}} + π&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; or}}&lt;br&gt;{{nowrap|{{Subatomic particle|D+}} + π&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;}}
|-
| D meson&lt;ref name=PDGD*0&gt;C. Amsler ''et al.''. (2008): [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/m061.pdf Particle listings – {{Subatomic particle|D*0}}(2007)]&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|D*0}}(2007)
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|AntiD*0}}(2007)
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 2,006.97&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.19
|align=&quot;center&quot;| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{frac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|&gt;3.1 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−22&lt;/sup&gt;}}&lt;sup&gt;[a]&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|{{Subatomic particle|D0}} + π&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; or}}&lt;br&gt;{{nowrap|{{Subatomic particle|D0}} + γ}}
|-
|}

&lt;sup&gt;[a]&lt;/sup&gt; PDG reports the resonance width (Γ). Here the conversion τ&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;{{frac|ħ|&amp;Gamma;}} is given instead.
{{clear}}

==Xis==

Ξ&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; has a rest mass of 1314.86 ± 0.20 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Beringer/&gt;

Ξ&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt; has a rest mass of 1321.71 ± 0.07 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Beringer/&gt;

Ξ{{su|p=0|b=b}} has a rest mass of 5787.8 ± 5.0 ± 1.3 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Beringer/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+Xi baryons&lt;ref name=&quot;Abazov&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
 |author=V. Abazov (D0 Collaboration)
 |year=2007
 |title=Direct observation of the strange b baryon {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi-}}
 |journal=Physical Review Letters
 |volume=99 |issue=5 |pages=52001
 |arxiv=0706.1690
 |bibcode=2007PhRvL..99e2001A
 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.052001 
|pmid=17930744
 |hdl=10211.3/194385
 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 |date=13 June 2007
 |title=Fermilab physicists discover &quot;triple-scoop&quot; baryon
 |url=http://www.fnal.gov/pub/presspass/press_releases/Dzero_baryon.html
 |publisher=Fermilab
 |accessdate=2007-06-14
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 |date=25 June 2007
 |title=Back-to-Back b Baryons in Batavia
 |url=http://www.fnal.gov/pub/presspass/press_releases/backtobackBaryons.html
 |publisher=Fermilab
 |accessdate=2007-06-25
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Aaltonen&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
 |author=T. Aaltonen (CDF Collaboration)
 |year=2007
 |title=Observation and mass measurement of the baryon Xi(b)-
 |journal=Physical Review Letters
 |volume=99 |issue=5 |pages=52002
 |arxiv=0707.0589
 |bibcode=2007PhRvL..99e2002A
 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.052002
|pmid=17930745
 |hdl=10261/8530 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
! class=unsortable Particle
! Symbol
! Makeup
! Rest mass&lt;br&gt;electron volt MeV/speed of light ''c''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
! Isospin&lt;br&gt;Isospin I
! Spin (physics) Spin (Parity (physics) parity)&lt;br&gt;Spin (physics) J&lt;sup&gt;Parity (physics) P&lt;/sup&gt;
! charge (physics) Q
! strangeness S
! charm (quantum number) C
! bottomness B
! Mean lifetime&lt;br&gt;second s
! class=unsortable Decays to
|-
| Xi &lt;ref name=PDGXi0&gt;{{cite book
|url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/listings/s023.pdf
|format=PDF
|title=Particle Data Groups: 2006 Review of Particle Physics – Xi0
|accessdate=2008-04-20
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Xi0}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|1314.86|0.20}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −2
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|2.90|0.09|e=-10}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Lambda0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion0}}}}
|-
| Xi &lt;ref name=PDGXi-&gt;{{cite book
|url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/listings/s022.pdf
|format=PDF
|title=Particle Data Groups: 2006 Review of Particle Physics – Xi-
|accessdate=2008-04-20
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Xi-}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|1321.71|0.07}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −2
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|1.639|0.015|e=-10}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Lambda0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion-}}}}
|-
|-
| Xi resonance &lt;ref name=PDGXi(1530)&gt;{{cite book
|url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/listings/b049.pdf
|format=PDF
|title=Particle Data Groups: 2006 Review of Particle Physics – Xi(1530)
|accessdate=2008-04-20
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Xi0}}(1530)
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|1531.80|0.32}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −2
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Xi}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion}}}}
|-
| Xi resonance &lt;ref name=&quot;PDGXi(1530)&quot; /&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Xi-}}(1530)
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|1535.0|0.6}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −2
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Xi}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion}}}}
|-
| charmed Xi&lt;ref name=&quot;PDGCharmedBaryons&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
 |author=W.-M. Yao (Particle Data Group)
 |year=2006
 |title=Particle listings – Charmed baryons
 |journal=Journal of Physics G
 |url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/tables/bxxxcharm.pdf
 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=1–1232
 |arxiv= astro-ph/0601168
 |bibcode= 2006JPhG...33....1Y
 |doi= 10.1088/0954-3899/33/1/001
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed Xi+}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|2467.9|0.4}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|4.42|0.26|e=-13}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| See [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/tables/bxxxcharm.pdf {{SubatomicParticle|charmed Xi+}} Decay Modes]
|-
| charmed Xi&lt;ref name=&quot;PDGCharmedBaryons&quot; /&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed Xi0}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|2471.0|0.4}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|1.12|+0.13|-0.10|e=-13}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| See [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/tables/bxxxcharm.pdf {{SubatomicParticle|charmed Xi0}} Decay Modes]
|-
| charmed Xi resonance &lt;ref name=&quot;PDGCharmedBaryons&quot; /&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed xi'+}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|2575.7|3.1}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;{{efn|name=&quot;notobservered&quot;|Particle (or quantity, i.e. spin) has neither been observed nor indicated}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed xi+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Photon}} (Seen)}}
|-
| charmed Xi resonance &lt;ref name=&quot;PDGCharmedBaryons&quot; /&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed xi'0}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|2578.0|2.9}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;{{efn|name=&quot;notobservered&quot;}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|1.1|e=-13}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed xi0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Photon}} (Seen)}}
|-
| Ξcc++ double charmed Xi&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url = 
https://press.cern/press-releases/2017/07/lhcb-experiment-charmed-announce-observation-new-particle-two-heavy-quarks|title = The LHCb experiment is charmed to announce observation of a new particle with two heavy quarks|date = 6 Jul 2017|work = |accessdate = }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Double charmed Xi++}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 3621.40 ± 0.72 ± 0.27 ± 0.14
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +2
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +2
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| &lt;math&gt;0.256_{-0.022}^{+0.024}&lt;/math&gt;±0.014×10&lt;sup&gt;−12&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://home.cern/about/updates/2018/05/long-live-doubly-charmed-particle&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed lambda+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Kaon-}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion+}}}}
|-
| double charmed Xi{{efn|name=&quot;dispute&quot;|Some controversy exists about this data. See references}} &lt;ref name=&quot;PDGDoubleCharmedxi&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
 |author=W.-M. Yao (Particle Data Group)
 |year=2006
 |title=Particle listings – &amp;Xi;{{su|p=+|b=cc}}
 |url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/listings/s065.pdf
 |journal=Journal of Physics G
 |volume=33 |issue=1 |page=1
 |arxiv= astro-ph/0601168
 |bibcode= 2006JPhG...33....1Y
 |doi= 10.1088/0954-3899/33/1/001
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Double charmed Xi+}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|3518.9|0.9}}{{efn|name=&quot;dispute&quot;}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +2
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| &amp;lt;{{val|3.3|e=-14}}{{efn|name=&quot;dispute&quot;}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed lambda+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Kaon-}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion+}}}}&lt;sup&gt;[e]&lt;/sup&gt; or &lt;br&gt; {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Proton+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|D+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Kaon-}}}}&lt;sup&gt;[e]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| bottom Xi &lt;ref name=&quot;PDGBottomXi&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
 |author=W.-M. Yao (Particle Data Group)
 |year=2006
 |title=Particle listings – Xi&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;
 |journal=Journal of Physics G
 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=1–1232
 |url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/listings/s060.pdf
|arxiv = astro-ph/0601168 |bibcode = 2006JPhG...33....1Y |doi = 10.1088/0954-3899/33/1/001 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi0}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|5792|3}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;*
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|1.42|+0.28|-0.24|e=-12}}{{efn|name=&quot;halflife&quot;|This is actually a measurement of the average lifetime of b-baryons that decay to a jet containing a same-sign  {{SubatomicParticle|Xi}}&lt;sup&gt;±&lt;/sup&gt; {{SubatomicParticle|Lepton}}&lt;sup&gt;±&lt;/sup&gt;  pair. Presumably the mix is mainly {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom xi}}, with some {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom lambda}}.}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| See [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/listings/s060.pdf {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi}} Decay Modes]
|-
| bottom Xi or&lt;br/&gt;Cascade B&lt;ref name=&quot;Abazov&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Aaltonen&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;PDGBottomXi&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
 |author=T. Aaltonen (Collider Detector at Fermilab|CDF Collaboration)
 |year=2007
 |title= Observation and mass measurement of the baryon {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi-}}
 |journal=Physical Review Letters
 |volume=99 |issue=5 |pages=052002
 |arxiv=0707.0589
 |bibcode=2007PhRvL..99e2002A
 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.052002
|pmid=17930745
 |hdl=10261/8530 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi-}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|5792.9|3.0}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|1.42|e=-12}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| See [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/listings/s060.pdf {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi}} Decay Modes] &lt;br&gt; ({{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Xi-}} + {{SubatomicParticle|J/Psi}}}} was also seen)
|-
|
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi'-}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal
|arxiv = 1411.4849
|title = Observation of two new Ξ{{su
|p=−
|b=b}} baryon resonances
|year = 2015
|journal = Physical Review Letters
|volume = 114
|issue = 6
|pages = 062004
|doi =10.1103/PhysRevLett.114.062004
|pmid = 25723210
|bibcode = 2015PhRvL.114f2004A
|last1 = Aaij
|first1 = R
|collaboration=LHCb Collaboration
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 5935.02 ± 0.02 ± 0.01± 0.50
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 1/2+
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 
|-
|
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi*-}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 5955.33 ± 0.12 ± 0.06 ± 0.50
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 3/2+
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 
|-
|
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi}}(6227)&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|arxiv = 1805.09418
|last1 =Aaij
|first1 = R.
|collaboration=CMS Collaboration
|title = Observation of a new Ξ{{su
|b=b
|p=−}} resonance
|journal = Physical Review Letters
|volume = 121
|issue = 72002
|pages = 072002
|year = 2018
|doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.121.072002
|pmid = 30169090
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 6226.9 ± 2.0 ± 0.3 ± 0.2
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom lambda}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Kaon-}} &lt;br/&gt; {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion-}}
|-
| double bottom Xi{{efn|name=&quot;notobservered&quot;}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Double Bottom Xi0}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −2
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|-
| double bottom Xi{{efn|name=&quot;notobservered&quot;}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Double Bottom Xi-}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −2
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|-
| charmed bottom Xi{{efn|name=&quot;notobservered&quot;}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed bottom Xi+}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|-
| charmed bottom Xi{{efn|name=&quot;notobservered&quot;}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed bottom Xi0}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|-
|}

{{notelist}}

==Sigmas==

Σ&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; has a rest mass of 1189.37 ± 0.07 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Beringer&gt;J. Beringer ''et al.'' (2012) and 2013 partial update for the 2014 edition: [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2013/tables/rpp2013-sum-baryons.pdf Particle summary tables – Baryons]&lt;/ref&gt;

Σ&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; has a rest mass of 1192.642 ± 0.024 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Beringer/&gt;

Σ{{su|p=−|b=b}} has a rest mass of 5815.5 +0.6 −0.5 ± 1.7 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Beringer/&gt;

The symbols encountered in these lists are: I (''isospin''), J (''total angular momentum''), P (''parity (physics)|parity''), u (''up quark''), d (''down quark''), s (''strange quark''), c (''charm quark''), t (''top quark''), b (''bottom quark''), Q (''electric charge''), S (''strangeness''), C (''charmness''), B′ (''bottomness''), T (''topness''), as well as other subatomic particles (hover for name).

Antiparticles are not listed in the table; however, they simply would have all quarks changed to antiquarks (and vice versa), and Q, B, S, C, B′, T, would be of opposite signs. I, J, and P values in red have not been firmly established by experiments, but are predicted by the quark model and are consistent with the measurements.&lt;ref&gt;C. Amsler et al. (2008): [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/tables/rpp2008-sum-baryons.pdf Particle summary tables – Baryons]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;J. G. Körner et al. (1994)&lt;/ref&gt;

=== J&lt;sup&gt;P&lt;/sup&gt; = {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; Sigma baryons ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+J&lt;sup&gt;P&lt;/sup&gt; = {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; Sigma baryons
|-
! class=unsortable|Particle name
! Symbol
! class=unsortable|Quark&lt;br&gt;content
! Rest mass (electron volt|MeV/speed of light|''c''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
! width=&quot;50&quot;|Isospin|I
! width=&quot;50&quot;|Total angular momentum|J&lt;sup&gt;Parity (physics)|P&lt;/sup&gt;
! width=&quot;50&quot;|charge (physics)|Q (elementary charge|''e'')
! width=&quot;50&quot;|strangeness|S
! width=&quot;50&quot;|charm (quantum number)|C
! width=&quot;50&quot;|bottomness|B'
! width=&quot;50&quot;|topness|T
! Mean lifetime (second|s)
! class=unsortable|Commonly decays to
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Sigma&lt;ref name=&quot;PDGSigma+&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/listings/s019.pdf
|format=PDF
|title=Particle Data Groups: 2006 Review of Particle Physics – Sigma+
|accessdate=2008-04-20
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Sigma+}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}
| 1,189.37&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.07
| 1
| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| +1
| −1
| 0
| 0
| 0
| {{nowrap|8.018 ± 0.026 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−11&lt;/sup&gt;}}
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Proton+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion0}} or}} &lt;br/&gt;
{{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Neutron0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion+}}}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Sigma&lt;ref name=PDGSigma0&gt;{{cite book
|url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/listings/s021.pdf
|format=PDF
|title=Particle Data Groups: 2006 Review of Particle Physics – Sigma0
|accessdate=2008-04-20
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Sigma0}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}
| 1,192.642&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.024
| 1
| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| −1
| 0
| 0
| 0
| {{nowrap|7.4 ± 0.7 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−20&lt;/sup&gt;}}
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Lambda0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Photon}}}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Sigma&lt;ref name=PDGSigma-&gt;{{cite book
|url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/listings/s020.pdf
|format=PDF
|title=Particle Data Groups: 2006 Review of Particle Physics – Sigma-
|accessdate=2008-04-20
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Sigma-}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}
| 1,197.449&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.030
| 1
| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| −1
| −1
| 0
| 0
| 0
| {{nowrap|1.479 ± 0.011 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−10&lt;/sup&gt;}}
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Neutron0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion-}}}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| charmed Sigma&lt;ref name=PDGCharmedSigma(2455)&gt;{{cite book
|first1=C.
|last1=Amsler
|year=2008
|url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/b104.pdf
|series=Particle listings
|title={{SubatomicParticle
|Charmed Sigma}}(2455)
|department=Particle Data Group
|publisher=Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed sigma++}}(2455)
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
| 2,454.02&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.18
| 1
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +2
| 0
| +1
| 0
| 0
| {{nowrap|3.0 ± 0.4 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−22&lt;/sup&gt;}}&lt;sup&gt;[a]&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed lambda+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion+}}}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| charmed Sigma&lt;ref name=PDGCharmedSigma(2455)/&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed sigma+}}(2455)
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
| 2,452.9&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.4
| 1
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +1
| 0
| +1
| 0
| 0
| {{nowrap|&gt;1.4 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−22&lt;/sup&gt;}}&lt;sup&gt;[a]&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed lambda+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion0}}}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| charmed Sigma&lt;ref name=PDGCharmedSigma(2455)/&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed sigma0}}(2455)
| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
| 2,453.76&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.18
| 1
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| 0
| +1
| 0
| 0
| {{nowrap|3.0 ± 0.5 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−22&lt;/sup&gt;}}&lt;sup&gt;[a]&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed lambda+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion-}}}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| bottom Sigma&lt;ref name=BottomSigma&gt;T. Aaltonen et al. (2007a)&lt;/ref&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Sigma+}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
| 5,807.7 ± 3.8
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +1
| 0
| 0
| −1
| 0
| Unknown
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Lambda0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion+}} (seen)}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| bottom Sigma&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Undiscovered|†}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Sigma0}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
| Unknown
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| 0
| 0
| −1
| 0
| Unknown
| Unknown
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| bottom Sigma&lt;ref name=BottomSigma/&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Sigma-}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
| 5,815.2&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;2.7
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| −1
| 0
| 0
| −1
| 0
| Unknown
|{{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Lambda0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion-}} (seen)}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Top Sigma&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Undiscovered|†}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Top sigma++}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Top quark}}
| —
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +2
| 0
| 0
| 0
| +1
| —
| —
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Top Sigma&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Undiscovered|†}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Top sigma+}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Top quark}}
| —
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +1
| 0
| 0
| 0
| +1
| —
| —
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Top Sigma&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Undiscovered|†}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Top sigma0}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Top quark}}
| —
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| 0
| 0
| 0
| +1
| —
| —
|-
|}
&lt;sup&gt;†&lt;/sup&gt;  The standard model predicts that this particle cannot exist due to the short lifetime of the top quark. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;[a]&lt;/sup&gt;  PDG reports the resonance width (Γ). Here the conversion τ&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;{{sfrac|ħ|&amp;Gamma;}} is given instead. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;[b]&lt;/sup&gt;  The specific values of the name has not been decided yet, but will likely be close to {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Sigma}}(5810).

=== J&lt;sup&gt;P&lt;/sup&gt; = {{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; Sigma baryons ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+J&lt;sup&gt;P&lt;/sup&gt; = {{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; Sigma baryons
|-
! class=unsortable|Particle name
! Symbol
! class=unsortable|Quark&lt;br&gt;content
! Rest mass (electron volt|MeV/speed of light|''c''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
! width=&quot;50&quot;|Isospin|I
! width=&quot;50&quot;|Total angular momentum|J&lt;sup&gt;Parity (physics)|P&lt;/sup&gt;
! width=&quot;50&quot;|charge (physics)|Q (elementary charge|''e'')
! width=&quot;50&quot;|strangeness|S
! width=&quot;50&quot;|charm (quantum number)|C
! width=&quot;50&quot;|bottomness|B'
! width=&quot;50&quot;|topness|T
! Mean lifetime (second|s)
! class=unsortable|Commonly decays to
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Sigma&lt;ref name=PDGSigma*&gt;{{cite book
|first1=C.
|last1=Amsler
|year=2008
|url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/b043.pdf
|series=Particle listings
|title={{SubatomicParticle
|Sigma}}(1385)
|department=Particle Data Group
|publisher=Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Sigma*+}}(1385)
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}
| 1,382.8&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.4
| 1
| {{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| +1
| −1
| 0
| 0
| 0
| {{nowrap|1.84 ± 0.04 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−23&lt;/sup&gt;}}&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Lifetime2|[c]}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Lambda0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion+}} or}} &lt;br&gt;
{{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Sigma+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion0}} or}} &lt;br&gt;
{{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Sigma0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion+}}}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Sigma&lt;ref name=PDGSigma*/&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Sigma*0}}(1385)
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}
| 1,383.7&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;1.0
| 1
| {{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| −1
| 0
| 0
| 0
| {{nowrap|1.8 ± 0.3 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−23&lt;/sup&gt;}}&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Lifetime2|[c]}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Lambda0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion0}} or}} &lt;br&gt;
{{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Sigma+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion-}} or}} &lt;br&gt;
{{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Sigma0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion0}}}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Sigma&lt;ref name=PDGSigma*/&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Sigma*-}}(1385)
| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}
| 1,387.2&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.5
| 1
| {{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| −1
| −1
| 0
| 0
| 0
| {{nowrap|1.67 ± 0.09 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−23&lt;/sup&gt;}}&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Lifetime2|[c]}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Lambda0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion-}} or}} &lt;br&gt;
{{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Sigma0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion-}} or}} &lt;br&gt;
{{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Sigma-}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion0}} or}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| charmed Sigma&lt;ref name=PDGCharmedSigma*&gt;{{cite book
|first1=C.
|last1=Amsler
|year=2008
|url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/b115.pdf
|series=Particle listings
|title={{SubatomicParticle
|Charmed Sigma}}(2520)
|department=Particle Data Group
|publisher=Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed sigma*++}}(2520)
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
| 2,518.4&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.6
| 1
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +2
| 0
| +1
| 0
| 0
| {{nowrap|4.4 ± 0.6 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−23&lt;/sup&gt;}}&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Lifetime2|[c]}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed Lambda+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion+}}}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| charmed Sigma&lt;ref name=PDGCharmedSigma*/&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed sigma*+}}(2520)
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
| 2,517.5&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;2.3
| 1
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +1
| 0
| +1
| 0
| 0
| {{nowrap|&gt;3.9 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−23&lt;/sup&gt;}}&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Lifetime2|[c]}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed Lambda+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion0}}}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| charmed Sigma&lt;ref name=PDGCharmedSigma*/&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed sigma*0}}(2520)
| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
| 2,518.0&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.5
| 1
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| 0
| +1
| 0
| 0
| {{nowrap|4.1 ± 0.5 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−23&lt;/sup&gt;}}&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Lifetime2|[c]}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed Lambda+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion-}}}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| bottom Sigma&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Undiscovered2|†}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Sigma*+}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
| Unknown
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +1
| 0
| 0
| −1
| 0
| Unknown
| Unknown
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| bottom Sigma&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Undiscovered2|†}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Sigma*0}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
| Unknown
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| 0
| 0
| −1
| 0
| Unknown
| Unknown
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| bottom Sigma&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Undiscovered2|†}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Sigma*-}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
| Unknown
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| −1
| 0
| 0
| −1
| 0
| Unknown
| Unknown
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Top Sigma&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Undiscovered2|†}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Top sigma*++}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Top quark}}
| —
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +2
| 0
| 0
| 0
| +1
| —
| —
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Top Sigma&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Undiscovered2|†}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Top sigma*+}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Top quark}}
| —
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +1
| 0
| 0
| 0
| +1
| —
| —
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Top Sigma&lt;sup&gt;†&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Top sigma*0}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Top quark}}
| —
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| 0
| 0
| 0
| +1
| —
| —
|-
|}
&lt;sup&gt;†&lt;/sup&gt;  The standard model predicts that this particle cannot exist due to the short lifetime of the top quark. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;[c]&lt;/sup&gt;  PDG reports the resonance width (Γ). Here the conversion τ&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;{{sfrac|ħ|&amp;Gamma;}} is given instead.

==Lambdas==

Λ&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; has a rest mass of 1115.683 ± 0.006 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Amsler&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=C. Amsler Particle Data Group
|title=Review of Particle Physics
|journal=Physics Letters B
|volume=667
|issue=1
|pages=1
|year=2008
|doi=10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018
|bibcode = 2008PhLB..667....1A }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Λ{{su|p=+|b=c}} has a rest mass of 2286.46 ± 0.146 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Amsler/&gt;

On 13 July 2015, the [[w:LHCb|LHCb collaboration]] at [[w:CERN|CERN]] reported results consistent with pentaquark states in the decay of bottom Lambda baryons (Λ{{su|p=0|b=b}}).&lt;ref name=&quot;LHCb2015&quot;&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=R. Aaij LHCb collaboration
|year=2015
|title=Observation of J/ψp resonances consistent with pentaquark states in Λ{{su|p=0|b=b}}→J/ψK&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt;p decays
|journal=Physical Review Letters
|volume=115
|issue=7
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.072001
|arxiv = 1507.03414
|bibcode = 2015PhRvL.115g2001A }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Rest mass = 5619.4 ± 0.6 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.

==Phi mesons==

The phi meson &lt;math&gt; \Phi^0 &lt;/math&gt;(1020) has a mass of 1019.445 MeV. It decays per&lt;ref name=Amsler2008&gt;{{ cite book
|author=C. Amsler
|year=2008
|url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/m004.pdf
|title=Particle listings }}&lt;/ref&gt;
# &lt;math&gt; \Phi^0 \rightarrow \Kappa^+ + \Kappa^- or &lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt; \Phi^0 \rightarrow \Kappa^0_S + \Kappa^0_L. &lt;/math&gt;

&quot;The scalar mesons σ and δ account for the description of attraction among baryons, while repulsion is described by the vector mesons ω, &lt;math&gt; \rho &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt; \phi &lt;/math&gt;.&quot;

&quot;The many-body forces (MBF) model [2] is a relativistic mean field model in which meson field dependences are introduced in the couplings of baryons to mesons.&quot;&lt;ref name=Gomes/&gt;

The &quot;&lt;math&gt; \phi &lt;/math&gt; mesons mediates interaction among hyperons, providing extra repulsion, which plays an important role in the description of massive stars with hyperon content [29].&quot;&lt;ref name=Gomes/&gt;

The &quot;whole fundamental baryon octet (n, p, Σ&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt;, Σ&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;, Σ&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, Λ, Ξ&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt;, Ξ&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;) [is exhausted] and simulates n‐order corrections to the minimal Yukawa couplings by considering many‐body nonlinear self‐couplings and meson–meson interaction terms involving scalar–isoscalar (σ, σ&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;), vector–isoscalar (ω, ϕ), vector–isovector (ϱ), and scalar–isovector (δ) sectors.&quot;&lt;ref name=Razeira/&gt;

&quot;The ''hidden'' mesons do not couple with nucleons, so g&lt;sub&gt;𝛔&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt; = g&lt;sub&gt;𝚽N&lt;/sub&gt; = 0. [...] the following value for the delta meson-nucleon coupling constant (Bednarek 2003): g&lt;sub&gt;δN&lt;/sub&gt; = 3.1 [is chosen].&quot;&lt;ref name=Razeira&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=M. Razeira
|author2=D. Hadjimichef
|author3=M. V. T. Machado
|author4=F. Köpp
|author5=G. Volkmer
|author6=B. Bodmann
|author7=G. A. Degrazia
|author8=C. A. Z. Vasconcellos
|title=Effective field theory with genuine many‐body forces and tidal effects on neutron stars
|journal=Astronomical Notes
|date=28 March 2019
|volume=340
|issue=1-3
|pages=209-212
|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/asna.201913590
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1002/asna.201913590
|pmid=
|accessdate=12 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Advanced &quot;Laser Interferometer Gravitational‐Wave Observatory (aLIGO) and Gravitational Wave Interferomenter of the European Gravitational Observatory (VIRGO) detectors measured a value of [the tidal deformability parameter] in the event GW170817 (Abbott 2017), and it has been noticed that the values of [the tidal deformability parameter] ≤ 800 in the low‐spin case and [the tidal deformability parameter] ≤ 700 in the high‐spin case are within the 90% credible interval.&quot;&lt;ref name=Razeira/&gt;

Results suggest each baryon-meson coupling can by &quot;predictions of the tidal parameter represent a useful constraint of the EoS of neutron stars.&quot;&lt;ref name=Razeira/&gt;

==Omega mesons==

&quot;The detection of GW170817 and its electromagnetic counterparts allows us to constrain the equation of state of dense matter [... The] couplings [for equation of state (EoS) were set] with the omega and the rho meson to x&lt;sub&gt;ωΔ&lt;/sub&gt; = x&lt;sub&gt;ρΔ&lt;/sub&gt; = 1. [This choice is] motivated by several analyses of scattering data (electron and pion scattering off nuclei), suggesting a coupling with the sigma meson [is] stronger than the coupling with the omega meson [...].&quot;&lt;ref name= Burgio &gt;{{ cite journal
|author=G. F. Burgio
|author2=A. Drago
|author3=G. Pagliara
|author4=H.-J. Schulze
|author5=J.-B. Wei
|title=Are Small Radii of Compact Stars Ruled out by GW170817/AT2017gfo?
|journal=The Astrophysical Journal
|date=21 June 2018
|volume=860
|issue=2
|pages=139
|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/aac6ee/meta
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.3847/1538-4357/aac6ee
|pmid=
|accessdate=12 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Omega meson production:&lt;ref name=Olive&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=K.A. Olive (Particle Data Group)
|title=
|journal=Chinese Physics
|year=2014
|volume=C38
|issue=
|pages=090001
|url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2014/listings/rpp2014-list-omega-782.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2015-02-11 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;p + d \rightarrow He^3 + \omega, &lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\bar{p} + p \rightarrow \omega + \eta + \pi_0, &lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\pi^- + p \rightarrow \omega + n, &lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;p + \bar{p} \rightarrow \Kappa^+ + \Kappa^- + \omega, &lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;p + \bar{p} \rightarrow \Kappa 1 + \Kappa 1 + \omega, &lt;/math&gt;

Omega meson ω(782) decay modes:&lt;ref name=Olive/&gt;
# Γ&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;: &lt;math&gt; \omega \rightarrow \pi^+ + \pi^- + \pi^0, &lt;/math&gt;
# Γ&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;: &lt;math&gt; \omega \rightarrow \pi^0 + \gamma, &lt;/math&gt;
# Γ&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;: &lt;math&gt; \omega \rightarrow \pi^+ + \pi^-, &lt;/math&gt;
# Γ&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;: &lt;math&gt; \omega \rightarrow neutrals (excluding: \pi^0 + \gamma), &lt;/math&gt;
# Γ&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;: &lt;math&gt; \omega \rightarrow \eta + \gamma, &lt;/math&gt;
# Γ&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;: &lt;math&gt; \omega \rightarrow \pi^0 + e^+ + e^-, &lt;/math&gt;
# Γ&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;: &lt;math&gt; \omega \rightarrow \pi^0 + \mu^+ + \mu^-, &lt;/math&gt;
# Γ&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;: &lt;math&gt; \omega \rightarrow \eta + e^+ + e^-, &lt;/math&gt;
# Γ&lt;sub&gt;9&lt;/sub&gt;: &lt;math&gt; \omega \rightarrow e^+ + e^-, &lt;/math&gt;
# Γ&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;: &lt;math&gt; \omega \rightarrow \pi^+ + \pi^- + \pi^0 + \pi^0, &lt;/math&gt;
# Γ&lt;sub&gt;11&lt;/sub&gt;: &lt;math&gt; \omega \rightarrow \pi^+ + \pi^- + \gamma, &lt;/math&gt;
# Γ&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;: &lt;math&gt; \omega \rightarrow \pi^+ + \pi^- + \pi^+ + \pi^-, &lt;/math&gt;
# Γ&lt;sub&gt;13&lt;/sub&gt;: &lt;math&gt; \omega \rightarrow \pi^0 + \pi^0 + \gamma, &lt;/math&gt;
# Γ&lt;sub&gt;14&lt;/sub&gt;: &lt;math&gt; \omega \rightarrow \eta + \pi^0 + \gamma, &lt;/math&gt;
# Γ&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt;: &lt;math&gt; \omega \rightarrow \mu^+ + \mu^-, &lt;/math&gt;
# Γ&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;: &lt;math&gt; \omega \rightarrow 3\gamma, &lt;/math&gt;
# Γ&lt;sub&gt;17&lt;/sub&gt;: &lt;math&gt; \omega \rightarrow \eta + \pi^0, &lt;/math&gt;
# Γ&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;: &lt;math&gt; \omega \rightarrow 2\pi^0, and&lt;/math&gt;
# Γ&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt;: &lt;math&gt; \omega \rightarrow 3\pi^0. &lt;/math&gt;

==Rho mesons==

Rho mesons occur in three states: ρ&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, ρ&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;, and ρ&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Amsler2008/&gt; The rest masses are apparently the same at 775.4±0.4 and 775.49±0.34.&lt;ref name=Amsler2008/&gt; Decay products are π&lt;sup&gt;±&lt;/sup&gt; + π&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; or π&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + π&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;, respectively.&lt;ref name=Amsler2008/&gt;

'''Def.''' a &quot;short-lived hadronic isospin triplet&quot;&lt;ref name=RhoMesonWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=rho meson
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=25 January 2017
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rho_meson
|accessdate=12 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''rho meson'''.

With &quot;a standard relativistic equation of state (GM3) [...] rho-meson condensates can appear in the core of the neutron star as the rho mass decreases with density and magnetic field. For reasonable values of the parameters, the rho condensate can appear in a neutron star at 4.4 times the normal nuclear matter density. This number guarantees a sizeable portion of the star to have a ρ-condensed phase.&quot;&lt;ref name=Mallick&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Ritam Mallick
|author2=Stefan Schramm
|author3=Veronica Dexheimer
|author4=Abhijit Bhattacharyya
|title=On the possibility of rho-meson condensation in neutron stars
|journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
|date=11 May 2015
|volume=449
|issue=2
|pages=1347-51
|url=https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/449/2/1347/1077597
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1093/mnras/stv402
|pmid=
|accessdate=12 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Kaons==
[[Image:HD.6B.155 (10727124456).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Nuclear particle tracks in the ten-inch bubble chamber mounted inside a superconducting magnet at Argonne show what happened to two negative K mesons that entered the bubble chamber from Argonne's ZGS. Credit: [https://www.flickr.com/people/37916456@N02 ENERGY.GOV].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HD.6D.681 (12000977644).jpg|thumb|left|250px|A k meson produced by the Cosmotron at Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, L.I., New York, comes to rest in emulsion and decays into a fast positively charge light meson. Credit: [https://www.flickr.com/people/37916456@N02 ENERGY.GOV].{{tlx|free media}}]]
&quot;The muons created through decays of secondary pions and kaons are fully polarized, which results in electron/positron decay asymmetry, which in turn causes a difference in their production spectra.&quot;&lt;ref name=Moskalenko&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=I. V. Moskalenko
|author2=A. W. Strong
|title=Production and propagation of cosmic-ray positrons and electrons
|journal=The Astrophysical Journal
|month=February 1,
|year=1998
|volume=493
|issue=2
|pages=694-707
|url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/493/2/694
|arxiv=astro-ph/9710124
|bibcode=1998ApJ...493..694M
|doi=10.1086/305152
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-02-01 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The &quot;highest energy neutrinos from GRBs mainly come from kaons.&quot;&lt;ref name=Asano&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=K. Asano
|author2=S. Nagataki
|title=Very High Energy Neutrinos Originating from Kaons in Gamma-Ray Bursts
|journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters
|month=20 March
|year=2006
|volume=640
|issue=1
|pages=L9
|url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0603107.pdf
|arxiv=astro-ph/0603107
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1086/503291
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-10-02 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Sigma mesons==

Two &quot;parameterizations corresponding to two different values for the coupling of the delta resonances [are considered] with the sigma meson: x&lt;sub&gt;σΔ&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.15 (SFHO+HD [(Drago et al. 2014b)]) and x&lt;sub&gt;σΔ&lt;/sub&gt; = 1 (SFHO+HD2)[...] motivated by several analyses of scattering data (electron and pion scattering off nuclei) [...].&quot;&lt;ref name=Burgio/&gt;

==Pions==

Single π&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; production occurs &quot;in neutral current neutrino interactions with water by a 1.3 GeV wide band neutrino beam.&quot;&lt;ref name=Nakayama&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=S. Nakayama
|author2=C. Mauger
|author3=M.H. Ahn
|author4=S. Aoki
|author5=Y. Ashie
|author6=H. Bhang
|author7=S. Boyd
|author8=D. Casper
|author9=J.H. Choi
|author10=S. Fukuda
|author11=Y. Fukuda
|author12=R. Gran
|author13=T. Hara
|author14=M. Hasegawa
|author15=T. Hasegawa
|author16=K. Hayashi
|author17=Y. Hayato
|author18=J. Hill
|author19=A.K. Ichikawa
|author20=A. Ikeda
|author21=T. Inagaki
|author22=T. Ishida
|author23=T. Ishii
|author24=M. Ishitsuka
|author25=Y. Itow
|author26=T. Iwashita
|author27=H.I. Jang
|author28=J.S. Jang
|author29=E.J. Jeon
|author30=K.K. Joo
|author31=C.K. Jung
|author32=T. Kajita
|author33=J. Kameda
|author34=K. Kaneyuki
|author35=I. Kato
|author36=E. Kearns
|author37=A. Kibayashi
|author38=D. Kielczewska
|author39=B.J. Kim
|author40=C.O. Kim
|author41=J.Y. Kim
|author42=S.B. Kim
|author43=K. Kobayashi
|author44=T. Kobayashi
|author45=Y. Koshio
|author46=W.R. Kropp
|author47=J.G. Learned
|author48=S.H. Lim
|author49=I.T. Lim
|author50=H. Maesaka
|author51=T. Maruyama
|author52=S. Matsuno
|author53=C. Mcgrew
|author54=A. Minamino
|author55=S. Mine
|author56=M. Miura
|author57=K. Miyano
|author58=T. Morita
|author59=S. Moriyama
|author60=M. Nakahata
|author61=K. Nakamura
|author62=I. Nakano
|author63=F. Nakata
|author64=T. Nakaya
|author65=T. Namba
|author66=R. Nambu
|author67=K. Nishikawa
|author68=S. Nishiyama
|author69=K .Nitta
|author70=S. Noda
|author71=Y. Obayashi
|author72=A. Okada
|author73=Y. Oyama
|author74=M.Y. Pac
|author75=H. Park
|author76=C. Saji
|author77=M. Sakuda
|author78=A. Sarrat
|author79=T. Sasaki
|author80=N. Sasao
|author81=K. Scholberg
|author82=M. Sekiguchi
|author83=E. Sharkey
|author84=M. Shiozawa
|author85=K.K. Shiraishi
|author86=M. Smy
|author87=H.W. Sobel
|author88=J.L. Stone
|author89=Y. Suga
|author90=L.R. Sulak
|author91=A. Suzuki
|author92=Y. Suzuki
|author93=Y. Takeuchi
|author94=N. Tamura
|author95=M. Tanaka
|author96=Y. Totsuka
|author97=S. Ueda
|author98=M.R. Vagins
|author99=C.W. Walter
|author100=W. Wang
|author101=R.J. Wilkes
|author102=S. Yamada
|author103=S. Yamamoto
|author104=C. Yanagisawa
|author105=H. Yokoyama
|author106=J. Yoo
|author107=M. Yoshida
|author108=J. Zalipska
|title=Measurement of single π&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; production in neutral current neutrino interactions with water by a 1.3 GeV wide band muon neutrino beam
|journal=Physics Letters B
|month=July
|year=2005
|volume=619
|issue=3-4
|pages=255-62
|url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/hep-ex/0408134.pdf?origin=publication_detail
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The Gamma-Ray Spectrometer (GRS) on [Solar Maximum Mission] SMM has detected [...] at least two of the flares have spectral properties &gt;40 MeV that require gamma rays from the decay of neutral pions. [Pion] production can occur early in the impulsive phase as defined by hard X-rays near 100 keV.&quot;&lt;ref name=Forrest&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Forrest D. J.
|author2=Vestrand W. T.
|author3=Chupp E. L.
|author4=Rieger E.
|author5=Cooper J. F.
|author6=Share G. H.
|title=Neutral Pion Production in Solar Flares, In: ''19th International Cosmic Ray Conference''
|publisher=NASA
|location=
|date=August 1985
|editor=
|volume=4
|pages=146-9
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1985ICRC....4..146F
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1985ICRC....4..146F
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=
|accessdate=2014-10-01 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Gamma-ray &quot;emission matches remarkably well both the position and shape of the inner [supernova remnant] SNR shocked plasma. Furthermore, the gamma-ray spectrum shows a prominent peak near 1 GeV with a clear decrement at energies below a few hundreds of MeV as expected from neutral pion decay.&quot;&lt;ref name=Thomsen&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=A. Giuliani
|author2=M. Cardillo
|author3=M. Tavani
|author4=Y. Fukui
|author5=S. Yoshiike
|author6=K. Torii
|author7=G. Dubner
|author8=G. Castelletti
|author9=G. Barbiellini
|author10=A. Bulgarelli
|author11=P. Caraveo
|author12=E. Costa
|author13=P.W. Cattaneo
|author14=A. Chen
|author15=T. Contessi
|author16=E. Del Monte
|author17=I. Donnarumma
|author18=Y. Evangelista
|author19=M. Feroci
|author20=F. Gianotti
|author21=F. Lazzarotto
|author22=F. Lucarelli
|author23=F. Longo
|author24=M. Marisaldi
|author25=S. Mereghetti
|author26=L. Pacciani
|author27=A. Pellizzoni
|author28=G. Piano
|author29=P. Picozza
|author30=C. Pittori
|author31=G. Pucella
|author32=M. Rapisarda
|author33=A. Rappoldi
|author34=S. Sabatini
|author35=P. Soffitta
|author36=E. Striani
|author37=M. Trifoglio
|author38=A. Trois
|author39=S. Vercellone
|author40=F. Verrecchia
|author41=V. Vittorin
|author42=S. Colafrancesco
|author43=P. Giommi
|author44=G. Bignami
|title=Neutral Pion Emission from Accelerated Protons in the Supernova Remnant W44
|journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters
|month=1 December
|year=2011
|volume=742
|issue=2
|pages=L30
|url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1111.4868
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1088/2041-8205/742/2/L30
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-10-02 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;If protons are accelerated by the shock wave of a supernova remnant, they could interact with the surrounding interstellar gas to produce short-lived particles called π&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; mesons, which in turn would decay to produce γ-rays at very high, TeV, energies (1 TeV = 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; electron volts).&quot;&lt;ref name=Aharonian&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Felix Aharonian
|title=Astronomy: The cosmic accelerator
|journal=Nature
|month=25 April
|year=2002
|volume=416
|issue=6883
|pages=797-8
|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v416/n6883/full/416797a.html
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1038/416797a
|pmid=
|accessdate=2017-04-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Tauons==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Tauons}}
[[Image:EGB With Models v2.pdf|right|thumb|400px|Compilation is shown of the measurements of the total extragalactic gamma-ray intensity between 1 keV and 820 GeV, with different components from current models. Credit: The e-ASTROGAM Collaboration.{{tlx|free media}}]]
&quot;For ultrahigh energies the neutrino spectrum at the detector is influenced by neutrino-nucleon interactions and tauon decays during the passage through the interior of the earth.&quot;&lt;ref name=Hettlage&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Hettlage, C.
|author2=Mannheim, K.
|title=Tau Sources in the Sky
|journal=AG Abstract Services
|month=20-25 September
|year=1999
|volume=15
|issue=04
|pages=
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu//abs/1999AGM....15..I04H
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1999AGM....15..I04H
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-10-02 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Strong forces==
{{main|Charges/Interactions/Strong}}
If there was no nuclear force, all nuclei with two or more protons would fly apart because of the electromagnetic repulsion.

==Emissions==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Emissions}}
There is a &quot;tight overlapping of the MeV photon flow [prompt MeV γ-ray emission] with the shocked regions [containing GeV photons produced in the shocks] [from supernovae ...] These high energy photons are absorbed by the MeV photon flow and generate relativistic e&lt;sup&gt;±&lt;/sup&gt; pairs. [...] Overlapping also influence neutrino emission. Besides the [3 x] 10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; ~ [3 x] 10&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt; eV neutrino emission [from photomeson interaction] powered by the interaction of the shock accelerated protons with the synchrotron photons [...] there comes another 10&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; neutrino emission component powered by protons interacting with the MeV photon flow.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fan&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
|author=Y. Z. Fan
|author2=Bing Zhang
|author3=D. M. Wei
|title=Early photon-shock interaction in a stellar wind: A sub-GeV photon flash and high-energy neutrino emission from long gamma-ray bursts
|journal=The Astrophysical Journal
|month=August 10,
|year=2005
|volume=629
|issue=1
|pages=334-40
|url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/629/1/334
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1086/431473
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-11-07 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Cosmic rays==
{{main|Radiation/Cosmic rays}}
'''Notation''': let the symbol GZK represent '''Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin'''.

Single π&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; production occurs &quot;in neutral current neutrino interactions with water by a 1.3 GeV wide band neutrino beam.&quot;&lt;ref name=Nakayama/&gt;

&quot;The Gamma-Ray Spectrometer (GRS) on [Solar Maximum Mission] SMM has detected [...] at least two of the flares have spectral properties &gt;40 MeV that require gamma rays from the decay of neutral pions. [Pion] production can occur early in the impulsive phase as defined by hard X-rays near 100 keV.&quot;&lt;ref name=Forrest/&gt;

Gamma-ray &quot;emission matches remarkably well both the position and shape of the inner [supernova remnant] SNR shocked plasma. Furthermore, the gamma-ray spectrum shows a prominent peak near 1 GeV with a clear decrement at energies below a few hundreds of MeV as expected from neutral pion decay.&quot;&lt;ref name=Giuliani&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=A. Giuliani
|author2=M. Cardillo
|author3=M. Tavani
|author4=Y. Fukui
|author5=S. Yoshiike
|author6=K. Torii
|author7=G. Dubner
|author8=G. Castelletti
|author9=G. Barbiellini
|author10=A. Bulgarelli
|author11=P. Caraveo
|author12=E. Costa
|author13=P.W. Cattaneo
|author14=A. Chen
|author15=T. Contessi
|author16=E. Del Monte
|author17=I. Donnarumma
|author18=Y. Evangelista
|author19=M. Feroci
|author20=F. Gianotti
|author21=F. Lazzarotto
|author22=F. Lucarelli
|author23=F. Longo
|author24=M. Marisaldi
|author25=S. Mereghetti
|author26=L. Pacciani
|author27=A. Pellizzoni
|author28=G. Piano
|author29=P. Picozza
|author30=C. Pittori
|author31=G. Pucella
|author32=M. Rapisarda
|author33=A. Rappoldi
|author34=S. Sabatini
|author35=P. Soffitta
|author36=E. Striani
|author37=M. Trifoglio
|author38=A. Trois
|author39=S. Vercellone
|author40=F. Verrecchia
|author41=V. Vittorin
|author42=S. Colafrancesco
|author43=P. Giommi
|author44=G. Bignami
|title=Neutral Pion Emission from Accelerated Protons in the Supernova Remnant W44
|journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters
|date=1 December 2011
|volume=742
|issue=2
|pages=L30
|url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1111.4868
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1088/2041-8205/742/2/L30
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-10-02 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Neutral current single π&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; production induced by neutrinos with a mean energy of 1.3GeV is measured at a 1000 ton water Cherenkov detector as a near detector of the K2K long baseline neutrino experiment.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nakayama&quot;/&gt;

&quot;The single π&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; production rate by atmospheric neutrinos could be usable to distinguish between the ν&lt;sub&gt;µ&lt;/sub&gt; ↔ ν&lt;sub&gt;τ&lt;/sub&gt; and ν&lt;sub&gt;µ&lt;/sub&gt; ↔ ν&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt; oscillation hypotheses. The NC rate is attenuated in the case of transitions of ν&lt;sub&gt;µ&lt;/sub&gt;’s into sterile neutrinos, while it does not change in the ν&lt;sub&gt;µ&lt;/sub&gt; ↔ ν&lt;sub&gt;τ&lt;/sub&gt; scenario.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nakayama&quot;/&gt;

Based on interactions between  cosmic rays and the photons of the [[w:Cosmic microwave background radiation|cosmic microwave background radiation]] (CMB) cosmic rays with energies over the threshold energy of 5x10&lt;sup&gt;19&lt;/sup&gt; [[w:electron-volt|eV]] interact with cosmic microwave background photons &lt;math&gt;\gamma_{\rm CMB}&lt;/math&gt; to produce [[w:pion|pion]]s via the &lt;math&gt;\Delta&lt;/math&gt; resonance,

:&lt;math&gt;\gamma_{\rm CMB}+p\rightarrow\Delta^+\rightarrow p + \pi^0,&lt;/math&gt;

or

:&lt;math&gt;\gamma_{\rm CMB}+p\rightarrow\Delta^+\rightarrow n + \pi^+.&lt;/math&gt;

Pions produced in this manner proceed to decay in the standard pion channels—ultimately to photons for neutral pions, and photons, positrons, and various neutrinos for positive pions. Neutrons decay also to similar products, so that ultimately the energy of any cosmic ray proton is drained off by production of high energy photons plus (in some cases) high energy electron/positron pairs and neutrino pairs.

The pion production process continues until the cosmic ray energy falls below the pion production threshold. Due to the mean path associated with this interaction, extragalactic cosmic rays traveling over distances larger than 50 [[w:Parsec|Mpc]] (163 [[w:Light-year|Mly]]) and with energies greater than this threshold should never be observed on Earth. This distance is also known as GZK horizon.

==Subatomics==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Subatomics|Subatomic astronomy}}
An &quot;analysis of the energy-loss distributions in the GRS HEM during the impulsive phase of this event indicates that γ-rays from the decay of π&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; mesons were detected [...] The production of pions, which is accompanied (on average) by neutrons, has an energy threshold of ~290 MeV for ''p''-''p'' and ~180 MeV for ''p''-α interactions, giving, therefore, a lower limit to the maximum energy of the particles accelerated at the Sun.&quot;&lt;ref name=Chupp&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=E. L. Chupp
|author2=H. Debrunner
|author3=E. Flueckiger
|author4=D. J. Forrest
|author5=F. Golliez
|author6=G. Kanbach
|author7=W. T. Vestrand
|author8=J. Cooper
|author9=G. Share
|title=Solar neutron emissivity during the large flare on 1982 June 3
|journal=The Astrophysical Journal
|month=July 15,
|year=1987
|volume=318
|issue=7
|pages=913-25
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987ApJ...318..913C
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1987ApJ...318..913C
|doi=10.1086/165423
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-04-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Protons==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Protons|Proton astronomy}}
For antiproton-proton annihilation at rest, a meson result is, for example,

:&lt;math&gt;p^+ + \bar{p}^- \rightarrow \pi^+ + \pi^-&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=Klempt&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Eberhard Klempt
|author2=Chris Batty
|author3=Jean-Marc Richard
|title=The antinucleon-nucleon interaction at low energy: annihilation dynamics
|journal=Physics Reports
|month=July
|year=2005
|volume=413
|issue=4-5
|pages=197-317
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PhR...413..197K
|arxiv=hep-ex/0501020
|bibcode=2005PhR...413..197K
|doi=10.1016/j.physrep.2005.03.002
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and

:&lt;math&gt;{\pi}^+ \rightarrow {\mu}^+ + {\nu}_{\mu} \rightarrow e^+ + {\nu}_e + {\bar{\nu}}_{\mu} + {\nu}_{\mu}.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=Waxman&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Eli Waxman
|author2=John Bahcall
|title=High energy neutrinos from astrophysical sources: An upper bound
|journal=Physical Review D
|month=December 14,
|year=1998
|volume=59
|issue=2
|pages=e023002
|url=http://prd.aps.org/abstract/PRD/v59/i2/e023002
|arxiv=hep--ph/9807282
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.59.023002
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Positrons==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Positrons|Positron astronomy}}
The creation of only one photon can occur for tightly bound atomic electrons.&lt;ref name=Sodickson&gt;{{ cite journal
 |author=L. Sodickson
|author2=W. Bowman
|author3=J. Stephenson
|author4=R. Weinstein
 |year=1960
 |title=Single-Quantum Annihilation of Positrons
 |journal=Physical Review
 |volume=124
|pages=1851
 |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.124.1851
|bibcode = 1961PhRv..124.1851S }}&lt;/ref&gt; In the most common case, two photons are created, each with energy equal to the [[w:rest energy|rest energy]] of the electron or positron (511 keV).&lt;ref name=Atwood&gt;{{cite journal
 |author=W.B. Atwood
|author2=P.F. Michelson
|author3=S.Ritz
 |year=2008
 |title=Una Ventana Abierta a los Confines del Universo
 |journal=Investigación y Ciencia
 |volume=377
|pages=24–31
|url=https://opacbiblioteca.intec.edu.do/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=51007
 |doi= }}&lt;/ref&gt; It is also common for three to be created, since in some angular momentum states, this is necessary to conserve [[w:C parity|C parity]].&lt;ref name=Griffiths&gt;{{cite book
 |author=D.J. Griffiths
 |date=1987
 |title=Introduction to Elementary Particles
 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons
 |isbn=0-471-60386-4 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Any larger number of photons [can be created], but the probability becomes lower with each additional photon. When either the electron or positron, or both, have appreciable [[w:kinetic energy|kinetic energies]], other heavier particles can also be produced (such as [[w:D meson|D meson]]s), since there is enough kinetic energy in the relative velocities to provide the [[w:rest energy|rest energies]] of those particles. Photons and other light particles may be produced, but they will emerge with higher energies.

==Annihilations==
[[Image:Annihilation.png|thumb|right|250px|Naturally occurring electron-positron annihilation is a result of beta plus decay. Credit: Jens Maus.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Annihilation Radiation.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A Germanium detector spectrum shows the annihilation radiation peak (under the arrow). Note the width of the peak compared to the other gamma rays visible in the spectrum. Credit: Hidesert.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The '''positron''' or '''antielectron''' is the [[w:antiparticle|antiparticle]] or the [[w:antimatter|antimatter]] counterpart of the electron. The positron has an [[w:electric charge|electric charge]] of +1e, a [[w:spin (physics)|spin]] of ½, and has the same mass as an electron. When a low-energy positron collides with a low-energy electron,  [[w:annihilation|annihilation]] occurs, resulting in the production of two or more [[w:gamma ray|gamma ray]] [[w:photon|photon]]s.

'''Def.''' the process of a [[wikt:particle|particle]] and its corresponding [[wikt:antiparticle|antiparticle]] combining to produce energy is called '''annihilation'''.

The figure at right shows a positron (e&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;) emitted from an atomic nucleus together with a [[wikt:neutrino|neutrino]] (v). Subsequently, the positron moves randomly through the surrounding matter where it hits several different electrons (e&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;) until it finally loses enough energy that it interacts with a single electron. This process is called an &quot;annihilation&quot; and results in two diametrically emitted photons with a typical energy of 511 keV each. Under normal circumstances the photons are not emitted exactly diametrically (180 degrees). This is due to the remaining energy of the positron having conservation of momentum.

'''Electron–positron annihilation''' occurs when an electron ({{SubatomicParticle|Electron}}) and a [[w:positron|positron]] ({{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}, the electron's [[w:antiparticle|antiparticle]]) collide. The result of the collision is the [[w:annihilation|annihilation]] of the electron and positron, and the creation of [[w:gamma ray|gamma ray]] [[w:photon|photon]]s or, at higher energies, other particles:

:{{SubatomicParticle|Electron}}&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}&amp;nbsp;&amp;rarr;&amp;nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Photon}}&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Photon}}

The process [does] satisfy a number of [[w:conservation law|conservation law]]s, including:

* [[w:Charge conservation|Conservation of electric charge]]. The net [[w:electric charge|charge]] before and after is zero.
* Conservation of [[w:momentum|linear momentum]] and total [[w:energy|energy]]. This forbids the creation of a single gamma ray. However, in [[w:quantum field theory|quantum field theory]] this process is [described]; see [[w:Annihilation#Examples of annihilation|examples of annihilation]].
* Conservation of [[w:angular momentum|angular momentum]].

As with any two charged objects, electrons and positrons may also interact with each other without annihilating, in general by [[w:elastic scattering|elastic scattering]].

At energies near and beyond the mass of the carriers of the [[w:weak interaction|weak force]], the [[w:W and Z bosons|W and Z bosons]], the strength of the weak force becomes comparable with [[w:electromagnetism|electromagnetism]].&lt;ref name=Griffiths/&gt; It becomes much easier to produce particles such as neutrinos that interact only weakly.

The heaviest particle pairs yet produced by electron–positron annihilation are [[w:W boson|{{SubatomicParticle|W boson+}}–{{SubatomicParticle|W boson-}}]] pairs. The heaviest single particle is the [[w:Z boson|Z boson]].

Annihilation radiation is not monoenergetic, unlike gamma rays produced by [[w:radioactive decay|radioactive decay]]. The production mechanism of annihilation radiation introduces [[w:Doppler broadening|Doppler broadening]].&lt;ref name=Gilmore&gt;Gilmore, G., and Hemmingway, J.: &quot;Practical Gamma Ray Spectrometry&quot;, page 13. John Wiley &amp; Sons Ltd., 1995&lt;/ref&gt; The annihilation peak produced in a gamma spectrum by annihilation radiation therefore has a higher [[w:full width at half maximum|full width at half maximum]] (FWHM) than other gamma rays in [the] spectrum. The difference is more apparent with high resolution detectors, such as [[w:Germanium|Germanium]] detectors, than with low resolution detectors such as [[w:Sodium iodide|Sodium iodide]]. Because of their well-defined energy (511 keV) and characteristic, Doppler-broadened shape, annihilation radiation can often be useful in defining the energy calibration of a gamma ray spectrum.

==Muons==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Muons|Muon astronomy}}
A &quot;measurement of the ratio of positive to negative muon fluxes from cosmic ray interactions in the atmosphere [has been made], using data collected by the CMS detector both at ground level and in the underground experimental cavern at the CERN LHC. Muons were detected in the momentum range from 5 GeV/c to 1 TeV/c. The surface flux ratio is measured to be 1.2766±0.0032 (stat.) ±0.0032 (syst.), independent of the muon momentum, below 100 GeV/c.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=V Khachatryan
|author2=AM Sirunyan
|author3=A Tumasyan
|author4=W Adam
|title=Measurement of the charge ratio of atmospheric muons with the CMS detector
|journal=Physics Letters B
|month=August,
|year=2010
|volume=692
|issue=2
|pages=83-104
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370269310008725
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The muon charge ratio R is defined as the ratio of the number of positive- to negative-charge atmospheric muons arriving at the Earth’s surface.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;These muons arise from showers produced in interactions of high-energy cosmic ray particles with air nuclei in the upper layers of the atmosphere. The magnitude and the momentum dependence of R are determined by the production and interaction cross sections of mesons (mainly pions and kaons), and by their decay lengths. As most cosmic rays and the nuclei with which they interact are positively charged, positive meson production is favoured, hence more positive muons are expected. Previous measurements from various experiments [1–8] showed the muon charge ratio to be constant up to a momentum of about 200 GeV/c, and then to increase at higher momenta, in agreement with the predicted rise in the fraction of muons from kaon decays. Measurements of the charge ratio can be used to constrain hadronic interaction models and to predict better the atmospheric neutrino flux.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;The Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) [9] is one of the detectors installed at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) [10] at CERN. The main goal of the CMS experiment is to search for signals of new physics in proton-proton collisions at centre-of-mass energies from 7 to 14 TeV [11].&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;Cosmic rays were used extensively to commission the CMS detector [12, 13]. These data can also be used to performmeasurements of physical quantities related to cosmic ray muons.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;About 25 million cosmic-muon events were recorded [on the Earth's surface] during the first phase of the MTCC with the magnet at a number of field values ranging from 3.67 to 4.00 T.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;The CRAFT08 campaign was a sustained data-taking exercise in October and November 2008 with the CMS detector fully assembled in its final underground position. The full detector, ready for collecting data from LHC, participated in the run, with the magnet at the nominal field of 3.8 T. Approximately 270 million cosmic-muon events were recorded.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;Single cosmic muons are simulated using the Monte Carlo event generator CMSCGEN [18, 19], which makes use of parameterizations of the distributions of the muon energy and incidence angle based on the air shower program CORSIKA [20]. The CMS detector response is simulated using the GEANT4 program [21], which takes into account the effects of energy loss, multiple scattering, and showering in the detector. A map [19] describing the various materials between the Earth’s surface and the CMS detector is used to obtain the average expected energy loss of simulated muons as a function of their energy, impact point, and incidence direction at the surface.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;Muon tracking in CMS can be performed with the all-silicon tracker at the heart of the detector, and with either three or four stations of muon chambers installed outside the solenoid, sandwiched between steel layers serving both as hadron absorbers and as a return yoke for the magnetic field.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;Three types of muon-track reconstruction were designed for cosmic muons not originating from an LHC proton-proton collision [22]: a standalone-muon track includes only hits from the muon detectors; a tracker track includes only hits from the silicon tracker; and a global muon track combines hits from the muon system and the silicon tracker in a combined track fit. For a cosmic muon that crosses the whole CMS detector, illustrated in Fig. 1 (top), each of the above types of tracks can be fitted separately in the top and bottom halves of CMS. Alternatively, a single track fit can be made including hits from the top and bottom halves of CMS. The direction of the muon is assumed to be downwards, and the muon charge is defined accordingly.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;The analysis based on 2006 MTCC data uses standalone muons.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;Since the muons were measured only in one half of the detector, the momentum
resolution is poorer than in the standalone-muon analysis using the complete detector.
Having the detector on the surface, however, permitted the collection of a large number of
low-momentum muons, down to a momentum of 5 GeV/c, allowing for a precise measurement of the charge ratio in the low-momentum range.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

==Neutrinos==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Neutrinos|Neutrino astronomy}}
'''Neutrino oscillation''' is a [[w:quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] phenomenon predicted by [[w:Bruno Pontecorvo|Bruno Pontecorvo]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Pontecorvo1957&quot;&gt;{{ cite journal
 |author=B. Pontecorvo
 |title=Mesonium and anti-mesonium
 |journal=Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz.
 |volume=33
 |pages=549–551
 |year=1957
|url=inspirehep.net/record/2884
 |doi= }} reproduced and translated in {{ cite journal
 |journal=Sov. Phys. JETP
 |volume=6
 |pages=429
 |year=1957
|url=inspirehep.net/record/2884
 |doi= }} and 
{{ cite journal
 |author=B. Pontecorvo
 |title=Neutrino Experiments and the Problem of Conservation of Leptonic Charge
 |journal=Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz.
 |volume=53
 |pages=1717
 |year=1967
|url=inspirehep.net/record/51319?ln=en
 |doi= }} reproduced and translated in {{ cite journal
 |journal=Sov. Phys. JETP
 |volume=26
 |pages=984
 |year=1968
 |doi=
|bibcode = 1968JETP...26..984P }}&lt;/ref&gt; whereby a neutrino created with a specific lepton flavor (electron, muon or tau) can later be measured to have a different flavor. The probability of measuring a particular flavor for a neutrino varies periodically as it propagates. Neutrino oscillation is of theoretical and experimental interest since observation of the phenomenon implies that the neutrino has a non-zero mass.

==Plasma objects==
{{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects|Plasma objects}}
When analyzing the outcome of some experiments with muons incident on a hydrogen bubble chamber in 1956, muon-catalysis of exothermic p-d, proton and deuteron, nuclear fusion was observed, which results in a [[w:helion (chemistry)|helion]], a gamma ray, and a release of about 5.5 MeV of energy.&lt;ref name=Alvarez1957&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Luis Walter Alvarez
|title=Catalysis of Nuclear Reactions by μ Mesons
|journal=Physical Review
|month=February
|year=1957
|volume=105
|issue=3
|pages=1127-8
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1957PhRv..105.1127A
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1957PhRv..105.1127A
|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.105.1127
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In muon-catalyzed fusion there are more fusions because the presence of the muon causes deuterium nuclei to be 207 times closer than in ordinary deuterium gas.&lt;ref name=Close&gt;Close, Frank E. (1992). &quot;Too Hot to Handle: The Race for Cold Fusion&quot;. London: Penguin.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Huizenga&gt;Huizenga, John R. (1993). &quot;Cold Fusion: The Scientific Fiasco of the Century&quot;. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Earth==
{{main|Gases/Gaseous objects/Earth}}
A &quot;measurement of the ratio of positive to negative muon fluxes from cosmic ray interactions in the atmosphere [has been made], using data collected by the CMS detector both at ground level and in the underground experimental cavern at the CERN LHC. Muons were detected in the momentum range from 5 GeV/c to 1 TeV/c. The surface flux ratio is measured to be 1.2766±0.0032 (stat.) ±0.0032 (syst.), independent of the muon momentum, below 100 GeV/c.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=V Khachatryan
|author2=AM Sirunyan
|author3=A Tumasyan
|author4=W Adam
|title=Measurement of the charge ratio of atmospheric muons with the CMS detector
|journal=Physics Letters B
|month=August,
|year=2010
|volume=692
|issue=2
|pages=83-104
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370269310008725
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The muon charge ratio R is defined as the ratio of the number of positive- to negative-charge atmospheric muons arriving at the Earth’s surface.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

&quot;These muons arise from showers produced in interactions of high-energy cosmic ray particles with air nuclei in the upper layers of the atmosphere. The magnitude and the momentum dependence of R are determined by the production and interaction cross sections of mesons (mainly pions and kaons), and by their decay lengths. As most cosmic rays and the nuclei with which they interact are positively charged, positive meson production is favoured, hence more positive muons are expected. Previous measurements from various experiments [1–8] showed the muon charge ratio to be constant up to a momentum of about 200 GeV/c, and then to increase at higher momenta, in agreement with the predicted rise in the fraction of muons from kaon decays. Measurements of the charge ratio can be used to constrain hadronic interaction models and to predict better the atmospheric neutrino flux.&quot;&lt;ref name=Khachatryan/&gt;

==Omegas==

Ω{{su|p=0|b=c}} has a rest mass of 2695.2 ± 1.7 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Beringer/&gt;

Ω{{su|p=−|b=b}} has a rest mass of 6071 ± 40 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Beringer/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+Omega
|-
! class=unsortable Particle
! Symbol
! Quark&lt;br&gt;content
! Rest mass&lt;br&gt;(electron volt MeV/speed of light ''c''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
! Spin (physics) J&lt;sup&gt;Parity (physics) P&lt;/sup&gt;
! charge (physics) Q&lt;br&gt;(elementary charge ''e'')
! strangeness S
! charm (quantum number) C
! {{nowrap|bottomness|B′}}
! Mean lifetime&lt;br&gt;(second s)
! class=unsortable Decays to
|-
| Omega&lt;ref name=PDGOmega-&gt;{{cite book
|url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/listings/s024.pdf
|format=PDF
|title=Particle Data Groups: 2006 Review of Particle Physics – Omega-
|accessdate=2008-04-20
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Omega-}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}
| {{val|1672.45|0.29}}
| {{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| −1
| −3
| 0
| 0
| {{val|8.21|0.11|e=-11}}
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Lambda0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Kaon-}}}} or &lt;br/&gt; {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Xi0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion-}}}} or &lt;br&gt; {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Xi-}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion0}}}} &lt;br&gt;
|-
| Charmed omega&lt;ref name=PDGCharmedOmega0&gt;{{cite book
|author=Particle Data Group
|url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2018/listings/rpp2018-list-omegac-zero.pdf
|title={{SubatomicParticle
|Charmed omega0}} listing – {{SubatomicParticle
|Charmed Omega0}}
|accessdate=13 Aug 2018
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed Omega0}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
| {{val|2697.5|2.6}}
| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| −2
| +1
| 0
| {{val|6.9|1.2|e=-14}}
| See [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2018/listings/rpp2018-list-omegac-zero.pdf {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed omega0}} Decay Modes]
|-
| Bottom omega&lt;ref name=CDF&gt;
{{cite journal
 |author=T. Aaltonen (Collider Detector at Fermilab, CDF Collaboration)
 |year=2009
 |title=Observation of the {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Omega-}} and Measurement of the Properties of the {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi-}} and {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Omega-}}
 |journal=Physical Review D
 |volume=80 |issue=7 |pages=072003
 |arxiv=0905.3123
 |bibcode=2009PhRvD..80g2003A
 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.80.072003
|hdl=1721.1/52706
 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Omega-}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
| {{val|6054.4|6.8}}
| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| −1
| −2
| 0
| −1
|{{val|1.13|0.53|e=-12}}
|{{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Omega-}} + {{SubatomicParticle|J/Psi}}}} (seen)
|-
| Double charmed omega†
| {{SubatomicParticle|Double charmed Omega+}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
|
| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| +1
| −1
| +2
| 0
|
|
|-
| Charmed bottom omega†
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed bottom Omega0}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|
| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| −1
| +1
| −1
|
|
|-
| Double bottom omega†
| {{SubatomicParticle|Double Bottom Omega-}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|
| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| −1
| −1
| 0
| −2
|
|
|-
| Triple charmed omega†
| {{SubatomicParticle|Triple charmed Omega++}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
|
| {{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| +2
| 0
| +3
| 0
|
|
|-
| Double charmed bottom omega†
| {{SubatomicParticle|Double charmed bottom Omega+}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|
| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| +1
| 0
| +2
| −1
|
|
|-
| Charmed double bottom omega†
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed double bottom Omega0}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|
| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| 0
| +1
| −2
|
|
|-
| Triple bottom omega†
| {{SubatomicParticle|Triple Bottom Omega-}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|
| {{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| −1
| 0
| 0
| −3
|
|
|-
|}
† Particle (or quantity, i.e. spin) has neither been observed nor indicated.

==Deltas==

Δ&lt;sup&gt;++&lt;/sup&gt; has a rest mass of 1,232 ± 2 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Amsler/&gt;

Δ&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; has a rest mass of 1,232 ± 2 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Amsler/&gt;

Δ&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; has a rest mass of 1,232 ± 2 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Amsler/&gt;

Δ&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt; has a rest mass of 1,232 ± 2 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Amsler&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=C. Amsler Particle Data Group
|title=Review of Particle Physics
|journal=Physics Letters B
|volume=667
|issue=1
|pages=1
|year=2008
|doi=10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018
|bibcode = 2008PhLB..667....1A }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Upsilon mesons==
[[Image:Upsilon peak.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A plot of the invariant mass of muon pairs, the peak at about 9.5 GeV is due to the contribution of the Upsilon meson. Credit: Leon Lederman and the E288 collaboration, Fermilab.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Upsilon mesons CMS.svg|thumb|left|250px|Invariant mass of two muons in the CMS detector at LHC (CERN) shows prominent peaks corresponding to bottomonia states – Upsilon mesons Y(1S), Y(2S), Y(3S). Credit: CERN for the benefit of the CMS Collaboration.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The plot on the right shows a peak at about 9.5 GeV due to the Upsilon meson.
{{clear}}

==Eta mesons==
[[Image:Etac and Jpsi to pp.svg|thumb|right|250px|Proton-antiproton invariant mass measured by the LHCb experiment, shows two prominent peaks from the eta_c and J/psi mesons. Credit: CERN for the benefit of the LHCb collaboration.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Eta mesons (547.863 ± 0.018 MeV) have the decay schemes:&lt;ref name=Olive/&gt;
# η : &lt;math&gt; \eta \rightarrow \gamma + \gamma, &lt;/math&gt;
# η : &lt;math&gt; \eta \rightarrow \pi^0 + \pi^0 + \pi^0, or &lt;/math&gt;
# η : &lt;math&gt; \eta \rightarrow \pi^+ + \pi^0 + \pi^-, &lt;/math&gt;

Eta prime mesons (957.78 ± 0.06 MeV) have the decay schemes:&lt;ref name=Olive/&gt;
# η' : &lt;math&gt; \eta^' \rightarrow \pi^+ + \pi^- + \eta or &lt;/math&gt;
# η' : &lt;math&gt; \eta^' \rightarrow \pi^0 + \pi^0 + \gamma, &lt;/math&gt;

The charmed eta meson η&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;(1S) has a rest mass of 2983.6 ± 0.7 MeV.&lt;ref name=Olive/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Hypotheses==
{{main|Hypotheses}}
# Although subluminal mesons are short-lived, they can be accelerated to near-luminal speeds so that they are detectable either directly or by their decay products.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Alpha particles|Alpha-particle astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Atomics|Atomic astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Baryons|Baryon astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Beta particles|Beta-particle astronomy]]
* [[Radiation/Cosmic rays|Cosmic-ray astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Electrons|Electron astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Hadrons|Hadron astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Muons|Muon astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Neutrals|Neutrals astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Neutrinos|Neutrino astronomy]]
* [[Radiation/Neutrons|Neutron astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Positrons|Positron astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Protons|Proton astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Spallations|Spallation astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Subatomics|Subatomics astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Tauons|Tauon astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* {{ cite journal
 | author=D.C. Hom
 | year=1977
 | url=http://lss.fnal.gov/archive/1977/pub/Pub-77-058-E.pdf
 | title=Observation of a Dimuon Resonance at 9.5 Gev in 400-GeV Proton-Nucleus Collisions
 | journal=Physical Review Letters
 | volume=39
| pages=252–255
 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.39.252
| bibcode=1977PhRvL..39..252H }}
* {{ cite journal
 | author=J. Yoh
 | year=1998
 | url=http://lss.fnal.gov/archive/1997/conf/Conf-97-432-E.pdf
 | title=The Discovery of the ''b'' Quark at Fermilab in 1977: The Experiment Coordinator's Story
 | journal=AIP Conference Proceedings
 | volume=424
|pages=29–42 }}
* {{ cite journal
 | author=S. Eidelman (Particle Data Group)
 | year=2004
 | journal=Physics Letters B
 | volume=592
| pages=1
 | title=Review of Particle Physics – {{SubatomicParticle|Upsilon}} meson
 | url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2005/listings/m049.pdf
 | doi=10.1016/j.physletb.2004.06.001
|arxiv = astro-ph/0406663
|bibcode = 2004PhLB..592....1P }}
* {{ cite book
|author=Joseph I. Kapusta
|author2=Berndt Müller
|author3=Johann Rafelski
|title=Electromagnetic Signals, In: ''Quark-gluon Plasma: Theoretical Foundations : an Annotated Reprint Collection''
|publisher=Gulf Professional Publishing
|location=
|year=2003
|editor=Joseph I. Kapusta
|editor2=Berndt Müller
|editor3=Johann Rafelski
|pages=432-70
|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=8AD3GDoVaMkC&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=y40kVKjHOI-A8QXpioC4Bw&amp;ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;f=false
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=0444511105
|accessdate=25 September 2014 }}
* {{ cite book
 |date=18 October 1976
|title=Shared Physics prize for elementary particle
 |url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1976/press.html
 |publisher=The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
 |accessdate=2012-04-23 }}
* {{ cite book
 |author=Zielinski, L
 |title=Physics Folklore
 |url=http://ed.fnal.gov/samplers/hsphys/folklore.html
 |publisher=QuarkNet
 |date=8 August 2006
 |accessdate=2009-04-13 }}
* {{cite journal
 |author=Matsui, T
|author2=Satz, H
 |year=1986
 |title=J/ψ suppression by quark-gluon plasma formation
 |journal=Physics Letters B
 |volume=178
|issue=4
|page=416
 |bibcode=1986PhLB..178..416M
 |doi=10.1016/0370-2693(86)91404-8 }}
* {{ cite journal
 |author=R. L. Thews
|author2=M. Schroedter
|author3=J. Rafelski
 |year=2001
 |title=Enhanced J/ψ production in deconfined quark matter
 |journal=Physical Review C
 |volume=63
|issue=5
|page=054905
 |arxiv=hep-ph/0007323
 |bibcode = 2001PhRvC..63e4905T
 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevC.63.054905 }}
* {{ cite journal
  |author=M. Schroedter
|author2=R. L. Thews
|author3=J. Rafelski
 |year=2000
 |title=B&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;-meson production in ultrarelativistic nuclear collisions
 |journal=Physical Review C
 |volume=62
|issue=2
|page=024905
 |arxiv=hep-ph/0004041
 |bibcode = 2000PhRvC..62b4905S
 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevC.62.024905 }}
* {{ cite book
 |author=L. P. Fulcher
|author2=J. Rafelski
|author3=R. L. Thews
 |year=1999
 |title=B&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt; mesons as a signal of deconfinement
 |arxiv=hep-ph/9905201
|url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/hep-ph/9905201 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]

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    <title>Complex Analysis in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:56:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Geometric Series Examples */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="5113" xml:space="preserve">Many of the functions that arise naturally in mathematics and real world applications can be extended to and regarded as complex functions, meaning the input, as well as the output, can be complex numbers &lt;math&gt;x+iy&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;i=\sqrt{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, in such a way that it is a more natural object to study. '''Complex analysis''', which used to be known as '''function theory''' or '''theory of functions of a single complex variable''', is a sub-field of analysis that studies such functions (more specifically, '''holomorphic''' functions) on the complex plane, or part (domain) or extension (Riemann surface) thereof. It notably has great importance in number theory, e.g. the [[Riemann zeta function]] (for the distribution of primes) and other &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt;-functions, modular forms, elliptic functions, etc. &lt;blockquote&gt;The shortest path between two truths in the real domain passes through the complex domain.  — [[wikipedia:Jacques_Hadamard|Jacques Hadamard]]&lt;/blockquote&gt;In a certain sense, the essence of complex functions is captured by the principle of [[analytic continuation]].{{mathematics}}

==''' Complex Functions '''== 
* Complex Functions ([[Media:CAnal.1.A.CFunction.20140222.Basic.pdf|1.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.B.CFunction.20140111.Octave.pdf|1.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.C.CFunction.20140111.Extend.pdf|1.C.pdf]])

* Complex Exponential and Logarithm ([[Media:CAnal.5.A.CLog.20131017.pdf|5.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.5.A.Octave.pdf|5.B.pdf]])

* Complex Trigonometric and Hyperbolic ([[Media:CAnal.7.A.CTrigHyper..pdf|7.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.7.A.Octave..pdf|7.B.pdf]])

'''Complex Function Note'''
: 1. Exp and Log Function Note ([[Media:ComplexExp.29160721.pdf|H1.pdf]])

: 2. Trig and TrigH Function Note ([[Media:CAnal.Trig-H.29160901.pdf|H1.pdf]])

: 3. Inverse Trig and TrigH Functions Note ([[Media:CAnal.Hyper.29160829.pdf|H1.pdf]])

==''' Complex Integrals '''== 
* Complex Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.2.A.CIntegral.20140224.Basic.pdf|2.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.B.CIntegral.20140117.Octave.pdf|2.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.C.CIntegral.20140117.Extend.pdf|2.C.pdf]])

==''' Complex Series '''== 
* Complex Series ([[Media:CPX.Series.20150226.2.Basic.pdf|3.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.B.CSeries.20140121.Octave.pdf|3.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.C.CSeries.20140303.Extend.pdf|3.C.pdf]])

==''' Residue Integrals '''==
* Residue Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.4.A.Residue.20140227.Basic.pdf|4.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.B.pdf|4.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.C.Residue.20140423.Extend.pdf|4.C.pdf]]) 

==='''Residue Integrals Note'''===
* Laurent Series with the Residue Theorem Note ([[Media:Laurent.1.Residue.20170713.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series with Applications Note ([[Media:Laurent.2.Applications.20170327.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series and the z-Transform Note ([[Media:Laurent.3.z-Trans.20170831.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series as a Geometric Series Note ([[Media:Laurent.4.GSeries.20170802.pdf|H1.pdf]])

=== Laurent Series and the z-Transform Example Note === 
* Overview ([[Media:Laurent.4.z-Example.20170926.pdf|H1.pdf]])

====Geometric Series Examples====

* Causality ([[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.A.20191026n.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.B.20191026.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Time Shift ([[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.A.20191028.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.B.20191029.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Reciprocity ([[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3A.20191030.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3B.20191031.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Combinations ([[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4A.20200702.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4B.20201002.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5A.20220105.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5B.20220126.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Applications ([[Media:Laurent.6.Application.6A.20220823.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Application.6B.20220723.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Double Pole Case

:- Examples ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7A.20220722.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7B.20220720.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

:- Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5A.20190226.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5B.20190228.pdf|B.pdf]])

====The Case Examples====
* Example Overview : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.0.A.20171208.pdf|0A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.6.CaseExample.0.B.20180205.pdf|0B.pdf]])
* Example Case 1 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.A.20171107.pdf|1A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.B.20171227.pdf|1B.pdf]])
* Example Case 2 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.A.20171107.pdf|2A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.B.20171227.pdf|2B.pdf]])
* Example Case 3 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.A.20171017.pdf|3A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.B.20171226.pdf|3B.pdf]])
* Example Case 4 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.A.20171017.pdf|4A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.B.20171228.pdf|4B.pdf]])
* Example Summary : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.A.20171212.pdf|5A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.B.20171230.pdf|5B.pdf]])

==''' Conformal Mapping '''== 
* Conformal Mapping ([[Media:CAnal.6.A.Conformal.20131224.pdf|6.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.6.A.Octave..pdf|6.B.pdf]])

go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

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    <title>The necessities in Random Processes</title>
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      <comment>/* The Temporal Characteristics of Random Processes */</comment>
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      <text bytes="5805" xml:space="preserve">==''' Random Variables '''==

=== Single Random Variables ===
* Random Variables ([[Media:RV1.RVariable.1.A.20200427.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Distribution Function ([[Media:RV1.Distribution.2.A.201200428.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Density Function ([[Media:RV1.Density.3.A.20200429.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Functions of Random Variables ([[Media:RV1.RVFunction.4.A.20220317.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Gaussian Random Variables ([[Media:RV1.4.Gaussian.20200430.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:RV1.4B.Gaussian.20180314.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Other Distribution and Density Functions ([[Media:RV1.5.Other.20200501.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Conditional Distribution and Density Functions ([[Media:RV1.6.Conditional.20200506.pdf |A.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== The Characteristics of a Single Random Variable ===
* Expected Value ([[Media:RV2.Expectation.1.A.20200506.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Moments ([[Media:RV2.Moment.2.B.20200507.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:RV2.Moment.2.B.20180320.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Moment Generating Functions ([[Media:RV2.MFunctions.3.A.20200508.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Transformations of Random Variables ([[Media:RV2.Transform.4.A.20200514.pdf |A.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Multiple Random Variables ===
* Vector Random Variables ([[Media:3MRV.1A.VectorRV.20200515.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Joint Distribution ([[Media:3MRV.2A.JointDist.20200518.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Joint Density ([[Media:3MRV.3A.JointDensity.20200521.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Conditional Joint Distribution and Density ([[Media:3MRV.4A.CondDistrib.20200527.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Statistical Independence ([[Media:3MRV.5A.StatIndep.20200423.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Sums of Random Variables ([[Media:3MRV.6A.RVSum.20200528.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Central Limit Theorem ([[Media:3MRV.7A.CLimit.20200612.pdf |A.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== The Characteristics of Multiple Random Variables ===
* Expected Values ([[Media:4MRV.1A.Expect.20200617.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Joint Characteristic Functions ([[Media:4MRV.2A.JChar.20200618.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Jointly Gaussian Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.3A.JGauss.20200619.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Transformations of Multiple Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.4A.Transform.20200620.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Linear Transformation of Gaussian Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.5A.LinearTrans.20200623.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Simulating Multiple Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.6A.Simulation.20200624.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Sampling and Some Limit Theorem ([[Media:4MRV.7A.LimitTheorem.20200625.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Complex Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.8A.ComplexRV.20200626.pdf |A.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Random Processes '''==

=== The Temporal Characteristics of Random Processes ===
* Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.1A.RandomProcess.20210216.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Joint Distribution, Independence, Processes ([[Media:5MRV.2A.JointDistribution.20210220.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Stationary Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.3A.Stationary.20220402.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:5MRV.3B.Stationary.20220823.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Covariance &amp; Correlation of Random Variables ([[Media:5MRV.4A.CovCorrRV.20210910.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Covariance &amp; Correlation of Random Processses ([[Media:5MRV.5A.CovCorrRP.20210911.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Example Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.4A.Example.20210227.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Ergodic Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.5A.Ergodicity.20211022.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:5MRV.7B.Ergodicity.20211215.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Measurement of Correlation Functions ([[Media:5MRV.6A.Measure.20201013.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Complex Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.7A.Complex.20201022.pdf |A.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== The Spectral Characteristics of Random Processes ===
* Power Density Spectrum - Continuous Time ([[Media:6MRV.1A.PSpecCT.20210204.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Auto Correlation Function ([[Media:6MRV.2A.AutoCor.20201218.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Power Density Spectrum - Discrete Time ([[Media:6MRV.3A.PSpecDT.20201203.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Cross Power Density Spectrum ([[Media:6MRV.4A.CPSpec.20191108.pdf |A.pdf]])  
* Cross Correlation Function ([[Media:6MRV.5A.CCorrel.20191114.pdf |A.pdf]])  
* Noise Definitions ([[Media:6MRV.6A.Noise.20191121.pdf |A.pdf]]) 
* Power Spectrum of Complex Random Processes ([[Media:6MRV.7A.ComplexProc.20191125.pdf |A.pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear System with Random Inputs ===
* Continuous Time LTI System ([[Media:7LTI.1A.CTime.20191203.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Discrete Time LTI System ([[Media:7LTI.2A.DTime.20191211.pdf |A.pdf]])
* System Response ([[Media:7LTI.3A.Response.20191224.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Spectral Characteristics ([[Media:7LTI.4A.Spectral.20200104.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Noise Modeling ([[Media:7LTI.5A.Noise.20200122.pdf |A.pdf]])

&lt;br&gt;

=== Optimum Linear System ===
* Maximum SNR ([[Media:8OPT.1A.MaxSNR.20200128.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Minimum Squared Error ([[Media:8OPT.2A.MinSE.20200207.pdf |A.pdf]])

&lt;br&gt;

=== Noise in Some Application Systems ===
* AM Communication Systems ([[Media:9APP.1A.AM.20200212.pdf |A.pdf]])
* FM Communication Systems ([[Media:9APP.2A.FM.20200221.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Control Systems ([[Media:9APP.3A.Control.20200225.pdf |A.pdf]])
* PLL Systems ([[Media:9APP.4A.PLL.20200305.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Random Waveforms ([[Media:9APP.5A.RandWave.20200311.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Radar Systems ([[Media:9APP.6A.Radar.20200313.pdf |A.pdf]])

&lt;br&gt;

==''' Correlation and Power Spectra '''==

# Correlation Functions of Random Signals ([[Media:RAND.1.A.Correlation.20121106.pdf |pdf]])
# Spectra of Random Signals ([[Media:RAND.2.A.Spectra.20121108.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt; 

==''' Ergodicity, Statistics, Estimation '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Random Processes and Linear Systems '''==
&lt;/br&gt;


# Time Domain Techniques for Noisy Signals ([[Media:RAND.3.A.Time.20130205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Dirichlet.pdf |B.pdf]])
# Frequency Domain Techniques for Noisy Signals
# Correlation v.s. Convolution for Noisy Signals
&lt;/br&gt;


# System Identification ([[Media:RP.SysId.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) 
# Matched Filter &lt;ref&gt;[[Understanding Digital Communications]], See Baseband Mod/Demod Section&lt;/ref&gt;
 
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
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      <text bytes="5271" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Image 2800 1e-Bs0-Particle.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Event display from the CMS experiment shows examples of collisions that produced candidates for the rare decay of the B&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; meson. Credit: CMS Collaboration.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
'''[[Meson astronomy]]''' is a lecture from the radiation astronomy department. It is currently under development for possible inclusion in the advanced radiation astronomy course: [[principles of radiation astronomy]].

“The discovery [recorded in the event display on the right] came about when two Large Hadron Collider (LHC) experiments recently combined their results and found overwhelming evidence of an extremely rare decay of a particle known as the Bs&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; meson.”&lt;ref name=Stone&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sheldon Stone
|title=CERN Physicists Confirm Existence of Bs0 Meson
|publisher=Sci-News.com
|location=
|date=14 May 2015
|url=http://www.sci-news.com/physics/science-cern-bs0-meson-02800.html
|accessdate=2015-11-12 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The rare decay of the B&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; meson is into two muons.&lt;ref name=Stone/&gt;

&quot;B&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; mesons oscillate between their matter and their antimatter counterparts, a process first discovered at Fermilab in 2006.&quot;&lt;ref name=Stone/&gt;

You are free to take this quiz based on [[meson astronomy]] at any time.

To improve your score, read and study the lecture, the links contained within, listed under [[Radiation astronomy/Mesons/Quiz#See also|'''See also''']], [[Radiation astronomy/Mesons/Quiz#External links|'''External links''']] and in the {{tlx|principles of radiation astronomy}} and {{tlx|radiation astronomy resources}} templates. This should give you adequate background to get 100 %.

As a &quot;learning by doing&quot; resource, this quiz helps you to assess your knowledge and understanding of the information, and it is a quiz you may take over and over as a learning resource to improve your knowledge, understanding, test-taking skills, and your score.

'''Suggestion:''' Have the lecture available in a separate window.

To master the information and use only your memory while taking the quiz, try rewriting the information from more familiar points of view, or be creative with association.

Enjoy learning by doing!
{{clear}}

==Quiz==

&lt;quiz&gt;

{Yes or No, A meson is a subatomic particle that is intermediate in mass between an electron and a proton.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Yes
- No

{True or False, Like all elementary particles, the meson has a corresponding antiparticle of opposite spin but equal mass and charge.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE
+ FALSE

{What negatively charged particles may be used as tracers of cosmic magnetic fields?
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
{ electrons (i) }

{True or False, The radius of the proton is 4 percent smaller than previously estimated.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Yes or No, Each type of meson has a corresponding antiparticle (antimeson).
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Yes
- No

{Complete the text:
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
Charged-current charged pion production is a process in which a { neutrino (i) } interacts with an atomic { nucleus (i) } and produces a { muon (i) }, a charged { pion (i) } and recoiling nuclear fragments.

{True or False, The phenomenology of cosmic ray cascades reflects in an essential way processes governed by the weak force.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE
+ FALSE

{Complete the text:
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
Muons are produced, along with other particles, when { cosmic rays|cosmic-rays (i) } interact with { atomic nuclei (i) } in the Earth's atmosphere to produce { showers|'showers' (i) } of secondary particles.

{True or False, Mesons inherit the high energy of the parent cosmic rays.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Yes or No, A meson apparently transmits the strong interaction that binds nucleons together in the atomic nucleus.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Yes
- No

&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Hypotheses==
{{main|Hypotheses}}
# Proving mesons are occurring astronomically requires demonstrating that products of such reactions exist.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Beta-particles astronomy/Quiz]]
* [[Cosmic-ray astronomy/Quiz]]
* [[Electron astronomy/Quiz]]
* [[Muon astronomy/Quiz]]
* [[Neutrino astronomy/Quiz]]
* [[Neutron astronomy/Quiz]]
* [[Positron astronomy/Quiz]]
* [[Proton astronomy/Quiz]]
* [[Subatomic astronomy/Quiz]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

&lt;!-- footer templates --&gt;
{{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{tlx|Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{Sisterlinks|Meson astronomy}}

&lt;!-- categories --&gt;
[[Category:Astrophysics quizzes]]
[[Category:Radiation astronomy quizzes]]
[[Category:Radiation quizzes]]</text>
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Autism and emotional development</title>
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      <text bytes="34837" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Autism and emotional development:&lt;br&gt;How does autism affect children's emotional development?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://vimeo.com/144272090}}
__TOC__

== Overview ==
There has been a lot of research that emphasises and highlights the significance of a child’s physical growth and development but not as much research focusing on a child’s emotional growth and development. So how does a child grow to understand who they are and what their sentiments are? How do they develop the ability to communicate and form friendships with others? (Reinsburg. K., 2009; Brooks. A, n.d.) These questions need to be addressed as they are the basis for the development of a child’s socio-emotional well-being from age zero to age six: their self-confidence, sense of self value and esteem, their compassion and their ability to develop meaningful relationships. Unfortunately as Brooks (n.d.) highlights, more often that not, people notice the absence of a child’s social and emotional proficiencies rather than their accomplishments and this has imposed limitations on this area of study. This chapter specifically focuses on the struggles of children with an autism spectrum disorder particularly in relation to their ability to recognise and show emotions, to interact with others through verbal and nonverbal communication and their elasticity in thought and action through their response and perception in their social interactions (American Psychiatric Association, 1994; Begeer, 2005).

[[File:Autism.svg|thumb|Figure 1. Autism Awareness Ribbon]]

== What is Autism? ==
In the most recent edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V), autism has undergone a classification change; earlier diagnoses of autistic disorder, Asperger’s disorder, or pervasive developmental disorder have been combined and now present as an overarching diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The diagnosis of ASD is distinct from various other developmental disorders such as intellectual disability and language disorder, however, there are high rates of comorbidity among these disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).   

The prevalence&amp;nbsp;rates of ASD have steadily increased over recent years with one study reporting that one in 68 children aged 8-years were diagnosed with ASD; with a 2:1 ratio of boys to girls (Baio, 2014). Historically, the development of autism was attributed to bad parenting; cold, perfectionist and harsh approaches (Kanner, 1949). Many parents of autistic children were left feeling guilty and responsible for their child’s condition which had a significant impact on their psychological wellbeing (Bettelheim, 1976).

Typical characteristics of ASD include an inability to interact on a socially and dysfunction in verbal and non-verbal communication (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Statistically, one-third of autistic children never acquire speech (Tager-Flusberg, 2009); or the little speech that is acquired presents abnormally and is often repetitive in nature (see [[wikipedia:Echolalia|echolalia]]) (Durand &amp; Barlow, 2013).

ASD is commonly associated with intellectual disability, lack of coordination, attentional difficulties and diminished physical health (Durand, 2011). Children with ASD struggle to express themselves emotionally and experience difficulty in understanding situations that involve attributions of the self and others (Williams, 2010). These characteristic aspects of ASD have a negative impact on the child’s development by inhibiting the development of emotional expression, social skills and functional communication (Kasari &amp; Sigman, 1996). In essence, children with ASD struggle with being &quot;cut off” from the world around them (Taylor, 2005).

[[File:Autism-stacking-cans.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Autistic child's repetitive routine of stacking cans]]

It is noted, that ASD does represent a spectrum of disability levels. The integration of Asperger's disorder into ASD means that there are individuals with this diagnosis who do not have the extreme levels of aforementioned difficulty. Asperger’s is characterised only by a significant impairment in social interaction and the development of restricted repetitive stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interests and activities (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). In contrast to other levels of ASD, there are no significant delays in language or emotional acquisition in Asperger's Disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Children with Asperger’s are normally quite verbal and commonly hold unusual, but factual, conversations about specific interests (Volkmar et al, 2009). 

The following link provides a video example of children with varying degrees of ASD and the efforts made to aid in their emotional development at school: [Https://www.autismspectrum.org.au/content/what-autism What is autism?]

{{Robelbox|theme = {{{theme|5}}}|title = Autism and the media:}}
As the prevalence of ASD has increased, so too has the awareness and acceptance of the disorder. Recently, the children's television program [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesame_Street Sesame Street] introduced its first autistic character. The aim of introducing this character is to encourage the acceptance of individual differences in children's peer groups, leading to outcomes such as reduced bullying. This is the first known portrayal of ASD in a children's television program.
{{Robelbox/close}}

== Emotional Development ==

=== What is Emotional Development? ===
 
A person’s emotional development is based on social experience and sense of self-
dating back to their childhood (Reinsburg. K., 2009; Brooks. A, n.d.).
Emotional development teaches children specific reactions to emotional situations
helping them to understand and control their emotions. &amp;nbsp;During this period of a person’s life, from
age zero to six years of age, the nurturing of development is key to aiding the
growth of relationships specifically with direct family members through
repeated interactions and also to the development of the child’s brain
structures. 

=== Typical Emotional Development - Theoretical Approaches ===
Emotional development or ''early child hood mental health'' has a knock on effect to the development and stability of other functions in a child’s body specifically cognitive, motor and even language development (Reinsburg. K., 2009). These are connected through how a child comprehends what they are feeling and how they express these feelings outwardly along with their ideas. These developments require a balance - a balance between internal control and understanding of emotions and external interaction and communication. 

According to PBSparents (n.d.) from age one a child has the ability to:
* Be familiar with the figure are around them. And has the ability to show the contentedness of this. Attachments are formed with the parents surrounding their   play. For example getting a biscuit and eating a little before showing Dad
* Be observant of emotional reactions of others and demonstrates self- consciousness when getting in to trouble. 
* Experiences the simple emotions of fear, anger, sadness and happiness. A parent comforts shows a child the makings of controlling their emotions.
From age two:
* Exploration is key to emotional development as apart of trial and error. Pretend play also is based on their everyday situations and unfamiliar things
* Language has also become key to their development –“who, what, why”; helps them to start to complete sentences to aid their interaction
* Social interaction with other children is occurring but children still like their independence. 
* Feelings are being labeled now that they start to recognise off facial expressions. And comfort from a caretaker or familiarity in a teddy bear is still require after conflict.
From age three:
* Familiarity is desired frequently at this age for security.
* During conflict or emotional distress, the child will seek help or comfort, or provide help to others.
From age four:
* Emotionally, children learn the causes of feelings and the reactions that come about. 
* They learn to manage intense emotions through talking or drawing. 
* They like to interact in groups and learn to show sympathy and suggest resolutions to conflict
From age five:
* Children show much greater independence by resolving their own conflicts and demonstrating compromise in group play
* They have ability to interact and maintain friendships with adults and children 
* Understand acceptance on a social level.

It is said that the healthy social and emotional development of a child, such as the defined time frame above, means the child will develop relations, persistence and the ability to focus their attention and regulate their behaviour to discover and learn. Children of typical emotional development, like above, tend to express ideas and emotions and display compassions and empathy towards others. The ability to control emotions in highly emotional and intense situations is also indicative of stable emotional development.

Theoretical approaches to defining a stable emotional development attempts to explain and outline what kind of environment is best suited for the child’s emotional development. There are two key approaches that when studied together demonstrate how a typical emotional development in an environment with strong attachments would occur in a child. These are the Psychoanalytic Approach from Erikson and the Attachment theories from Bowlby. Together they show how a “typical” child would grow and develop emotionally according to defined standards. However it must be noted that the perception of any atypical type of development is based on what society has historically has defined as a typical set of emotions reciprocated by an inbuilt reaction that promotes their wellbeing (Schaffer, 2005). 

'''Erikson’s Model (Brooks, n.d.; Mcleod, 2013)'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Stage&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
!Description
|-
|Hope 
0-2years
|Learning Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust:
The nurturing of a child leads to the development of trust and optimism however insecurity results in the absence of a nurturing environment.
|-
|Will 

18mths-4years
|Learning Autonomy Versus Shame:
“The Psychosocial crisis” leads to self-assurance and control. This is from the confrontation of tantrums and stubbornness. &amp;nbsp; 

An example of this emotional confrontation is the “terrible two’s” stage in a toddlers life.&amp;nbsp; 
|-
|Purpose

3-6years
|Learning Initiative Versus Guilt:
The “play age” of imagination, sharing and cooperation with others as well as leading and/or following. 

It is clear that during this stage differences in children’s emotional development, specifically in their interactions with others, would first start to be observed. 
|-
|Competence

From 5.5 years
|Industry vs Inferiority:
This stage introduces rules and structure to the social interaction sphere and a new form of learning. It is the behaviour of trust and initiative that is industrious and the shame and guilt that is inferiority. 
|}
'''Attachment Theories'''

Attachment in this chapter concerns the behaviour of a child towards the main caregivers and how this attachment influences and impacts their development emotionally (Bowlby, 1969). It does not have to be shared Mcleod (2013).&amp;nbsp; Bowlby’s original work in attachment demonstrates the significance of the child’s relationship with their mother especially at an early age in providing love, safety and security. His work with emotionally disturbed children highlighted the significance of this attachment under highly stressful conditions. He divided the attachment into 4 stages.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Age
!Types
of Attachment
!Description&amp;nbsp;
|-
|0-3mths
|Indiscriminate&amp;nbsp;
|An inbuilt reaction means the child responds in kind and can form an attachment to all.
|-
|4+mths
|Preference&amp;nbsp;
|This is the stage where infants start to differentiate and have a preference between caregivers.
|-
|7+mths
|Single
Preference 
|A preference is developed and reasoned to be for comfort and protection. Emotions of fear and unhappiness with reactions like crying when they are separated from that figure.
|-
|9+mths
|Multiple
Attachments
|This is the start of child independence and meaningful social interaction.
|}

== Atypical Development: Emotions and Children with Autism ==
A major aspect of autism is the
restricted behaviours and emotions that make it nearly impossible for an autistic individual to hold a
conversation with another person because they are either unable to or unwilling to interact. Social
interaction is the shared experience and practice between peers in which people effectively
initiate and respond to social stimuli (Shores, 1987; Bauminger, 2002). It is
well recognized that the social participation of children with autism in peer
interaction can be quiet low and poor in quality (Sigman &amp; Ruskin, 1999).
Research has shown that these difficulties in socio-emotional understanding has
caught children, especially those with high functioning autism, in a “vicious circle of isolation” (Bauminger, 2002) and these children struggle in social
cognitions, interactions and in expressing their own emotions (Bauminger, 2002;
American Psychiatric Association, 1994; Volkmar, Carter, Grossman, &amp; Klin,
1997). Most autistic children have preference to ritualistic behaviour or ''maintenance of sameness,'' like waving
hands in front of their eyes or spinning in circles, this behaviour clearly suggests interaction with others is unpredictable for them (Durand, 2011). 

As many researchers, including
Stanton (2009) have pointed out, these autism caused distinctive emotional
deficits, means that an autistic child is also socially impaired. Stanton (2009)
highlights:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Age&amp;nbsp;
!Atypical development (Stanton, 2009)
!Typical development (PBS parents, n.d.)
|-
|Birth to Twenty-four Months
|An autistic child does not smile or pay attention to new faces

Shows minimal affection

Show distress in the presence of anyone

No attempt to attract attention of others

Has trouble with new objects or experiences

Does not acknowledge sounds, smiles, or facial expressions

Lacks social skills or prefers interactions only with familiar adults

Does participate in play or laugh
|A child without autism starts to smile and notice new faces. A child without autism can show pleasure in the presence of a familiar figure. 
|-
|Two to Three Years
|Autistic child does not respond to people outside the family

Continues to have great trouble separating from parents
|Trial and error for emotional development – occurs through exploration and pretend play 

Social interaction with other children.

Feelings are being labeled now that they recognise off facial expressions.
|-
|Three to Five Years
|Continues show emotional distress when separated from parents.

Refuses to respond to people and has little interest in other children

Does not engage in a variety of activities.

Does not express a range of emotions or appears unengaged much of the time
|During conflict or emotional distress, the child will seek help or comfort, or provide help to others.

They have ability to interact and maintain friendships with adults and children. They like to interact in groups – learn to show sympathy and suggest resolutions to conflict.

Children show much greater independence by resoling their own conflicts and demonstrating compromise.

They learn to manage intense emotions through talking or drawing.
|}

=== Social Cognition ===
Researchers
define social cognition as the child’s capacity to decipher verbal and
nonverbal social and emotional prompts – their emotional recognition, their ability
to collate information in their peripheral and central eye line and their
ability to initiate interaction (Bauminger, 2002; Gepner et al, 2001).&amp;nbsp; 

Distinguishing
expression in emotional recognition in oneself and in others aids in
deciphering contextual information.&amp;nbsp; In
children, it is the basic emotions of happiness, sadness, anger and fear, that
are most prevalent and the simplest to decipher. Furthermore the acquired skill
of comprehending more complex emotions of – embarrassment, empathy, loneliness,
or surprise that takes more brain processing power. It has been found that even
high functioning autistic children are much less competent than the norm when
it comes to distinguishing such emotions, even the simplest of them (Hobson
1986; Dapretto et al, 2006; Gepner et al, 2001). Distinguishing emotions for
autistic children means the ability to recognise simple emotion without the
capability to explain the causes of the emotion. An absent quality in autistic
children is the ability to decipher information in their central eye line. Autistic
children tend to pay particular attention to the peripheral and physical
characteristics of a situation not the social meaning (Dapretto et al,
2006).&amp;nbsp; For example, when shown a picture of two people arguing, a child who does not have autism could comprehend that
the figures were upset and angry, and therefore arguing. They could also
determine what kind of relationship the two figures have. An autistic child
does not have the ability to do this. They would see the figures in proximity
to each other, articles around the figures and colors. This is demonstrated in
many studies such as Klin (2000) wherein it is shown that a child with autism
was not able to understand cartoon figures. 

Many researchers of autism disorders
place emphasise on the complex idea of the theory of mind. This theory concerns
the ability to decipher a person’s mental state including for example their
beliefs, desires, intentions, emotions and a person’s ability to predict
behaviour and its consequences (Dapretto et al, 2006). The theory is based on
studies of children five years old and younger, and it must be noted that there
is limited substantial research involving children above that age group.
Furthermore children with typical or normal emotional development, have at this
age the ability to comprehend social situations according to emotion. Autistic
children however find it difficult to differentiate between what they think is
happening in a social situation and what is actually happening. This difficulty
can be associated with &amp;nbsp;their focus of
attention being on the social situation’s &amp;nbsp;peripheral information . The theory of mind
explains deficits in the form of emotional impairments found in autistic
children (Lantz, 2002). Typically it is around the age of five months that the
child starts to understand facial expressions.&amp;nbsp;
This nonverbal behaviour reflects their own behaviours and responses
depending on the predicted consequences (Lantz, 2002). Lantz (2002) highlights
the 1994 study by Dawson and Osterling of children attending a birthday party
prior to being diagnosed as autistic. These children lacked attention and
emotions such as surprise or happiness. Moreover children come to discover that
the behaviour is goal directed (Lantz, 2002). They learn to intentionally act
in certain way to bring desired consequences (Lantz, 2002; Baron-Cohen, 1993).
Something as simple as wanting to held by their mother – would be directed by
crying and arms stretched out. The theory of mind highlights that a struggle in
this for autistic children is to focus attention, specifically, focusing on
more than one thing at the one time. 

=== Interaction and Expressing Emotions ===
 Charles Darwin said, “[that] the movements of expression of the face…are in themselves much more of importance
 for our welfare” (Cole et al, 1994). 
Human faces have the ability to
communicate information about ones character and emotions through the simplest
of movements. It is the first and most powerful basis of information gathering
for facilitating emotional and verbal communication, and for social
interactions (Gepner et al, 2001). Facial expressions are key to understanding
emotions and in turn social interaction as they highlight an individual’s
intentions and promote appropriate responses (Bal et al, 2010). The formation
of relationships and acceptable social interactions are based on emotional
understanding and recognition. This also correlates to a child’s ability adapt
to social situations rather than internalising emotions and behaviour (Bal et
al, 2010). Furthermore research has shown that autistic children have scanning and visual tracking
difficulties when trying to comprehend facial expressions that sway the focus
of their attention. This explains an aspect of child’s social detachment if
they have autism because is has been shown that specific regions of a face
express specific emotions (Bal et al, 2010). Bal et al (2010) and Dimberg and Petterson (2000) also note that negative emotions
are more often expressed in the upper region of the face and positive emotions
in the lower region -around the mouth. Thus an individual must be looking for
facial clues and cues to recognize emotions and to decipher this
information.&amp;nbsp; Children with autism are
unable to do this.

[[File:Marzipan fruit with nervous expression.jpg|thumb|Figure 3. Expressions]] 

The ability to express thoughts and emotions or the ability to participate
socio-emotionally is another struggle for those children with autism. Autistic
children do not proactively engage in social interaction with others, like
smiling and laughing (Kim et al, 2009). Bal et al (2010) and others highlight
this along with showing that children
with ASD are less capable of coordinating social cues, perceiving others’
moods, and anticipating others’ responses. It has also be noted and cannot be
ignored that vast numbers of children with high functioning autism are aware of
their inability to do this and express the desire to have such abilities (Losh
et al, 2006). Losh et al (2006) highlights this is contrary to the original
thoughts of many researchers and professionals (e.g. American Psychiatric Association, 1994; Kanner 1943)
in regard to an autistic child’s emotional indifference and absence of facial
expressions. But autistic children do have ability to express simple emotions
(Losh et al, Bauminger, 2002; Depretto et al, 2006). It is only the complex
emotions where children with high functioning autism have been shown to require
prompts to express such complex emotions (Dapretto et al). Furthermore it takes
them longer to display such emotions than the typical developing child.
Dapretto et al (2006) also highlighted the strategy required for autistic children
to express the view – “I think”.

== Encouraging Emotional Development ==
Research
has demonstrated that there are straightforward steps to encourage children’s
emotional development{{fact}}. Furthermore these steps can help change the stigma
surrounding autism and to allow it to be more accepted in society. These steps can be easily
modified and applied to autistic children to assist their emotional development. Other
research states that focusing the attention of an autistic child is key and to get a
response from an autistic child exaggeration may be required (Raisingchildren.net, n.d.). Encouraging eye contact is
another way to promote social interaction in autistic children. To further  encourage interaction with strangers a child’s need to attend to that person will
have to be pointed out for them (Raisingchildren.net, n.d.). Of course reward and positive encouragement
towards their simple social achievements is advisable. This will encourage social contact
and interest. Raisingchildren.net (n.d.) highlights that autistic children find
interest in pictures, so displaying facial expressions, routines, even family
photos in small colourful flip book, for example, can encourage familiarity of
family members and friends and also emotions.{{Robelbox|theme = {{{theme|4}}}|title = Steps to Encouraging Emotional Development:}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
 
# Routines - Young children learn through consistency and responsiveness whether that is through responsiveness or reward. Working out the balance is key, especially in autistic children in discovering what their own enjoyments and interests, and what sooths them.
# Nurturing environment - Affection and love provide an “emotional holding environment” a place where they can manage their emotions and feelings by trusting their caregiver (Reinsburg, 2009). This environment teaches children to also express emotion and care themselves.
# Encouraging exploration - Discovering new emotions and feelings through exploration allows children to increase their confidence and be independent. It makes it easier for children to accept change.
# Encourage developing skills - Newly gained skill ignites excitement and happiness in children. Showing interest to a child’s skill increases self-competence and emotional stability.
# Promote expression of feelings - It is hard for children to learn how express their emotion and know what causes it. Without this they cannot manage their feelings and temperaments. Labeling feelings through various media’s as examples show children this. For autistic children, it important to parent and caregivers to promote and point out such emotions in media that has picture of videos, to give them a real world representation of emotions. Furthermore being responsive to their emotions is key as well. Such as pointing out to them that are happy because they are smiling. Rasingchildren.net also points that a parents or caregivers exaggeration of the own emotions in response to something their child has achieved promotes the self-confidence the autistic child needs.
# Respect differences - All children are different and those who we surrounded by influence social interaction. Children learn from the people in their immediate proximity thus it is important to encourage understanding of others, including children with autism, to positively affect and change the stigma surrounding autism.
Reinsburg (2009)  &lt;/div&gt;

{{Robelbox/close}}{{Robelbox|theme = {{{theme|3}}}|title = Emotional Adjustment in Primary School:}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Research from Raver (2003) highlights that a child’s emotional adjustment to the school environment is vital to their development into adolescents, especially for children with autism. The early stages of school can cause emotional difficulties for children with autism. These difficulties emerge even on the first day attendance at school because going to school changes their familiar routines and patterns. For autistic children this brings confusion and even frustration and emotional outbursts. Further difficulties include inability to pay attention, following directions and most importantly the interacting with other children. The ability to build relations is based off of the regulation of emotions and participation things for which an autistic child is not emotional developed.  &lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

==Conclusion==
{{expand}}

== External Links ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Emotional development|Emotional Development]] 

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Parenting and emotional development in children|Parenting and Emotional Development in Children]]

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Emotional development in children|Emotional Development in Children]]

== References ==
&lt;!--{{Hanging indent|1=--&gt;
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). ''Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV'' (4th ed.). Washington D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.

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Bal, E., Harden, E., Lamb, D., Van Hecke, A., Denver, J., &amp; Porges, S. (2010). Emotion recognition in children with autism spectrum disorders: relations to eye gaze and autonomic state. ''Journal Of Autism &amp; Developmental Disorders'', ''40''(3), 358-370. https://doi.org/doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0884-3

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''12,'' 233–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874298701200408

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Stanton, K. (2009). Signs of Possible Developmental Delays: Social and Emotional Development{{fact}} 

Volkmar, F. R., Carter, A., Grossman, J., &amp; Klin, A. (1997). Social development in autism. In D. J. Cohen, &amp; F. R. Volkmar (Eds.), ''Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders'' (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley &amp; Sons Inc.

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==Overview==
[[Emotional intelligence]] (EI) has become an increasingly popular within psychology. Since the late twentieth century there has been considerable research into EI and its correlates with [[psychology]] and [[emotion]]. Originally, EI was defined as a set of emotional skills used for processing emotional information and using this information to guide actions. Since then, there have been several other models to explain EI (Joesph &amp; Newman, 2010).

Development of emotional perceptions starts within the first few days of life, meaning that we as humans are learning to perceive different emotions early in life (Zeidner, Matthews, Roberts &amp; MacCan, 2003). The emotional developmental process begins early and continues to transition itself throughout different stages of our lives.

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{{font|size=large|Throughout this chapter you will learn:}}
----  
* How emotional intelligence develops 
* Various theories that explain how emotional intelligence works 
* Emotional intelligence in adolescence 
* Emotional intelligence in young adulthood 
* Developmental transition from adolescence into young adulthood
{{RoundBoxBottom}}[[File:Primary Emotions.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Six different emotions]]

==How is emotional intelligence developed?==
The developmental processes involved in EI start at infancy, where perception of one's own emotions comes to fruition. Emotional understanding develops a few years later by age two, and continues to grow and strengthen by ages three and four, when emotional understanding becomes more sophisticated (Zeidner et at., 2003). According to EI theories, individuals mature in their abilities to process and apply emotional information throughout their lives. Through the developmental life cycle, individuals learn how to understand their own emotions more efficiently, as well as understanding and recognising others emotions (Rivers et al., 2012).  
[[File:Emotions-371238 640.jpg|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Perceiving different emotions]]

==Theories of emotional intelligence==
{{expand}}{{Inline comment|The subsections in this section need to be introduced...}}

===Four branch model ability of emotional intelligence===
The four branch model that explains EI was developed by Mayer and Salovey (1997). This model specifies that the four emotional abilities that make up EI have a developmental timeline. These four emotional abilities evolve from basic functioning to complex and higher order functioning. The four emotional abilities include: 
# Perceiving and expressing emotion
# Using emotion to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotion
# Regulating emotion {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|4}}}|title=Perceiving and expressing emotions}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
This ability is involved in identifying one's own emotions, feelings, thoughts and expressions, as well as identifying other peoples' emotions and differentiating them. The term expressing emotions is defined as how a person communicates those feelings and the appropriate time to express feelings (Rivers et al., 2012). People who can successfully recognise other people's emotions can adequately alter their behaviour and respond to these emotional cues in a way that is appropriate. In contrast, people who cannot recognise other people's emotions and their own emotions are thought to be socially disconnected (Rivers et al., 2012).
  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|5}}}|title=Using emotion to facilitate thought}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
This ability area uses emotions to facilitate different thoughts whilst using them rationally, logically, and creatively. This process involves controlling emotions to prioritise thinking. Different emotions cause different thinking patterns. Thus, certain emotions are more or less adaptive to different reasoning tasks. For example, positive emotions would be better suited to creative and stimulating thoughts and actions (Rivers et al., 2012).
  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|6}}}|title=Understanding emotion}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
This involves knowing what causes emotions and what emotions represent about certain goals and overall health. It's also about correctly labelling emotions, a process involving making connections between the experience and wording of emotions. People who have a strong understanding of their emotions are better at coping with their emotions, thus, in contrast, people who have a weak understanding of their emotions are not good at creating coping mechanisms (Rivers et al., 2012).
  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|7}}}|title=Regulating emotion}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
This is an ability that involves managing one's emotional thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that occur with emotional experiences. People who are successful in managing their emotions are able to feel the positive and negative emotions that come with any situation, and are able to share those emotions with others and create coping strategies for any situation (Rivers et al., 2012).
  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}

=== The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) ===
The MSCEIT is a test which measures each emotional ability. It has eight different sections, with two tasks to measure each of the four abilities (Mayer, Salovey &amp; Caruso, 2004). It was created by Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso in 2008. Individuals complete tests within each ability to assess their competence at measuring emotions. For example, one of the tasks on the test is to label an emotion expressed on someone's face and identifying strategic ways to regulate that emotion (Rivers et al., 2012).The MSCEIT is an ability-based test, that measures maximal performance. In contrast to self-report measures, ability-based measures are less susceptible to social desirability bias or faking, resulting in a more accurate measurement (Rivers et al., 2012).   

===Trait emotional intelligence===

Trait EI is conceptualised as lower order personality traits; it perceives EI as being made up of numerous emotional-related self-perceptions and traits (Petrides, Pérez-González &amp; Furnham, 2007). Trait EI integrates personality through 15 distinct facets that are combined into 4 broad factors: well-being, self-control, emotionality and sociability.  There is considerable research that suggests that trait EI is a facet of conceptualising personality (Costa, Petrides &amp; Tillman, 2014).

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|14}}}|title=Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue)}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
The TEIQue is a self-report inventory that assess an individual’s EI. It consists of 153 items which are rated on a seven point Likert scale with 15 facets which are categorised under the four factors in trait EI (Freudenthaler, Neubauer, Gabler, Scherl &amp; Rindermann, 2008).

The Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire-Adolescent Short Form (TEIQue-ASF) is a shorter and easier to read version of the original TEIQue, comprised of 30 items. This was developed to measure adolescent’s EI. Research into the TEIQue-ASF has had little psychometric research compared to its adult equivalent. Many of the studies which use the TEIQue-ASF have shown good internal reliability in testing on adolescents (Siegling, Vesely, Saklofske, Frederickson &amp; Petrides, 2015)  
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

===A mixed model of emotional intelligence ===
[[File:EQi-2.0-Model.jpg|thumb|172x172px|''Figure 3''. Goleman's Theory{{expand}}]]

The &quot;mixed&quot; model of EI is an integration of [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] abilities, [[personality]] traits and [[motivation]] that facilitate handling emotions in the real-world. This is also known as Goleman's (1998) theory of EI. Goleman lists five dimensions to personality, each consisting of three or more competences. These five dimensions are:
# Self-awareness
# Self-regulation
# Motivation
# Empathy
# Social skills

This model ultimately integrates the ability model and the trait model and meshes it into one model that suggests both of these constructs make up EI. Criticism regarding this mixed model of EI includes that it has a large overlap with existing personality constructs. Accusing that there is not a new construct being measured, it's merely a regurgitation of old information (Zeidner et al., 2003){{rewrite}}.

==Emotional intelligence in adolescents==
[[File:Firewall, teenager Fortepan 60817.jpg|thumb|''Figure 4.'' Adolescence is a time for exploration and experiencing a wave of emotions.]]

[[Adolescence]] is the transition from child into adult, and follows the onset of puberty.Typically, it encompasses the ages from around 10 to 20 years old, but each individual has a different time frame in which they enter and exit adolescence. It is a developmental process of psychological adjustment, which is important for functioning in adulthood. Adolescence is a time of risk for the onset of particular mental disorders, such as anxiety and mood disorders. It is also a time for experimenting with substances such as drugs and [[Alcoholism|alcohol]], and experiencing sexual encounters (Resurrección, Salguero &amp; Ruiz Aranda, 2014). There are several personal characteristics that are important for personal development; these include: [[self-esteem]], social competence, and regulation strategies. In recent times, a strong EI has been thought to be associated with better psychological functioning. Therefore, it is deemed that adolescences with higher EI have less chance of developing mood disorders and engaging in risky behaviours. However, there is still very limited research on the specific development and growth of EI in adolescence (Resurrección et al., 2014). 

{{Robelbox|width=80|theme={{{theme|6}}}|title=Self-report measures}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
A self-report measure is any method which involves a participant reflecting on their own feelings, beliefs and attitudes. Self report measures have been widely criticised in their ability to predict and assess EI. Self-report measures are deemed to have low reliability and self-report measures are susceptible to social desirability and bias among individuals (Ciarrochi et al., 2001).
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

Other studies have attempted to pinpoint the development of EI in adolescence specifically, by trying to measure EI. There is evidence for measuring EI in adults, but limited research in measuring EI for adolescence. A study conducted by Ciarrochi, Chan, and Bajgar (2001) attempted to measure EI in adolescence by using self-report measures{{expand}}. There has been more research in the development of EI using performance measures, such as tests and the MSCIET but no further research looking into self-report measures. The perceived reason for this is because people (especially adolescences) tend to over estimate the answers about themselves and distort their responses, however, Ciarrochi et al (2001) believed that further insight into self-report measures would be more beneficial. Because self-report measures assess adolescents' perceived emotional competence, it can be as predictive as actual EI. It was found in this study that adolescents can somewhat reliably report their own emotions. It was also found that EI can be identified and even taught in adolescents{{expand}}. Building upon their emotional skills to better cope with emotional difficulties{{grammar}}{{rewrite}}.

== Emotional intelligence in young adulthood==
[[File:Marriage (1).jpg|thumb|''Figure 5.'' One of the goals in young adulthood is meeting someone you love and wanting to get married]]

[[w:Young_adult_(psychology)|Young adulthood]] is a period in life that comes after adolescence and typically ranges from 20 to 40 years. The transition into adulthood includes the completion of schooling, the beginning of full-time employment or starting university, engaging in new relationships, and taking on different responsibilities. These transitions are what define the commencement of young adulthood (Goldschieder, Hofferth &amp; Curtin, 2014). Emerging adulthood can be described as a period in life where one feels most emotionally insecure in regards to role status and new responsibilities (Zimmermann &amp; Iwanski, 2014). With age, peoples' attitudes and emotions become more goal-orientated. When time is perceived as expansive, which is typical for young adults, they tend to plan for future milestone events and are setting out goals in life (i.e., travelling the world, buying a house, getting married, starting a family). In contrast to this, adults who are middle aged perceive time as dwindling, and therefore place more importance on the emotional drives towards their goals. This therefore gives stability to the idea that peoples' emotions regulate{{explain}} over different periods of their lives (Wechtler, Koveshnikov &amp; Dejoux, 2015). Young adults seem to put more emphasis on the negative aspects of life and negative information is processed more thoroughly than positive information{{fact}}. They are also more prone to emotional overreaction, depression and anxiety{{fact}}. This could be apparent because younger adults are still learning how to regulate and perceive their emotions (Wechtler et al., 2015).   

== Emotional development from adolescence to young adulthood ==
{{expand}}

=== What happens during this transition? ===
Adolescence involves a number of biological changes including which contributes to emotional instability and mood variation. The possible cause of these variations is said to be an imbalance between the [[w:List_of_regions_in_the_human_brain|subcortical]] and [[w:List_of_regions_in_the_human_brain|cortical]] areas within the brain, as these areas are involved in emotion processing during adolescence. It is thought that the subcortical area is more developed during adolescence and the cortical areas develop towards the end of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood (Vink, Derks, Hoogendam, Hillegers &amp; Kahn, 2014). There are differing results among various studies that have researched the specific brain areas in emotional processing between adolescence and adulthood. Some studies have shown that there is increased activity in the [[w:Amygdala|amygdala]] and [[w:Prefrontal_cortex|prefrontal cortex]] in adolescence compared to adulthood, however other studies note no activity, or a decrease in amygdala activity. More specialised research within this area is needed for more definitive answers (Vink et al, 2014).

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Socioemotional selective theory}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Socioemotional selectivity theory explains that as people get older, they search for a more emotionally meaningful life. They direct their attention to more meaningful aspects of life that involve experiencing a higher rate of emotions. This therefore explains that, as we get older, our meaning in life becomes more emotion-oriented (Wetchler, 2015).
&lt;/div&gt;
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=== What emotional changes occur? ===
Adolescence and young adulthood are periods of development for emotional regulation, with increased emotionality and a rapid pace of developmental changes. Thus meaning{{grammar}} that these are very delicate years for EI development and any negative experiences can shape the way individuals regulate their emotions when they reach middle and older adulthood. Adolescence is a period during which there is fast and fundamental changes in cognitive and emotional domains. During this stage, many aspects of adolescents' lives are accompanied by negative perspectives and thoughts. Aspects such as unstable peer and romantic relationships, and a decrease in perceived support from parents (i.e., feeling like their parents don't care about them) are some of the negative perspectives they encounter. 

In middle adolescence, perceived conflict with parents becomes more emotional, and traits such as [[w:Agreeableness|agreeableness]] and [[w:Conscientiousness|conscientiousness]] decrease, while [[w:Neuroticism|neuroticism]] increases (Zimmermann &amp; Iwanski, 2014). When emerging into adulthood, individuals experience emotional insecurity as they develop new responsibilities. During this developmental phase, expressed anger slowly decreases and the rate of developing depression increases; this is especially prevalent for women. Therefore, the stabilisation of emotions during adolescence is very low and still not fully established by young adulthood. This may be caused by biological influences such as intense fluctuations in hormones. Developmental changes in emotions also occur in [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional regulation]], the process which comprehends a series of processes that are responsible for monitoring and controlling emotions in situations that are current, remembered or anticipated. 

During adolescence and young adulthood, emotional regulation can potentially become more flexible. This is due to an increase in consistency in recognising and understanding ones' own, and others' emotions and is an insight into own emotion related behaviours (Zimmermann &amp; Iwanski, 2014).   

==Conclusion==
This chapter explained the overarching theories and various techniques for measuring EI, as well as information about how emotions develop in adolescence and young adulthood. Furthermore, this chapter discussed the changes in EI that occur in the transition from adolescence to young adulthood, with particular focus on emotional and biological changes. Emotions in adolescence are quite unstable and weak, and although emotions start to regulate better as they emerge into adulthood, emotions still tend to be slightly more unstable than in middle and older adulthood. Therefore, EI continues to develop throughout the life span; adolescents and young adults, in particular, are delicate years for understanding one's own, and other peoples' emotions. 

== Quiz ==
Time for a quick quiz to test your knowledge!&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Which one of the answers is one of the ability model's four factors?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Perceiving and expressing emotion 
- Agreeableness
- Perceiving and expressing feelings
- Neuroticism

{The mixed model of EI incorporates which of the following?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Cognitive, emotions and motivations 
- Motivations, conscientiousness and feelings
+ Cognitive, personality and motivation
- Personality, love and lust
&lt;/quiz&gt;

=See also=
* [[Emotion]]
* [[Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] 
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Emotional intelligence and job performance|Emotional intelligence and job performance]] (Book chapter, 2016) 
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Emotional labour|Emotional labour]] (Book chapter, 2016)  

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Ciarrochi, J., Chan, A.Y.C. &amp; Bajgar, J. (2001). Measuring emotional intelligence in adolescents. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''31'', 1105-1119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00207-5

Costa, S., Petrides, K.V. &amp; Tillmann, T. (2014). Trait emotional intelligence and inflammatory diseases. ''Psychology, Health &amp; Medicine'', ''19''(2), 180-189. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2013.802356

Goldscheider, F.K., Hofferth, S.L. &amp; Curtin S.C. (2014). Parenthood and leaving home in young adulthood. ''Popul Res Policy Rev'' ''33'', 771-796. doi: 10.1007/s11113-014-9334-9

Joesph, D.L. &amp; Newman, D.A. (2010). Emotional intelligence: an integrative meta-analysis and cascading model. ''Journal of Applied Psychology'', ''95''(1), 54-78. doi: 10.1037/a0017286

Mayer, J.D., Salovey, P. &amp; Caruso, D.R. (2004). Emotional intelligence: theory, findings and implications. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''15''(3), 197-215. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;db=a9h&amp;AN=14595133 

Petrides, K.V., Pèrez-González, J.C. &amp; Furnham, A. (2007). One the criterion and incremental validity of trait emotional intelligence. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''21''(1), 26-55. doi: 10.1080/02699930601038912 

Resurrección, D.M., Salguero, J.M. &amp; Ruiz-Aranda D. (2014). Emotional intelligence and psychological maladjustment in adolescence: A systemic review. ''Journal of Adolescence'', ''37'', 461-472. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.03.012

Rivers, S.E., Brackett, M.A., Reyes, M.R., Mayer, J.D., Caruso, 
D.R. &amp; Salovey, P. (2012). Measuring emotional intelligence in early adolescence with the MSCIET-YV: Psychometric properties and relationship with academic performance and psychosocial functioning. ''Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment'', ''30''(4), 344-366. doi: 10.1177/0734282912449443

Vink, M., Derks J.M., &amp; Hoogendam, J.M., Hillegers, M. &amp; Kahn, R.S. (2014). Functional differences in emotion processing during adolescence and early adulthood. ''Neuroimage'',''91'',70-76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.01.035

Wechtler, H., Koveshnikov, A. &amp; Dejoux, C. (2015).  Just like a fine wine? Age, emotional intelligence, and cross cultural adjustment. ''International Business Review'' ''24'', 409-418. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2014.09.002

Zeidner, M., Matthews, G., Roberts, R.D. &amp; MacCan, C. (2003). Development of emotional intelligence: towards a multi-level investment model. ''Human Development'', ''46'', 69-96. doi: 10.1159/000068580

Zimmermann, P. &amp; Iwanski, A. (2014). Emotion regulation from early adolescence to emerging adulthood and middle adulthood: Age differences, gender differences, and emotion-specific developmental variations. ''International Journal of Behavioural Development'', ''38''(2), 182-194. doi: 10.1177/0165025413515405
}}

==External links==
* [http://www.maetrix.com.au/meit/eitest.html Emotional intelligence test]
* [https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/ei-quiz.htm How emotionally intelligence are you?]
* [http://www.helpguide.org/articles/emotional-health/emotional-intelligence-eq.htm Improving your emotional intelligence]

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    <revision>
      <id>2417883</id>
      <parentid>2417437</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T12:42:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Initialize sieve */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="36354" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===Quadratic Sieve===

The quadratic sieve is a general purpose factoring method invented by Carl Pomerance in 1981.
Invention of quadratic sieve greatly advanced the science of factorization of integers, particularly those considered difficult, those large integers containing exactly two prime factors of approximately the same precision.

Running time of quadratic sieve is dependent on size of integer to be factored, and the quadratic sieve has accomplished some impressive records in the field of factorization of integers.

This page presents some simple examples of the factorization of small integers. Although using the quadratic sieve on small integers is like driving a thumb tack with a sledge hammer, the examples illustrate how the quadratic sieve is implemented.

====Introduction====
The quadratic sieve attempts to build quadratic congruences of form 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where 
&lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is number to be factored.


Many congruences are created:

&lt;math&gt;x_1^2 \equiv y_1 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_2^2 \equiv y_2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_3^2 \equiv y_3 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\dots\dots\dots&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_{10000}^2 \equiv y_{10000} \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;


Suitable congruences are combined to produce congruent squares:

&lt;math&gt;X^2 \equiv Y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where

&lt;math&gt;X^2  =  x_2^2  \cdot  x_3^2  \cdot  x_5^2  \cdots  x_{9999}^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;Y^2 = y_2 \cdot y_3 \cdot y_5 \cdots y_{9999}&lt;/math&gt;


Then &lt;math&gt;N\mid (X^2 - Y^2)&lt;/math&gt; and, with a little luck,

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_1 = \text{igcd}(X + Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_2 = \text{igcd}(X - Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt; is function
&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;
====Implementation====
This exercise calculates prime factors of 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5137851827.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
=====Build Factor base=====
Let the Factor Base contain 40 small primes, the first 40 for which &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue.
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[2, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 37, 41, 43, 59, 73, 103, 107, 113, 127, 131, 137, 149, 163, 179, 181, 
191, 197, 199, 211, 223, 233, 241, 251, 271, 281, 293, 307, 311, 317, 347, 367, 373, 379, 383]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Dictionary with logarithms of primes=====
Create a table or dictionary containing primes and logarithms of primes. Logarithms to base 2 are calculated.
The reason for choosing base &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; will become apparent later.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{log}_2(x) = \frac{\ln(x)}{\ln(2)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ 2\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;1.0\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 11\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.4594316186372973&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 13\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.700439718141092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 17\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.087462841250339\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 19\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.247927513443585\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 23\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.523561956057013\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 37\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.20945336562895\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 41\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.357552004618084\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 43\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.426264754702098\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 59\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.882643049361842\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 73\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.189824558880018\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;103\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.6865005271832185&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;107\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.741466986401147\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;113\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.820178962415188\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;127\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.9886846867721655&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;131\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.03342300153745\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;137\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.098032082960526\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;149\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.219168520462161\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;163\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.348728154231077\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.483815777264256\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;181\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.499845887083206\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;191\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.577428828035749\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;197\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.622051819456376\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;199\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.636624620543649\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;211\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.721099188707185\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;223\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.800899899920305\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;233\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.864186144654281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;241\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.912889336229962\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;251\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.971543553950772\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;271\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.08214904135387\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.134426320220927\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;293\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.194756854422248\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;307\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.262094845370179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;311\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.280770770130603\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;317\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.308339030139408\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.43879185257826\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;367\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.519636252843213\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;373\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.543031820255237\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;379\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.566054038171092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;383\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.581200581924957\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

=====Initialize sieve=====
In a regular sieve fine material falls through sieve and coarse material is retained.
In this sieve coarse material falls through sieve and fine material is retained.

The expression &quot;coarse material&quot; refers to integers containing a small number of large primes, the great majority of integers.

The expression &quot;fine material&quot; refers to integers containing a large number of small primes, primes that are members of this factor base, or &quot;smooth&quot; according to this factor base.

The base or root of operations is the smallest value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
for which &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is a positive number.

&lt;math&gt;root = x = 71679,\ y = 27214.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:

root = 71679

sieve = dict()

sieve[root] = [2]

for prime in factorBase[1:] :
    count = 0
    for x in range (root, root+2*(prime+2)) :
        y = x**2 - N
        if (y % prime) == 0 :
            if x in sieve : sieve[x] += [prime]
            else :  sieve[x] = [prime]
            count += 1
        if count &gt;= 2 : break
    if count != 2 : print ('Internal error 1.')

L1 = sorted([p for p in sieve])

print()
print ('Initialized sieve contains', len(sieve),
       'keys in range from', L1[0], 'through', L1[-1],
       'or', L1[-1]-L1[0]+1, 'possibilities.')

for key in L1[::-1] :
    print (key, '|', sieve[key])
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Initialized sieve contains 65 keys in range from 71679 through 71954 or 276 possibilities.

  x   | factor/s of y = x^2 - N
------|------------------------
71954 | [379]
71946 | [293]
71939 | [311]
71917 | [293]
71915 | [373]
71906 | [281]
71876 | [211, 307]
71864 | [317]
71852 | [191]
71850 | [241]
71849 | [223, 383]
71847 | [179]
71841 | [347]
71839 | [251]
71830 | [271]
71824 | [163]
71820 | [149]
71817 | [347]
71816 | [149]
71815 | [211]
71813 | [181]
71806 | [367]
71804 | [131]
71800 | [271, 307]
71786 | [241]
71780 | [191]
71779 | [163]
71777 | [113]
71776 | [383]
71773 | [199]
71772 | [131]
71771 | [233]
71763 | [223]
71760 | [107, 127]
71758 | [103]
71757 | [233]
71751 | [73]
71750 | [127]
71743 | [311]
71737 | [317]
71733 | [113, 137, 251]
71727 | [107]
71721 | [43, 103]
71720 | [181]
71717 | [59]
71716 | [41]
71715 | [37]
71713 | [197]
71712 | [59]
71711 | [179]
71706 | [137, 199]
71703 | [197]
71702 | [41]
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71680 | [13]
71679 | [2, 11]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Activate sieve=====
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;6&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-221&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;7&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-208&lt;/code&gt;
|}
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;&quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
====Welcomee====
{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFF800;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;

=====Welcomen=====
{{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFFFFF;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;6&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-221&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;7&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-208&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;8&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-193&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;9&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-176&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;10&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-157&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;11&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-136&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;12&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-113&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;13&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-88&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;14&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-61&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;15&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;16&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-1&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;17&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;18&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;67&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;19&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;104&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;20&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;143&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;21&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;184&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;22&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;227&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;23&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;272&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;24&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;319&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;25&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;368&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;26&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;419&lt;/code&gt;
|}

==Law of addition==
===Factors of integer N===

Several modern methods for determining the factors of a given integer attempt
to create two congruent squares modulo integer 
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

This means that the difference between the two squares is exactly divisible
by &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;: &lt;math&gt;N\mid (x^2 - y^2).&lt;/math&gt;

Integer &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; always contains the factors &lt;math&gt;N,1,&lt;/math&gt; called trivial factors.

If &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; contains two non-trivial factors
&lt;math&gt;p,q,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;\frac{(x+y)(x-y)}{p \cdot q}.&lt;/math&gt;

With a little luck &lt;math&gt;p\mid (x+y)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\mid (x-y)&lt;/math&gt; in which case:

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(x+y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(x-y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where

&quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt;&quot; is function &quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;&quot;
====A simple example:====

We will use quadratic congruences to calculate factors of &lt;math&gt;N = 4171&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;164 \ge x \ge 1.&lt;/math&gt;

=====Right hand side exact square=====
One congruence produced an exact square for y:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 70
| 4900
| 729
|}
:&lt;math&gt;4900 \equiv 729 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;70^2 \equiv 27^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(70-27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(70+27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(97, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


=====Right hand side negative=====
Table below contains a sample of values of 
&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that produce negative 
&lt;math&gt;y:&lt;/math&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 7
| 49
| -4122

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 9
| 81
| -4090

|-
| 10
| 100
| -4071

|-
| 11
| 121
| -4050 !!

|-
| 12
| 144
| -4027

|-
| 60
| 3600
| -571

|-
| 61
| 3721
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!

|-
| 62
| 3844
| -327

|-
| 63
| 3969
| -202

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**

|-
| 65
| 4225
| 54
|}

======Non-trivial result 1======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**
|}

:&lt;math&gt;64 \equiv -4107 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;4096 \equiv -75 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;64\cdot 4096 \equiv -4107\cdot (-75) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;262144 \equiv 308025 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;512^2 \equiv 555^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(555-512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(555+512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(1067, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

======Non-trivial result 2======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 11
| 121 
| -4050 !!

|-
| 61
| 3721 
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;121 \equiv -4050 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3721 \equiv -450 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;121\cdot 3721 \equiv -4050 \cdot (-450) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;450241 \equiv 1822500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;671^2 \equiv 1350^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(1350-671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(679, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(1350+671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(2021, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

=====With 3 congruences=====

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 56
| 3136
| -1035

|-
| 59
| 3481
| -690

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854
|}

:&lt;math&gt;3136 \equiv -1035 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3481 \equiv -690 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3136\cdot 3481 \cdot 21025 \equiv -1035 \cdot -690 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;229517646400 \equiv 12036284100 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;479080^2 \equiv 109710^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p=\text{igcd}(479080-109710,4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(479080+109710, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

======Trivial result======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 89
| 7921
| 3750 **!!

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854 &lt;math&gt;\ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;7921 \equiv 3750 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;7921\cdot 21025 \equiv 3750 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;166539025  \equiv 63202500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;12905^2 \equiv 7950^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(12905-7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(4955, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 1.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(12905+7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(20855, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 4171.&lt;/math&gt;

This congruence produced the trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

===Adding 2 congruences===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+C \equiv B+D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+C) - (B+D) = B + K_1\cdot N + D + K_2\cdot N  - B - D = N(K_1 + K_2)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


===Quadratic Congruences===
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
====Quadratic Residues====
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
=====Products=====
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
======of 2 residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of 2 non-residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of residue and non-residue======
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===Examples===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
=====For speed=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
======Many comparisons======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
======Divide by 2======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=====For clarity=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===tables===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;65&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4225&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;54&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;66&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4356&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;185&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;88&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7744&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3573&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;89&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7921&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3750&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;90&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;8100&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3929&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;144&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;20736&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16565&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;145&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21025&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16854&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;146&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21316&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;17145&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
      <sha1>kc29xhcrslfebkuw9ddagcbbpbnhln5</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417915</id>
      <parentid>2417883</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:46:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Activate sieve */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="39275" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===Quadratic Sieve===

The quadratic sieve is a general purpose factoring method invented by Carl Pomerance in 1981.
Invention of quadratic sieve greatly advanced the science of factorization of integers, particularly those considered difficult, those large integers containing exactly two prime factors of approximately the same precision.

Running time of quadratic sieve is dependent on size of integer to be factored, and the quadratic sieve has accomplished some impressive records in the field of factorization of integers.

This page presents some simple examples of the factorization of small integers. Although using the quadratic sieve on small integers is like driving a thumb tack with a sledge hammer, the examples illustrate how the quadratic sieve is implemented.

====Introduction====
The quadratic sieve attempts to build quadratic congruences of form 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where 
&lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is number to be factored.


Many congruences are created:

&lt;math&gt;x_1^2 \equiv y_1 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_2^2 \equiv y_2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_3^2 \equiv y_3 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\dots\dots\dots&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_{10000}^2 \equiv y_{10000} \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;


Suitable congruences are combined to produce congruent squares:

&lt;math&gt;X^2 \equiv Y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where

&lt;math&gt;X^2  =  x_2^2  \cdot  x_3^2  \cdot  x_5^2  \cdots  x_{9999}^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;Y^2 = y_2 \cdot y_3 \cdot y_5 \cdots y_{9999}&lt;/math&gt;


Then &lt;math&gt;N\mid (X^2 - Y^2)&lt;/math&gt; and, with a little luck,

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_1 = \text{igcd}(X + Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_2 = \text{igcd}(X - Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt; is function
&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;
====Implementation====
This exercise calculates prime factors of 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5137851827.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
=====Build Factor base=====
Let the Factor Base contain 40 small primes, the first 40 for which &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue.
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[2, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 37, 41, 43, 59, 73, 103, 107, 113, 127, 131, 137, 149, 163, 179, 181, 
191, 197, 199, 211, 223, 233, 241, 251, 271, 281, 293, 307, 311, 317, 347, 367, 373, 379, 383]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Dictionary with logarithms of primes=====
Create a table or dictionary containing primes and logarithms of primes. Logarithms to base 2 are calculated.
The reason for choosing base &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; will become apparent later.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{log}_2(x) = \frac{\ln(x)}{\ln(2)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ 2\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;1.0\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 11\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.4594316186372973&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 13\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.700439718141092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 17\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.087462841250339\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 19\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.247927513443585\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 23\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.523561956057013\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 37\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.20945336562895\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 41\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.357552004618084\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 43\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.426264754702098\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 59\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.882643049361842\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 73\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.189824558880018\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;103\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.6865005271832185&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;107\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.741466986401147\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;113\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.820178962415188\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;127\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.9886846867721655&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;131\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.03342300153745\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;137\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.098032082960526\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;149\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.219168520462161\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;163\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.348728154231077\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.483815777264256\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;181\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.499845887083206\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;191\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.577428828035749\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;197\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.622051819456376\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;199\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.636624620543649\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;211\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.721099188707185\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;223\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.800899899920305\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;233\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.864186144654281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;241\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.912889336229962\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;251\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.971543553950772\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;271\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.08214904135387\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.134426320220927\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;293\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.194756854422248\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;307\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.262094845370179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;311\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.280770770130603\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;317\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.308339030139408\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.43879185257826\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;367\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.519636252843213\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;373\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.543031820255237\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;379\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.566054038171092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;383\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.581200581924957\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

=====Initialize sieve=====
In a regular sieve fine material falls through sieve and coarse material is retained.
In this sieve coarse material falls through sieve and fine material is retained.

The expression &quot;coarse material&quot; refers to integers containing a small number of large primes, the great majority of integers.

The expression &quot;fine material&quot; refers to integers containing a large number of small primes, primes that are members of this factor base, or &quot;smooth&quot; according to this factor base.

The base or root of operations is the smallest value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
for which &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is a positive number.

&lt;math&gt;root = x = 71679,\ y = 27214.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:

root = 71679

sieve = dict()

sieve[root] = [2]

for prime in factorBase[1:] :
    count = 0
    for x in range (root, root+2*(prime+2)) :
        y = x**2 - N
        if (y % prime) == 0 :
            if x in sieve : sieve[x] += [prime]
            else :  sieve[x] = [prime]
            count += 1
        if count &gt;= 2 : break
    if count != 2 : print ('Internal error 1.')

L1 = sorted([p for p in sieve])

print()
print ('Initialized sieve contains', len(sieve),
       'keys in range from', L1[0], 'through', L1[-1],
       'or', L1[-1]-L1[0]+1, 'possibilities.')

for key in L1[::-1] :
    print (key, '|', sieve[key])
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Initialized sieve contains 65 keys in range from 71679 through 71954 or 276 possibilities.

  x   | factor/s of y = x^2 - N
------|------------------------
71954 | [379]
71946 | [293]
71939 | [311]
71917 | [293]
71915 | [373]
71906 | [281]
71876 | [211, 307]
71864 | [317]
71852 | [191]
71850 | [241]
71849 | [223, 383]
71847 | [179]
71841 | [347]
71839 | [251]
71830 | [271]
71824 | [163]
71820 | [149]
71817 | [347]
71816 | [149]
71815 | [211]
71813 | [181]
71806 | [367]
71804 | [131]
71800 | [271, 307]
71786 | [241]
71780 | [191]
71779 | [163]
71777 | [113]
71776 | [383]
71773 | [199]
71772 | [131]
71771 | [233]
71763 | [223]
71760 | [107, 127]
71758 | [103]
71757 | [233]
71751 | [73]
71750 | [127]
71743 | [311]
71737 | [317]
71733 | [113, 137, 251]
71727 | [107]
71721 | [43, 103]
71720 | [181]
71717 | [59]
71716 | [41]
71715 | [37]
71713 | [197]
71712 | [59]
71711 | [179]
71706 | [137, 199]
71703 | [197]
71702 | [41]
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71680 | [13]
71679 | [2, 11]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Activate sieve=====
While information in table above is accurate, it is incomplete.
Processing of sieve attempts to find values for which information is complete.

The code examines location 71679. Product of factors 2,11 = 22, not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N.

Location 71679+2 or 71681 is initialized with [2] and location 71679+11 or 71690 includes [11]. Location 71679 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11] # Factor 11 appended.
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71681 | [2] # Location initialized.
71680 | [13]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


The code examines location 71680. Factor 13 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71680+13 or 71693 is initialized with [13]. Location 71680 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13] # Location initialized.
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71681 | [2]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


The code examines location 71681. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71681+2 or 71683 is initialized with [2]. Location 71681 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71683 | [2] # Location initialized.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Location 71682 does not exist in the sieve. 
The code examines location 71683. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71683+2 or 71685 receives [2]. Location 71683 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281, 2] # Factor 2 appended.
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Processing continues in this way until location 71690 is examined. Factors [17, 23, 373, 11] are complete 
factorization of y = x^2 - N. Values [ 71690 , [17, 23, 373, 11] ] are appended to array &quot;smooth.&quot;

There are very few values of y that are smooth. Therefore code is designed to discard unsuitable values of
x quickly, and to make other decisions quickly.

Decisions to discard unsuitable candidates are:

* if x does not exist in sieve.

* if there is only 1 prime for location x. Complete factorization of y requires at least 2 primes.

Code intended to reduce processing time:


&lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = (root + a)^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 - N + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = \text{root2\_minus_N} + a(2\cdot  root + a)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root2_minus_N + a(two_root + a)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;6&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-221&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;7&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-208&lt;/code&gt;
|}
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;&quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
====Welcomee====
{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFF800;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;

=====Welcomen=====
{{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFFFFF;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;6&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-221&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;7&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-208&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;8&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-193&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;9&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-176&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;10&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-157&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;11&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-136&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;12&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-113&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;13&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-88&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;14&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-61&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;15&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;16&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-1&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;17&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;18&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;67&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;19&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;104&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;20&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;143&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;21&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;184&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;22&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;227&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;23&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;272&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;24&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;319&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;25&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;368&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;26&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;419&lt;/code&gt;
|}

==Law of addition==
===Factors of integer N===

Several modern methods for determining the factors of a given integer attempt
to create two congruent squares modulo integer 
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

This means that the difference between the two squares is exactly divisible
by &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;: &lt;math&gt;N\mid (x^2 - y^2).&lt;/math&gt;

Integer &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; always contains the factors &lt;math&gt;N,1,&lt;/math&gt; called trivial factors.

If &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; contains two non-trivial factors
&lt;math&gt;p,q,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;\frac{(x+y)(x-y)}{p \cdot q}.&lt;/math&gt;

With a little luck &lt;math&gt;p\mid (x+y)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\mid (x-y)&lt;/math&gt; in which case:

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(x+y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(x-y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where

&quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt;&quot; is function &quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;&quot;
====A simple example:====

We will use quadratic congruences to calculate factors of &lt;math&gt;N = 4171&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;164 \ge x \ge 1.&lt;/math&gt;

=====Right hand side exact square=====
One congruence produced an exact square for y:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 70
| 4900
| 729
|}
:&lt;math&gt;4900 \equiv 729 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;70^2 \equiv 27^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(70-27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(70+27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(97, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


=====Right hand side negative=====
Table below contains a sample of values of 
&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that produce negative 
&lt;math&gt;y:&lt;/math&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 7
| 49
| -4122

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 9
| 81
| -4090

|-
| 10
| 100
| -4071

|-
| 11
| 121
| -4050 !!

|-
| 12
| 144
| -4027

|-
| 60
| 3600
| -571

|-
| 61
| 3721
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!

|-
| 62
| 3844
| -327

|-
| 63
| 3969
| -202

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**

|-
| 65
| 4225
| 54
|}

======Non-trivial result 1======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**
|}

:&lt;math&gt;64 \equiv -4107 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;4096 \equiv -75 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;64\cdot 4096 \equiv -4107\cdot (-75) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;262144 \equiv 308025 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;512^2 \equiv 555^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(555-512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(555+512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(1067, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

======Non-trivial result 2======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 11
| 121 
| -4050 !!

|-
| 61
| 3721 
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;121 \equiv -4050 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3721 \equiv -450 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;121\cdot 3721 \equiv -4050 \cdot (-450) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;450241 \equiv 1822500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;671^2 \equiv 1350^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(1350-671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(679, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(1350+671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(2021, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

=====With 3 congruences=====

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 56
| 3136
| -1035

|-
| 59
| 3481
| -690

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854
|}

:&lt;math&gt;3136 \equiv -1035 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3481 \equiv -690 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3136\cdot 3481 \cdot 21025 \equiv -1035 \cdot -690 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;229517646400 \equiv 12036284100 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;479080^2 \equiv 109710^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p=\text{igcd}(479080-109710,4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(479080+109710, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

======Trivial result======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 89
| 7921
| 3750 **!!

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854 &lt;math&gt;\ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;7921 \equiv 3750 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;7921\cdot 21025 \equiv 3750 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;166539025  \equiv 63202500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;12905^2 \equiv 7950^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(12905-7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(4955, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 1.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(12905+7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(20855, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 4171.&lt;/math&gt;

This congruence produced the trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

===Adding 2 congruences===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+C \equiv B+D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+C) - (B+D) = B + K_1\cdot N + D + K_2\cdot N  - B - D = N(K_1 + K_2)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
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===Quadratic Congruences===
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
====Quadratic Residues====
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
=====Products=====
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
======of 2 residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of 2 non-residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of residue and non-residue======
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

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Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
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&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===Examples===
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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
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=====For speed=====
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======Many comparisons======
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If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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======Divide by 2======
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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

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To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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=====For clarity=====
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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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===tables===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;65&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4225&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;54&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;66&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4356&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;185&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;88&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7744&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3573&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;89&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7921&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3750&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;90&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;8100&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3929&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;144&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;20736&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16565&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;145&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21025&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16854&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;146&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21316&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;17145&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

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{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

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[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
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&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
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&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
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&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


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[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
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&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
      <sha1>mc6i0wy4gyjzioymr8m3st8ars581cf</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417971</id>
      <parentid>2417915</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T21:17:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Activate sieve */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="43911" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===Quadratic Sieve===

The quadratic sieve is a general purpose factoring method invented by Carl Pomerance in 1981.
Invention of quadratic sieve greatly advanced the science of factorization of integers, particularly those considered difficult, those large integers containing exactly two prime factors of approximately the same precision.

Running time of quadratic sieve is dependent on size of integer to be factored, and the quadratic sieve has accomplished some impressive records in the field of factorization of integers.

This page presents some simple examples of the factorization of small integers. Although using the quadratic sieve on small integers is like driving a thumb tack with a sledge hammer, the examples illustrate how the quadratic sieve is implemented.

====Introduction====
The quadratic sieve attempts to build quadratic congruences of form 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where 
&lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is number to be factored.


Many congruences are created:

&lt;math&gt;x_1^2 \equiv y_1 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_2^2 \equiv y_2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_3^2 \equiv y_3 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\dots\dots\dots&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_{10000}^2 \equiv y_{10000} \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;


Suitable congruences are combined to produce congruent squares:

&lt;math&gt;X^2 \equiv Y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where

&lt;math&gt;X^2  =  x_2^2  \cdot  x_3^2  \cdot  x_5^2  \cdots  x_{9999}^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;Y^2 = y_2 \cdot y_3 \cdot y_5 \cdots y_{9999}&lt;/math&gt;


Then &lt;math&gt;N\mid (X^2 - Y^2)&lt;/math&gt; and, with a little luck,

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_1 = \text{igcd}(X + Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_2 = \text{igcd}(X - Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt; is function
&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;
====Implementation====
This exercise calculates prime factors of 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5137851827.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
=====Build Factor base=====
Let the Factor Base contain 40 small primes, the first 40 for which &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue.
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[2, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 37, 41, 43, 59, 73, 103, 107, 113, 127, 131, 137, 149, 163, 179, 181, 
191, 197, 199, 211, 223, 233, 241, 251, 271, 281, 293, 307, 311, 317, 347, 367, 373, 379, 383]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Dictionary with logarithms of primes=====
Create a table or dictionary containing primes and logarithms of primes. Logarithms to base 2 are calculated.
The reason for choosing base &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; will become apparent later.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{log}_2(x) = \frac{\ln(x)}{\ln(2)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ 2\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;1.0\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 11\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.4594316186372973&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 13\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.700439718141092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 17\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.087462841250339\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 19\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.247927513443585\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 23\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.523561956057013\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 37\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.20945336562895\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 41\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.357552004618084\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 43\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.426264754702098\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 59\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.882643049361842\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 73\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.189824558880018\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;103\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.6865005271832185&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;107\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.741466986401147\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;113\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.820178962415188\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;127\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.9886846867721655&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;131\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.03342300153745\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;137\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.098032082960526\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;149\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.219168520462161\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;163\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.348728154231077\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.483815777264256\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;181\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.499845887083206\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;191\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.577428828035749\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;197\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.622051819456376\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;199\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.636624620543649\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;211\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.721099188707185\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;223\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.800899899920305\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;233\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.864186144654281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;241\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.912889336229962\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;251\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.971543553950772\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;271\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.08214904135387\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.134426320220927\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;293\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.194756854422248\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;307\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.262094845370179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;311\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.280770770130603\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;317\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.308339030139408\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.43879185257826\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;367\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.519636252843213\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;373\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.543031820255237\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;379\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.566054038171092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;383\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.581200581924957\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

=====Initialize sieve=====
In a regular sieve fine material falls through sieve and coarse material is retained.
In this sieve coarse material falls through sieve and fine material is retained.

The expression &quot;coarse material&quot; refers to integers containing a small number of large primes, the great majority of integers.

The expression &quot;fine material&quot; refers to integers containing a large number of small primes, primes that are members of this factor base, or &quot;smooth&quot; according to this factor base.

The base or root of operations is the smallest value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
for which &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is a positive number.

&lt;math&gt;root = x = 71679,\ y = 27214.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:

root = 71679

sieve = dict()

sieve[root] = [2]

for prime in factorBase[1:] :
    count = 0
    for x in range (root, root+2*(prime+2)) :
        y = x**2 - N
        if (y % prime) == 0 :
            if x in sieve : sieve[x] += [prime]
            else :  sieve[x] = [prime]
            count += 1
        if count &gt;= 2 : break
    if count != 2 : print ('Internal error 1.')

L1 = sorted([p for p in sieve])

print()
print ('Initialized sieve contains', len(sieve),
       'keys in range from', L1[0], 'through', L1[-1],
       'or', L1[-1]-L1[0]+1, 'possibilities.')

for key in L1[::-1] :
    print (key, '|', sieve[key])
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Initialized sieve contains 65 keys in range from 71679 through 71954 or 276 possibilities.

  x   | factor/s of y = x^2 - N
------|------------------------
71954 | [379]
71946 | [293]
71939 | [311]
71917 | [293]
71915 | [373]
71906 | [281]
71876 | [211, 307]
71864 | [317]
71852 | [191]
71850 | [241]
71849 | [223, 383]
71847 | [179]
71841 | [347]
71839 | [251]
71830 | [271]
71824 | [163]
71820 | [149]
71817 | [347]
71816 | [149]
71815 | [211]
71813 | [181]
71806 | [367]
71804 | [131]
71800 | [271, 307]
71786 | [241]
71780 | [191]
71779 | [163]
71777 | [113]
71776 | [383]
71773 | [199]
71772 | [131]
71771 | [233]
71763 | [223]
71760 | [107, 127]
71758 | [103]
71757 | [233]
71751 | [73]
71750 | [127]
71743 | [311]
71737 | [317]
71733 | [113, 137, 251]
71727 | [107]
71721 | [43, 103]
71720 | [181]
71717 | [59]
71716 | [41]
71715 | [37]
71713 | [197]
71712 | [59]
71711 | [179]
71706 | [137, 199]
71703 | [197]
71702 | [41]
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71680 | [13]
71679 | [2, 11]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Activate sieve=====
While information in table above is accurate, it is incomplete.
Processing of sieve attempts to find values for which information is complete.

The code examines location 71679. Product of factors 2,11 = 22, not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N.

Location 71679+2 or 71681 is initialized with [2] and location 71679+11 or 71690 includes [11]. Location 71679 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11] # Factor 11 appended.
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71681 | [2] # Location initialized.
71680 | [13]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


The code examines location 71680. Factor 13 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71680+13 or 71693 is initialized with [13]. Location 71680 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13] # Location initialized.
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71681 | [2]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


The code examines location 71681. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71681+2 or 71683 is initialized with [2]. Location 71681 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71683 | [2] # Location initialized.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Location 71682 does not exist in the sieve. 
The code examines location 71683. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71683+2 or 71685 receives [2]. Location 71683 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281, 2] # Factor 2 appended.
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Processing continues in this way until location 71690 is examined. Factors [17, 23, 373, 11] are complete 
factorization of y = x^2 - N. Values [ 71690 , [17, 23, 373, 11] ] are appended to array &quot;smooth.&quot;

There are very few values of y that are smooth. Therefore code is designed to discard unsuitable values of
x quickly, and to make other decisions quickly.

Decisions to discard unsuitable candidates are:

* if x does not exist in sieve.

* if there is only 1 prime for location x. Complete factorization of y requires at least 2 primes.

Code intended to reduce processing time:

&lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = (root + a)^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 - N + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = \text{rootSquaredMinusN} + \text{a(twoRoot + a)}&lt;/math&gt;

Multiplication in last statement above is of smaller numbers than calculation of &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N.&lt;/math&gt;
As size of &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; increases, last statement above becomes more efficient.

Divisions and multiplications are time consuming. Instead of multiplying primes or dividing y = x^2 - N
to determine smoothness, logarithms of primes are added and compared to log(y). Calculation of ln(y) or
log(y) to base 10 is time consuming.
Because y is type int, a good approximation of log(y) to base 2 can be calculated quickly.
As it happens, in this application &quot;close enough&quot; is good enough.

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(37)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;37 = '100101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'100101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(36) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(53)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;53 = '110101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'110101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

However, second most significant bit is set. Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5 + 1 = 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;log_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;6 &gt; x \ge 3&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;12 &gt; x \ge 6&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;24 &gt; x \ge 12&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;48 &gt; x \ge 24&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;96 &gt; x \ge 48&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;6&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;(3 &lt;&lt; (2k+1)) &gt; x \ge (3 &lt;&lt; 2k)&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;2k + 2&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Python code that accomplishes the sieving is:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

limit = 10000
rootSquaredMinusN = root**2 - N
twoRoot = root &lt;&lt; 1
count1 = count = 0
smooth = []
numberOfSmoothDesired = 45
for x in range (root, root+limit) :
    if x &amp; 0xFF == 0 :
        '''
This code is added to provide information about sieve
during sieving.
'''
        L1 = sorted([ p for p in sieve ])
        range_ = L1[-1] - L1[0] + 1
        print ('For x =',x, 'Range of sieve =',range_, 'number of empty locations =', range_ - len(L1) )
    if x not in sieve :
        notin += 1
        continue
    primes = sieve[x]

    for prime in primes :
        v = x + prime
        if v in sieve : sieve[v] += [prime]
        else : sieve[v] = [prime]
    del (sieve[x])

    if len(primes) == 1 :
        count1 += 1 ; continue                 
    a = x - root
    y = rootSquaredMinusN + a*(twoRoot + a)
    if 1 :
        y1 = x**2 - N
        if y1 != y :
            print ('y1 != y :',y1,y)
    L1 = [ sum for sum in (0,) for prime in primes for sum in (sum+log[prime],) ]  
    sumOfLogs = L1[-1]
    log_y = logBase2(y)
    if sumOfLogs &gt;= 0.95*log_y :
        count += 1
        product = [ prod for prod in (1,) for prime in primes for prod in (prod*prime,) ][-1]
        if y == product :
            smooth += [[x,primes]]
            if len(smooth) &gt;= numberOfSmoothDesired : break
            
print ('Range of values of x =', x-root+1)
print ('Number of empty locations in sieve =', notin)
print ('Number of locations with only 1 prime =', count1)
print ('Number of locations tested =', x-root+1-notin-count1)
print ('Number of locations chosen for close examination =', count)
print ('Number of values of x retained after close examination =', len(smooth))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
For x = 71680 Range of sieve = 275 number of empty locations = 210
For x = 71936 Range of sieve = 353 number of empty locations = 288
For x = 72192 Range of sieve = 350 number of empty locations = 287
For x = 72448 Range of sieve = 377 number of empty locations = 312
For x = 72704 Range of sieve = 331 number of empty locations = 266
For x = 72960 Range of sieve = 349 number of empty locations = 286
For x = 73216 Range of sieve = 366 number of empty locations = 305
For x = 73472 Range of sieve = 378 number of empty locations = 314
For x = 73728 Range of sieve = 347 number of empty locations = 276
For x = 73984 Range of sieve = 356 number of empty locations = 287
For x = 74240 Range of sieve = 368 number of empty locations = 306
For x = 74496 Range of sieve = 345 number of empty locations = 280
For x = 74752 Range of sieve = 358 number of empty locations = 292
For x = 75008 Range of sieve = 358 number of empty locations = 293
For x = 75264 Range of sieve = 342 number of empty locations = 278
For x = 75520 Range of sieve = 336 number of empty locations = 272
Range of values of x = 3922
Number of empty locations in sieve = 585
Number of locations with only 1 prime = 1331
Number of locations tested = 2006
Number of locations chosen for close examination = 45
Number of values of x retained after close examination = 45
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Thousands of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; are tested. At any one time the range of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
in sieve is &lt;math&gt;&lt; 400&lt;/math&gt; and sieve is mostly empty.
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;&quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
====Welcomee====
{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFF800;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;

=====Welcomen=====
{{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFFFFF;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;6&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-221&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;7&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-208&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;8&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-193&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;9&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-176&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;10&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-157&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;11&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-136&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;12&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-113&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;13&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-88&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;14&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-61&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;15&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;16&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-1&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;17&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;18&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;67&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;19&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;104&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;20&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;143&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;21&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;184&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;22&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;227&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;23&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;272&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;24&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;319&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;25&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;368&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;26&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;419&lt;/code&gt;
|}

==Law of addition==
===Factors of integer N===

Several modern methods for determining the factors of a given integer attempt
to create two congruent squares modulo integer 
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

This means that the difference between the two squares is exactly divisible
by &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;: &lt;math&gt;N\mid (x^2 - y^2).&lt;/math&gt;

Integer &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; always contains the factors &lt;math&gt;N,1,&lt;/math&gt; called trivial factors.

If &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; contains two non-trivial factors
&lt;math&gt;p,q,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;\frac{(x+y)(x-y)}{p \cdot q}.&lt;/math&gt;

With a little luck &lt;math&gt;p\mid (x+y)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\mid (x-y)&lt;/math&gt; in which case:

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(x+y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(x-y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where

&quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt;&quot; is function &quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;&quot;
====A simple example:====

We will use quadratic congruences to calculate factors of &lt;math&gt;N = 4171&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;164 \ge x \ge 1.&lt;/math&gt;

=====Right hand side exact square=====
One congruence produced an exact square for y:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 70
| 4900
| 729
|}
:&lt;math&gt;4900 \equiv 729 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;70^2 \equiv 27^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(70-27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(70+27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(97, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


=====Right hand side negative=====
Table below contains a sample of values of 
&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that produce negative 
&lt;math&gt;y:&lt;/math&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 7
| 49
| -4122

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 9
| 81
| -4090

|-
| 10
| 100
| -4071

|-
| 11
| 121
| -4050 !!

|-
| 12
| 144
| -4027

|-
| 60
| 3600
| -571

|-
| 61
| 3721
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!

|-
| 62
| 3844
| -327

|-
| 63
| 3969
| -202

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**

|-
| 65
| 4225
| 54
|}

======Non-trivial result 1======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**
|}

:&lt;math&gt;64 \equiv -4107 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;4096 \equiv -75 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;64\cdot 4096 \equiv -4107\cdot (-75) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;262144 \equiv 308025 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;512^2 \equiv 555^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(555-512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(555+512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(1067, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

======Non-trivial result 2======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 11
| 121 
| -4050 !!

|-
| 61
| 3721 
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;121 \equiv -4050 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3721 \equiv -450 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;121\cdot 3721 \equiv -4050 \cdot (-450) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;450241 \equiv 1822500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;671^2 \equiv 1350^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(1350-671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(679, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(1350+671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(2021, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

=====With 3 congruences=====

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 56
| 3136
| -1035

|-
| 59
| 3481
| -690

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854
|}

:&lt;math&gt;3136 \equiv -1035 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3481 \equiv -690 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3136\cdot 3481 \cdot 21025 \equiv -1035 \cdot -690 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;229517646400 \equiv 12036284100 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;479080^2 \equiv 109710^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p=\text{igcd}(479080-109710,4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(479080+109710, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

======Trivial result======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 89
| 7921
| 3750 **!!

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854 &lt;math&gt;\ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;7921 \equiv 3750 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;7921\cdot 21025 \equiv 3750 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;166539025  \equiv 63202500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;12905^2 \equiv 7950^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(12905-7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(4955, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 1.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(12905+7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(20855, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 4171.&lt;/math&gt;

This congruence produced the trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

===Adding 2 congruences===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+C \equiv B+D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+C) - (B+D) = B + K_1\cdot N + D + K_2\cdot N  - B - D = N(K_1 + K_2)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


===Quadratic Congruences===
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
====Quadratic Residues====
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
=====Products=====
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
======of 2 residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of 2 non-residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of residue and non-residue======
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

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Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

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&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===Examples===
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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
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=====For speed=====
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======Many comparisons======
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If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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======Divide by 2======
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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

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To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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{{RoundBoxBottom}}
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=====For clarity=====
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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===tables===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;65&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4225&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;54&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;66&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4356&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;185&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;88&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7744&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3573&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;89&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7921&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3750&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;90&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;8100&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3929&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;144&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;20736&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16565&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;145&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21025&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16854&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;146&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21316&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;17145&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

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{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

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[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
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&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
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&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


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[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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      <sha1>dpfticdi8rqjglbqvcwqzy5ze0ict8m</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417975</id>
      <parentid>2417971</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T22:08:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Activate sieve */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="43908" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===Quadratic Sieve===

The quadratic sieve is a general purpose factoring method invented by Carl Pomerance in 1981.
Invention of quadratic sieve greatly advanced the science of factorization of integers, particularly those considered difficult, those large integers containing exactly two prime factors of approximately the same precision.

Running time of quadratic sieve is dependent on size of integer to be factored, and the quadratic sieve has accomplished some impressive records in the field of factorization of integers.

This page presents some simple examples of the factorization of small integers. Although using the quadratic sieve on small integers is like driving a thumb tack with a sledge hammer, the examples illustrate how the quadratic sieve is implemented.

====Introduction====
The quadratic sieve attempts to build quadratic congruences of form 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where 
&lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is number to be factored.


Many congruences are created:

&lt;math&gt;x_1^2 \equiv y_1 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_2^2 \equiv y_2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_3^2 \equiv y_3 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\dots\dots\dots&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_{10000}^2 \equiv y_{10000} \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;


Suitable congruences are combined to produce congruent squares:

&lt;math&gt;X^2 \equiv Y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where

&lt;math&gt;X^2  =  x_2^2  \cdot  x_3^2  \cdot  x_5^2  \cdots  x_{9999}^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;Y^2 = y_2 \cdot y_3 \cdot y_5 \cdots y_{9999}&lt;/math&gt;


Then &lt;math&gt;N\mid (X^2 - Y^2)&lt;/math&gt; and, with a little luck,

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_1 = \text{igcd}(X + Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_2 = \text{igcd}(X - Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt; is function
&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;
====Implementation====
This exercise calculates prime factors of 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5137851827.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
=====Build Factor base=====
Let the Factor Base contain 40 small primes, the first 40 for which &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue.
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[2, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 37, 41, 43, 59, 73, 103, 107, 113, 127, 131, 137, 149, 163, 179, 181, 
191, 197, 199, 211, 223, 233, 241, 251, 271, 281, 293, 307, 311, 317, 347, 367, 373, 379, 383]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Dictionary with logarithms of primes=====
Create a table or dictionary containing primes and logarithms of primes. Logarithms to base 2 are calculated.
The reason for choosing base &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; will become apparent later.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{log}_2(x) = \frac{\ln(x)}{\ln(2)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ 2\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;1.0\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 11\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.4594316186372973&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 13\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.700439718141092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 17\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.087462841250339\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 19\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.247927513443585\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 23\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.523561956057013\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 37\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.20945336562895\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 41\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.357552004618084\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 43\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.426264754702098\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 59\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.882643049361842\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 73\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.189824558880018\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;103\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.6865005271832185&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;107\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.741466986401147\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;113\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.820178962415188\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;127\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.9886846867721655&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;131\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.03342300153745\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;137\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.098032082960526\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;149\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.219168520462161\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;163\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.348728154231077\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.483815777264256\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;181\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.499845887083206\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;191\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.577428828035749\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;197\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.622051819456376\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;199\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.636624620543649\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;211\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.721099188707185\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;223\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.800899899920305\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;233\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.864186144654281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;241\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.912889336229962\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;251\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.971543553950772\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;271\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.08214904135387\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.134426320220927\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;293\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.194756854422248\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;307\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.262094845370179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;311\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.280770770130603\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;317\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.308339030139408\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.43879185257826\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;367\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.519636252843213\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;373\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.543031820255237\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;379\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.566054038171092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;383\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.581200581924957\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

=====Initialize sieve=====
In a regular sieve fine material falls through sieve and coarse material is retained.
In this sieve coarse material falls through sieve and fine material is retained.

The expression &quot;coarse material&quot; refers to integers containing a small number of large primes, the great majority of integers.

The expression &quot;fine material&quot; refers to integers containing a large number of small primes, primes that are members of this factor base, or &quot;smooth&quot; according to this factor base.

The base or root of operations is the smallest value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
for which &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is a positive number.

&lt;math&gt;root = x = 71679,\ y = 27214.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:

root = 71679

sieve = dict()

sieve[root] = [2]

for prime in factorBase[1:] :
    count = 0
    for x in range (root, root+2*(prime+2)) :
        y = x**2 - N
        if (y % prime) == 0 :
            if x in sieve : sieve[x] += [prime]
            else :  sieve[x] = [prime]
            count += 1
        if count &gt;= 2 : break
    if count != 2 : print ('Internal error 1.')

L1 = sorted([p for p in sieve])

print()
print ('Initialized sieve contains', len(sieve),
       'keys in range from', L1[0], 'through', L1[-1],
       'or', L1[-1]-L1[0]+1, 'possibilities.')

for key in L1[::-1] :
    print (key, '|', sieve[key])
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Initialized sieve contains 65 keys in range from 71679 through 71954 or 276 possibilities.

  x   | factor/s of y = x^2 - N
------|------------------------
71954 | [379]
71946 | [293]
71939 | [311]
71917 | [293]
71915 | [373]
71906 | [281]
71876 | [211, 307]
71864 | [317]
71852 | [191]
71850 | [241]
71849 | [223, 383]
71847 | [179]
71841 | [347]
71839 | [251]
71830 | [271]
71824 | [163]
71820 | [149]
71817 | [347]
71816 | [149]
71815 | [211]
71813 | [181]
71806 | [367]
71804 | [131]
71800 | [271, 307]
71786 | [241]
71780 | [191]
71779 | [163]
71777 | [113]
71776 | [383]
71773 | [199]
71772 | [131]
71771 | [233]
71763 | [223]
71760 | [107, 127]
71758 | [103]
71757 | [233]
71751 | [73]
71750 | [127]
71743 | [311]
71737 | [317]
71733 | [113, 137, 251]
71727 | [107]
71721 | [43, 103]
71720 | [181]
71717 | [59]
71716 | [41]
71715 | [37]
71713 | [197]
71712 | [59]
71711 | [179]
71706 | [137, 199]
71703 | [197]
71702 | [41]
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71680 | [13]
71679 | [2, 11]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Activate sieve=====
While information in table above is accurate, it is incomplete.
Processing of sieve attempts to find values for which information is complete.

The code examines location 71679. Product of factors 2,11 = 22, not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N.

Location 71679+2 or 71681 is initialized with [2] and location 71679+11 or 71690 includes [11]. Location 71679 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11] # Factor 11 appended.
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71681 | [2] # Location initialized.
71680 | [13]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


The code examines location 71680. Factor 13 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71680+13 or 71693 is initialized with [13]. Location 71680 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13] # Location initialized.
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71681 | [2]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


The code examines location 71681. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71681+2 or 71683 is initialized with [2]. Location 71681 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71683 | [2] # Location initialized.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Location 71682 does not exist in the sieve. 
The code examines location 71683. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71683+2 or 71685 receives [2]. Location 71683 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281, 2] # Factor 2 appended.
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Processing continues in this way until location 71690 is examined. Factors [17, 23, 373, 11] are complete 
factorization of y = x^2 - N. Values [ 71690 , [17, 23, 373, 11] ] are appended to array &quot;smooth.&quot;

There are very few values of y that are smooth. Therefore code is designed to discard unsuitable values of
x quickly, and to make other decisions quickly.

Decisions to discard unsuitable candidates are:

* if x does not exist in sieve.

* if there is only 1 prime for location x. Complete factorization of y requires at least 2 primes.

Code intended to reduce processing time:

&lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = (root + a)^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 - N + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = \text{rootSquaredMinusN} + \text{a(twoRoot + a)}&lt;/math&gt;

Multiplication in last statement above is of smaller numbers than calculation of &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N.&lt;/math&gt;
As size of &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; increases, last statement above becomes more efficient.

Divisions and multiplications are time consuming. Instead of multiplying primes or dividing y = x^2 - N
to determine smoothness, logarithms of primes are added and compared to log(y). Calculation of ln(y) or
log(y) to base 10 is time consuming.
Because y is type int, a good approximation of log(y) to base 2 can be calculated quickly.
As it happens, in this application &quot;close enough&quot; is good enough.

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(37)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;37 = '100101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'100101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(36) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(53)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;53 = '110101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'110101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

However, second most significant bit is set. Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5 + 1 = 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;log_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;6 &gt; x \ge 3&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;12 &gt; x \ge 6&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;24 &gt; x \ge 12&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;48 &gt; x \ge 24&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;96 &gt; x \ge 48&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;6&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;(3 &lt;&lt; (k+1)) &gt; x \ge (3 &lt;&lt; k)&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;k + 2&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Python code that accomplishes the sieving is:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

limit = 10000
rootSquaredMinusN = root**2 - N
twoRoot = root &lt;&lt; 1
count1 = count = 0
smooth = []
numberOfSmoothDesired = 45
for x in range (root, root+limit) :
    if x &amp; 0xFF == 0 :
        '''
This code is added to provide information about sieve
during sieving.
'''
        L1 = sorted([ p for p in sieve ])
        range_ = L1[-1] - L1[0] + 1
        print ('For x =',x, 'Range of sieve =',range_, 'number of empty locations =', range_ - len(L1) )
    if x not in sieve :
        notin += 1
        continue
    primes = sieve[x]

    for prime in primes :
        v = x + prime
        if v in sieve : sieve[v] += [prime]
        else : sieve[v] = [prime]
    del (sieve[x])

    if len(primes) == 1 :
        count1 += 1 ; continue                 
    a = x - root
    y = rootSquaredMinusN + a*(twoRoot + a)
    if 1 :
        y1 = x**2 - N
        if y1 != y :
            print ('y1 != y :',y1,y)
    L1 = [ sum for sum in (0,) for prime in primes for sum in (sum+log[prime],) ]  
    sumOfLogs = L1[-1]
    log_y = logBase2(y)
    if sumOfLogs &gt;= 0.95*log_y :
        count += 1
        product = [ prod for prod in (1,) for prime in primes for prod in (prod*prime,) ][-1]
        if y == product :
            smooth += [[x,primes]]
            if len(smooth) &gt;= numberOfSmoothDesired : break
            
print ('Range of values of x =', x-root+1)
print ('Number of empty locations in sieve =', notin)
print ('Number of locations with only 1 prime =', count1)
print ('Number of locations tested =', x-root+1-notin-count1)
print ('Number of locations chosen for close examination =', count)
print ('Number of values of x retained after close examination =', len(smooth))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
For x = 71680 Range of sieve = 275 number of empty locations = 210
For x = 71936 Range of sieve = 353 number of empty locations = 288
For x = 72192 Range of sieve = 350 number of empty locations = 287
For x = 72448 Range of sieve = 377 number of empty locations = 312
For x = 72704 Range of sieve = 331 number of empty locations = 266
For x = 72960 Range of sieve = 349 number of empty locations = 286
For x = 73216 Range of sieve = 366 number of empty locations = 305
For x = 73472 Range of sieve = 378 number of empty locations = 314
For x = 73728 Range of sieve = 347 number of empty locations = 276
For x = 73984 Range of sieve = 356 number of empty locations = 287
For x = 74240 Range of sieve = 368 number of empty locations = 306
For x = 74496 Range of sieve = 345 number of empty locations = 280
For x = 74752 Range of sieve = 358 number of empty locations = 292
For x = 75008 Range of sieve = 358 number of empty locations = 293
For x = 75264 Range of sieve = 342 number of empty locations = 278
For x = 75520 Range of sieve = 336 number of empty locations = 272
Range of values of x = 3922
Number of empty locations in sieve = 585
Number of locations with only 1 prime = 1331
Number of locations tested = 2006
Number of locations chosen for close examination = 45
Number of values of x retained after close examination = 45
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Thousands of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; are tested. At any one time the range of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
in sieve is &lt;math&gt;&lt; 400&lt;/math&gt; and sieve is mostly empty.
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;&quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
====Welcomee====
{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFF800;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;

=====Welcomen=====
{{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFFFFF;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;6&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-221&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;7&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-208&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;8&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-193&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;9&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-176&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;10&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-157&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;11&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-136&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;12&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-113&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;13&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-88&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;14&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-61&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;15&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;16&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-1&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;17&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;18&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;67&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;19&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;104&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;20&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;143&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;21&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;184&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;22&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;227&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;23&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;272&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;24&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;319&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;25&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;368&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;26&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;419&lt;/code&gt;
|}

==Law of addition==
===Factors of integer N===

Several modern methods for determining the factors of a given integer attempt
to create two congruent squares modulo integer 
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

This means that the difference between the two squares is exactly divisible
by &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;: &lt;math&gt;N\mid (x^2 - y^2).&lt;/math&gt;

Integer &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; always contains the factors &lt;math&gt;N,1,&lt;/math&gt; called trivial factors.

If &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; contains two non-trivial factors
&lt;math&gt;p,q,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;\frac{(x+y)(x-y)}{p \cdot q}.&lt;/math&gt;

With a little luck &lt;math&gt;p\mid (x+y)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\mid (x-y)&lt;/math&gt; in which case:

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(x+y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(x-y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where

&quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt;&quot; is function &quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;&quot;
====A simple example:====

We will use quadratic congruences to calculate factors of &lt;math&gt;N = 4171&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;164 \ge x \ge 1.&lt;/math&gt;

=====Right hand side exact square=====
One congruence produced an exact square for y:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 70
| 4900
| 729
|}
:&lt;math&gt;4900 \equiv 729 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;70^2 \equiv 27^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(70-27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(70+27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(97, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


=====Right hand side negative=====
Table below contains a sample of values of 
&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that produce negative 
&lt;math&gt;y:&lt;/math&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 7
| 49
| -4122

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 9
| 81
| -4090

|-
| 10
| 100
| -4071

|-
| 11
| 121
| -4050 !!

|-
| 12
| 144
| -4027

|-
| 60
| 3600
| -571

|-
| 61
| 3721
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!

|-
| 62
| 3844
| -327

|-
| 63
| 3969
| -202

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**

|-
| 65
| 4225
| 54
|}

======Non-trivial result 1======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**
|}

:&lt;math&gt;64 \equiv -4107 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;4096 \equiv -75 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;64\cdot 4096 \equiv -4107\cdot (-75) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;262144 \equiv 308025 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;512^2 \equiv 555^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(555-512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(555+512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(1067, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

======Non-trivial result 2======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 11
| 121 
| -4050 !!

|-
| 61
| 3721 
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;121 \equiv -4050 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3721 \equiv -450 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;121\cdot 3721 \equiv -4050 \cdot (-450) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;450241 \equiv 1822500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;671^2 \equiv 1350^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(1350-671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(679, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(1350+671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(2021, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

=====With 3 congruences=====

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 56
| 3136
| -1035

|-
| 59
| 3481
| -690

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854
|}

:&lt;math&gt;3136 \equiv -1035 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3481 \equiv -690 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3136\cdot 3481 \cdot 21025 \equiv -1035 \cdot -690 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;229517646400 \equiv 12036284100 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;479080^2 \equiv 109710^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p=\text{igcd}(479080-109710,4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(479080+109710, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

======Trivial result======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 89
| 7921
| 3750 **!!

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854 &lt;math&gt;\ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;7921 \equiv 3750 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;7921\cdot 21025 \equiv 3750 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;166539025  \equiv 63202500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;12905^2 \equiv 7950^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(12905-7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(4955, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 1.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(12905+7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(20855, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 4171.&lt;/math&gt;

This congruence produced the trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

===Adding 2 congruences===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+C \equiv B+D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+C) - (B+D) = B + K_1\cdot N + D + K_2\cdot N  - B - D = N(K_1 + K_2)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


===Quadratic Congruences===
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
====Quadratic Residues====
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
=====Products=====
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
======of 2 residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of 2 non-residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of residue and non-residue======
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

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Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
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&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===Examples===
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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
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=====For speed=====
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======Many comparisons======
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If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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======Divide by 2======
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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

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To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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=====For clarity=====
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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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===tables===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;65&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4225&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;54&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;66&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4356&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;185&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;88&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7744&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3573&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;89&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7921&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3750&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;90&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;8100&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3929&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;144&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;20736&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16565&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;145&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21025&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16854&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;146&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21316&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;17145&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

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{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

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[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
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&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
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&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


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[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
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&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
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Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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      <sha1>4kfhnpxn5mc4crmsd78bajlp72u925q</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417977</id>
      <parentid>2417975</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T22:32:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Activate sieve */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="43980" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===Quadratic Sieve===

The quadratic sieve is a general purpose factoring method invented by Carl Pomerance in 1981.
Invention of quadratic sieve greatly advanced the science of factorization of integers, particularly those considered difficult, those large integers containing exactly two prime factors of approximately the same precision.

Running time of quadratic sieve is dependent on size of integer to be factored, and the quadratic sieve has accomplished some impressive records in the field of factorization of integers.

This page presents some simple examples of the factorization of small integers. Although using the quadratic sieve on small integers is like driving a thumb tack with a sledge hammer, the examples illustrate how the quadratic sieve is implemented.

====Introduction====
The quadratic sieve attempts to build quadratic congruences of form 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where 
&lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is number to be factored.


Many congruences are created:

&lt;math&gt;x_1^2 \equiv y_1 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_2^2 \equiv y_2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_3^2 \equiv y_3 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\dots\dots\dots&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_{10000}^2 \equiv y_{10000} \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;


Suitable congruences are combined to produce congruent squares:

&lt;math&gt;X^2 \equiv Y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where

&lt;math&gt;X^2  =  x_2^2  \cdot  x_3^2  \cdot  x_5^2  \cdots  x_{9999}^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;Y^2 = y_2 \cdot y_3 \cdot y_5 \cdots y_{9999}&lt;/math&gt;


Then &lt;math&gt;N\mid (X^2 - Y^2)&lt;/math&gt; and, with a little luck,

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_1 = \text{igcd}(X + Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_2 = \text{igcd}(X - Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt; is function
&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;
====Implementation====
This exercise calculates prime factors of 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5137851827.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
=====Build Factor base=====
Let the Factor Base contain 40 small primes, the first 40 for which &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue.
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[2, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 37, 41, 43, 59, 73, 103, 107, 113, 127, 131, 137, 149, 163, 179, 181, 
191, 197, 199, 211, 223, 233, 241, 251, 271, 281, 293, 307, 311, 317, 347, 367, 373, 379, 383]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Dictionary with logarithms of primes=====
Create a table or dictionary containing primes and logarithms of primes. Logarithms to base 2 are calculated.
The reason for choosing base &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; will become apparent later.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{log}_2(x) = \frac{\ln(x)}{\ln(2)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ 2\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;1.0\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 11\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.4594316186372973&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 13\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.700439718141092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 17\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.087462841250339\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 19\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.247927513443585\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 23\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.523561956057013\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 37\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.20945336562895\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 41\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.357552004618084\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 43\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.426264754702098\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 59\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.882643049361842\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 73\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.189824558880018\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;103\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.6865005271832185&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;107\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.741466986401147\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;113\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.820178962415188\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;127\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.9886846867721655&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;131\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.03342300153745\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;137\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.098032082960526\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;149\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.219168520462161\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;163\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.348728154231077\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.483815777264256\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;181\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.499845887083206\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;191\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.577428828035749\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;197\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.622051819456376\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;199\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.636624620543649\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;211\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.721099188707185\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;223\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.800899899920305\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;233\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.864186144654281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;241\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.912889336229962\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;251\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.971543553950772\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;271\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.08214904135387\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.134426320220927\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;293\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.194756854422248\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;307\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.262094845370179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;311\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.280770770130603\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;317\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.308339030139408\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.43879185257826\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;367\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.519636252843213\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;373\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.543031820255237\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;379\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.566054038171092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;383\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.581200581924957\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

=====Initialize sieve=====
In a regular sieve fine material falls through sieve and coarse material is retained.
In this sieve coarse material falls through sieve and fine material is retained.

The expression &quot;coarse material&quot; refers to integers containing a small number of large primes, the great majority of integers.

The expression &quot;fine material&quot; refers to integers containing a large number of small primes, primes that are members of this factor base, or &quot;smooth&quot; according to this factor base.

The base or root of operations is the smallest value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
for which &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is a positive number.

&lt;math&gt;root = x = 71679,\ y = 27214.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:

root = 71679

sieve = dict()

sieve[root] = [2]

for prime in factorBase[1:] :
    count = 0
    for x in range (root, root+2*(prime+2)) :
        y = x**2 - N
        if (y % prime) == 0 :
            if x in sieve : sieve[x] += [prime]
            else :  sieve[x] = [prime]
            count += 1
        if count &gt;= 2 : break
    if count != 2 : print ('Internal error 1.')

L1 = sorted([p for p in sieve])

print()
print ('Initialized sieve contains', len(sieve),
       'keys in range from', L1[0], 'through', L1[-1],
       'or', L1[-1]-L1[0]+1, 'possibilities.')

for key in L1[::-1] :
    print (key, '|', sieve[key])
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Initialized sieve contains 65 keys in range from 71679 through 71954 or 276 possibilities.

  x   | factor/s of y = x^2 - N
------|------------------------
71954 | [379]
71946 | [293]
71939 | [311]
71917 | [293]
71915 | [373]
71906 | [281]
71876 | [211, 307]
71864 | [317]
71852 | [191]
71850 | [241]
71849 | [223, 383]
71847 | [179]
71841 | [347]
71839 | [251]
71830 | [271]
71824 | [163]
71820 | [149]
71817 | [347]
71816 | [149]
71815 | [211]
71813 | [181]
71806 | [367]
71804 | [131]
71800 | [271, 307]
71786 | [241]
71780 | [191]
71779 | [163]
71777 | [113]
71776 | [383]
71773 | [199]
71772 | [131]
71771 | [233]
71763 | [223]
71760 | [107, 127]
71758 | [103]
71757 | [233]
71751 | [73]
71750 | [127]
71743 | [311]
71737 | [317]
71733 | [113, 137, 251]
71727 | [107]
71721 | [43, 103]
71720 | [181]
71717 | [59]
71716 | [41]
71715 | [37]
71713 | [197]
71712 | [59]
71711 | [179]
71706 | [137, 199]
71703 | [197]
71702 | [41]
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71680 | [13]
71679 | [2, 11]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Activate sieve=====
While information in table above is accurate, it is incomplete.
Processing of sieve attempts to find values for which information is complete.
======Processing locations in sequence======
The code examines location 71679. Product of factors 2,11 = 22, not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N.

Location 71679+2 or 71681 is initialized with [2] and location 71679+11 or 71690 includes [11]. Location 71679 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11] # Factor 11 appended.
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71681 | [2] # Location initialized.
71680 | [13]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


The code examines location 71680. Factor 13 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71680+13 or 71693 is initialized with [13]. Location 71680 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13] # Location initialized.
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71681 | [2]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


The code examines location 71681. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71681+2 or 71683 is initialized with [2]. Location 71681 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71683 | [2] # Location initialized.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Location 71682 does not exist in the sieve. 
The code examines location 71683. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71683+2 or 71685 receives [2]. Location 71683 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281, 2] # Factor 2 appended.
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Processing continues in this way until location 71690 is examined. Factors [17, 23, 373, 11] are complete 
factorization of y = x^2 - N. Values [ 71690 , [17, 23, 373, 11] ] are appended to array &quot;smooth.&quot;
======To improve speed======
There are very few values of y that are smooth. Therefore code is designed to discard unsuitable values of
x quickly, and to make other decisions quickly.

Decisions to discard unsuitable candidates are:

* if x does not exist in sieve.

* if there is only 1 prime for location x. Complete factorization of y requires at least 2 primes.

Code intended to reduce processing time:

&lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = (root + a)^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 - N + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = \text{rootSquaredMinusN} + \text{a(twoRoot + a)}&lt;/math&gt;

Multiplication in last statement above is of smaller numbers than calculation of &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N.&lt;/math&gt;
As size of &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; increases, last statement above becomes more efficient.

Divisions and multiplications are time consuming. Instead of multiplying primes or dividing y = x^2 - N
to determine smoothness, logarithms of primes are added and compared to log(y). Calculation of ln(y) or
log(y) to base 10 is time consuming.
Because y is type int, a good approximation of log(y) to base 2 can be calculated quickly.
As it happens, in this application &quot;close enough&quot; is good enough.

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(37)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;37 = '100101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'100101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(36) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(53)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;53 = '110101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'110101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

However, second most significant bit is set. Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5 + 1 = 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;log_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;6 &gt; x \ge 3&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;12 &gt; x \ge 6&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;24 &gt; x \ge 12&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;48 &gt; x \ge 24&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;96 &gt; x \ge 48&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;6&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;(3 &lt;&lt; (k+1)) &gt; x \ge (3 &lt;&lt; k)&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;k + 2&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Python code that accomplishes the sieving is:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

limit = 10000
rootSquaredMinusN = root**2 - N
twoRoot = root &lt;&lt; 1
count1 = count = 0
smooth = []
numberOfSmoothDesired = 45
for x in range (root, root+limit) :
    if x &amp; 0xFF == 0 :
        '''
This code is added to provide information about sieve
during sieving.
'''
        L1 = sorted([ p for p in sieve ])
        range_ = L1[-1] - L1[0] + 1
        print ('For x =',x, 'Range of sieve =',range_, 'number of empty locations =', range_ - len(L1) )
    if x not in sieve :
        notin += 1
        continue
    primes = sieve[x]

    for prime in primes :
        v = x + prime
        if v in sieve : sieve[v] += [prime]
        else : sieve[v] = [prime]
    del (sieve[x])

    if len(primes) == 1 :
        count1 += 1 ; continue                 
    a = x - root
    y = rootSquaredMinusN + a*(twoRoot + a)
    if 1 :
        y1 = x**2 - N
        if y1 != y :
            print ('y1 != y :',y1,y)
    L1 = [ sum for sum in (0,) for prime in primes for sum in (sum+log[prime],) ]  
    sumOfLogs = L1[-1]
    log_y = logBase2(y)
    if sumOfLogs &gt;= 0.95*log_y :
        count += 1
        product = [ prod for prod in (1,) for prime in primes for prod in (prod*prime,) ][-1]
        if y == product :
            smooth += [[x,primes]]
            if len(smooth) &gt;= numberOfSmoothDesired : break
            
print ('Range of values of x =', x-root+1)
print ('Number of empty locations in sieve =', notin)
print ('Number of locations with only 1 prime =', count1)
print ('Number of locations tested =', x-root+1-notin-count1)
print ('Number of locations chosen for close examination =', count)
print ('Number of values of x retained after close examination =', len(smooth))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
For x = 71680 Range of sieve = 275 number of empty locations = 210
For x = 71936 Range of sieve = 353 number of empty locations = 288
For x = 72192 Range of sieve = 350 number of empty locations = 287
For x = 72448 Range of sieve = 377 number of empty locations = 312
For x = 72704 Range of sieve = 331 number of empty locations = 266
For x = 72960 Range of sieve = 349 number of empty locations = 286
For x = 73216 Range of sieve = 366 number of empty locations = 305
For x = 73472 Range of sieve = 378 number of empty locations = 314
For x = 73728 Range of sieve = 347 number of empty locations = 276
For x = 73984 Range of sieve = 356 number of empty locations = 287
For x = 74240 Range of sieve = 368 number of empty locations = 306
For x = 74496 Range of sieve = 345 number of empty locations = 280
For x = 74752 Range of sieve = 358 number of empty locations = 292
For x = 75008 Range of sieve = 358 number of empty locations = 293
For x = 75264 Range of sieve = 342 number of empty locations = 278
For x = 75520 Range of sieve = 336 number of empty locations = 272
Range of values of x = 3922
Number of empty locations in sieve = 585
Number of locations with only 1 prime = 1331
Number of locations tested = 2006
Number of locations chosen for close examination = 45
Number of values of x retained after close examination = 45
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Thousands of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; are tested. At any one time the range of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
in sieve is &lt;math&gt;&lt; 400&lt;/math&gt; and sieve is mostly empty.
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

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&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;6&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-221&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;7&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-208&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;8&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-193&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;9&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-176&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;10&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-157&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;11&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-136&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;12&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-113&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;13&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-88&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;14&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-61&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;15&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;16&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-1&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;17&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;18&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;67&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;19&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;104&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;20&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;143&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;21&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;184&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;22&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;227&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;23&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;272&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;24&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;319&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;25&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;368&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;26&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;419&lt;/code&gt;
|}

==Law of addition==
===Factors of integer N===

Several modern methods for determining the factors of a given integer attempt
to create two congruent squares modulo integer 
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

This means that the difference between the two squares is exactly divisible
by &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;: &lt;math&gt;N\mid (x^2 - y^2).&lt;/math&gt;

Integer &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; always contains the factors &lt;math&gt;N,1,&lt;/math&gt; called trivial factors.

If &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; contains two non-trivial factors
&lt;math&gt;p,q,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;\frac{(x+y)(x-y)}{p \cdot q}.&lt;/math&gt;

With a little luck &lt;math&gt;p\mid (x+y)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\mid (x-y)&lt;/math&gt; in which case:

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(x+y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(x-y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where

&quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt;&quot; is function &quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;&quot;
====A simple example:====

We will use quadratic congruences to calculate factors of &lt;math&gt;N = 4171&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;164 \ge x \ge 1.&lt;/math&gt;

=====Right hand side exact square=====
One congruence produced an exact square for y:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 70
| 4900
| 729
|}
:&lt;math&gt;4900 \equiv 729 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;70^2 \equiv 27^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(70-27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(70+27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(97, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


=====Right hand side negative=====
Table below contains a sample of values of 
&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that produce negative 
&lt;math&gt;y:&lt;/math&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 7
| 49
| -4122

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 9
| 81
| -4090

|-
| 10
| 100
| -4071

|-
| 11
| 121
| -4050 !!

|-
| 12
| 144
| -4027

|-
| 60
| 3600
| -571

|-
| 61
| 3721
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!

|-
| 62
| 3844
| -327

|-
| 63
| 3969
| -202

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**

|-
| 65
| 4225
| 54
|}

======Non-trivial result 1======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**
|}

:&lt;math&gt;64 \equiv -4107 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;4096 \equiv -75 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;64\cdot 4096 \equiv -4107\cdot (-75) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;262144 \equiv 308025 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;512^2 \equiv 555^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(555-512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(555+512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(1067, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

======Non-trivial result 2======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 11
| 121 
| -4050 !!

|-
| 61
| 3721 
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;121 \equiv -4050 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3721 \equiv -450 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;121\cdot 3721 \equiv -4050 \cdot (-450) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;450241 \equiv 1822500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;671^2 \equiv 1350^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(1350-671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(679, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(1350+671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(2021, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

=====With 3 congruences=====

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 56
| 3136
| -1035

|-
| 59
| 3481
| -690

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854
|}

:&lt;math&gt;3136 \equiv -1035 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3481 \equiv -690 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3136\cdot 3481 \cdot 21025 \equiv -1035 \cdot -690 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;229517646400 \equiv 12036284100 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;479080^2 \equiv 109710^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p=\text{igcd}(479080-109710,4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(479080+109710, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

======Trivial result======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 89
| 7921
| 3750 **!!

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854 &lt;math&gt;\ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;7921 \equiv 3750 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;7921\cdot 21025 \equiv 3750 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;166539025  \equiv 63202500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;12905^2 \equiv 7950^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(12905-7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(4955, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 1.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(12905+7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(20855, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 4171.&lt;/math&gt;

This congruence produced the trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

===Adding 2 congruences===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+C \equiv B+D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+C) - (B+D) = B + K_1\cdot N + D + K_2\cdot N  - B - D = N(K_1 + K_2)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


===Quadratic Congruences===
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
====Quadratic Residues====
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
=====Products=====
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
======of 2 residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of 2 non-residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of residue and non-residue======
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===Examples===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
=====For speed=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
======Many comparisons======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
======Divide by 2======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=====For clarity=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===tables===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;65&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4225&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;54&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;66&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4356&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;185&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;88&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7744&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3573&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;89&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7921&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3750&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;90&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;8100&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3929&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;144&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;20736&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16565&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;145&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21025&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16854&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;146&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21316&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;17145&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
      <sha1>nwczylbsq2z4mt2w0t6dz6x03e2qtk1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417979</id>
      <parentid>2417977</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T22:45:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* To improve speed */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="44155" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===Quadratic Sieve===

The quadratic sieve is a general purpose factoring method invented by Carl Pomerance in 1981.
Invention of quadratic sieve greatly advanced the science of factorization of integers, particularly those considered difficult, those large integers containing exactly two prime factors of approximately the same precision.

Running time of quadratic sieve is dependent on size of integer to be factored, and the quadratic sieve has accomplished some impressive records in the field of factorization of integers.

This page presents some simple examples of the factorization of small integers. Although using the quadratic sieve on small integers is like driving a thumb tack with a sledge hammer, the examples illustrate how the quadratic sieve is implemented.

====Introduction====
The quadratic sieve attempts to build quadratic congruences of form 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where 
&lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is number to be factored.


Many congruences are created:

&lt;math&gt;x_1^2 \equiv y_1 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_2^2 \equiv y_2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_3^2 \equiv y_3 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\dots\dots\dots&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_{10000}^2 \equiv y_{10000} \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;


Suitable congruences are combined to produce congruent squares:

&lt;math&gt;X^2 \equiv Y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where

&lt;math&gt;X^2  =  x_2^2  \cdot  x_3^2  \cdot  x_5^2  \cdots  x_{9999}^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;Y^2 = y_2 \cdot y_3 \cdot y_5 \cdots y_{9999}&lt;/math&gt;


Then &lt;math&gt;N\mid (X^2 - Y^2)&lt;/math&gt; and, with a little luck,

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_1 = \text{igcd}(X + Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_2 = \text{igcd}(X - Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt; is function
&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;
====Implementation====
This exercise calculates prime factors of 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5137851827.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
=====Build Factor base=====
Let the Factor Base contain 40 small primes, the first 40 for which &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue.
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[2, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 37, 41, 43, 59, 73, 103, 107, 113, 127, 131, 137, 149, 163, 179, 181, 
191, 197, 199, 211, 223, 233, 241, 251, 271, 281, 293, 307, 311, 317, 347, 367, 373, 379, 383]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Dictionary with logarithms of primes=====
Create a table or dictionary containing primes and logarithms of primes. Logarithms to base 2 are calculated.
The reason for choosing base &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; will become apparent later.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{log}_2(x) = \frac{\ln(x)}{\ln(2)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ 2\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;1.0\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 11\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.4594316186372973&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 13\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.700439718141092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 17\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.087462841250339\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 19\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.247927513443585\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 23\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.523561956057013\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 37\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.20945336562895\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 41\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.357552004618084\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 43\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.426264754702098\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 59\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.882643049361842\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 73\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.189824558880018\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;103\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.6865005271832185&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;107\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.741466986401147\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;113\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.820178962415188\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;127\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.9886846867721655&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;131\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.03342300153745\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;137\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.098032082960526\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;149\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.219168520462161\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;163\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.348728154231077\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.483815777264256\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;181\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.499845887083206\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;191\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.577428828035749\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;197\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.622051819456376\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;199\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.636624620543649\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;211\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.721099188707185\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;223\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.800899899920305\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;233\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.864186144654281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;241\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.912889336229962\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;251\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.971543553950772\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;271\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.08214904135387\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.134426320220927\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;293\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.194756854422248\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;307\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.262094845370179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;311\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.280770770130603\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;317\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.308339030139408\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.43879185257826\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;367\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.519636252843213\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;373\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.543031820255237\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;379\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.566054038171092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;383\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.581200581924957\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

=====Initialize sieve=====
In a regular sieve fine material falls through sieve and coarse material is retained.
In this sieve coarse material falls through sieve and fine material is retained.

The expression &quot;coarse material&quot; refers to integers containing a small number of large primes, the great majority of integers.

The expression &quot;fine material&quot; refers to integers containing a large number of small primes, primes that are members of this factor base, or &quot;smooth&quot; according to this factor base.

The base or root of operations is the smallest value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
for which &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is a positive number.

&lt;math&gt;root = x = 71679,\ y = 27214.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:

root = 71679

sieve = dict()

sieve[root] = [2]

for prime in factorBase[1:] :
    count = 0
    for x in range (root, root+2*(prime+2)) :
        y = x**2 - N
        if (y % prime) == 0 :
            if x in sieve : sieve[x] += [prime]
            else :  sieve[x] = [prime]
            count += 1
        if count &gt;= 2 : break
    if count != 2 : print ('Internal error 1.')

L1 = sorted([p for p in sieve])

print()
print ('Initialized sieve contains', len(sieve),
       'keys in range from', L1[0], 'through', L1[-1],
       'or', L1[-1]-L1[0]+1, 'possibilities.')

for key in L1[::-1] :
    print (key, '|', sieve[key])
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Initialized sieve contains 65 keys in range from 71679 through 71954 or 276 possibilities.

  x   | factor/s of y = x^2 - N
------|------------------------
71954 | [379]
71946 | [293]
71939 | [311]
71917 | [293]
71915 | [373]
71906 | [281]
71876 | [211, 307]
71864 | [317]
71852 | [191]
71850 | [241]
71849 | [223, 383]
71847 | [179]
71841 | [347]
71839 | [251]
71830 | [271]
71824 | [163]
71820 | [149]
71817 | [347]
71816 | [149]
71815 | [211]
71813 | [181]
71806 | [367]
71804 | [131]
71800 | [271, 307]
71786 | [241]
71780 | [191]
71779 | [163]
71777 | [113]
71776 | [383]
71773 | [199]
71772 | [131]
71771 | [233]
71763 | [223]
71760 | [107, 127]
71758 | [103]
71757 | [233]
71751 | [73]
71750 | [127]
71743 | [311]
71737 | [317]
71733 | [113, 137, 251]
71727 | [107]
71721 | [43, 103]
71720 | [181]
71717 | [59]
71716 | [41]
71715 | [37]
71713 | [197]
71712 | [59]
71711 | [179]
71706 | [137, 199]
71703 | [197]
71702 | [41]
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71680 | [13]
71679 | [2, 11]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Activate sieve=====
While information in table above is accurate, it is incomplete.
Processing of sieve attempts to find values for which information is complete.
======Processing locations in sequence======
The code examines location 71679. Product of factors 2,11 = 22, not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N.

Location 71679+2 or 71681 is initialized with [2] and location 71679+11 or 71690 includes [11]. Location 71679 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11] # Factor 11 appended.
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71681 | [2] # Location initialized.
71680 | [13]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


The code examines location 71680. Factor 13 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71680+13 or 71693 is initialized with [13]. Location 71680 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13] # Location initialized.
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71681 | [2]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


The code examines location 71681. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71681+2 or 71683 is initialized with [2]. Location 71681 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71683 | [2] # Location initialized.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Location 71682 does not exist in the sieve. 
The code examines location 71683. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71683+2 or 71685 receives [2]. Location 71683 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281, 2] # Factor 2 appended.
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Processing continues in this way until location 71690 is examined. Factors [17, 23, 373, 11] are complete 
factorization of y = x^2 - N. Values [ 71690 , [17, 23, 373, 11] ] are appended to array &quot;smooth.&quot;
======To improve speed======
There are very few values of y that are smooth. Therefore code is designed to discard unsuitable values of
x quickly, and to make other decisions quickly.

Decisions to discard unsuitable candidates are:

* if x does not exist in sieve.

* if there is only 1 prime for location x. Complete factorization of y requires at least 2 primes.

Code intended to reduce processing time:

&lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = (root + a)^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 - N + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = \text{rootSquaredMinusN} + \text{a(twoRoot + a)}&lt;/math&gt;

Multiplication in last statement above is of smaller numbers than calculation of &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N.&lt;/math&gt;
As size of &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; increases, last statement above becomes more efficient.

Divisions and multiplications are time consuming. Instead of multiplying primes or dividing y = x^2 - N
to determine smoothness, logarithms of primes are added and compared to log(y). Calculation of ln(y) or
log(y) to base 10 is time consuming.
Because y is type int, a good approximation of log(y) to base 2 can be calculated quickly.
As it happens, in this application &quot;close enough&quot; is good enough.

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(37)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;37 = '100101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'100101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(36) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(53)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;53 = '110101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'110101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

However, second most significant bit is set. Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5 + 1 = 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;log_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;6 &gt; x \ge 3&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;12 &gt; x \ge 6&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;24 &gt; x \ge 12&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;48 &gt; x \ge 24&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;96 &gt; x \ge 48&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;6&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;(3 &lt;&lt; (k+1)) &gt; x \ge (3 &lt;&lt; k)&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;k + 2&lt;/math&gt;
|}
======Sieving complete======
Python code that accomplishes the sieving is:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

limit = 10000
rootSquaredMinusN = root**2 - N
twoRoot = root &lt;&lt; 1
count1 = count = 0
smooth = []
numberOfSmoothDesired = 45
for x in range (root, root+limit) :
    if x &amp; 0xFF == 0 :
        '''
This code is added to provide information about sieve
during sieving.
'''
        L1 = sorted([ p for p in sieve ])
        range_ = L1[-1] - L1[0] + 1
        print ('For x =',x, 'Range of sieve =',range_, 'number of empty locations =', range_ - len(L1) )
    if x not in sieve :
        notin += 1
        continue
    primes = sieve[x]

    for prime in primes :
        v = x + prime
        if v in sieve : sieve[v] += [prime]
        else : sieve[v] = [prime]
    del (sieve[x])

    if len(primes) == 1 :
        count1 += 1 ; continue                 
    a = x - root
    y = rootSquaredMinusN + a*(twoRoot + a)
    if 1 :
        y1 = x**2 - N
        if y1 != y :
            print ('y1 != y :',y1,y)
    L1 = [ sum for sum in (0,) for prime in primes for sum in (sum+log[prime],) ]  
    sumOfLogs = L1[-1]
    log_y = logBase2(y)
    if sumOfLogs &gt;= 0.95*log_y :
        count += 1
        product = [ prod for prod in (1,) for prime in primes for prod in (prod*prime,) ][-1]
        if y == product :
            smooth += [[x,primes]]
            if len(smooth) &gt;= numberOfSmoothDesired : break
            
print ('Range of values of x =', x-root+1)
print ('Number of empty locations in sieve =', notin)
print ('Number of locations with only 1 prime =', count1)
print ('Number of locations tested =', x-root+1-notin-count1)
print ('Number of locations chosen for close examination =', count)
print ('Number of values of x retained after close examination =', len(smooth))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Range of sieve}&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Number of empty locations}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;71680\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;275\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;210&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;71936\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;353\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;288&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72192\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;350\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;287&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72448\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;377\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;312&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72704\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;331\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;266&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72960\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;349\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;286&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73216\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;366\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;305&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73472\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;378\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;314&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73728\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;276&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73984\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;356\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;287&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74240\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;368\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;306&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74496\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;345\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;280&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74752\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;358\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;292&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75008\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;358\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;293&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75264\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;342\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;278&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75520\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;336\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;272&lt;/math&gt;
|}
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Range of values of x = 3922
Number of empty locations in sieve = 585
Number of locations with only 1 prime = 1331
Number of locations tested = 2006
Number of locations chosen for close examination = 45
Number of values of x retained after close examination = 45
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Thousands of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; are tested. At any one time the range of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
in sieve is &lt;math&gt;&lt; 400&lt;/math&gt; and sieve is mostly empty.
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;&quot;&gt;
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====Welcomee====
{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFF800;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

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=====Welcomen=====
{{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFFFFF;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;6&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-221&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;7&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-208&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;8&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-193&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;9&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-176&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;10&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-157&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;11&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-136&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;12&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-113&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;13&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-88&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;14&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-61&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;15&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;16&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-1&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;17&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;18&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;67&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;19&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;104&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;20&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;143&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;21&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;184&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;22&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;227&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;23&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;272&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;24&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;319&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;25&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;368&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;26&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;419&lt;/code&gt;
|}

==Law of addition==
===Factors of integer N===

Several modern methods for determining the factors of a given integer attempt
to create two congruent squares modulo integer 
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

This means that the difference between the two squares is exactly divisible
by &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;: &lt;math&gt;N\mid (x^2 - y^2).&lt;/math&gt;

Integer &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; always contains the factors &lt;math&gt;N,1,&lt;/math&gt; called trivial factors.

If &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; contains two non-trivial factors
&lt;math&gt;p,q,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;\frac{(x+y)(x-y)}{p \cdot q}.&lt;/math&gt;

With a little luck &lt;math&gt;p\mid (x+y)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\mid (x-y)&lt;/math&gt; in which case:

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(x+y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(x-y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where

&quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt;&quot; is function &quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;&quot;
====A simple example:====

We will use quadratic congruences to calculate factors of &lt;math&gt;N = 4171&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;164 \ge x \ge 1.&lt;/math&gt;

=====Right hand side exact square=====
One congruence produced an exact square for y:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 70
| 4900
| 729
|}
:&lt;math&gt;4900 \equiv 729 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;70^2 \equiv 27^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(70-27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(70+27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(97, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


=====Right hand side negative=====
Table below contains a sample of values of 
&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that produce negative 
&lt;math&gt;y:&lt;/math&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 7
| 49
| -4122

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 9
| 81
| -4090

|-
| 10
| 100
| -4071

|-
| 11
| 121
| -4050 !!

|-
| 12
| 144
| -4027

|-
| 60
| 3600
| -571

|-
| 61
| 3721
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!

|-
| 62
| 3844
| -327

|-
| 63
| 3969
| -202

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**

|-
| 65
| 4225
| 54
|}

======Non-trivial result 1======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**
|}

:&lt;math&gt;64 \equiv -4107 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;4096 \equiv -75 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;64\cdot 4096 \equiv -4107\cdot (-75) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;262144 \equiv 308025 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;512^2 \equiv 555^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(555-512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(555+512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(1067, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

======Non-trivial result 2======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 11
| 121 
| -4050 !!

|-
| 61
| 3721 
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;121 \equiv -4050 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3721 \equiv -450 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;121\cdot 3721 \equiv -4050 \cdot (-450) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;450241 \equiv 1822500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;671^2 \equiv 1350^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(1350-671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(679, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(1350+671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(2021, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

=====With 3 congruences=====

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 56
| 3136
| -1035

|-
| 59
| 3481
| -690

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854
|}

:&lt;math&gt;3136 \equiv -1035 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3481 \equiv -690 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3136\cdot 3481 \cdot 21025 \equiv -1035 \cdot -690 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;229517646400 \equiv 12036284100 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;479080^2 \equiv 109710^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p=\text{igcd}(479080-109710,4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(479080+109710, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

======Trivial result======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 89
| 7921
| 3750 **!!

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854 &lt;math&gt;\ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;7921 \equiv 3750 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;7921\cdot 21025 \equiv 3750 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;166539025  \equiv 63202500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;12905^2 \equiv 7950^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(12905-7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(4955, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 1.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(12905+7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(20855, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 4171.&lt;/math&gt;

This congruence produced the trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

===Adding 2 congruences===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+C \equiv B+D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+C) - (B+D) = B + K_1\cdot N + D + K_2\cdot N  - B - D = N(K_1 + K_2)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


===Quadratic Congruences===
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
====Quadratic Residues====
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
=====Products=====
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
======of 2 residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of 2 non-residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of residue and non-residue======
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===Examples===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
=====For speed=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
======Many comparisons======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
======Divide by 2======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

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To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=====For clarity=====
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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===tables===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;65&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4225&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;54&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;66&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4356&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;185&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;88&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7744&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3573&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;89&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7921&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3750&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;90&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;8100&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3929&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;144&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;20736&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16565&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;145&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21025&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16854&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;146&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21316&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;17145&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

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{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

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[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
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&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


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[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
      <sha1>5gjib1lxifr65h5zottz08slddrts79</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417980</id>
      <parentid>2417979</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T22:57:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Sieving complete */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="44155" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===Quadratic Sieve===

The quadratic sieve is a general purpose factoring method invented by Carl Pomerance in 1981.
Invention of quadratic sieve greatly advanced the science of factorization of integers, particularly those considered difficult, those large integers containing exactly two prime factors of approximately the same precision.

Running time of quadratic sieve is dependent on size of integer to be factored, and the quadratic sieve has accomplished some impressive records in the field of factorization of integers.

This page presents some simple examples of the factorization of small integers. Although using the quadratic sieve on small integers is like driving a thumb tack with a sledge hammer, the examples illustrate how the quadratic sieve is implemented.

====Introduction====
The quadratic sieve attempts to build quadratic congruences of form 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where 
&lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is number to be factored.


Many congruences are created:

&lt;math&gt;x_1^2 \equiv y_1 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_2^2 \equiv y_2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_3^2 \equiv y_3 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\dots\dots\dots&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_{10000}^2 \equiv y_{10000} \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;


Suitable congruences are combined to produce congruent squares:

&lt;math&gt;X^2 \equiv Y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where

&lt;math&gt;X^2  =  x_2^2  \cdot  x_3^2  \cdot  x_5^2  \cdots  x_{9999}^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;Y^2 = y_2 \cdot y_3 \cdot y_5 \cdots y_{9999}&lt;/math&gt;


Then &lt;math&gt;N\mid (X^2 - Y^2)&lt;/math&gt; and, with a little luck,

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_1 = \text{igcd}(X + Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_2 = \text{igcd}(X - Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt; is function
&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;
====Implementation====
This exercise calculates prime factors of 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5137851827.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
=====Build Factor base=====
Let the Factor Base contain 40 small primes, the first 40 for which &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue.
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[2, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 37, 41, 43, 59, 73, 103, 107, 113, 127, 131, 137, 149, 163, 179, 181, 
191, 197, 199, 211, 223, 233, 241, 251, 271, 281, 293, 307, 311, 317, 347, 367, 373, 379, 383]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Dictionary with logarithms of primes=====
Create a table or dictionary containing primes and logarithms of primes. Logarithms to base 2 are calculated.
The reason for choosing base &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; will become apparent later.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{log}_2(x) = \frac{\ln(x)}{\ln(2)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ 2\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;1.0\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 11\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.4594316186372973&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 13\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.700439718141092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 17\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.087462841250339\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 19\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.247927513443585\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 23\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.523561956057013\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 37\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.20945336562895\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 41\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.357552004618084\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 43\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.426264754702098\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 59\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.882643049361842\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 73\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.189824558880018\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;103\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.6865005271832185&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;107\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.741466986401147\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;113\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.820178962415188\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;127\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.9886846867721655&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;131\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.03342300153745\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;137\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.098032082960526\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;149\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.219168520462161\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;163\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.348728154231077\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.483815777264256\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;181\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.499845887083206\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;191\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.577428828035749\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;197\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.622051819456376\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;199\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.636624620543649\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;211\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.721099188707185\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;223\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.800899899920305\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;233\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.864186144654281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;241\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.912889336229962\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;251\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.971543553950772\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;271\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.08214904135387\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.134426320220927\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;293\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.194756854422248\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;307\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.262094845370179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;311\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.280770770130603\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;317\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.308339030139408\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.43879185257826\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;367\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.519636252843213\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;373\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.543031820255237\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;379\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.566054038171092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;383\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.581200581924957\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

=====Initialize sieve=====
In a regular sieve fine material falls through sieve and coarse material is retained.
In this sieve coarse material falls through sieve and fine material is retained.

The expression &quot;coarse material&quot; refers to integers containing a small number of large primes, the great majority of integers.

The expression &quot;fine material&quot; refers to integers containing a large number of small primes, primes that are members of this factor base, or &quot;smooth&quot; according to this factor base.

The base or root of operations is the smallest value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
for which &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is a positive number.

&lt;math&gt;root = x = 71679,\ y = 27214.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:

root = 71679

sieve = dict()

sieve[root] = [2]

for prime in factorBase[1:] :
    count = 0
    for x in range (root, root+2*(prime+2)) :
        y = x**2 - N
        if (y % prime) == 0 :
            if x in sieve : sieve[x] += [prime]
            else :  sieve[x] = [prime]
            count += 1
        if count &gt;= 2 : break
    if count != 2 : print ('Internal error 1.')

L1 = sorted([p for p in sieve])

print()
print ('Initialized sieve contains', len(sieve),
       'keys in range from', L1[0], 'through', L1[-1],
       'or', L1[-1]-L1[0]+1, 'possibilities.')

for key in L1[::-1] :
    print (key, '|', sieve[key])
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Initialized sieve contains 65 keys in range from 71679 through 71954 or 276 possibilities.

  x   | factor/s of y = x^2 - N
------|------------------------
71954 | [379]
71946 | [293]
71939 | [311]
71917 | [293]
71915 | [373]
71906 | [281]
71876 | [211, 307]
71864 | [317]
71852 | [191]
71850 | [241]
71849 | [223, 383]
71847 | [179]
71841 | [347]
71839 | [251]
71830 | [271]
71824 | [163]
71820 | [149]
71817 | [347]
71816 | [149]
71815 | [211]
71813 | [181]
71806 | [367]
71804 | [131]
71800 | [271, 307]
71786 | [241]
71780 | [191]
71779 | [163]
71777 | [113]
71776 | [383]
71773 | [199]
71772 | [131]
71771 | [233]
71763 | [223]
71760 | [107, 127]
71758 | [103]
71757 | [233]
71751 | [73]
71750 | [127]
71743 | [311]
71737 | [317]
71733 | [113, 137, 251]
71727 | [107]
71721 | [43, 103]
71720 | [181]
71717 | [59]
71716 | [41]
71715 | [37]
71713 | [197]
71712 | [59]
71711 | [179]
71706 | [137, 199]
71703 | [197]
71702 | [41]
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71680 | [13]
71679 | [2, 11]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Activate sieve=====
While information in table above is accurate, it is incomplete.
Processing of sieve attempts to find values for which information is complete.
======Processing locations in sequence======
The code examines location 71679. Product of factors 2,11 = 22, not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N.

Location 71679+2 or 71681 is initialized with [2] and location 71679+11 or 71690 includes [11]. Location 71679 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11] # Factor 11 appended.
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71681 | [2] # Location initialized.
71680 | [13]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


The code examines location 71680. Factor 13 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71680+13 or 71693 is initialized with [13]. Location 71680 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13] # Location initialized.
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71681 | [2]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


The code examines location 71681. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71681+2 or 71683 is initialized with [2]. Location 71681 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71683 | [2] # Location initialized.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Location 71682 does not exist in the sieve. 
The code examines location 71683. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71683+2 or 71685 receives [2]. Location 71683 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281, 2] # Factor 2 appended.
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Processing continues in this way until location 71690 is examined. Factors [17, 23, 373, 11] are complete 
factorization of y = x^2 - N. Values [ 71690 , [17, 23, 373, 11] ] are appended to array &quot;smooth.&quot;
======To improve speed======
There are very few values of y that are smooth. Therefore code is designed to discard unsuitable values of
x quickly, and to make other decisions quickly.

Decisions to discard unsuitable candidates are:

* if x does not exist in sieve.

* if there is only 1 prime for location x. Complete factorization of y requires at least 2 primes.

Code intended to reduce processing time:

&lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = (root + a)^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 - N + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = \text{rootSquaredMinusN} + \text{a(twoRoot + a)}&lt;/math&gt;

Multiplication in last statement above is of smaller numbers than calculation of &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N.&lt;/math&gt;
As size of &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; increases, last statement above becomes more efficient.

Divisions and multiplications are time consuming. Instead of multiplying primes or dividing y = x^2 - N
to determine smoothness, logarithms of primes are added and compared to log(y). Calculation of ln(y) or
log(y) to base 10 is time consuming.
Because y is type int, a good approximation of log(y) to base 2 can be calculated quickly.
As it happens, in this application &quot;close enough&quot; is good enough.

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(37)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;37 = '100101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'100101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(36) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(53)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;53 = '110101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'110101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

However, second most significant bit is set. Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5 + 1 = 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;log_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;6 &gt; x \ge 3&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;12 &gt; x \ge 6&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;24 &gt; x \ge 12&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;48 &gt; x \ge 24&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;96 &gt; x \ge 48&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;6&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;(3 &lt;&lt; (k+1)) &gt; x \ge (3 &lt;&lt; k)&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;k + 2&lt;/math&gt;
|}
======Sieving complete======
Python code that accomplishes the sieving is:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

limit = 10000
rootSquaredMinusN = root**2 - N
twoRoot = root &lt;&lt; 1
count1 = count = 0
smooth = []
numberOfSmoothDesired = 45
for x in range (root, root+limit) :
    if x &amp; 0xFF == 0 :
        '''
This code is added to provide information about sieve
during sieving.
'''
        L1 = sorted([ p for p in sieve ])
        range_ = L1[-1] - L1[0] + 1
        print ('For x =',x, 'Range of sieve =',range_, 'number of empty locations =', range_ - len(L1) )
    if x not in sieve :
        notin += 1
        continue
    primes = sieve[x]

    for prime in primes :
        v = x + prime
        if v in sieve : sieve[v] += [prime]
        else : sieve[v] = [prime]
    del (sieve[x])

    if len(primes) == 1 :
        count1 += 1 ; continue                 
    a = x - root
    y = rootSquaredMinusN + a*(twoRoot + a)
    if 1 :
        y1 = x**2 - N
        if y1 != y :
            print ('y1 != y :',y1,y)
    L1 = [ sum for sum in (0,) for prime in primes for sum in (sum+log[prime],) ]  
    sumOfLogs = L1[-1]
    log_y = logBase2(y)
    if sumOfLogs &gt;= 0.95*log_y :
        count += 1
        product = [ prod for prod in (1,) for prime in primes for prod in (prod*prime,) ][-1]
        if y == product :
            smooth += [[x,primes]]
            if len(smooth) &gt;= numberOfSmoothDesired : break
            
print ('Range of values of x =', x-root+1)
print ('Number of empty locations in sieve =', notin)
print ('Number of locations with only 1 prime =', count1)
print ('Number of locations tested =', x-root+1-notin-count1)
print ('Number of locations chosen for close examination =', count)
print ('Number of values of x retained after close examination =', len(smooth))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Range of sieve}&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Number of empty locations}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;71680\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;275\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;210&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;71936\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;353\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;288&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72192\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;350\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;287&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72448\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;377\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;312&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72704\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;331\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;266&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72960\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;349\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;286&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73216\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;366\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;305&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73472\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;378\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;314&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73728\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;276&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73984\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;356\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;287&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74240\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;368\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;306&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74496\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;345\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;280&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74752\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;358\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;292&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75008\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;358\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;293&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75264\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;342\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;278&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75520\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;336\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;272&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Thousands of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; are tested. At any one time the range of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
in sieve is &lt;math&gt;&lt; 400&lt;/math&gt; and sieve is mostly empty.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Range of values of x = 3922
Number of empty locations in sieve = 585
Number of locations with only 1 prime = 1331
Number of locations tested = 2006
Number of locations chosen for close examination = 45
Number of values of x retained after close examination = 45
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;&quot;&gt;
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&lt;/div&gt;
====Welcomee====
{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFF800;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;

=====Welcomen=====
{{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFFFFF;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;6&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-221&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;7&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-208&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;8&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-193&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;9&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-176&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;10&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-157&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;11&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-136&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;12&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-113&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;13&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-88&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;14&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-61&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;15&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;16&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-1&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;17&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;18&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;67&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;19&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;104&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;20&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;143&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;21&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;184&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;22&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;227&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;23&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;272&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;24&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;319&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;25&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;368&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;26&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;419&lt;/code&gt;
|}

==Law of addition==
===Factors of integer N===

Several modern methods for determining the factors of a given integer attempt
to create two congruent squares modulo integer 
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

This means that the difference between the two squares is exactly divisible
by &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;: &lt;math&gt;N\mid (x^2 - y^2).&lt;/math&gt;

Integer &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; always contains the factors &lt;math&gt;N,1,&lt;/math&gt; called trivial factors.

If &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; contains two non-trivial factors
&lt;math&gt;p,q,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;\frac{(x+y)(x-y)}{p \cdot q}.&lt;/math&gt;

With a little luck &lt;math&gt;p\mid (x+y)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\mid (x-y)&lt;/math&gt; in which case:

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(x+y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(x-y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where

&quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt;&quot; is function &quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;&quot;
====A simple example:====

We will use quadratic congruences to calculate factors of &lt;math&gt;N = 4171&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;164 \ge x \ge 1.&lt;/math&gt;

=====Right hand side exact square=====
One congruence produced an exact square for y:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 70
| 4900
| 729
|}
:&lt;math&gt;4900 \equiv 729 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;70^2 \equiv 27^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(70-27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(70+27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(97, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


=====Right hand side negative=====
Table below contains a sample of values of 
&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that produce negative 
&lt;math&gt;y:&lt;/math&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 7
| 49
| -4122

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 9
| 81
| -4090

|-
| 10
| 100
| -4071

|-
| 11
| 121
| -4050 !!

|-
| 12
| 144
| -4027

|-
| 60
| 3600
| -571

|-
| 61
| 3721
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!

|-
| 62
| 3844
| -327

|-
| 63
| 3969
| -202

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**

|-
| 65
| 4225
| 54
|}

======Non-trivial result 1======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**
|}

:&lt;math&gt;64 \equiv -4107 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;4096 \equiv -75 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;64\cdot 4096 \equiv -4107\cdot (-75) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;262144 \equiv 308025 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;512^2 \equiv 555^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(555-512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(555+512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(1067, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

======Non-trivial result 2======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 11
| 121 
| -4050 !!

|-
| 61
| 3721 
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;121 \equiv -4050 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3721 \equiv -450 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;121\cdot 3721 \equiv -4050 \cdot (-450) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;450241 \equiv 1822500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;671^2 \equiv 1350^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(1350-671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(679, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(1350+671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(2021, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

=====With 3 congruences=====

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 56
| 3136
| -1035

|-
| 59
| 3481
| -690

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854
|}

:&lt;math&gt;3136 \equiv -1035 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3481 \equiv -690 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3136\cdot 3481 \cdot 21025 \equiv -1035 \cdot -690 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;229517646400 \equiv 12036284100 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;479080^2 \equiv 109710^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p=\text{igcd}(479080-109710,4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(479080+109710, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

======Trivial result======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 89
| 7921
| 3750 **!!

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854 &lt;math&gt;\ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;7921 \equiv 3750 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;7921\cdot 21025 \equiv 3750 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;166539025  \equiv 63202500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;12905^2 \equiv 7950^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(12905-7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(4955, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 1.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(12905+7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(20855, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 4171.&lt;/math&gt;

This congruence produced the trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

===Adding 2 congruences===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+C \equiv B+D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+C) - (B+D) = B + K_1\cdot N + D + K_2\cdot N  - B - D = N(K_1 + K_2)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


===Quadratic Congruences===
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
====Quadratic Residues====
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
=====Products=====
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
======of 2 residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of 2 non-residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of residue and non-residue======
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

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Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===Examples===
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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
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=====For speed=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
======Many comparisons======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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======Divide by 2======
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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=====For clarity=====
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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===tables===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;65&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4225&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;54&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;66&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4356&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;185&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;88&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7744&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3573&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;89&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7921&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3750&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;90&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;8100&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3929&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;144&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;20736&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16565&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;145&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21025&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16854&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;146&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21316&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;17145&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

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{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

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[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
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&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


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[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
      <sha1>c1vzwlbvxbna7fmdu9ens4xn7l4p9c6</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417982</id>
      <parentid>2417980</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T23:02:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Sieving complete */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="44163" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===Quadratic Sieve===

The quadratic sieve is a general purpose factoring method invented by Carl Pomerance in 1981.
Invention of quadratic sieve greatly advanced the science of factorization of integers, particularly those considered difficult, those large integers containing exactly two prime factors of approximately the same precision.

Running time of quadratic sieve is dependent on size of integer to be factored, and the quadratic sieve has accomplished some impressive records in the field of factorization of integers.

This page presents some simple examples of the factorization of small integers. Although using the quadratic sieve on small integers is like driving a thumb tack with a sledge hammer, the examples illustrate how the quadratic sieve is implemented.

====Introduction====
The quadratic sieve attempts to build quadratic congruences of form 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where 
&lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is number to be factored.


Many congruences are created:

&lt;math&gt;x_1^2 \equiv y_1 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_2^2 \equiv y_2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_3^2 \equiv y_3 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\dots\dots\dots&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_{10000}^2 \equiv y_{10000} \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;


Suitable congruences are combined to produce congruent squares:

&lt;math&gt;X^2 \equiv Y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where

&lt;math&gt;X^2  =  x_2^2  \cdot  x_3^2  \cdot  x_5^2  \cdots  x_{9999}^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;Y^2 = y_2 \cdot y_3 \cdot y_5 \cdots y_{9999}&lt;/math&gt;


Then &lt;math&gt;N\mid (X^2 - Y^2)&lt;/math&gt; and, with a little luck,

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_1 = \text{igcd}(X + Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_2 = \text{igcd}(X - Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt; is function
&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;
====Implementation====
This exercise calculates prime factors of 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5137851827.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
=====Build Factor base=====
Let the Factor Base contain 40 small primes, the first 40 for which &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue.
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[2, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 37, 41, 43, 59, 73, 103, 107, 113, 127, 131, 137, 149, 163, 179, 181, 
191, 197, 199, 211, 223, 233, 241, 251, 271, 281, 293, 307, 311, 317, 347, 367, 373, 379, 383]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Dictionary with logarithms of primes=====
Create a table or dictionary containing primes and logarithms of primes. Logarithms to base 2 are calculated.
The reason for choosing base &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; will become apparent later.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{log}_2(x) = \frac{\ln(x)}{\ln(2)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ 2\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;1.0\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 11\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.4594316186372973&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 13\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.700439718141092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 17\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.087462841250339\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 19\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.247927513443585\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 23\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.523561956057013\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 37\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.20945336562895\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 41\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.357552004618084\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 43\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.426264754702098\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 59\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.882643049361842\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 73\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.189824558880018\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;103\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.6865005271832185&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;107\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.741466986401147\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;113\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.820178962415188\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;127\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.9886846867721655&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;131\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.03342300153745\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;137\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.098032082960526\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;149\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.219168520462161\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;163\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.348728154231077\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.483815777264256\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;181\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.499845887083206\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;191\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.577428828035749\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;197\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.622051819456376\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;199\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.636624620543649\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;211\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.721099188707185\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;223\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.800899899920305\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;233\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.864186144654281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;241\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.912889336229962\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;251\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.971543553950772\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;271\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.08214904135387\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.134426320220927\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;293\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.194756854422248\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;307\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.262094845370179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;311\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.280770770130603\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;317\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.308339030139408\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.43879185257826\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;367\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.519636252843213\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;373\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.543031820255237\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;379\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.566054038171092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;383\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.581200581924957\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

=====Initialize sieve=====
In a regular sieve fine material falls through sieve and coarse material is retained.
In this sieve coarse material falls through sieve and fine material is retained.

The expression &quot;coarse material&quot; refers to integers containing a small number of large primes, the great majority of integers.

The expression &quot;fine material&quot; refers to integers containing a large number of small primes, primes that are members of this factor base, or &quot;smooth&quot; according to this factor base.

The base or root of operations is the smallest value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
for which &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is a positive number.

&lt;math&gt;root = x = 71679,\ y = 27214.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:

root = 71679

sieve = dict()

sieve[root] = [2]

for prime in factorBase[1:] :
    count = 0
    for x in range (root, root+2*(prime+2)) :
        y = x**2 - N
        if (y % prime) == 0 :
            if x in sieve : sieve[x] += [prime]
            else :  sieve[x] = [prime]
            count += 1
        if count &gt;= 2 : break
    if count != 2 : print ('Internal error 1.')

L1 = sorted([p for p in sieve])

print()
print ('Initialized sieve contains', len(sieve),
       'keys in range from', L1[0], 'through', L1[-1],
       'or', L1[-1]-L1[0]+1, 'possibilities.')

for key in L1[::-1] :
    print (key, '|', sieve[key])
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Initialized sieve contains 65 keys in range from 71679 through 71954 or 276 possibilities.

  x   | factor/s of y = x^2 - N
------|------------------------
71954 | [379]
71946 | [293]
71939 | [311]
71917 | [293]
71915 | [373]
71906 | [281]
71876 | [211, 307]
71864 | [317]
71852 | [191]
71850 | [241]
71849 | [223, 383]
71847 | [179]
71841 | [347]
71839 | [251]
71830 | [271]
71824 | [163]
71820 | [149]
71817 | [347]
71816 | [149]
71815 | [211]
71813 | [181]
71806 | [367]
71804 | [131]
71800 | [271, 307]
71786 | [241]
71780 | [191]
71779 | [163]
71777 | [113]
71776 | [383]
71773 | [199]
71772 | [131]
71771 | [233]
71763 | [223]
71760 | [107, 127]
71758 | [103]
71757 | [233]
71751 | [73]
71750 | [127]
71743 | [311]
71737 | [317]
71733 | [113, 137, 251]
71727 | [107]
71721 | [43, 103]
71720 | [181]
71717 | [59]
71716 | [41]
71715 | [37]
71713 | [197]
71712 | [59]
71711 | [179]
71706 | [137, 199]
71703 | [197]
71702 | [41]
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71680 | [13]
71679 | [2, 11]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Activate sieve=====
While information in table above is accurate, it is incomplete.
Processing of sieve attempts to find values for which information is complete.
======Processing locations in sequence======
The code examines location 71679. Product of factors 2,11 = 22, not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N.

Location 71679+2 or 71681 is initialized with [2] and location 71679+11 or 71690 includes [11]. Location 71679 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11] # Factor 11 appended.
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71681 | [2] # Location initialized.
71680 | [13]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


The code examines location 71680. Factor 13 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71680+13 or 71693 is initialized with [13]. Location 71680 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13] # Location initialized.
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71681 | [2]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


The code examines location 71681. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71681+2 or 71683 is initialized with [2]. Location 71681 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71683 | [2] # Location initialized.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Location 71682 does not exist in the sieve. 
The code examines location 71683. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71683+2 or 71685 receives [2]. Location 71683 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281, 2] # Factor 2 appended.
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Processing continues in this way until location 71690 is examined. Factors [17, 23, 373, 11] are complete 
factorization of y = x^2 - N. Values [ 71690 , [17, 23, 373, 11] ] are appended to array &quot;smooth.&quot;
======To improve speed======
There are very few values of y that are smooth. Therefore code is designed to discard unsuitable values of
x quickly, and to make other decisions quickly.

Decisions to discard unsuitable candidates are:

* if x does not exist in sieve.

* if there is only 1 prime for location x. Complete factorization of y requires at least 2 primes.

Code intended to reduce processing time:

&lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = (root + a)^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 - N + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = \text{rootSquaredMinusN} + \text{a(twoRoot + a)}&lt;/math&gt;

Multiplication in last statement above is of smaller numbers than calculation of &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N.&lt;/math&gt;
As size of &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; increases, last statement above becomes more efficient.

Divisions and multiplications are time consuming. Instead of multiplying primes or dividing y = x^2 - N
to determine smoothness, logarithms of primes are added and compared to log(y). Calculation of ln(y) or
log(y) to base 10 is time consuming.
Because y is type int, a good approximation of log(y) to base 2 can be calculated quickly.
As it happens, in this application &quot;close enough&quot; is good enough.

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(37)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;37 = '100101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'100101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(36) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(53)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;53 = '110101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'110101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

However, second most significant bit is set. Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5 + 1 = 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;log_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;6 &gt; x \ge 3&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;12 &gt; x \ge 6&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;24 &gt; x \ge 12&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;48 &gt; x \ge 24&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;96 &gt; x \ge 48&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;6&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;(3 &lt;&lt; (k+1)) &gt; x \ge (3 &lt;&lt; k)&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;k + 2&lt;/math&gt;
|}
======Sieving complete======
Python code that accomplishes the sieving is:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

limit = 10000
rootSquaredMinusN = root**2 - N
twoRoot = root &lt;&lt; 1
notin = count1 = count = 0
smooth = []
numberOfSmoothDesired = 45
for x in range (root, root+limit) :
    if x &amp; 0xFF == 0 :
        '''
This code is added to provide information about sieve
during sieving.
'''
        L1 = sorted([ p for p in sieve ])
        range_ = L1[-1] - L1[0] + 1
        print ('For x =',x, 'Range of sieve =',range_, 'number of empty locations =', range_ - len(L1) )
    if x not in sieve :
        notin += 1
        continue
    primes = sieve[x]

    for prime in primes :
        v = x + prime
        if v in sieve : sieve[v] += [prime]
        else : sieve[v] = [prime]
    del (sieve[x])

    if len(primes) == 1 :
        count1 += 1 ; continue                 
    a = x - root
    y = rootSquaredMinusN + a*(twoRoot + a)
    if 1 :
        y1 = x**2 - N
        if y1 != y :
            print ('y1 != y :',y1,y)
    L1 = [ sum for sum in (0,) for prime in primes for sum in (sum+log[prime],) ]  
    sumOfLogs = L1[-1]
    log_y = logBase2(y)
    if sumOfLogs &gt;= 0.95*log_y :
        count += 1
        product = [ prod for prod in (1,) for prime in primes for prod in (prod*prime,) ][-1]
        if y == product :
            smooth += [[x,primes]]
            if len(smooth) &gt;= numberOfSmoothDesired : break
            
print ('Range of values of x =', x-root+1)
print ('Number of empty locations in sieve =', notin)
print ('Number of locations with only 1 prime =', count1)
print ('Number of locations tested =', x-root+1-notin-count1)
print ('Number of locations chosen for close examination =', count)
print ('Number of values of x retained after close examination =', len(smooth))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Range of sieve}&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Number of empty locations}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;71680\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;275\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;210&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;71936\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;353\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;288&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72192\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;350\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;287&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72448\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;377\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;312&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72704\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;331\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;266&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72960\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;349\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;286&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73216\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;366\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;305&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73472\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;378\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;314&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73728\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;276&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73984\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;356\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;287&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74240\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;368\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;306&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74496\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;345\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;280&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74752\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;358\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;292&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75008\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;358\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;293&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75264\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;342\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;278&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75520\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;336\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;272&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Thousands of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; are tested. At any one time the range of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
in sieve is &lt;math&gt;&lt; 400&lt;/math&gt; and sieve is mostly empty.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Range of values of x = 3922
Number of empty locations in sieve = 585
Number of locations with only 1 prime = 1331
Number of locations tested = 2006
Number of locations chosen for close examination = 45
Number of values of x retained after close examination = 45
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;&quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
====Welcomee====
{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFF800;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;

=====Welcomen=====
{{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFFFFF;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;6&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-221&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;7&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-208&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;8&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-193&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;9&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-176&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;10&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-157&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;11&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-136&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;12&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-113&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;13&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-88&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;14&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-61&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;15&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;16&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-1&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;17&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;18&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;67&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;19&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;104&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;20&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;143&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;21&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;184&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;22&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;227&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;23&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;272&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;24&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;319&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;25&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;368&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;26&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;419&lt;/code&gt;
|}

==Law of addition==
===Factors of integer N===

Several modern methods for determining the factors of a given integer attempt
to create two congruent squares modulo integer 
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

This means that the difference between the two squares is exactly divisible
by &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;: &lt;math&gt;N\mid (x^2 - y^2).&lt;/math&gt;

Integer &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; always contains the factors &lt;math&gt;N,1,&lt;/math&gt; called trivial factors.

If &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; contains two non-trivial factors
&lt;math&gt;p,q,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;\frac{(x+y)(x-y)}{p \cdot q}.&lt;/math&gt;

With a little luck &lt;math&gt;p\mid (x+y)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\mid (x-y)&lt;/math&gt; in which case:

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(x+y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(x-y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where

&quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt;&quot; is function &quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;&quot;
====A simple example:====

We will use quadratic congruences to calculate factors of &lt;math&gt;N = 4171&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;164 \ge x \ge 1.&lt;/math&gt;

=====Right hand side exact square=====
One congruence produced an exact square for y:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 70
| 4900
| 729
|}
:&lt;math&gt;4900 \equiv 729 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;70^2 \equiv 27^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(70-27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(70+27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(97, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


=====Right hand side negative=====
Table below contains a sample of values of 
&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that produce negative 
&lt;math&gt;y:&lt;/math&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 7
| 49
| -4122

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 9
| 81
| -4090

|-
| 10
| 100
| -4071

|-
| 11
| 121
| -4050 !!

|-
| 12
| 144
| -4027

|-
| 60
| 3600
| -571

|-
| 61
| 3721
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!

|-
| 62
| 3844
| -327

|-
| 63
| 3969
| -202

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**

|-
| 65
| 4225
| 54
|}

======Non-trivial result 1======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**
|}

:&lt;math&gt;64 \equiv -4107 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;4096 \equiv -75 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;64\cdot 4096 \equiv -4107\cdot (-75) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;262144 \equiv 308025 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;512^2 \equiv 555^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(555-512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(555+512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(1067, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

======Non-trivial result 2======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 11
| 121 
| -4050 !!

|-
| 61
| 3721 
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;121 \equiv -4050 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3721 \equiv -450 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;121\cdot 3721 \equiv -4050 \cdot (-450) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;450241 \equiv 1822500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;671^2 \equiv 1350^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(1350-671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(679, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(1350+671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(2021, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

=====With 3 congruences=====

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 56
| 3136
| -1035

|-
| 59
| 3481
| -690

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854
|}

:&lt;math&gt;3136 \equiv -1035 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3481 \equiv -690 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3136\cdot 3481 \cdot 21025 \equiv -1035 \cdot -690 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;229517646400 \equiv 12036284100 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;479080^2 \equiv 109710^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p=\text{igcd}(479080-109710,4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(479080+109710, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

======Trivial result======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 89
| 7921
| 3750 **!!

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854 &lt;math&gt;\ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;7921 \equiv 3750 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;7921\cdot 21025 \equiv 3750 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;166539025  \equiv 63202500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;12905^2 \equiv 7950^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(12905-7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(4955, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 1.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(12905+7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(20855, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 4171.&lt;/math&gt;

This congruence produced the trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

===Adding 2 congruences===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+C \equiv B+D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+C) - (B+D) = B + K_1\cdot N + D + K_2\cdot N  - B - D = N(K_1 + K_2)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


===Quadratic Congruences===
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
====Quadratic Residues====
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
=====Products=====
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
======of 2 residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of 2 non-residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of residue and non-residue======
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===Examples===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
=====For speed=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
======Many comparisons======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
======Divide by 2======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=====For clarity=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===tables===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;65&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4225&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;54&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;66&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4356&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;185&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;88&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7744&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3573&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;89&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7921&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3750&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;90&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;8100&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3929&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;144&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;20736&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16565&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;145&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21025&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16854&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;146&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21316&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;17145&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
      <sha1>01031dv4e2qccf4uj7h60w8t5atf1d0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417984</id>
      <parentid>2417982</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T23:06:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Sieving complete */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="44072" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===Quadratic Sieve===

The quadratic sieve is a general purpose factoring method invented by Carl Pomerance in 1981.
Invention of quadratic sieve greatly advanced the science of factorization of integers, particularly those considered difficult, those large integers containing exactly two prime factors of approximately the same precision.

Running time of quadratic sieve is dependent on size of integer to be factored, and the quadratic sieve has accomplished some impressive records in the field of factorization of integers.

This page presents some simple examples of the factorization of small integers. Although using the quadratic sieve on small integers is like driving a thumb tack with a sledge hammer, the examples illustrate how the quadratic sieve is implemented.

====Introduction====
The quadratic sieve attempts to build quadratic congruences of form 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where 
&lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is number to be factored.


Many congruences are created:

&lt;math&gt;x_1^2 \equiv y_1 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_2^2 \equiv y_2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_3^2 \equiv y_3 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\dots\dots\dots&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_{10000}^2 \equiv y_{10000} \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;


Suitable congruences are combined to produce congruent squares:

&lt;math&gt;X^2 \equiv Y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where

&lt;math&gt;X^2  =  x_2^2  \cdot  x_3^2  \cdot  x_5^2  \cdots  x_{9999}^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;Y^2 = y_2 \cdot y_3 \cdot y_5 \cdots y_{9999}&lt;/math&gt;


Then &lt;math&gt;N\mid (X^2 - Y^2)&lt;/math&gt; and, with a little luck,

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_1 = \text{igcd}(X + Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_2 = \text{igcd}(X - Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt; is function
&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;
====Implementation====
This exercise calculates prime factors of 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5137851827.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
=====Build Factor base=====
Let the Factor Base contain 40 small primes, the first 40 for which &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue.
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[2, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 37, 41, 43, 59, 73, 103, 107, 113, 127, 131, 137, 149, 163, 179, 181, 
191, 197, 199, 211, 223, 233, 241, 251, 271, 281, 293, 307, 311, 317, 347, 367, 373, 379, 383]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Dictionary with logarithms of primes=====
Create a table or dictionary containing primes and logarithms of primes. Logarithms to base 2 are calculated.
The reason for choosing base &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; will become apparent later.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{log}_2(x) = \frac{\ln(x)}{\ln(2)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ 2\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;1.0\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 11\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.4594316186372973&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 13\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.700439718141092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 17\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.087462841250339\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 19\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.247927513443585\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 23\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.523561956057013\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 37\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.20945336562895\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 41\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.357552004618084\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 43\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.426264754702098\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 59\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.882643049361842\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 73\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.189824558880018\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;103\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.6865005271832185&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;107\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.741466986401147\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;113\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.820178962415188\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;127\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.9886846867721655&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;131\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.03342300153745\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;137\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.098032082960526\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;149\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.219168520462161\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;163\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.348728154231077\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.483815777264256\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;181\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.499845887083206\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;191\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.577428828035749\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;197\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.622051819456376\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;199\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.636624620543649\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;211\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.721099188707185\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;223\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.800899899920305\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;233\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.864186144654281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;241\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.912889336229962\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;251\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.971543553950772\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;271\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.08214904135387\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.134426320220927\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;293\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.194756854422248\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;307\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.262094845370179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;311\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.280770770130603\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;317\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.308339030139408\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.43879185257826\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;367\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.519636252843213\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;373\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.543031820255237\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;379\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.566054038171092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;383\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.581200581924957\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

=====Initialize sieve=====
In a regular sieve fine material falls through sieve and coarse material is retained.
In this sieve coarse material falls through sieve and fine material is retained.

The expression &quot;coarse material&quot; refers to integers containing a small number of large primes, the great majority of integers.

The expression &quot;fine material&quot; refers to integers containing a large number of small primes, primes that are members of this factor base, or &quot;smooth&quot; according to this factor base.

The base or root of operations is the smallest value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
for which &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is a positive number.

&lt;math&gt;root = x = 71679,\ y = 27214.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:

root = 71679

sieve = dict()

sieve[root] = [2]

for prime in factorBase[1:] :
    count = 0
    for x in range (root, root+2*(prime+2)) :
        y = x**2 - N
        if (y % prime) == 0 :
            if x in sieve : sieve[x] += [prime]
            else :  sieve[x] = [prime]
            count += 1
        if count &gt;= 2 : break
    if count != 2 : print ('Internal error 1.')

L1 = sorted([p for p in sieve])

print()
print ('Initialized sieve contains', len(sieve),
       'keys in range from', L1[0], 'through', L1[-1],
       'or', L1[-1]-L1[0]+1, 'possibilities.')

for key in L1[::-1] :
    print (key, '|', sieve[key])
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Initialized sieve contains 65 keys in range from 71679 through 71954 or 276 possibilities.

  x   | factor/s of y = x^2 - N
------|------------------------
71954 | [379]
71946 | [293]
71939 | [311]
71917 | [293]
71915 | [373]
71906 | [281]
71876 | [211, 307]
71864 | [317]
71852 | [191]
71850 | [241]
71849 | [223, 383]
71847 | [179]
71841 | [347]
71839 | [251]
71830 | [271]
71824 | [163]
71820 | [149]
71817 | [347]
71816 | [149]
71815 | [211]
71813 | [181]
71806 | [367]
71804 | [131]
71800 | [271, 307]
71786 | [241]
71780 | [191]
71779 | [163]
71777 | [113]
71776 | [383]
71773 | [199]
71772 | [131]
71771 | [233]
71763 | [223]
71760 | [107, 127]
71758 | [103]
71757 | [233]
71751 | [73]
71750 | [127]
71743 | [311]
71737 | [317]
71733 | [113, 137, 251]
71727 | [107]
71721 | [43, 103]
71720 | [181]
71717 | [59]
71716 | [41]
71715 | [37]
71713 | [197]
71712 | [59]
71711 | [179]
71706 | [137, 199]
71703 | [197]
71702 | [41]
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71680 | [13]
71679 | [2, 11]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Activate sieve=====
While information in table above is accurate, it is incomplete.
Processing of sieve attempts to find values for which information is complete.
======Processing locations in sequence======
The code examines location 71679. Product of factors 2,11 = 22, not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N.

Location 71679+2 or 71681 is initialized with [2] and location 71679+11 or 71690 includes [11]. Location 71679 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11] # Factor 11 appended.
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71681 | [2] # Location initialized.
71680 | [13]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


The code examines location 71680. Factor 13 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71680+13 or 71693 is initialized with [13]. Location 71680 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13] # Location initialized.
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71681 | [2]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


The code examines location 71681. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71681+2 or 71683 is initialized with [2]. Location 71681 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71683 | [2] # Location initialized.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Location 71682 does not exist in the sieve. 
The code examines location 71683. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71683+2 or 71685 receives [2]. Location 71683 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281, 2] # Factor 2 appended.
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Processing continues in this way until location 71690 is examined. Factors [17, 23, 373, 11] are complete 
factorization of y = x^2 - N. Values [ 71690 , [17, 23, 373, 11] ] are appended to array &quot;smooth.&quot;
======To improve speed======
There are very few values of y that are smooth. Therefore code is designed to discard unsuitable values of
x quickly, and to make other decisions quickly.

Decisions to discard unsuitable candidates are:

* if x does not exist in sieve.

* if there is only 1 prime for location x. Complete factorization of y requires at least 2 primes.

Code intended to reduce processing time:

&lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = (root + a)^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 - N + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = \text{rootSquaredMinusN} + \text{a(twoRoot + a)}&lt;/math&gt;

Multiplication in last statement above is of smaller numbers than calculation of &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N.&lt;/math&gt;
As size of &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; increases, last statement above becomes more efficient.

Divisions and multiplications are time consuming. Instead of multiplying primes or dividing y = x^2 - N
to determine smoothness, logarithms of primes are added and compared to log(y). Calculation of ln(y) or
log(y) to base 10 is time consuming.
Because y is type int, a good approximation of log(y) to base 2 can be calculated quickly.
As it happens, in this application &quot;close enough&quot; is good enough.

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(37)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;37 = '100101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'100101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(36) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(53)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;53 = '110101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'110101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

However, second most significant bit is set. Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5 + 1 = 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;log_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;6 &gt; x \ge 3&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;12 &gt; x \ge 6&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;24 &gt; x \ge 12&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;48 &gt; x \ge 24&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;96 &gt; x \ge 48&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;6&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;(3 &lt;&lt; (k+1)) &gt; x \ge (3 &lt;&lt; k)&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;k + 2&lt;/math&gt;
|}
======Sieving complete======
Python code that accomplishes the sieving is:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

limit = 10000
rootSquaredMinusN = root**2 - N
twoRoot = root &lt;&lt; 1
notin = count1 = count = 0
smooth = []
numberOfSmoothDesired = 45
for x in range (root, root+limit) :
    if x &amp; 0xFF == 0 :
        '''
This code is added to provide information about sieve
during sieving.
'''
        L1 = sorted([ p for p in sieve ])
        range_ = L1[-1] - L1[0] + 1
        print ('For x =',x, 'Range of sieve =',range_, 'number of empty locations =', range_ - len(L1) )
    if x not in sieve :
        notin += 1
        continue

    primes = sieve[x]
    for prime in primes :
        v = x + prime
        if v in sieve : sieve[v] += [prime]
        else : sieve[v] = [prime]
    del (sieve[x])

    if len(primes) == 1 :
        count1 += 1 ; continue                 
    a = x - root
    y = rootSquaredMinusN + a*(twoRoot + a)
    L1 = [ sum for sum in (0,) for prime in primes for sum in (sum+log[prime],) ]  
    sumOfLogs = L1[-1]
    log_y = logBase2(y)
    if sumOfLogs &gt;= 0.95*log_y :
        count += 1
        product = [ prod for prod in (1,) for prime in primes for prod in (prod*prime,) ][-1]
        if y == product :
            smooth += [[x,primes]]
            if len(smooth) &gt;= numberOfSmoothDesired : break
            
print ('Range of values of x =', x-root+1)
print ('Number of empty locations in sieve =', notin)
print ('Number of locations with only 1 prime =', count1)
print ('Number of locations tested =', x-root+1-notin-count1)
print ('Number of locations chosen for close examination =', count)
print ('Number of values of x retained after close examination =', len(smooth))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Range of sieve}&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Number of empty locations}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;71680\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;275\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;210&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;71936\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;353\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;288&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72192\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;350\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;287&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72448\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;377\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;312&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72704\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;331\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;266&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72960\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;349\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;286&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73216\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;366\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;305&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73472\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;378\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;314&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73728\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;276&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73984\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;356\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;287&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74240\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;368\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;306&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74496\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;345\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;280&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74752\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;358\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;292&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75008\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;358\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;293&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75264\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;342\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;278&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75520\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;336\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;272&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Thousands of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; are tested. At any one time the range of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
in sieve is &lt;math&gt;&lt; 400&lt;/math&gt; and sieve is mostly empty.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Range of values of x = 3922
Number of empty locations in sieve = 585
Number of locations with only 1 prime = 1331
Number of locations tested = 2006
Number of locations chosen for close examination = 45
Number of values of x retained after close examination = 45
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;&quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
====Welcomee====
{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFF800;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;

=====Welcomen=====
{{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFFFFF;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;6&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-221&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;7&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-208&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;8&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-193&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;9&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-176&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;10&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-157&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;11&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-136&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;12&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-113&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;13&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-88&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;14&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-61&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;15&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;16&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-1&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;17&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;18&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;67&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;19&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;104&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;20&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;143&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;21&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;184&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;22&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;227&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;23&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;272&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;24&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;319&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;25&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;368&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;26&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;419&lt;/code&gt;
|}

==Law of addition==
===Factors of integer N===

Several modern methods for determining the factors of a given integer attempt
to create two congruent squares modulo integer 
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

This means that the difference between the two squares is exactly divisible
by &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;: &lt;math&gt;N\mid (x^2 - y^2).&lt;/math&gt;

Integer &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; always contains the factors &lt;math&gt;N,1,&lt;/math&gt; called trivial factors.

If &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; contains two non-trivial factors
&lt;math&gt;p,q,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;\frac{(x+y)(x-y)}{p \cdot q}.&lt;/math&gt;

With a little luck &lt;math&gt;p\mid (x+y)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\mid (x-y)&lt;/math&gt; in which case:

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(x+y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(x-y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where

&quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt;&quot; is function &quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;&quot;
====A simple example:====

We will use quadratic congruences to calculate factors of &lt;math&gt;N = 4171&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;164 \ge x \ge 1.&lt;/math&gt;

=====Right hand side exact square=====
One congruence produced an exact square for y:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 70
| 4900
| 729
|}
:&lt;math&gt;4900 \equiv 729 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;70^2 \equiv 27^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(70-27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(70+27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(97, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


=====Right hand side negative=====
Table below contains a sample of values of 
&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that produce negative 
&lt;math&gt;y:&lt;/math&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 7
| 49
| -4122

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 9
| 81
| -4090

|-
| 10
| 100
| -4071

|-
| 11
| 121
| -4050 !!

|-
| 12
| 144
| -4027

|-
| 60
| 3600
| -571

|-
| 61
| 3721
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!

|-
| 62
| 3844
| -327

|-
| 63
| 3969
| -202

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**

|-
| 65
| 4225
| 54
|}

======Non-trivial result 1======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**
|}

:&lt;math&gt;64 \equiv -4107 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;4096 \equiv -75 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;64\cdot 4096 \equiv -4107\cdot (-75) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;262144 \equiv 308025 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;512^2 \equiv 555^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(555-512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(555+512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(1067, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

======Non-trivial result 2======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 11
| 121 
| -4050 !!

|-
| 61
| 3721 
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;121 \equiv -4050 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3721 \equiv -450 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;121\cdot 3721 \equiv -4050 \cdot (-450) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;450241 \equiv 1822500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;671^2 \equiv 1350^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(1350-671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(679, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(1350+671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(2021, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

=====With 3 congruences=====

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 56
| 3136
| -1035

|-
| 59
| 3481
| -690

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854
|}

:&lt;math&gt;3136 \equiv -1035 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3481 \equiv -690 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3136\cdot 3481 \cdot 21025 \equiv -1035 \cdot -690 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;229517646400 \equiv 12036284100 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;479080^2 \equiv 109710^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p=\text{igcd}(479080-109710,4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(479080+109710, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

======Trivial result======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 89
| 7921
| 3750 **!!

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854 &lt;math&gt;\ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;7921 \equiv 3750 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;7921\cdot 21025 \equiv 3750 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;166539025  \equiv 63202500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;12905^2 \equiv 7950^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(12905-7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(4955, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 1.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(12905+7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(20855, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 4171.&lt;/math&gt;

This congruence produced the trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

===Adding 2 congruences===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+C \equiv B+D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+C) - (B+D) = B + K_1\cdot N + D + K_2\cdot N  - B - D = N(K_1 + K_2)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


===Quadratic Congruences===
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
====Quadratic Residues====
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
=====Products=====
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
======of 2 residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of 2 non-residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of residue and non-residue======
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===Examples===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
=====For speed=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
======Many comparisons======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
======Divide by 2======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=====For clarity=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===tables===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;65&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4225&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;54&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;66&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4356&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;185&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;88&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7744&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3573&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;89&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7921&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3750&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;90&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;8100&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3929&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;144&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;20736&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16565&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;145&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21025&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16854&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;146&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21316&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;17145&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
      <sha1>4plgebffc8zzo6tlnsx1xm8bs26cktg</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418226</id>
      <parentid>2417984</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:27:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Processing locations in sequence */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="44624" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===Quadratic Sieve===

The quadratic sieve is a general purpose factoring method invented by Carl Pomerance in 1981.
Invention of quadratic sieve greatly advanced the science of factorization of integers, particularly those considered difficult, those large integers containing exactly two prime factors of approximately the same precision.

Running time of quadratic sieve is dependent on size of integer to be factored, and the quadratic sieve has accomplished some impressive records in the field of factorization of integers.

This page presents some simple examples of the factorization of small integers. Although using the quadratic sieve on small integers is like driving a thumb tack with a sledge hammer, the examples illustrate how the quadratic sieve is implemented.

====Introduction====
The quadratic sieve attempts to build quadratic congruences of form 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where 
&lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is number to be factored.


Many congruences are created:

&lt;math&gt;x_1^2 \equiv y_1 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_2^2 \equiv y_2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_3^2 \equiv y_3 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\dots\dots\dots&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_{10000}^2 \equiv y_{10000} \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;


Suitable congruences are combined to produce congruent squares:

&lt;math&gt;X^2 \equiv Y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where

&lt;math&gt;X^2  =  x_2^2  \cdot  x_3^2  \cdot  x_5^2  \cdots  x_{9999}^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;Y^2 = y_2 \cdot y_3 \cdot y_5 \cdots y_{9999}&lt;/math&gt;


Then &lt;math&gt;N\mid (X^2 - Y^2)&lt;/math&gt; and, with a little luck,

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_1 = \text{igcd}(X + Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_2 = \text{igcd}(X - Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt; is function
&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;
====Implementation====
This exercise calculates prime factors of 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5137851827.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
=====Build Factor base=====
Let the Factor Base contain 40 small primes, the first 40 for which &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue.
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[2, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 37, 41, 43, 59, 73, 103, 107, 113, 127, 131, 137, 149, 163, 179, 181, 
191, 197, 199, 211, 223, 233, 241, 251, 271, 281, 293, 307, 311, 317, 347, 367, 373, 379, 383]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Dictionary with logarithms of primes=====
Create a table or dictionary containing primes and logarithms of primes. Logarithms to base 2 are calculated.
The reason for choosing base &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; will become apparent later.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{log}_2(x) = \frac{\ln(x)}{\ln(2)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ 2\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;1.0\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 11\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.4594316186372973&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 13\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.700439718141092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 17\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.087462841250339\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 19\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.247927513443585\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 23\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.523561956057013\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 37\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.20945336562895\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 41\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.357552004618084\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 43\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.426264754702098\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 59\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.882643049361842\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 73\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.189824558880018\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;103\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.6865005271832185&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;107\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.741466986401147\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;113\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.820178962415188\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;127\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.9886846867721655&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;131\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.03342300153745\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;137\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.098032082960526\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;149\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.219168520462161\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;163\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.348728154231077\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.483815777264256\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;181\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.499845887083206\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;191\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.577428828035749\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;197\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.622051819456376\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;199\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.636624620543649\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;211\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.721099188707185\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;223\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.800899899920305\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;233\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.864186144654281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;241\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.912889336229962\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;251\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.971543553950772\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;271\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.08214904135387\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.134426320220927\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;293\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.194756854422248\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;307\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.262094845370179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;311\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.280770770130603\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;317\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.308339030139408\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.43879185257826\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;367\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.519636252843213\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;373\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.543031820255237\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;379\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.566054038171092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;383\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.581200581924957\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

=====Initialize sieve=====
In a regular sieve fine material falls through sieve and coarse material is retained.
In this sieve coarse material falls through sieve and fine material is retained.

The expression &quot;coarse material&quot; refers to integers containing a small number of large primes, the great majority of integers.

The expression &quot;fine material&quot; refers to integers containing a large number of small primes, primes that are members of this factor base, or &quot;smooth&quot; according to this factor base.

The base or root of operations is the smallest value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
for which &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is a positive number.

&lt;math&gt;root = x = 71679,\ y = 27214.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:

root = 71679

sieve = dict()

sieve[root] = [2]

for prime in factorBase[1:] :
    count = 0
    for x in range (root, root+2*(prime+2)) :
        y = x**2 - N
        if (y % prime) == 0 :
            if x in sieve : sieve[x] += [prime]
            else :  sieve[x] = [prime]
            count += 1
        if count &gt;= 2 : break
    if count != 2 : print ('Internal error 1.')

L1 = sorted([p for p in sieve])

print()
print ('Initialized sieve contains', len(sieve),
       'keys in range from', L1[0], 'through', L1[-1],
       'or', L1[-1]-L1[0]+1, 'possibilities.')

for key in L1[::-1] :
    print (key, '|', sieve[key])
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Initialized sieve contains 65 keys in range from 71679 through 71954 or 276 possibilities.

  x   | factor/s of y = x^2 - N
------|------------------------
71954 | [379]
71946 | [293]
71939 | [311]
71917 | [293]
71915 | [373]
71906 | [281]
71876 | [211, 307]
71864 | [317]
71852 | [191]
71850 | [241]
71849 | [223, 383]
71847 | [179]
71841 | [347]
71839 | [251]
71830 | [271]
71824 | [163]
71820 | [149]
71817 | [347]
71816 | [149]
71815 | [211]
71813 | [181]
71806 | [367]
71804 | [131]
71800 | [271, 307]
71786 | [241]
71780 | [191]
71779 | [163]
71777 | [113]
71776 | [383]
71773 | [199]
71772 | [131]
71771 | [233]
71763 | [223]
71760 | [107, 127]
71758 | [103]
71757 | [233]
71751 | [73]
71750 | [127]
71743 | [311]
71737 | [317]
71733 | [113, 137, 251]
71727 | [107]
71721 | [43, 103]
71720 | [181]
71717 | [59]
71716 | [41]
71715 | [37]
71713 | [197]
71712 | [59]
71711 | [179]
71706 | [137, 199]
71703 | [197]
71702 | [41]
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71680 | [13]
71679 | [2, 11]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Activate sieve=====
While information in table above is accurate, it is incomplete.
Processing of sieve attempts to find values for which information is complete.
======Processing locations in sequence======
The code examines location 71679. Product of factors 2,11 = 22, not enough to provide complete
factorization of &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N.&lt;/math&gt;

Location 71679+2 or 71681 is initialized with [2] and location 71679+11 or 71690 is appended by [11]. Location 71679 is deleted.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Factors of}\ \ y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71697&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[37]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71694&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[73]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71692&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[23]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71691&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[367]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71690&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[17,\ \ 23,\ \ 373,\ \ 11]\ \ \#\ \ \text{Factor}\ \ 11\ \ \text{appended.}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71688&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[17,\ \ 19]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71687&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[379]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71686&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[19]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71685&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[281]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71684&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[11,\ \ 13,\ \ 43]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71681&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[2]\ \ \#\ \ \text{Location}\ \ \text{initialized.}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71680&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[13]&lt;/math&gt;
|}

The code examines location 71680. Factor 13 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71680+13 or 71693 is initialized with [13]. Location 71680 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13] # Location initialized.
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71681 | [2]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


The code examines location 71681. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71681+2 or 71683 is initialized with [2]. Location 71681 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71683 | [2] # Location initialized.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Location 71682 does not exist in the sieve. 
The code examines location 71683. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71683+2 or 71685 receives [2]. Location 71683 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281, 2] # Factor 2 appended.
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Processing continues in this way until location 71690 is examined. Factors [17, 23, 373, 11] are complete 
factorization of y = x^2 - N. Values [ 71690 , [17, 23, 373, 11] ] are appended to array &quot;smooth.&quot;

======To improve speed======
There are very few values of y that are smooth. Therefore code is designed to discard unsuitable values of
x quickly, and to make other decisions quickly.

Decisions to discard unsuitable candidates are:

* if x does not exist in sieve.

* if there is only 1 prime for location x. Complete factorization of y requires at least 2 primes.

Code intended to reduce processing time:

&lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = (root + a)^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 - N + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = \text{rootSquaredMinusN} + \text{a(twoRoot + a)}&lt;/math&gt;

Multiplication in last statement above is of smaller numbers than calculation of &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N.&lt;/math&gt;
As size of &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; increases, last statement above becomes more efficient.

Divisions and multiplications are time consuming. Instead of multiplying primes or dividing y = x^2 - N
to determine smoothness, logarithms of primes are added and compared to log(y). Calculation of ln(y) or
log(y) to base 10 is time consuming.
Because y is type int, a good approximation of log(y) to base 2 can be calculated quickly.
As it happens, in this application &quot;close enough&quot; is good enough.

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(37)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;37 = '100101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'100101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(36) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(53)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;53 = '110101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'110101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

However, second most significant bit is set. Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5 + 1 = 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;log_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;6 &gt; x \ge 3&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;12 &gt; x \ge 6&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;24 &gt; x \ge 12&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;48 &gt; x \ge 24&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;96 &gt; x \ge 48&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;6&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;(3 &lt;&lt; (k+1)) &gt; x \ge (3 &lt;&lt; k)&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;k + 2&lt;/math&gt;
|}
======Sieving complete======
Python code that accomplishes the sieving is:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

limit = 10000
rootSquaredMinusN = root**2 - N
twoRoot = root &lt;&lt; 1
notin = count1 = count = 0
smooth = []
numberOfSmoothDesired = 45
for x in range (root, root+limit) :
    if x &amp; 0xFF == 0 :
        '''
This code is added to provide information about sieve
during sieving.
'''
        L1 = sorted([ p for p in sieve ])
        range_ = L1[-1] - L1[0] + 1
        print ('For x =',x, 'Range of sieve =',range_, 'number of empty locations =', range_ - len(L1) )
    if x not in sieve :
        notin += 1
        continue

    primes = sieve[x]
    for prime in primes :
        v = x + prime
        if v in sieve : sieve[v] += [prime]
        else : sieve[v] = [prime]
    del (sieve[x])

    if len(primes) == 1 :
        count1 += 1 ; continue                 
    a = x - root
    y = rootSquaredMinusN + a*(twoRoot + a)
    L1 = [ sum for sum in (0,) for prime in primes for sum in (sum+log[prime],) ]  
    sumOfLogs = L1[-1]
    log_y = logBase2(y)
    if sumOfLogs &gt;= 0.95*log_y :
        count += 1
        product = [ prod for prod in (1,) for prime in primes for prod in (prod*prime,) ][-1]
        if y == product :
            smooth += [[x,primes]]
            if len(smooth) &gt;= numberOfSmoothDesired : break
            
print ('Range of values of x =', x-root+1)
print ('Number of empty locations in sieve =', notin)
print ('Number of locations with only 1 prime =', count1)
print ('Number of locations tested =', x-root+1-notin-count1)
print ('Number of locations chosen for close examination =', count)
print ('Number of values of x retained after close examination =', len(smooth))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Range of sieve}&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Number of empty locations}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;71680\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;275\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;210&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;71936\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;353\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;288&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72192\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;350\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;287&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72448\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;377\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;312&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72704\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;331\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;266&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72960\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;349\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;286&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73216\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;366\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;305&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73472\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;378\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;314&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73728\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;276&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73984\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;356\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;287&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74240\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;368\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;306&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74496\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;345\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;280&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74752\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;358\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;292&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75008\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;358\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;293&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75264\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;342\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;278&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75520\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;336\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;272&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Thousands of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; are tested. At any one time the range of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
in sieve is &lt;math&gt;&lt; 400&lt;/math&gt; and sieve is mostly empty.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Range of values of x = 3922
Number of empty locations in sieve = 585
Number of locations with only 1 prime = 1331
Number of locations tested = 2006
Number of locations chosen for close examination = 45
Number of values of x retained after close examination = 45
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;&quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
====Welcomee====
{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFF800;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;

=====Welcomen=====
{{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFFFFF;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;6&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-221&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;7&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-208&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;8&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-193&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;9&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-176&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;10&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-157&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;11&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-136&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;12&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-113&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;13&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-88&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;14&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-61&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;15&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;16&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-1&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;17&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;18&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;67&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;19&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;104&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;20&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;143&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;21&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;184&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;22&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;227&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;23&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;272&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;24&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;319&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;25&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;368&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;26&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;419&lt;/code&gt;
|}

==Law of addition==
===Factors of integer N===

Several modern methods for determining the factors of a given integer attempt
to create two congruent squares modulo integer 
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

This means that the difference between the two squares is exactly divisible
by &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;: &lt;math&gt;N\mid (x^2 - y^2).&lt;/math&gt;

Integer &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; always contains the factors &lt;math&gt;N,1,&lt;/math&gt; called trivial factors.

If &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; contains two non-trivial factors
&lt;math&gt;p,q,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;\frac{(x+y)(x-y)}{p \cdot q}.&lt;/math&gt;

With a little luck &lt;math&gt;p\mid (x+y)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\mid (x-y)&lt;/math&gt; in which case:

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(x+y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(x-y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where

&quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt;&quot; is function &quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;&quot;
====A simple example:====

We will use quadratic congruences to calculate factors of &lt;math&gt;N = 4171&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;164 \ge x \ge 1.&lt;/math&gt;

=====Right hand side exact square=====
One congruence produced an exact square for y:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 70
| 4900
| 729
|}
:&lt;math&gt;4900 \equiv 729 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;70^2 \equiv 27^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(70-27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(70+27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(97, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


=====Right hand side negative=====
Table below contains a sample of values of 
&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that produce negative 
&lt;math&gt;y:&lt;/math&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 7
| 49
| -4122

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 9
| 81
| -4090

|-
| 10
| 100
| -4071

|-
| 11
| 121
| -4050 !!

|-
| 12
| 144
| -4027

|-
| 60
| 3600
| -571

|-
| 61
| 3721
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!

|-
| 62
| 3844
| -327

|-
| 63
| 3969
| -202

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**

|-
| 65
| 4225
| 54
|}

======Non-trivial result 1======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**
|}

:&lt;math&gt;64 \equiv -4107 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;4096 \equiv -75 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;64\cdot 4096 \equiv -4107\cdot (-75) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;262144 \equiv 308025 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;512^2 \equiv 555^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(555-512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(555+512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(1067, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

======Non-trivial result 2======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 11
| 121 
| -4050 !!

|-
| 61
| 3721 
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;121 \equiv -4050 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3721 \equiv -450 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;121\cdot 3721 \equiv -4050 \cdot (-450) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;450241 \equiv 1822500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;671^2 \equiv 1350^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(1350-671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(679, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(1350+671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(2021, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

=====With 3 congruences=====

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 56
| 3136
| -1035

|-
| 59
| 3481
| -690

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854
|}

:&lt;math&gt;3136 \equiv -1035 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3481 \equiv -690 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3136\cdot 3481 \cdot 21025 \equiv -1035 \cdot -690 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;229517646400 \equiv 12036284100 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;479080^2 \equiv 109710^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p=\text{igcd}(479080-109710,4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(479080+109710, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

======Trivial result======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 89
| 7921
| 3750 **!!

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854 &lt;math&gt;\ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;7921 \equiv 3750 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;7921\cdot 21025 \equiv 3750 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;166539025  \equiv 63202500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;12905^2 \equiv 7950^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(12905-7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(4955, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 1.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(12905+7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(20855, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 4171.&lt;/math&gt;

This congruence produced the trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

===Adding 2 congruences===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+C \equiv B+D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+C) - (B+D) = B + K_1\cdot N + D + K_2\cdot N  - B - D = N(K_1 + K_2)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


===Quadratic Congruences===
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
====Quadratic Residues====
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
=====Products=====
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
======of 2 residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of 2 non-residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of residue and non-residue======
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===Examples===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
=====For speed=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
======Many comparisons======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
======Divide by 2======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=====For clarity=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===tables===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;65&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4225&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;54&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;66&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4356&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;185&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;88&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7744&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3573&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;89&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7921&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3750&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;90&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;8100&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3929&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;144&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;20736&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16565&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;145&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21025&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16854&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;146&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21316&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;17145&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
      <sha1>1jdkorvd9pmi5rurwvml57s10y216oo</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418233</id>
      <parentid>2418226</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:43:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>47.186.199.101</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Processing locations in sequence */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="45144" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===Quadratic Sieve===

The quadratic sieve is a general purpose factoring method invented by Carl Pomerance in 1981.
Invention of quadratic sieve greatly advanced the science of factorization of integers, particularly those considered difficult, those large integers containing exactly two prime factors of approximately the same precision.

Running time of quadratic sieve is dependent on size of integer to be factored, and the quadratic sieve has accomplished some impressive records in the field of factorization of integers.

This page presents some simple examples of the factorization of small integers. Although using the quadratic sieve on small integers is like driving a thumb tack with a sledge hammer, the examples illustrate how the quadratic sieve is implemented.

====Introduction====
The quadratic sieve attempts to build quadratic congruences of form 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where 
&lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is number to be factored.


Many congruences are created:

&lt;math&gt;x_1^2 \equiv y_1 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_2^2 \equiv y_2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_3^2 \equiv y_3 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\dots\dots\dots&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_{10000}^2 \equiv y_{10000} \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;


Suitable congruences are combined to produce congruent squares:

&lt;math&gt;X^2 \equiv Y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where

&lt;math&gt;X^2  =  x_2^2  \cdot  x_3^2  \cdot  x_5^2  \cdots  x_{9999}^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;Y^2 = y_2 \cdot y_3 \cdot y_5 \cdots y_{9999}&lt;/math&gt;


Then &lt;math&gt;N\mid (X^2 - Y^2)&lt;/math&gt; and, with a little luck,

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_1 = \text{igcd}(X + Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_2 = \text{igcd}(X - Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt; is function
&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;
====Implementation====
This exercise calculates prime factors of 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5137851827.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
=====Build Factor base=====
Let the Factor Base contain 40 small primes, the first 40 for which &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue.
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[2, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 37, 41, 43, 59, 73, 103, 107, 113, 127, 131, 137, 149, 163, 179, 181, 
191, 197, 199, 211, 223, 233, 241, 251, 271, 281, 293, 307, 311, 317, 347, 367, 373, 379, 383]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Dictionary with logarithms of primes=====
Create a table or dictionary containing primes and logarithms of primes. Logarithms to base 2 are calculated.
The reason for choosing base &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; will become apparent later.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{log}_2(x) = \frac{\ln(x)}{\ln(2)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ 2\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;1.0\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 11\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.4594316186372973&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 13\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.700439718141092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 17\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.087462841250339\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 19\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.247927513443585\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 23\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.523561956057013\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 37\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.20945336562895\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 41\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.357552004618084\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 43\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.426264754702098\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 59\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.882643049361842\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 73\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.189824558880018\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;103\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.6865005271832185&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;107\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.741466986401147\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;113\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.820178962415188\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;127\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.9886846867721655&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;131\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.03342300153745\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;137\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.098032082960526\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;149\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.219168520462161\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;163\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.348728154231077\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.483815777264256\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;181\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.499845887083206\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;191\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.577428828035749\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;197\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.622051819456376\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;199\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.636624620543649\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;211\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.721099188707185\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;223\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.800899899920305\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;233\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.864186144654281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;241\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.912889336229962\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;251\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.971543553950772\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;271\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.08214904135387\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.134426320220927\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;293\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.194756854422248\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;307\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.262094845370179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;311\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.280770770130603\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;317\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.308339030139408\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.43879185257826\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;367\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.519636252843213\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;373\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.543031820255237\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;379\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.566054038171092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;383\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.581200581924957\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

=====Initialize sieve=====
In a regular sieve fine material falls through sieve and coarse material is retained.
In this sieve coarse material falls through sieve and fine material is retained.

The expression &quot;coarse material&quot; refers to integers containing a small number of large primes, the great majority of integers.

The expression &quot;fine material&quot; refers to integers containing a large number of small primes, primes that are members of this factor base, or &quot;smooth&quot; according to this factor base.

The base or root of operations is the smallest value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
for which &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is a positive number.

&lt;math&gt;root = x = 71679,\ y = 27214.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:

root = 71679

sieve = dict()

sieve[root] = [2]

for prime in factorBase[1:] :
    count = 0
    for x in range (root, root+2*(prime+2)) :
        y = x**2 - N
        if (y % prime) == 0 :
            if x in sieve : sieve[x] += [prime]
            else :  sieve[x] = [prime]
            count += 1
        if count &gt;= 2 : break
    if count != 2 : print ('Internal error 1.')

L1 = sorted([p for p in sieve])

print()
print ('Initialized sieve contains', len(sieve),
       'keys in range from', L1[0], 'through', L1[-1],
       'or', L1[-1]-L1[0]+1, 'possibilities.')

for key in L1[::-1] :
    print (key, '|', sieve[key])
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Initialized sieve contains 65 keys in range from 71679 through 71954 or 276 possibilities.

  x   | factor/s of y = x^2 - N
------|------------------------
71954 | [379]
71946 | [293]
71939 | [311]
71917 | [293]
71915 | [373]
71906 | [281]
71876 | [211, 307]
71864 | [317]
71852 | [191]
71850 | [241]
71849 | [223, 383]
71847 | [179]
71841 | [347]
71839 | [251]
71830 | [271]
71824 | [163]
71820 | [149]
71817 | [347]
71816 | [149]
71815 | [211]
71813 | [181]
71806 | [367]
71804 | [131]
71800 | [271, 307]
71786 | [241]
71780 | [191]
71779 | [163]
71777 | [113]
71776 | [383]
71773 | [199]
71772 | [131]
71771 | [233]
71763 | [223]
71760 | [107, 127]
71758 | [103]
71757 | [233]
71751 | [73]
71750 | [127]
71743 | [311]
71737 | [317]
71733 | [113, 137, 251]
71727 | [107]
71721 | [43, 103]
71720 | [181]
71717 | [59]
71716 | [41]
71715 | [37]
71713 | [197]
71712 | [59]
71711 | [179]
71706 | [137, 199]
71703 | [197]
71702 | [41]
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71680 | [13]
71679 | [2, 11]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Activate sieve=====
While information in table above is accurate, it is incomplete.
Processing of sieve attempts to find values for which information is complete.
======Processing locations in sequence======
The code examines location 71679. Product of factors 2,11 = 22, not enough to provide complete
factorization of &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N.&lt;/math&gt;

Location 71679+2 or 71681 is initialized with [2] and location 71679+11 or 71690 is appended by [11]. Location 71679 is deleted.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Factors of}\ \ y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71697&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[37]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71694&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[73]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71692&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[23]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71691&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[367]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71690&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[17,\ \ 23,\ \ 373,\ \ 11]\ \ \#\ \ \text{Factor}\ \ 11\ \ \text{appended.}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71688&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[17,\ \ 19]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71687&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[379]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71686&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[19]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71685&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[281]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71684&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[11,\ \ 13,\ \ 43]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71681&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[2]\ \ \#\ \ \text{Location}\ \ \text{initialized.}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71680&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[13]&lt;/math&gt;
|}

The code examines location 71680. Factor 13 is not enough to provide complete factorization
of &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N.&lt;/math&gt;

Location 71680+13 or 71693 is initialized with [13]. Location 71680 is deleted.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Factors of}\ \ y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71697&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[37]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71694&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[73]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71693&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[13]\ \ \#\ \ \text{Location}\ \ \text{initialized.}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71692&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[23]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71691&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[367]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71690&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[17,\ \ 23,\ \ 373,\ \ 11]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71688&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[17,\ \ 19]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71687&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[379]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71686&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[19]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71685&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[281]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71684&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[11,\ \ 13,\ \ 43]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71681&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[2]&lt;/math&gt;
|}

The code examines location 71681. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71681+2 or 71683 is initialized with [2]. Location 71681 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71683 | [2] # Location initialized.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Location 71682 does not exist in the sieve. 
The code examines location 71683. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71683+2 or 71685 receives [2]. Location 71683 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281, 2] # Factor 2 appended.
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Processing continues in this way until location 71690 is examined. Factors [17, 23, 373, 11] are complete 
factorization of y = x^2 - N. Values [ 71690 , [17, 23, 373, 11] ] are appended to array &quot;smooth.&quot;

======To improve speed======
There are very few values of y that are smooth. Therefore code is designed to discard unsuitable values of
x quickly, and to make other decisions quickly.

Decisions to discard unsuitable candidates are:

* if x does not exist in sieve.

* if there is only 1 prime for location x. Complete factorization of y requires at least 2 primes.

Code intended to reduce processing time:

&lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = (root + a)^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 - N + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = \text{rootSquaredMinusN} + \text{a(twoRoot + a)}&lt;/math&gt;

Multiplication in last statement above is of smaller numbers than calculation of &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N.&lt;/math&gt;
As size of &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; increases, last statement above becomes more efficient.

Divisions and multiplications are time consuming. Instead of multiplying primes or dividing y = x^2 - N
to determine smoothness, logarithms of primes are added and compared to log(y). Calculation of ln(y) or
log(y) to base 10 is time consuming.
Because y is type int, a good approximation of log(y) to base 2 can be calculated quickly.
As it happens, in this application &quot;close enough&quot; is good enough.

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(37)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;37 = '100101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'100101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(36) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(53)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;53 = '110101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'110101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

However, second most significant bit is set. Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5 + 1 = 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;log_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;6 &gt; x \ge 3&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;12 &gt; x \ge 6&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;24 &gt; x \ge 12&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;48 &gt; x \ge 24&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;96 &gt; x \ge 48&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;6&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;(3 &lt;&lt; (k+1)) &gt; x \ge (3 &lt;&lt; k)&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;k + 2&lt;/math&gt;
|}
======Sieving complete======
Python code that accomplishes the sieving is:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

limit = 10000
rootSquaredMinusN = root**2 - N
twoRoot = root &lt;&lt; 1
notin = count1 = count = 0
smooth = []
numberOfSmoothDesired = 45
for x in range (root, root+limit) :
    if x &amp; 0xFF == 0 :
        '''
This code is added to provide information about sieve
during sieving.
'''
        L1 = sorted([ p for p in sieve ])
        range_ = L1[-1] - L1[0] + 1
        print ('For x =',x, 'Range of sieve =',range_, 'number of empty locations =', range_ - len(L1) )
    if x not in sieve :
        notin += 1
        continue

    primes = sieve[x]
    for prime in primes :
        v = x + prime
        if v in sieve : sieve[v] += [prime]
        else : sieve[v] = [prime]
    del (sieve[x])

    if len(primes) == 1 :
        count1 += 1 ; continue                 
    a = x - root
    y = rootSquaredMinusN + a*(twoRoot + a)
    L1 = [ sum for sum in (0,) for prime in primes for sum in (sum+log[prime],) ]  
    sumOfLogs = L1[-1]
    log_y = logBase2(y)
    if sumOfLogs &gt;= 0.95*log_y :
        count += 1
        product = [ prod for prod in (1,) for prime in primes for prod in (prod*prime,) ][-1]
        if y == product :
            smooth += [[x,primes]]
            if len(smooth) &gt;= numberOfSmoothDesired : break
            
print ('Range of values of x =', x-root+1)
print ('Number of empty locations in sieve =', notin)
print ('Number of locations with only 1 prime =', count1)
print ('Number of locations tested =', x-root+1-notin-count1)
print ('Number of locations chosen for close examination =', count)
print ('Number of values of x retained after close examination =', len(smooth))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Range of sieve}&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Number of empty locations}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;71680\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;275\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;210&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;71936\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;353\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;288&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72192\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;350\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;287&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72448\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;377\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;312&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72704\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;331\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;266&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72960\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;349\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;286&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73216\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;366\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;305&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73472\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;378\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;314&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73728\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;276&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73984\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;356\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;287&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74240\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;368\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;306&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74496\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;345\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;280&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74752\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;358\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;292&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75008\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;358\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;293&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75264\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;342\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;278&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75520\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;336\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;272&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Thousands of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; are tested. At any one time the range of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
in sieve is &lt;math&gt;&lt; 400&lt;/math&gt; and sieve is mostly empty.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Range of values of x = 3922
Number of empty locations in sieve = 585
Number of locations with only 1 prime = 1331
Number of locations tested = 2006
Number of locations chosen for close examination = 45
Number of values of x retained after close examination = 45
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;&quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
====Welcomee====
{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFF800;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;

=====Welcomen=====
{{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFFFFF;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;6&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-221&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;7&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-208&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;8&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-193&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;9&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-176&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;10&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-157&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;11&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-136&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;12&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-113&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;13&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-88&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;14&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-61&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;15&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;16&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-1&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;17&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;18&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;67&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;19&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;104&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;20&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;143&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;21&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;184&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;22&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;227&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;23&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;272&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;24&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;319&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;25&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;368&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;26&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;419&lt;/code&gt;
|}

==Law of addition==
===Factors of integer N===

Several modern methods for determining the factors of a given integer attempt
to create two congruent squares modulo integer 
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

This means that the difference between the two squares is exactly divisible
by &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;: &lt;math&gt;N\mid (x^2 - y^2).&lt;/math&gt;

Integer &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; always contains the factors &lt;math&gt;N,1,&lt;/math&gt; called trivial factors.

If &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; contains two non-trivial factors
&lt;math&gt;p,q,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;\frac{(x+y)(x-y)}{p \cdot q}.&lt;/math&gt;

With a little luck &lt;math&gt;p\mid (x+y)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\mid (x-y)&lt;/math&gt; in which case:

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(x+y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(x-y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where

&quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt;&quot; is function &quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;&quot;
====A simple example:====

We will use quadratic congruences to calculate factors of &lt;math&gt;N = 4171&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;164 \ge x \ge 1.&lt;/math&gt;

=====Right hand side exact square=====
One congruence produced an exact square for y:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 70
| 4900
| 729
|}
:&lt;math&gt;4900 \equiv 729 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;70^2 \equiv 27^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(70-27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(70+27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(97, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


=====Right hand side negative=====
Table below contains a sample of values of 
&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that produce negative 
&lt;math&gt;y:&lt;/math&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 7
| 49
| -4122

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 9
| 81
| -4090

|-
| 10
| 100
| -4071

|-
| 11
| 121
| -4050 !!

|-
| 12
| 144
| -4027

|-
| 60
| 3600
| -571

|-
| 61
| 3721
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!

|-
| 62
| 3844
| -327

|-
| 63
| 3969
| -202

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**

|-
| 65
| 4225
| 54
|}

======Non-trivial result 1======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**
|}

:&lt;math&gt;64 \equiv -4107 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;4096 \equiv -75 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;64\cdot 4096 \equiv -4107\cdot (-75) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;262144 \equiv 308025 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;512^2 \equiv 555^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(555-512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(555+512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(1067, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

======Non-trivial result 2======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 11
| 121 
| -4050 !!

|-
| 61
| 3721 
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;121 \equiv -4050 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3721 \equiv -450 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;121\cdot 3721 \equiv -4050 \cdot (-450) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;450241 \equiv 1822500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;671^2 \equiv 1350^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(1350-671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(679, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(1350+671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(2021, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

=====With 3 congruences=====

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 56
| 3136
| -1035

|-
| 59
| 3481
| -690

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854
|}

:&lt;math&gt;3136 \equiv -1035 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3481 \equiv -690 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3136\cdot 3481 \cdot 21025 \equiv -1035 \cdot -690 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;229517646400 \equiv 12036284100 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;479080^2 \equiv 109710^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p=\text{igcd}(479080-109710,4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(479080+109710, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

======Trivial result======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 89
| 7921
| 3750 **!!

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854 &lt;math&gt;\ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;7921 \equiv 3750 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;7921\cdot 21025 \equiv 3750 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;166539025  \equiv 63202500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;12905^2 \equiv 7950^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(12905-7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(4955, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 1.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(12905+7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(20855, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 4171.&lt;/math&gt;

This congruence produced the trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

===Adding 2 congruences===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+C \equiv B+D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+C) - (B+D) = B + K_1\cdot N + D + K_2\cdot N  - B - D = N(K_1 + K_2)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


===Quadratic Congruences===
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
====Quadratic Residues====
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
=====Products=====
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
======of 2 residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of 2 non-residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of residue and non-residue======
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===Examples===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
=====For speed=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
======Many comparisons======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
======Divide by 2======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=====For clarity=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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===tables===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;65&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4225&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;54&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;66&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4356&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;185&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;88&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7744&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3573&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;89&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7921&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3750&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;90&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;8100&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3929&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;144&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;20736&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16565&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;145&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21025&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16854&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;146&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21316&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;17145&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

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{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

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[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
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&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
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&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
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&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


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[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
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&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
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Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
      <sha1>9zldq9ttm76cg53fiwujz1ove45v23e</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418255</id>
      <parentid>2418233</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T11:14:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Quadratic Congruences */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="38621" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===Quadratic Sieve===

The quadratic sieve is a general purpose factoring method invented by Carl Pomerance in 1981.
Invention of quadratic sieve greatly advanced the science of factorization of integers, particularly those considered difficult, those large integers containing exactly two prime factors of approximately the same precision.

Running time of quadratic sieve is dependent on size of integer to be factored, and the quadratic sieve has accomplished some impressive records in the field of factorization of integers.

This page presents some simple examples of the factorization of small integers. Although using the quadratic sieve on small integers is like driving a thumb tack with a sledge hammer, the examples illustrate how the quadratic sieve is implemented.

====Introduction====
The quadratic sieve attempts to build quadratic congruences of form 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where 
&lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is number to be factored.


Many congruences are created:

&lt;math&gt;x_1^2 \equiv y_1 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_2^2 \equiv y_2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_3^2 \equiv y_3 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\dots\dots\dots&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_{10000}^2 \equiv y_{10000} \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;


Suitable congruences are combined to produce congruent squares:

&lt;math&gt;X^2 \equiv Y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where

&lt;math&gt;X^2  =  x_2^2  \cdot  x_3^2  \cdot  x_5^2  \cdots  x_{9999}^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;Y^2 = y_2 \cdot y_3 \cdot y_5 \cdots y_{9999}&lt;/math&gt;


Then &lt;math&gt;N\mid (X^2 - Y^2)&lt;/math&gt; and, with a little luck,

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_1 = \text{igcd}(X + Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_2 = \text{igcd}(X - Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt; is function
&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;
====Implementation====
This exercise calculates prime factors of 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5137851827.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
=====Build Factor base=====
Let the Factor Base contain 40 small primes, the first 40 for which &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue.
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[2, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 37, 41, 43, 59, 73, 103, 107, 113, 127, 131, 137, 149, 163, 179, 181, 
191, 197, 199, 211, 223, 233, 241, 251, 271, 281, 293, 307, 311, 317, 347, 367, 373, 379, 383]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Dictionary with logarithms of primes=====
Create a table or dictionary containing primes and logarithms of primes. Logarithms to base 2 are calculated.
The reason for choosing base &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; will become apparent later.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{log}_2(x) = \frac{\ln(x)}{\ln(2)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ 2\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;1.0\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 11\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.4594316186372973&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 13\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.700439718141092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 17\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.087462841250339\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 19\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.247927513443585\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 23\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.523561956057013\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 37\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.20945336562895\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 41\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.357552004618084\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 43\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.426264754702098\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 59\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.882643049361842\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 73\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.189824558880018\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;103\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.6865005271832185&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;107\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.741466986401147\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;113\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.820178962415188\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;127\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.9886846867721655&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;131\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.03342300153745\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;137\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.098032082960526\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;149\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.219168520462161\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;163\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.348728154231077\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.483815777264256\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;181\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.499845887083206\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;191\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.577428828035749\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;197\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.622051819456376\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;199\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.636624620543649\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;211\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.721099188707185\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;223\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.800899899920305\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;233\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.864186144654281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;241\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.912889336229962\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;251\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.971543553950772\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;271\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.08214904135387\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.134426320220927\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;293\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.194756854422248\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;307\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.262094845370179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;311\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.280770770130603\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;317\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.308339030139408\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.43879185257826\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;367\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.519636252843213\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;373\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.543031820255237\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;379\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.566054038171092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;383\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.581200581924957\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

=====Initialize sieve=====
In a regular sieve fine material falls through sieve and coarse material is retained.
In this sieve coarse material falls through sieve and fine material is retained.

The expression &quot;coarse material&quot; refers to integers containing a small number of large primes, the great majority of integers.

The expression &quot;fine material&quot; refers to integers containing a large number of small primes, primes that are members of this factor base, or &quot;smooth&quot; according to this factor base.

The base or root of operations is the smallest value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
for which &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is a positive number.

&lt;math&gt;root = x = 71679,\ y = 27214.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:

root = 71679

sieve = dict()

sieve[root] = [2]

for prime in factorBase[1:] :
    count = 0
    for x in range (root, root+2*(prime+2)) :
        y = x**2 - N
        if (y % prime) == 0 :
            if x in sieve : sieve[x] += [prime]
            else :  sieve[x] = [prime]
            count += 1
        if count &gt;= 2 : break
    if count != 2 : print ('Internal error 1.')

L1 = sorted([p for p in sieve])

print()
print ('Initialized sieve contains', len(sieve),
       'keys in range from', L1[0], 'through', L1[-1],
       'or', L1[-1]-L1[0]+1, 'possibilities.')

for key in L1[::-1] :
    print (key, '|', sieve[key])
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Initialized sieve contains 65 keys in range from 71679 through 71954 or 276 possibilities.

  x   | factor/s of y = x^2 - N
------|------------------------
71954 | [379]
71946 | [293]
71939 | [311]
71917 | [293]
71915 | [373]
71906 | [281]
71876 | [211, 307]
71864 | [317]
71852 | [191]
71850 | [241]
71849 | [223, 383]
71847 | [179]
71841 | [347]
71839 | [251]
71830 | [271]
71824 | [163]
71820 | [149]
71817 | [347]
71816 | [149]
71815 | [211]
71813 | [181]
71806 | [367]
71804 | [131]
71800 | [271, 307]
71786 | [241]
71780 | [191]
71779 | [163]
71777 | [113]
71776 | [383]
71773 | [199]
71772 | [131]
71771 | [233]
71763 | [223]
71760 | [107, 127]
71758 | [103]
71757 | [233]
71751 | [73]
71750 | [127]
71743 | [311]
71737 | [317]
71733 | [113, 137, 251]
71727 | [107]
71721 | [43, 103]
71720 | [181]
71717 | [59]
71716 | [41]
71715 | [37]
71713 | [197]
71712 | [59]
71711 | [179]
71706 | [137, 199]
71703 | [197]
71702 | [41]
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71680 | [13]
71679 | [2, 11]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Activate sieve=====
While information in table above is accurate, it is incomplete.
Processing of sieve attempts to find values for which information is complete.
======Processing locations in sequence======
The code examines location 71679. Product of factors 2,11 = 22, not enough to provide complete
factorization of &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N.&lt;/math&gt;

Location 71679+2 or 71681 is initialized with [2] and location 71679+11 or 71690 is appended by [11]. Location 71679 is deleted.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Factors of}\ \ y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71697&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[37]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71694&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[73]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71692&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[23]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71691&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[367]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71690&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[17,\ \ 23,\ \ 373,\ \ 11]\ \ \#\ \ \text{Factor}\ \ 11\ \ \text{appended.}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71688&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[17,\ \ 19]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71687&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[379]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71686&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[19]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71685&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[281]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71684&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[11,\ \ 13,\ \ 43]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71681&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[2]\ \ \#\ \ \text{Location}\ \ \text{initialized.}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71680&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[13]&lt;/math&gt;
|}

The code examines location 71680. Factor 13 is not enough to provide complete factorization
of &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N.&lt;/math&gt;

Location 71680+13 or 71693 is initialized with [13]. Location 71680 is deleted.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Factors of}\ \ y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71697&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[37]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71694&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[73]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71693&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[13]\ \ \#\ \ \text{Location}\ \ \text{initialized.}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71692&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[23]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71691&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[367]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71690&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[17,\ \ 23,\ \ 373,\ \ 11]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71688&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[17,\ \ 19]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71687&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[379]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71686&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[19]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71685&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[281]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71684&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[11,\ \ 13,\ \ 43]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71681&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[2]&lt;/math&gt;
|}

The code examines location 71681. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71681+2 or 71683 is initialized with [2]. Location 71681 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71683 | [2] # Location initialized.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Location 71682 does not exist in the sieve. 
The code examines location 71683. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71683+2 or 71685 receives [2]. Location 71683 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281, 2] # Factor 2 appended.
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Processing continues in this way until location 71690 is examined. Factors [17, 23, 373, 11] are complete 
factorization of y = x^2 - N. Values [ 71690 , [17, 23, 373, 11] ] are appended to array &quot;smooth.&quot;

======To improve speed======
There are very few values of y that are smooth. Therefore code is designed to discard unsuitable values of
x quickly, and to make other decisions quickly.

Decisions to discard unsuitable candidates are:

* if x does not exist in sieve.

* if there is only 1 prime for location x. Complete factorization of y requires at least 2 primes.

Code intended to reduce processing time:

&lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = (root + a)^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 - N + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = \text{rootSquaredMinusN} + \text{a(twoRoot + a)}&lt;/math&gt;

Multiplication in last statement above is of smaller numbers than calculation of &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N.&lt;/math&gt;
As size of &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; increases, last statement above becomes more efficient.

Divisions and multiplications are time consuming. Instead of multiplying primes or dividing y = x^2 - N
to determine smoothness, logarithms of primes are added and compared to log(y). Calculation of ln(y) or
log(y) to base 10 is time consuming.
Because y is type int, a good approximation of log(y) to base 2 can be calculated quickly.
As it happens, in this application &quot;close enough&quot; is good enough.

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(37)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;37 = '100101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'100101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(36) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(53)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;53 = '110101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'110101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

However, second most significant bit is set. Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5 + 1 = 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;log_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;6 &gt; x \ge 3&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;12 &gt; x \ge 6&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;24 &gt; x \ge 12&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;48 &gt; x \ge 24&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;96 &gt; x \ge 48&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;6&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;(3 &lt;&lt; (k+1)) &gt; x \ge (3 &lt;&lt; k)&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;k + 2&lt;/math&gt;
|}
======Sieving complete======
Python code that accomplishes the sieving is:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

limit = 10000
rootSquaredMinusN = root**2 - N
twoRoot = root &lt;&lt; 1
notin = count1 = count = 0
smooth = []
numberOfSmoothDesired = 45
for x in range (root, root+limit) :
    if x &amp; 0xFF == 0 :
        '''
This code is added to provide information about sieve
during sieving.
'''
        L1 = sorted([ p for p in sieve ])
        range_ = L1[-1] - L1[0] + 1
        print ('For x =',x, 'Range of sieve =',range_, 'number of empty locations =', range_ - len(L1) )
    if x not in sieve :
        notin += 1
        continue

    primes = sieve[x]
    for prime in primes :
        v = x + prime
        if v in sieve : sieve[v] += [prime]
        else : sieve[v] = [prime]
    del (sieve[x])

    if len(primes) == 1 :
        count1 += 1 ; continue                 
    a = x - root
    y = rootSquaredMinusN + a*(twoRoot + a)
    L1 = [ sum for sum in (0,) for prime in primes for sum in (sum+log[prime],) ]  
    sumOfLogs = L1[-1]
    log_y = logBase2(y)
    if sumOfLogs &gt;= 0.95*log_y :
        count += 1
        product = [ prod for prod in (1,) for prime in primes for prod in (prod*prime,) ][-1]
        if y == product :
            smooth += [[x,primes]]
            if len(smooth) &gt;= numberOfSmoothDesired : break
            
print ('Range of values of x =', x-root+1)
print ('Number of empty locations in sieve =', notin)
print ('Number of locations with only 1 prime =', count1)
print ('Number of locations tested =', x-root+1-notin-count1)
print ('Number of locations chosen for close examination =', count)
print ('Number of values of x retained after close examination =', len(smooth))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Range of sieve}&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Number of empty locations}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;71680\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;275\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;210&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;71936\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;353\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;288&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72192\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;350\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;287&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72448\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;377\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;312&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72704\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;331\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;266&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72960\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;349\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;286&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73216\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;366\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;305&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73472\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;378\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;314&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73728\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;276&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73984\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;356\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;287&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74240\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;368\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;306&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74496\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;345\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;280&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74752\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;358\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;292&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75008\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;358\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;293&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75264\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;342\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;278&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75520\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;336\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;272&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Thousands of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; are tested. At any one time the range of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
in sieve is &lt;math&gt;&lt; 400&lt;/math&gt; and sieve is mostly empty.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Range of values of x = 3922
Number of empty locations in sieve = 585
Number of locations with only 1 prime = 1331
Number of locations tested = 2006
Number of locations chosen for close examination = 45
Number of values of x retained after close examination = 45
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;&quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
====Welcomee====
{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFF800;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;

=====Welcomen=====
{{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFFFFF;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;6&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-221&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;7&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-208&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;8&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-193&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;9&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-176&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;10&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-157&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;11&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-136&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;12&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-113&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;13&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-88&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;14&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-61&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;15&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;16&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-1&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;17&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;18&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;67&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;19&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;104&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;20&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;143&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;21&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;184&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;22&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;227&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;23&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;272&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;24&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;319&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;25&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;368&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;26&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;419&lt;/code&gt;
|}

==Law of addition==
===Factors of integer N===

Several modern methods for determining the factors of a given integer attempt
to create two congruent squares modulo integer 
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

This means that the difference between the two squares is exactly divisible
by &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;: &lt;math&gt;N\mid (x^2 - y^2).&lt;/math&gt;

Integer &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; always contains the factors &lt;math&gt;N,1,&lt;/math&gt; called trivial factors.

If &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; contains two non-trivial factors
&lt;math&gt;p,q,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;\frac{(x+y)(x-y)}{p \cdot q}.&lt;/math&gt;

With a little luck &lt;math&gt;p\mid (x+y)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\mid (x-y)&lt;/math&gt; in which case:

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(x+y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(x-y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where

&quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt;&quot; is function &quot;&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;&quot;
====A simple example:====

We will use quadratic congruences to calculate factors of &lt;math&gt;N = 4171&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;164 \ge x \ge 1.&lt;/math&gt;

=====Right hand side exact square=====
One congruence produced an exact square for y:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 70
| 4900
| 729
|}
:&lt;math&gt;4900 \equiv 729 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;70^2 \equiv 27^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(70-27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(70+27, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(97, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


=====Right hand side negative=====
Table below contains a sample of values of 
&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that produce negative 
&lt;math&gt;y:&lt;/math&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 7
| 49
| -4122

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 9
| 81
| -4090

|-
| 10
| 100
| -4071

|-
| 11
| 121
| -4050 !!

|-
| 12
| 144
| -4027

|-
| 60
| 3600
| -571

|-
| 61
| 3721
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!

|-
| 62
| 3844
| -327

|-
| 63
| 3969
| -202

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**

|-
| 65
| 4225
| 54
|}

======Non-trivial result 1======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 8
| 64
| -4107 **

|-
| 64
| 4096
| -75 &lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;**
|}

:&lt;math&gt;64 \equiv -4107 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;4096 \equiv -75 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;64\cdot 4096 \equiv -4107\cdot (-75) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;262144 \equiv 308025 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;512^2 \equiv 555^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(555-512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(43, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(555+512, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(1067, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

======Non-trivial result 2======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 11
| 121 
| -4050 !!

|-
| 61
| 3721 
| -450 &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;121 \equiv -4050 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3721 \equiv -450 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;121\cdot 3721 \equiv -4050 \cdot (-450) \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;450241 \equiv 1822500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;671^2 \equiv 1350^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(1350-671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(679, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(1350+671, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(2021, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;

=====With 3 congruences=====

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 56
| 3136
| -1035

|-
| 59
| 3481
| -690

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854
|}

:&lt;math&gt;3136 \equiv -1035 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3481 \equiv -690 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3136\cdot 3481 \cdot 21025 \equiv -1035 \cdot -690 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;229517646400 \equiv 12036284100 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;479080^2 \equiv 109710^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p=\text{igcd}(479080-109710,4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 43.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(479080+109710, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 97.&lt;/math&gt;


Non-trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;43,97.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

======Trivial result======

The congruences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!   &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

|-
| 89
| 7921
| 3750 **!!

|-
| 145
| 21025
| 16854 &lt;math&gt;\ &lt;/math&gt;!!
|}

:&lt;math&gt;7921 \equiv 3750 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;21025 \equiv 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;7921\cdot 21025 \equiv 3750 \cdot 16854 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;166539025  \equiv 63202500 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;12905^2 \equiv 7950^2 \pmod{4171}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p = \text{igcd}(12905-7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(4955, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 1.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q = \text{igcd}(12905+7950, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \text{igcd}(20855, 4171)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= 4171.&lt;/math&gt;

This congruence produced the trivial factors of &lt;math&gt;4171.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

===Adding 2 congruences===
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If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+C \equiv B+D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+C) - (B+D) = B + K_1\cdot N + D + K_2\cdot N  - B - D = N(K_1 + K_2)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
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===Examples===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
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=====For speed=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
======Many comparisons======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
======Divide by 2======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=====For clarity=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===tables===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;65&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4225&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;54&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;66&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4356&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;185&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;88&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7744&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3573&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;89&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7921&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3750&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;90&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;8100&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3929&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;144&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;20736&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16565&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;145&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21025&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16854&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;146&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21316&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;17145&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
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&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
      <sha1>mmosuz9yoa4fdgyptvvqrt9sbfonmk1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418258</id>
      <parentid>2418255</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T11:15:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Factors of integer N */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="33381" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===Quadratic Sieve===

The quadratic sieve is a general purpose factoring method invented by Carl Pomerance in 1981.
Invention of quadratic sieve greatly advanced the science of factorization of integers, particularly those considered difficult, those large integers containing exactly two prime factors of approximately the same precision.

Running time of quadratic sieve is dependent on size of integer to be factored, and the quadratic sieve has accomplished some impressive records in the field of factorization of integers.

This page presents some simple examples of the factorization of small integers. Although using the quadratic sieve on small integers is like driving a thumb tack with a sledge hammer, the examples illustrate how the quadratic sieve is implemented.

====Introduction====
The quadratic sieve attempts to build quadratic congruences of form 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where 
&lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is number to be factored.


Many congruences are created:

&lt;math&gt;x_1^2 \equiv y_1 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_2^2 \equiv y_2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_3^2 \equiv y_3 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\dots\dots\dots&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_{10000}^2 \equiv y_{10000} \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;


Suitable congruences are combined to produce congruent squares:

&lt;math&gt;X^2 \equiv Y^2 \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; where

&lt;math&gt;X^2  =  x_2^2  \cdot  x_3^2  \cdot  x_5^2  \cdots  x_{9999}^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;Y^2 = y_2 \cdot y_3 \cdot y_5 \cdots y_{9999}&lt;/math&gt;


Then &lt;math&gt;N\mid (X^2 - Y^2)&lt;/math&gt; and, with a little luck,

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_1 = \text{igcd}(X + Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;\text{factor}_2 = \text{igcd}(X - Y, N)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\text{igcd}&lt;/math&gt; is function
&lt;math&gt;\text{integer greatest common divisor.}&lt;/math&gt;
====Implementation====
This exercise calculates prime factors of 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5137851827.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
=====Build Factor base=====
Let the Factor Base contain 40 small primes, the first 40 for which &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue.
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[2, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 37, 41, 43, 59, 73, 103, 107, 113, 127, 131, 137, 149, 163, 179, 181, 
191, 197, 199, 211, 223, 233, 241, 251, 271, 281, 293, 307, 311, 317, 347, 367, 373, 379, 383]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Dictionary with logarithms of primes=====
Create a table or dictionary containing primes and logarithms of primes. Logarithms to base 2 are calculated.
The reason for choosing base &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; will become apparent later.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{log}_2(x) = \frac{\ln(x)}{\ln(2)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ 2\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;1.0\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 11\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.4594316186372973&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 13\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;3.700439718141092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 17\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.087462841250339\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 19\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.247927513443585\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 23\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;4.523561956057013\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 37\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.20945336562895\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 41\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.357552004618084\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 43\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.426264754702098\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 59\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;5.882643049361842\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 73\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.189824558880018\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;103\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.6865005271832185&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;107\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.741466986401147\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;113\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.820178962415188\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;127\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;6.9886846867721655&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;131\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.03342300153745\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;137\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.098032082960526\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;149\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.219168520462161\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;163\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.348728154231077\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.483815777264256\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;181\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.499845887083206\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;191\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.577428828035749\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;197\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.622051819456376\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;199\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.636624620543649\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;211\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.721099188707185\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;223\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.800899899920305\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;233\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.864186144654281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;241\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.912889336229962\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;251\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;7.971543553950772\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;271\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.08214904135387\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;281\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.134426320220927\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;293\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.194756854422248\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;307\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.262094845370179\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;311\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.280770770130603\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;317\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.308339030139408\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.43879185257826\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;367\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.519636252843213\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;373\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.543031820255237\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;379\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.566054038171092\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;383\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;8.581200581924957\ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

=====Initialize sieve=====
In a regular sieve fine material falls through sieve and coarse material is retained.
In this sieve coarse material falls through sieve and fine material is retained.

The expression &quot;coarse material&quot; refers to integers containing a small number of large primes, the great majority of integers.

The expression &quot;fine material&quot; refers to integers containing a large number of small primes, primes that are members of this factor base, or &quot;smooth&quot; according to this factor base.

The base or root of operations is the smallest value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
for which &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is a positive number.

&lt;math&gt;root = x = 71679,\ y = 27214.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:

root = 71679

sieve = dict()

sieve[root] = [2]

for prime in factorBase[1:] :
    count = 0
    for x in range (root, root+2*(prime+2)) :
        y = x**2 - N
        if (y % prime) == 0 :
            if x in sieve : sieve[x] += [prime]
            else :  sieve[x] = [prime]
            count += 1
        if count &gt;= 2 : break
    if count != 2 : print ('Internal error 1.')

L1 = sorted([p for p in sieve])

print()
print ('Initialized sieve contains', len(sieve),
       'keys in range from', L1[0], 'through', L1[-1],
       'or', L1[-1]-L1[0]+1, 'possibilities.')

for key in L1[::-1] :
    print (key, '|', sieve[key])
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Initialized sieve contains 65 keys in range from 71679 through 71954 or 276 possibilities.

  x   | factor/s of y = x^2 - N
------|------------------------
71954 | [379]
71946 | [293]
71939 | [311]
71917 | [293]
71915 | [373]
71906 | [281]
71876 | [211, 307]
71864 | [317]
71852 | [191]
71850 | [241]
71849 | [223, 383]
71847 | [179]
71841 | [347]
71839 | [251]
71830 | [271]
71824 | [163]
71820 | [149]
71817 | [347]
71816 | [149]
71815 | [211]
71813 | [181]
71806 | [367]
71804 | [131]
71800 | [271, 307]
71786 | [241]
71780 | [191]
71779 | [163]
71777 | [113]
71776 | [383]
71773 | [199]
71772 | [131]
71771 | [233]
71763 | [223]
71760 | [107, 127]
71758 | [103]
71757 | [233]
71751 | [73]
71750 | [127]
71743 | [311]
71737 | [317]
71733 | [113, 137, 251]
71727 | [107]
71721 | [43, 103]
71720 | [181]
71717 | [59]
71716 | [41]
71715 | [37]
71713 | [197]
71712 | [59]
71711 | [179]
71706 | [137, 199]
71703 | [197]
71702 | [41]
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71680 | [13]
71679 | [2, 11]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
=====Activate sieve=====
While information in table above is accurate, it is incomplete.
Processing of sieve attempts to find values for which information is complete.
======Processing locations in sequence======
The code examines location 71679. Product of factors 2,11 = 22, not enough to provide complete
factorization of &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N.&lt;/math&gt;

Location 71679+2 or 71681 is initialized with [2] and location 71679+11 or 71690 is appended by [11]. Location 71679 is deleted.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Factors of}\ \ y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71697&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[37]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71694&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[73]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71692&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[23]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71691&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[367]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71690&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[17,\ \ 23,\ \ 373,\ \ 11]\ \ \#\ \ \text{Factor}\ \ 11\ \ \text{appended.}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71688&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[17,\ \ 19]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71687&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[379]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71686&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[19]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71685&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[281]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71684&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[11,\ \ 13,\ \ 43]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71681&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[2]\ \ \#\ \ \text{Location}\ \ \text{initialized.}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71680&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[13]&lt;/math&gt;
|}

The code examines location 71680. Factor 13 is not enough to provide complete factorization
of &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N.&lt;/math&gt;

Location 71680+13 or 71693 is initialized with [13]. Location 71680 is deleted.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Factors of}\ \ y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71697&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[37]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71694&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[73]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71693&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[13]\ \ \#\ \ \text{Location}\ \ \text{initialized.}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71692&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[23]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71691&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[367]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71690&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[17,\ \ 23,\ \ 373,\ \ 11]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71688&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[17,\ \ 19]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71687&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[379]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71686&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[19]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71685&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[281]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71684&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[11,\ \ 13,\ \ 43]&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ 71681&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;[2]&lt;/math&gt;
|}

The code examines location 71681. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71681+2 or 71683 is initialized with [2]. Location 71681 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281]
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
71683 | [2] # Location initialized.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Location 71682 does not exist in the sieve. 
The code examines location 71683. Factor 2 is not enough to provide complete factorization of y = x^2 - N

Location 71683+2 or 71685 receives [2]. Location 71683 is deleted.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
71697 | [37]
71694 | [73]
71693 | [13]
71692 | [23]
71691 | [367]
71690 | [17, 23, 373, 11]
71688 | [17, 19]
71687 | [379]
71686 | [19]
71685 | [281, 2] # Factor 2 appended.
71684 | [11, 13, 43]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Processing continues in this way until location 71690 is examined. Factors [17, 23, 373, 11] are complete 
factorization of y = x^2 - N. Values [ 71690 , [17, 23, 373, 11] ] are appended to array &quot;smooth.&quot;

======To improve speed======
There are very few values of y that are smooth. Therefore code is designed to discard unsuitable values of
x quickly, and to make other decisions quickly.

Decisions to discard unsuitable candidates are:

* if x does not exist in sieve.

* if there is only 1 prime for location x. Complete factorization of y requires at least 2 primes.

Code intended to reduce processing time:

&lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = (root + a)^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = root^2 - N + 2\cdot a\cdot root + a^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = \text{rootSquaredMinusN} + \text{a(twoRoot + a)}&lt;/math&gt;

Multiplication in last statement above is of smaller numbers than calculation of &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N.&lt;/math&gt;
As size of &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; increases, last statement above becomes more efficient.

Divisions and multiplications are time consuming. Instead of multiplying primes or dividing y = x^2 - N
to determine smoothness, logarithms of primes are added and compared to log(y). Calculation of ln(y) or
log(y) to base 10 is time consuming.
Because y is type int, a good approximation of log(y) to base 2 can be calculated quickly.
As it happens, in this application &quot;close enough&quot; is good enough.

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(37)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;37 = '100101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'100101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(36) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\log_2(53)&lt;/math&gt; for example:

As binary, &lt;math&gt;53 = '110101'&lt;/math&gt;

Length of &lt;math&gt;'110101'&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;6.&lt;/math&gt; Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5.&lt;/math&gt;

However, second most significant bit is set. Therefore &lt;math&gt;\log_2(53) = 5 + 1 = 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;log_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;6 &gt; x \ge 3&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;12 &gt; x \ge 6&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;24 &gt; x \ge 12&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;48 &gt; x \ge 24&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;96 &gt; x \ge 48&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;6&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;(3 &lt;&lt; (k+1)) &gt; x \ge (3 &lt;&lt; k)&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;k + 2&lt;/math&gt;
|}
======Sieving complete======
Python code that accomplishes the sieving is:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

limit = 10000
rootSquaredMinusN = root**2 - N
twoRoot = root &lt;&lt; 1
notin = count1 = count = 0
smooth = []
numberOfSmoothDesired = 45
for x in range (root, root+limit) :
    if x &amp; 0xFF == 0 :
        '''
This code is added to provide information about sieve
during sieving.
'''
        L1 = sorted([ p for p in sieve ])
        range_ = L1[-1] - L1[0] + 1
        print ('For x =',x, 'Range of sieve =',range_, 'number of empty locations =', range_ - len(L1) )
    if x not in sieve :
        notin += 1
        continue

    primes = sieve[x]
    for prime in primes :
        v = x + prime
        if v in sieve : sieve[v] += [prime]
        else : sieve[v] = [prime]
    del (sieve[x])

    if len(primes) == 1 :
        count1 += 1 ; continue                 
    a = x - root
    y = rootSquaredMinusN + a*(twoRoot + a)
    L1 = [ sum for sum in (0,) for prime in primes for sum in (sum+log[prime],) ]  
    sumOfLogs = L1[-1]
    log_y = logBase2(y)
    if sumOfLogs &gt;= 0.95*log_y :
        count += 1
        product = [ prod for prod in (1,) for prime in primes for prod in (prod*prime,) ][-1]
        if y == product :
            smooth += [[x,primes]]
            if len(smooth) &gt;= numberOfSmoothDesired : break
            
print ('Range of values of x =', x-root+1)
print ('Number of empty locations in sieve =', notin)
print ('Number of locations with only 1 prime =', count1)
print ('Number of locations tested =', x-root+1-notin-count1)
print ('Number of locations chosen for close examination =', count)
print ('Number of values of x retained after close examination =', len(smooth))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Range of sieve}&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;\text{Number of empty locations}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;71680\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;275\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;210&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;71936\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;353\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;288&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72192\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;350\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;287&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72448\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;377\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;312&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72704\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;331\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;266&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;72960\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;349\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;286&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73216\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;366\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;305&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73472\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;378\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;314&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73728\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;347\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;276&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;73984\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;356\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;287&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74240\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;368\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;306&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74496\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;345\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;280&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;74752\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;358\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;292&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75008\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;358\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;293&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75264\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;342\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;278&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;75520\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;336\ \ &lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;272&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Thousands of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; are tested. At any one time the range of values of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
in sieve is &lt;math&gt;&lt; 400&lt;/math&gt; and sieve is mostly empty.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Range of values of x = 3922
Number of empty locations in sieve = 585
Number of locations with only 1 prime = 1331
Number of locations tested = 2006
Number of locations chosen for close examination = 45
Number of values of x retained after close examination = 45
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;&quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
====Welcomee====
{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFF800;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;

=====Welcomen=====
{{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFFFFF;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;6&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-221&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;7&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-208&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;8&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-193&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;9&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-176&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;10&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-157&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;11&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-136&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;12&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;-113&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;13&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-88&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;14&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-61&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;15&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;16&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;-1&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;17&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;32&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;18&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;67&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;19&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;104&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;20&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;143&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;21&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;184&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;22&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;227&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;23&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;272&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;24&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;319&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;25&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;368&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;26&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;code&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;419&lt;/code&gt;
|}

==Law of addition==
===Adding 2 congruences===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+C \equiv B+D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+C) - (B+D) = B + K_1\cdot N + D + K_2\cdot N  - B - D = N(K_1 + K_2)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


===Examples===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
=====For speed=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
======Many comparisons======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
======Divide by 2======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=====For clarity=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===tables===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;65&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4225&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;54&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;66&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;4356&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;185&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;88&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7744&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3573&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;89&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;7921&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3750&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;**!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;90&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;8100&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;math&gt;\ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;3929&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;144&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;20736&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16565&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;145&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21025&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;16854&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;code&gt;!!&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| &lt;code&gt;146&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;21316&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;17145&lt;/code&gt;&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs</title>
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        <username>Jtneill</username>
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      <text bytes="4423" xml:space="preserve">{{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 04: Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|fourth}}
{{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}}
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --&gt;
[[File:Carrot and stick motivation.svg|200px|right]]
==Overview==
This lecture discusses human motivation in terms of:
* extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (and a taxonomy of motivation)
* psychological needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness)

Key question: What is the secret sauce recipe for unlocking &quot;intrinsic motivation&quot;?

Take-home messages:
* The quality of motivation (intrinsic vs. extrinsic) is as important as quantity of motivation
* To flourish, motivation needs conditions which support autonomy, competence, and relatedness

==Multimedia==
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6XAPnuFjJc The surprising science of motivation] (Dan Pink, RSA Animate, YouTube) (10:47 min): Explains the psychological ingredients for harnessing motivation in the workplace. External motivators such as money are useful up to a point, but beyond that the work needs to allow for autonomy and be meaningful to engage intrinsic motivation.
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5aH2Ppjpcho&amp;t=594 What makes us feel good about our work?] (Dan Ariely, TEDx talk, 2013) (10:32 min): This video describes several eye-opening experiments which manipulate the way simple tasks are conducted and measure how this affects people's performance and reaction. A key conclusion is that the amount of control and effort we put into a task influences how much value the outcome.

==Readings==
# Chapter 05: Extrinsic motivation and internalisation ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve, 2018]])
# Chapter 06: Psychological needs ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve, 2018]])

==Slides==
* Lecture slides
** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1kHoSY6Lzd-Shr8v23F6gYvxGCr6-neN8B4_sqyKAKZM/edit?usp=sharing Extrinsic motivation and internalisation] (Google Slides)
** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1HOjJDhp7GDQdbUMqZ6zp_vXVlgGjjXUW90nJps3__Mc/edit?usp=sharing Psychological needs] (Google Slides)
&lt;!-- ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/extrinsic-motivation-79269759 Extrinsic motivation] (Slideshare)
** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-needs-79269786 Psychological needs] (Slideshare)
2016 and pre * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-and-social-needs Lecture slides] (Slideshare) --&gt;
* Handouts
** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation &amp; psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation &amp; psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]]
** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation &amp; psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation &amp; psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]]

==See also==
* [[/Images/]]
* [[w:Carrot and stick|Carrot and stick]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Extrinsic motivation]]
* [[Intrinsic motivation]]
* [[Psychological needs]]
* [[Self-determination theory]]

;Lectures
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Brain and physiological needs|Brain and physiological needs]] (Previous lecture)
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Implicit motives and goals|Implicit motives and goals]] (Next lecture)

;Tutorial
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] (Tutorial)

==Recording==
* Lecture 04 recording (2022) TBA
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1989aa67804d4be1a303929130a548dc Lecture 04 recording] (2021)&lt;!--
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/e55696b69da3443196bf841065bf971f Lecture 04 recording] (2020)
* [https://echo360.org.au/media/fbd8e957-d65c-489f-a339-872692e16377/public Lecture 04 recording] (2019)
* [https://echo360.org.au/media/3fbadbcd-a822-45ca-8280-06c49eac8581/public Lecture 04 recording] (2017)
--&gt;

==External links==
* [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/meta-theory-the-organismic-viewpoint/ Meta-theory: The organismic viewpoint] (selfdeterminationtheory.org){{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}}

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]]</text>
      <sha1>0zsxhh2me76ogjim5rh8qlmvfnddx3t</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-24T01:55:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
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      <text bytes="4581" xml:space="preserve">{{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 04: Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|fourth}}
{{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}}
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --&gt;
[[File:Carrot and stick motivation.svg|200px|right]]
==Overview==
This lecture discusses human motivation in terms of:
* extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (and a taxonomy of motivation)
* psychological needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness)

Key question: What is the secret sauce recipe for unlocking &quot;intrinsic motivation&quot;?

Take-home messages:
* The quality of motivation (intrinsic vs. extrinsic) is as important as quantity of motivation
* To flourish, motivation needs conditions which support autonomy, competence, and relatedness

==Multimedia==
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6XAPnuFjJc The surprising science of motivation] (Dan Pink, RSA Animate, YouTube) (10:47 min): Explains the psychological ingredients for harnessing motivation in the workplace. External motivators such as money are useful up to a point, but beyond that the work needs to allow for autonomy and be meaningful to engage intrinsic motivation.
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5aH2Ppjpcho&amp;t=594 What makes us feel good about our work?] (Dan Ariely, TEDx talk, 2013) (10:32 min): This video describes several eye-opening experiments which manipulate the way simple tasks are conducted and measure how this affects people's performance and reaction. A key conclusion is that the amount of control and effort we put into a task influences how much value the outcome.

What these videos have in common is the message that the more complex the task, the more important is intrinsic motivation, connection, and meaning/purpose.

==Readings==
# Chapter 05: Extrinsic motivation and internalisation ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve, 2018]])
# Chapter 06: Psychological needs ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve, 2018]])

==Slides==
* Lecture slides
** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1kHoSY6Lzd-Shr8v23F6gYvxGCr6-neN8B4_sqyKAKZM/edit?usp=sharing Extrinsic motivation and internalisation] (Google Slides)
** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1HOjJDhp7GDQdbUMqZ6zp_vXVlgGjjXUW90nJps3__Mc/edit?usp=sharing Psychological needs] (Google Slides)
&lt;!-- ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/extrinsic-motivation-79269759 Extrinsic motivation] (Slideshare)
** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-needs-79269786 Psychological needs] (Slideshare)
2016 and pre * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-and-social-needs Lecture slides] (Slideshare) --&gt;
* Handouts
** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation &amp; psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation &amp; psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]]
** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation &amp; psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation &amp; psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]]

==See also==
* [[/Images/]]
* [[w:Carrot and stick|Carrot and stick]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Extrinsic motivation]]
* [[Intrinsic motivation]]
* [[Psychological needs]]
* [[Self-determination theory]]

;Lectures
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Brain and physiological needs|Brain and physiological needs]] (Previous lecture)
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Implicit motives and goals|Implicit motives and goals]] (Next lecture)

;Tutorial
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] (Tutorial)

==Recording==
* Lecture 04 recording (2022) TBA
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1989aa67804d4be1a303929130a548dc Lecture 04 recording] (2021)&lt;!--
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/e55696b69da3443196bf841065bf971f Lecture 04 recording] (2020)
* [https://echo360.org.au/media/fbd8e957-d65c-489f-a339-872692e16377/public Lecture 04 recording] (2019)
* [https://echo360.org.au/media/3fbadbcd-a822-45ca-8280-06c49eac8581/public Lecture 04 recording] (2017)
--&gt;

==External links==
* [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/meta-theory-the-organismic-viewpoint/ Meta-theory: The organismic viewpoint] (selfdeterminationtheory.org){{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}}

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]]</text>
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{{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}}
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --&gt;
[[File:Carrot and stick motivation.svg|200px|right]]
==Overview==
This lecture discusses human motivation in terms of:
* extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (and a taxonomy of motivation)
* psychological needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness)

Key question: What is the secret sauce recipe for unlocking &quot;intrinsic motivation&quot;?

Take-home messages:
* The quality of motivation (intrinsic vs. extrinsic) is as important as quantity of motivation
* To flourish, motivation needs conditions which support autonomy, competence, and relatedness

==Multimedia==
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6XAPnuFjJc The surprising science of motivation] (Dan Pink, RSA Animate, YouTube) (10:47 min): Explains the psychological ingredients for harnessing motivation in the workplace. External motivators such as money are useful up to a point, but beyond that the work needs to allow for autonomy and be meaningful to engage intrinsic motivation.
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5aH2Ppjpcho&amp;t=594 What makes us feel good about our work?] (Dan Ariely, TEDx talk, 2013) (10:32 min): This video describes several eye-opening experiments which manipulate the way simple tasks are conducted and measure how this affects people's performance and reaction. A key conclusion is that the amount of control and effort we put into a task influences how much value the outcome.

What these videos have in common is the message that the more complex the task, the more important is intrinsic motivation, connection, and meaning/purpose.

==Readings==
# Chapter 05: Extrinsic motivation and internalisation ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve, 2018]])
# Chapter 06: Psychological needs ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve, 2018]])

==Slides==
* Lecture slides
** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1kHoSY6Lzd-Shr8v23F6gYvxGCr6-neN8B4_sqyKAKZM/edit?usp=sharing Extrinsic motivation and internalisation] (Google Slides)
** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1HOjJDhp7GDQdbUMqZ6zp_vXVlgGjjXUW90nJps3__Mc/edit?usp=sharing Psychological needs] (Google Slides)
&lt;!-- ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/extrinsic-motivation-79269759 Extrinsic motivation] (Slideshare)
** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-needs-79269786 Psychological needs] (Slideshare)
2016 and pre * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/psychological-and-social-needs Lecture slides] (Slideshare) --&gt;
* Handouts
** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation &amp; psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation &amp; psychological needs 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]]
** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation &amp; psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 04 - Extrinsic motivation &amp; psychological needs 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]]

==See also==
* [[/Images/]]
* [[w:Carrot and stick|Carrot and stick]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Extrinsic motivation]]
* [[Intrinsic motivation]]
* [[Psychological needs]]
* [[Self-determination theory]]

;Lectures
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Brain and physiological needs|Brain and physiological needs]] (Previous lecture)
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Implicit motives and goals|Implicit motives and goals]] (Next lecture)

;Tutorial
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] (Tutorial)

==Recording==
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/73c5999c38034ba99b4d56a6a875977f Lecture 04 recording] (2022)&lt;!--
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1989aa67804d4be1a303929130a548dc Lecture 04 recording] (2021)
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/e55696b69da3443196bf841065bf971f Lecture 04 recording] (2020)
* [https://echo360.org.au/media/fbd8e957-d65c-489f-a339-872692e16377/public Lecture 04 recording] (2019)
* [https://echo360.org.au/media/3fbadbcd-a822-45ca-8280-06c49eac8581/public Lecture 04 recording] (2017)
--&gt;

==External links==
* [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/meta-theory-the-organismic-viewpoint/ Meta-theory: The organismic viewpoint] (selfdeterminationtheory.org){{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}}

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]]</text>
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      <text bytes="16786" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Topic development - Guidelines}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Development of chapter plan and user page''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Show this during semester --&gt;{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Contents}}
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Quickstarttip}}
==Summary==
This assessment exercise builds skills needed for the major project by developing a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book Chapter]] and getting feedback. To do this: Create a Wikiversity user page, share a chapter plan (consisting of headings and key points, including at least one relevant figure), and provide feedback on the development of at least one another book chapter with this social contribution summarised on your Wikiversity user page.

No extensions or late submissions are available for this exercise. If you are unable to submit this assessment on time, withdrawal from the unit is recommended.

==Overview==
# Weight: 5%
# Due: {{/Due}}
# Develop a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book Chapter]].
# Social contribution component involves providing online feedback about the development of at least one other chapter.
# Book chapters are hosted on [[Main Page|Wikiversity]]. Training in how to use Wikiversity is provided in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]].

==Learning outcomes==
How the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:100%;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| Identify the main psychological theories and peer-reviewed research which can be used to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| Propose how psychological knowledge can be applied to a specific topic to improve motivational and emotional lives. 
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:100%;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| Be professional - communicate effectively
| Communicate your ideas by sharing a chapter plan; provide feedback on other plans.
|-
| Be professional - display initiative and drive
| Get organised by selecting a topic and submitting an on-time chapter plan.
|-
| Be a lifelong learner - evaluate and adopt new technology
| Learn how to edit in a collaborative, online environment.
|}

==Guidelines==
Follow these general guidelines and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]:
# '''Chapter plan''': Develop a chapter plan and user page:
##The chapter plan should consist of:
### Title, sub-title, and table of contents
### Headings
### Key points with citations
### 1+ relevant figure(s)
### 3+ references
### 1+ internal link (to a Wikipedia and/or Wikiversity page)
### At least 1 external link (to an external resource)
## &lt;span id=&quot;Word count&quot;&gt;Length (Word count):&lt;/span&gt; There is no minimum or maximum length for this assessment exercise.
# '''User page''': Develop a user page to share:
## About me: Self-introduction, including a link to the chapter being worked on and e-portfolio and/or other profiles.
## Social contributions: A list of social contributions, with a summary and direct link to evidence for each contribution.
## Example: [[User:NUMBLA0371]]

==Marking criteria==
[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]]s will be marked according to the following criteria:
# {{Anchor|Title}}'''Title (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## The [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book's table of contents]] includes an approved title and sub-title with hyperlinks to the chapter page and user page.
## Same title and sub-title are at the top of the chapter page.
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|sentence casing]].
# {{Anchor|User page}}'''User page (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## A Wikiversity user page has been created, with information about yourself.
## Suggested headings: About me, Social contributions.
## Consider linking to your other profiles.
# {{Anchor|Social contributions}}'''Social contribution (10%)''':  See [[#Examples|examples]].
## On your Wikiversity user page, summarise and link to direct evidence that you have provided online feedback about the development of at least one other topic. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Social contribution|More info]].
# {{Anchor|Headings}}'''Headings (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## Use the recommended headings (see [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|template]]) plus three to six informative and correctly formatted top-level headings (between the Overview and Conclusion) which may each contain two to five sub-headings. Note that a section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings - i.e., avoid having sections which only contain 1 sub-heading).
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|sentence casing]] (see also [[:Template:Heading casing|heading casing]]).
# {{Anchor|Key points}}'''Key points (30%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## In each section, provide at least two key points which summarise psychological science (theory and research) about the topic, including key citations.
## Provide at least one key point before branching into sub-sections.
## Focus on addressing the problem (i.e., the question in the sub-title) using the best available psychological theory and research.
## Link key concepts to further info (e.g., other book chapters and/or relevant Wikipedia articles).
# {{Anchor|Figure}}'''Figure (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## Display at least one relevant figure. See [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#Figures|example]].
## Provide a descriptive caption underneath.
# {{Anchor|References}}'''References (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## Provide at least three APA style references for peer-reviewed sources cited in the key points.
# {{Anchor|Resources}}'''Resources (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## See also: Provide at least one bullet-pointed [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) link]] to a relevant book chapter or other Wikiversity or Wikipedia page. The linked text should be the name of the target page. Include the source in parentheses following the link.
## External links: Provide at least one bullet-pointed [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external link]] to a key internet resource (not Wikiversity or Wikipedia). The linked text should be the name of the target page or site. Include the source in parentheses following the link.

==Grade descriptions==
This section describes typical characteristics of topic developments at each grade level, based on the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]].

{| border=1 cellpadding=7 cellspacing=0 style = &quot;background:transparent; width:90%&quot;
! Grade
! Description
|-
| style=&quot;width:140px; vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''HD (High Distinction)'''
| A clear, complete, easy to understand plan is presented. Considerable depth and breadth of theoretical and research knowledge of the topic is demonstrated via the scope and detail within the plan. All recommended sections are provided. The development of the plan illustrates that author has actively engaged in developing skills required for collaborative online writing and editing (e.g., interwiki links are provided for key terms, responses are made to comments on the chapter talk page). There are citations to more than three key academic sources with references provided in APA style. The author introduces themself on their Wikiversity user page and summarises and provides directly verifiable evidence of feedback provided about the development of at least one other book chapter topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''DI (Distinction)'''
| A very good, understandable plan is presented. The plan includes key relevant theory and research, with relevant references. The material is well organised into sections, with minimal spelling and grammar issues. There is good evidence that the author has developed the capacity to work effectively in the collaborative editing environment. The author's user page is set up and links to evidence of contributing feedback about other chapters. There is at least one key area for further improvement.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''CR (Credit)'''
| A competent plan is presented. The plan includes the main ideas and sections necessary for developing a good chapter about the topic. Some aspects of the plan, however, may be missing, limited, or problematic. For example, the headings and structure may be under-developed, the reference list may indicate a lack of depth in investigation of the topic, use of wiki links and/or images could often be improved, and/or user page set-up feedback about other chapters may not have been completed.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''P (Pass)'''
| A basic, sufficient plan is presented, however there may be incomplete coverage of relevant theory and research, and/or a lack of depth or breadth in conceptualising the chapter. The chapter plan may cover basic information about separate concepts, but lack detail about how the concepts will be brought together to help address the topic. A basic heading structure is presented, but is likely to need more sections and/or improved formatting or organisation. Spelling and grammar problems are often evident. Citation and referencing tends to be missing or limited in scope and quality (e.g., top peer-reviewed citations about the topic haven't been cited). These plans usually have very brief edit histories (e.g., less than 24 hours) and are often noticeably shorter than plans which attract higher grades. Authors often haven't set up an informative user page or provided evidence of engagement with the development of other chapter plans.
|- 
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''F (Fail)'''
| The plan is insufficient and/or incomplete. Major gaps and/or errors in content are evident. Little evidence of awareness of relevant theory, research, and use of peer-reviewed references. These plans typically have under-developed heading structures and do not illustrate the use of key editing skills. Written expression is often undermined by poor spelling and/or grammar. These plans typically have very brief editing histories (e.g., consist of a few, last minute edits). There is generally no evidence of active engagement with the development of other chapters.
|}

==Submission and marking==
#Submit via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}.
#Submissions will be evaluated according to the [[#marking criteria|marking criteria]].
#No extensions will be approved. Late submissions will receive 0.
#Marks and feedback should be returned within three weeks of the due date.
##Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}
##Feedback will be available via the book chapter's Wikiversity discussion page.
##Availability of marks and feedback will be notified via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} Announcements.
#If you don't understand or disagree with your mark and/or feedback, then please see the [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].

==Examples==
Examples of topic development submissions which received 100% - links go to snapshots of pages as submitted:
;2021
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Affective_disorders&amp;oldid=2314003 Affective disorders] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3186377&amp;action=history U3186377]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Cognitive_dissonance_and_motivation&amp;oldid=2313463 Cognitive dissonance and motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202904&amp;action=history U3202904]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Domestic_violence_motivation&amp;oldid=2313842 Domestic violence motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3194166&amp;oldid=2313868 U3194166]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Fantasy_and_sexual_motivation&amp;oldid=2313839 Fantasy and sexual motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187741&amp;oldid=2313844 U3187741]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Laziness&amp;oldid=2312068 Laziness] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187874&amp;oldid=2310813 U3187874]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Non-English_emotion_words Non-English emotion words] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202854&amp;oldid=2312677 U3202854]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Positive_illusions_about_the_self&amp;oldid=2312873 Positive illusions about the self] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187178&amp;oldid=2311466 U3187178]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Torture_motivation&amp;oldid=2311842 Torture motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:J.Payten&amp;oldid=2311388 J.Payten]

;2020
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Body_image_flexibility&amp;oldid=2196896 Body image flexibility] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3170940&amp;oldid=2191350 U3170940]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Emotional_self-efficacy&amp;oldid=2200012 Emotional self-efficacy] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190210&amp;oldid=2198005 U3190210]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Guilty_pleasure&amp;oldid=2196391 Guilty pleasure] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160224&amp;oldid=2198079 U3160224]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Meta-emotion&amp;oldid=2199480 Meta-emotion] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190467&amp;oldid=2194797 U3190467]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2199878 Methamphetamine and emotion] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:NUMBLA0371&amp;oldid=2199869 NUMBLA0371]
;2019
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2019/Growth_mindset_development&amp;oldid=2052186 Growth mindset development] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3172958&amp;oldid=2051716 U3172958]
;2018
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2018/Familicide_motivation&amp;oldid=1916838 Familicide motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160212&amp;oldid=1915671 U3160212]
;2017
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2017/Awe_and_well-being&amp;oldid=1730944 Awe and well-being] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3122707&amp;oldid=1730836 U3122707]

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ Creative Commons 3.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 3.0) and [http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html GFDL] licenses which are irrevocable. These licenses give permission for others to edit and re-use contributed content, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss alternative options with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/Checklist|Topic development - Checklist]]
* Assessment
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|Topic selection]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Quizzes|Quizzes]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Template:METF|Official feedback template]]
* Tutorials
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs#Social contributions|Tutorial 03: Social contributions]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs#Topic development - Checklist|Tutorial 04: Topic development - Checklist]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic| ]]</text>
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    <title>Radiation astronomy/Tauons</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Marshallsumter</username>
        <id>311529</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="102225" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EGB With Models v2.pdf|right|thumb|400px|Compilation is shown of the measurements of the total extragalactic gamma-ray intensity between 1 keV and 820 GeV, with different components from current models. Credit: The e-ASTROGAM Collaboration.{{tlx|free media}}]]
&quot;Previously, it was suggested that the [dark matter] DM consists of [weakly interacting massive particles] WIMPs that naturally emerge from the super-symmetric extension of the Standard model. Such a WIMP particle was predicted to have a mass of the order of 100 GeV. However, no such particle has been experimentally found and the search for DM candidates is now being broadened into other directions. Recently, the idea of involving a complete hidden sector of new particles was revitalized.&quot;&lt;ref name=Kirilova/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Theoretical tauon astronomy==

'''Def.''' &quot;an elementary particle, a lepton, having a mass almost twice that of a proton and a negative charge&quot;&lt;ref name=TauonWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=tauon
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=19 August 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tauon
|accessdate=16 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''tauon'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;the antiparticle of the tauon&quot;&lt;ref name=AntitauonWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=antitauon
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=19 August 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/antitauon
|accessdate=16 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''antitauon'''.

==Koide formula==

The Koide formula is

: &lt;math&gt;Q = \frac{m_e + m_\mu + m_\tau}{\big(\sqrt{m_e} + \sqrt{m_\mu} + \sqrt{m_\tau}\big)^2} \approx 0.666661 \approx \frac{2}{3},&lt;/math&gt;

where the masses of the electron, muon, and tau are measured respectively as ''m''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;{{val|0.510998946|(3)|u=MeV/c2}}, ''m''&lt;sub&gt;μ&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;{{val|105.6583745|(24)|u=MeV/c2}}, and ''m''&lt;sub&gt;τ&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;{{val|1776.86|(12)|u=MeV/c2}}, and the digits in parentheses are the uncertainties in the last figures.&lt;ref name=&quot;AmslerDoser2008&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Amsler|first1=C. |display-authors=etal |collaboration=Particle Data Group |title=Review of Particle Physics|journal=Physics Letters B |volume=667 |issue=1–5 |year=2008 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018 |bibcode=2008PhLB..667....1A}}&lt;/ref&gt; This gives ''Q''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;{{val|0.666661|(7)}}.

Since the uncertainties in ''m''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; and ''m''&lt;sub&gt;μ&lt;/sub&gt; are much smaller than that in ''m''&lt;sub&gt;τ&lt;/sub&gt;, the uncertainty in ''Q'' was calculated as &lt;math&gt;\Delta Q = \frac{\partial Q}{\partial m_\tau}\Delta m_\tau&lt;/math&gt;.

It is clear that no matter what particles are chosen to stand in place of the electron, muon, and tau, {{nowrap|{{frac|1|3}} ≤ Q &lt; 1}}. The upper bound follows from the fact that the square roots are necessarily positive. The lower bound follows from the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, and also from the fact that the value &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{3Q}&lt;/math&gt; can be interpreted as the squared cosine of the angle between the vector &lt;math&gt;(\sqrt{m_e}, \sqrt{m_\mu}, \sqrt{m_\tau})&lt;/math&gt; and the vector &lt;math&gt;(1, 1, 1)&lt;/math&gt; (see [[dot product]]).

The mystery is in the physical value. Not only is this result odd in that three apparently arbitrary numbers should give a simple fraction, but also that ''Q'' (in the case of electron, muon, and tau) is exactly halfway between the two extremes of other particle combinations: {{frac|1|3}} (should the three masses be equal) and 1 (should one mass dominate). The value of ''Q'' = {{frac|2|3}} corresponds to ''m''&lt;sub&gt;τ&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;{{val|1776.969|u=MeV/c2}}.

While the original formula appeared in the context of preon models, other ways have been found to produce it (both by Sumino and by Koide, see references below). As a whole, however, understanding remains incomplete. Similar matches have been found for triplets of quarks depending on running masses.&lt;ref name=Rodejohann&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Rodejohann |first1=W. |last2=Zhang |first2=H. |year=2011 |title=Extension of an empirical charged lepton mass relation to the neutrino sector |journal=Physics Letters B |volume=698 |issue=2 |pages=152–156 |arxiv=1101.5525 |bibcode=2011PhLB..698..152R |doi=10.1016/j.physletb.2011.03.007}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Rosen |first=G. |year=2007 |title=Heuristic development of a Dirac-Goldhaber model for lepton and quark structure  |url=http://home.comcast.net/~gerald-rosen/heuristicmpla.pdf |journal=Modern Physics Letters A |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=283–288 |bibcode=2007MPLA...22..283R |doi=10.1142/S0217732307022621}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite arXiv |last=Kartavtsev |first=A. |year=2011 |title=A remark on the Koide relation for quarks |eprint=1111.0480 |class=hep-ph}}&lt;/ref&gt; With alternating quarks, chaining Koide equations for consecutive triplets, it is possible to reach a result of 173.263947(6) GeV for the mass of the top quark.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite arXiv |last1=Rivero |first1=A. |year=2011 |title=A new Koide tuple: Strange-charm-bottom |eprint=1111.7232 |class=hep-ph}}&lt;/ref&gt;

There are similar empirical formulae which relate other masses. 
Quark masses depend on the energy scale used to measure them, which makes an analysis more complicated.

Taking the heaviest three quarks, charm (1.275 ± 0.03 GeV), bottom (4.180 ± 0.04 GeV) and top (173.0 ± 0.40 GeV), and without using their uncertainties gives the value cited,&lt;ref name=Cao/&gt;

: &lt;math&gt;Q_\text{heavy} = \frac{m_c + m_b + m_t}{\big(\sqrt{m_c} + \sqrt{m_b} + \sqrt{m_t}\big)^2} \approx  0.669 \approx \frac{2}{3}&lt;/math&gt;

This was noticed by Rodejohann and Zhang in the first version of their 2011 article&lt;ref&gt;{{ cite arXiv
 |last1=Rodejohann |first1=W.
 |last2=Zhang |first2=H.
 |year=2011
 |title=Extension of an empirical charged lepton mass relation to the neutrino sector
 |arxiv=1101.5525
 |class=hep-ph}}&lt;/ref&gt; but the observation was removed in the published version,&lt;ref name=Rodejohann/&gt; so the first published mention is in 2012.&lt;ref name=Cao&gt;{{cite journal
 |last1=Cao |first1=F. G.
 |year=2012
 |title=Neutrino masses from lepton and quark mass relations and neutrino oscillations
 |journal=Physical Review D
 |volume=85 |issue=11 |page=113003
 |arxiv=1205.4068
 |bibcode=2012PhRvD..85k3003C
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.85.113003 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Similarly, the masses of the lightest quarks, up (2.2 ± 0.4 MeV), down (4.7 ± 0.3 MeV), and strange (95.0 ± 4.0 MeV), without using their experimental uncertainties yield,

: &lt;math&gt;Q_\text{light} = \frac{m_u + m_d + m_s}{\big(\sqrt{m_u} + \sqrt{m_d} + \sqrt{m_s}\big)^2} \approx 0.56 \approx \frac{5}{9}&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;ref name=Cao/&gt;

In quantum field theory, quantities like coupling constant and mass &quot;run&quot; with the energy scale. That is, their value depends on the energy scale at which the observation occurs, in a way described by a renormalization group equation (RGE).&lt;ref&gt;Green, D., ''Cosmology with MATLAB'' (Singapore: World Scientific, 2016), [https://books.google.com/books?id=7mhIDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA197 p. 197].&lt;/ref&gt; One usually expects relationships between such quantities to be simple at high energies (where some symmetry is unbroken) but not at low energies, where the RG flow will have produced complicated deviations from the high-energy relation. The Koide relation is exact (within experimental error) for the pole masses, which are low-energy quantities defined at different energy scales. For this reason, many physicists regard the relation as &quot;numerology&quot; (e.g.&lt;ref&gt;
{{cite book
 |last=Motl |first=L.
 |date=16 January 2012
 |title=Could the Koide formula be real?
 |url=http://motls.blogspot.com/2012/01/could-koide-formula-be-real.html
 |work=The Reference Frame
 |accessdate=2014-07-10 }}&lt;/ref&gt;). Mechanisms may explain origins of the charged lepton spectrum as well as the Koide formula, e.g., by constructing an effective field theory in which a new gauge symmetry causes the pole masses to exactly satisfy the relation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
 |last=Sumino |first=Y.
 |year=2009
 |title=Family Gauge Symmetry as an Origin of Koide's Mass Formula and Charged Lepton Spectrum
 |journal=Journal of High Energy Physics
 |volume=2009 |issue=5 |pages=75
 |arxiv=0812.2103
 |bibcode=2009JHEP...05..075S
 |doi=10.1088/1126-6708/2009/05/075 }}&lt;/ref&gt; A discussion on pole masses shows how the Koide formula can be reformulated without taking the square roots of masses.&lt;ref&gt;{{ cite thesis
 |last=Goffinet |first=F.
 |year=2008
 |title=A bottom-up approach to fermion masses
 |url=http://inspirehep.net/record/1327002/files/Thesis-2008-Goffinet.pdf
 |type=PhD Thesis
 |publisher=Université catholique de Louvain }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Electromagnetic loops==

&quot;The particle known as the muon has the same negative charge as the electron and the same spin (intrinsic angular momentum) but is considerably heavier than the electron. It may well be that the muon is a single wavelength photon twisted into a tight 4-loop helix. The pattern of magnetic and electric vectors would still be the same as for the electron. This argument may also be extended to the tauon — a super heavy version of the electron.&quot;&lt;ref name=Ranzan&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Conrad Ranzan
|title=The Nature of Gravitational Collapse
|journal=American Journal of Astronomy and Astrophysics
|date=4 June 2016
|volume=4
|issue=2
|pages=15-33
|url=http://www.cellularuniverse.org/G8(ajaa)GravityCollapse-Ranzan.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.11648/j.ajaa.20160402.11
|pmid=
|accessdate=16 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;There is also a way to model the property of spin. Every elementary particle must possess, in addition to a characteristic mass, a certain spin (its intrinsic angular momentum). The looping and twisting motion of the confined photon is ideal for establishing a correspondence with a particle’s spin property.&quot;&lt;ref name=Ranzan/&gt;

&quot;According to the new paradigm, all particles consist of electromagnetic loops (or loops of loops) — all particles are essentially confined photons. When these loops are complete, resonant, and harmonic they represent independent particles, such as the electron, muon, and tauon (and their antiparticle versions).&quot;&lt;ref name=Ranzan/&gt;

==Revised Quantum Electrodynamics==

&quot;In all particle models of [the Revised Quantum Electrodynamic theory] RQED the source terms due to broken symmetry give rise to steady states having a nonzero rest mass and an associated nonzero spin [which] applies to particles with net charge such as the electron, muon, and tauon where the product m&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;M&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; [...] of rest mass and magnetic moment is given a nonzero quantity. Such particles are prevented by the included magnetic field from “exploding” under the action of their electrostatic eigenforce.&quot;&lt;ref name=Lehnert&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Bo Lehnert
|title=Revised Quantum Electrodynamics in a Condensed Form
|journal=Journal of Modern Physics
|date=14 July 2016
|volume=7
|issue=
|pages=1316-1319
|url=https://file.scirp.org/pdf/JMP_2016071417292198.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.4236/jmp.2016.711117
|pmid=
|accessdate=16 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Particles with net integrated electric charge, such as the electron, muon, and tauon, are given by divergent corresponding generating functions and point-charge-like geometries&quot;.&lt;ref name=Lehnert/&gt;

==Leptogenesis==

&quot;In realistic unified models involving so-called SO(10)-inspired patterns of Dirac and heavy right-handed (RH) neutrino masses, the lightest right-handed neutrino N&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; is too light to yield successful thermal leptogenesis, barring highly fine tuned solutions, while the second heaviest right-handed neutrino N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is typically in the correct mass range.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bari&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Pasquale Di Bari and Stephen F. King
|title=Successful N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; leptogenesis with flavour coupling effects in realistic unified models
|journal=Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics
|date=2 October 2015
|volume=10
|issue=
|pages=008
|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1475-7516/2015/10/008/pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1088/1475-7516/2015/10/008
|pmid=
|accessdate=16 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Flavour &quot;coupling effects in the Boltzmann equations may be crucial to the success of such N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; dominated leptogenesis, by helping to ensure that the flavour asymmetries produced at the N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; scale survive N&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; washout.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bari/&gt;

The &quot;only relevant asymmetry is that one produced at the N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; scale in the tauon flavour&quot;.&lt;ref name=Bari/&gt;

&quot;This implies that, at least at lower order, the observed asymmetry can only be produced in the tauon flavour&quot;.&lt;ref name=Bari/&gt;

The &quot;asymmetry is mainly produced by the next-to-lightest RH neutrinos in the tauon flavour but this asymmetry is fully washed-out by the lightest RH neutrinos since the condition K&lt;sub&gt;1τ&lt;/sub&gt; ≲􏰗 1 is not compatible with the measured values of the mixing parameters.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bari/&gt;

One &quot;has also to consider that part of the asymmetry in the tauon flavour is transferred to the electron and muon flavours by flavour coupling effects due primarily to the fact that N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-decays produce in addition to an asymmetry in the tauon lepton doublets also an (hyper charge) asymmetry in the Higgs bosons. This Higgs asymmetry unavoidably induces, through the inverse decays, also an asymmetry in the lepton doublets that at the production are a coherent admixture of electron and muon components. Therefore, in this case, inverse decays actually produce an asymmetry instead of wash it out as in a traditional picture.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bari/&gt;

&quot;It should be noticed how the source of the electron and muon asymmetries is in any case
the tauon asymmetry, but part of this induces a muon and an electron asymmetry thanks to
flavour coupling.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bari/&gt;

&quot;The A to Z model can not only provide a satisfactory fit to all parameters in the leptonic mixing matrix but can also reproduce the correct value of the matter-antimatter asymmetry with N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-dominated leptogenesis. In this respect it is crucial to account for flavour coupling effects due to the redistribution of the asymmetry in particles that do not participate directly to the generation of the asymmetry, in primis the Higgs asymmetry. In particular a “flavour swap” scenario is realised whereby the asymmetry generated in the tauon flavour emerges as a surviving asymmetry dominantly in the muon flavour. The solution works even in the simplest case where the neutrino Dirac mass matrix is equal to the up quark mass matrix.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bari/&gt;

&quot;The muon and the tauon are unstable and after a while they decay into electrons.&quot;&lt;ref name=Barrett&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Ross Barrett, Pier Paolo Delsanto and Angelo Tartaglia
|title=Fields and Particles, In: ''Physics: The Ultimate Adventure''
|publisher=Springer
|location=Cham
|date=8 May 2016
|editor=
|pages=137-151
|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-31691-8_10
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-31691-8_10
|pmid=
|isbn=978-3-319-31690-1
|accessdate=17 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Dark matter particles==
[[Image:Positron spectra from LKP annihilations.png|right|thumb|300px|The “continuum” and “line” positron spectra from LKP annihilations for m&lt;sub&gt;B(1)&lt;/sub&gt; = 1000 GeV. Credit: Satoshi Tsuchida and Masaki Mori.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
&quot;The fact that most of the matter in the Universe consists of non–baryonic dark matter&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; is supported further by the Planck observational data,&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and dark matter should be made of particles which do not exist in the standard model of particle physics. Recent observations of cosmic positron excess&lt;sup&gt;3–5&lt;/sup&gt; could be explained by secondarily produced positrons in annihilation of dark matter particles in the Galactic halo, as is discussed by many authors (see, e.g. Refs.6–8). Among various candidates of dark matter, the lightest Kaluza–Klein particle (LKP), predicted in the theory of universal extra dimensions (UED),&lt;sup&gt;9–11&lt;/sup&gt; is unique since there would be a characteristic edge structure in the cosmic electron plus positron spectrum near the LKP mass as Cheng et al.&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; predicted. The edge structure was calculated by Moiseev et al.&lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt; for Fermi–LAT detection, but, at least in the energy range below 1000 GeV, such structure has not established so far (see, e.g. Refs.4, 14, 15). On the other hand, above 1000 GeV, the observational data are still limited, so the characteristic structure could be observed in near–future missions. For example, the Calorimetric Electron Telescope (CALET), which is a Japanese–led detector and is a fine resolution calorimeter for cosmic–ray observation installed on the International Space Station in August 2015, started exploring the energy range up to 20 TeV for electrons and positrons.&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;&quot;&lt;ref name=Tsuchida&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Satoshi Tsuchida and Masaki Mori
|title=The electron plus positron spectrum from annihilation of Kaluza–Klein dark matter in the Galaxy
|journal=International Journal of Modern Physics D
|date=14 March 2017
|volume=26
|issue=09
|pages=1750095
|url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/1702.06637.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1142/S021827181750095X
|pmid=
|accessdate=17 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;When LKP pairs annihilate, there are some modes which produce electrons and positrons as final products, and we categorize them into two components. One of them is a “line” component, which consists of electron–positron pairs directly produced by annihilation, and gives rise to edge structure near the LKP mass after propagating in the Galactic halo to Earth. Another is a “continuum” component, which consists of secondarily produced electrons and positrons via muon pairs, tauon pairs, quark pairs, and gauge bosons produced by LKP annihilation. The branching ratios are given as follows: 20% for charged leptons, 11% for up–type quarks, 0.7% for down–type quarks, 1% for charged gauge bosons, and 0.5% for neutral gauge bosons, respectively.&lt;sup&gt;11,20&lt;/sup&gt; We use the spectra for line and continuum components given by Cirelli et al.&lt;sup&gt;21&lt;/sup&gt; and Ciafaloni et al.,&lt;sup&gt;22&lt;/sup&gt; which are shown in [the graphs on the right] assuming 100% branching ratios for each component, where the solid line indicates the line spectrum and patterned lines show the continuum spectra from muon pairs, tauon pairs, quark pairs (b, t, c), and gauge bosons, respectively. Note that the line spectra shows a tail toward lower energies due to final state interactions. For comparison, the positron spectra without electroweak corrections are shown in thin lines for the line spectrum and the continuum spectrum for muon pairs. One can see the electroweak correction affects the spectra in the lower energy region.&lt;sup&gt;21, 22&lt;/sup&gt;&quot;&lt;ref name=Tsuchida/&gt;

&quot;Even though neither the nature of the DM particle(s) (χ) nor the mechanism that generates it are known, there are indirect experimental evidences suggesting that χ is indeed a weakly interacting particle. Given that, it is natural to assume that the annihilation, and/or its decay, will involve leptons [...] These can be electrons and positrons, but also muons, which can be generated via annihilation χ + χ → μ&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + μ&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt; and/or decay χ → μ&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + μ&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt;. It should be noted, however, that a similar scenario is not forbidden for the τ particles either, but the cross-section for formation of a two-tauon bound state is negligible, and hence, the observation of a signature of true taonium is considered to be less likely [460]. The advantage of using muonium annihilation lines for the search of DM particles is that the muon mass is much larger than the e± and, hence, the expected signal will be cleaner.&quot;&lt;ref name=Kirilova/&gt;

==Subatomics==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Subatomics|Subatomic astronomy}}
&quot;High energy neutrinos may interact to produce a large cascade of particles. In this case, the production of Cherenkov light remains localized and the photons propagation radially outward (well, almost). The effective volume of AMANDA is much smaller for cascades than muons and the angular resolution is very poor, but there are several interesting features of cascades that make them useful to study. First, the energy resolution of the cascade event can be measured with much better precision relative to the muon signature if the vertex of the interaction is contained. Second, the backgrounds from atmospheric electron neutrinos is much smaller than muon neutrinos at these energies because the decay of atmospheric muons is suppressed by time dilation. Third, cascades are produced by electron neutrinos and tau neutrinos so the ratio of cascades to muon neutrino events provides insight on the properties of neutrino oscillation. Fourth, even downgoing neutrinos can be observed if the energy is larger than ~10 TeV. Thus, the cascade technique is sensitive to neutrinos from any direction.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price&gt;{{ cite book
|author=P. Buford Price and the Amanda Collaboration
|title=AMANDA-II Science Results
|publisher=University of California Irvine
|location=Irvine, California USA
|date=September 8, 2005
|url=http://www.amanda.uci.edu/results.html
|accessdate=2014-03-23 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Like with accelerator physics, most of the interest [in] neutrino astrophysics is at the extreme energy frontier, which we label &quot;extreme high energy&quot; or EHE. Perhaps the most reliable flux predictions (after atmospheric neutrinos) involve the GZK mechanism.  Neutrinos are produced by the inevitable collisions between cosmic rays and the cosmic microwave background. Although the physics required by GZK mechanism is straightforward, the GZK mechanism is still in doubt because one of its predictions has not yet been confirmed. The GZK mechanism predicts are rather strong upper limit on the energy of the cosmic ray, but this upper limit has not yet been clearly identified.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;Experimentally, neutrinos at EHE energies are difficult to detect. As the neutrino energies increase to 1 PeV (10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; eV), the earth becomes opaque except near the horizon. We have developed a new technique to search for &quot;downgoing&quot; nearly horizontal muons. They can be distinguished from the blizzard of downgoing muons from cosmic ray collisions because the energies are much higher than muons generated by cosmic ray collisions. Consequently, the topologies of the events [...] are quite different from the typical event. [A] large number of OMs [...] observe Cherenkov light. The effective detection area for muons at these energies is very large, typically 0.2 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for AMANDA-B10!&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;The effective detection area of AMANDA-II is even larger than B10. In addition, we upgraded the data acquisition system of AMANDA-II. The new system records the complete waveform from all (usable) OMs in the array. This should dramatically improve the dynamic range of the photon measurement and allow far better energy reconstruction for these high energy events.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

&quot;The EHE analysis relies on training a neural net (NN2) to separate background from signal.&quot;&lt;ref name=Price/&gt;

==Tauoniums==

The tau lepton is predicted to form exotic atoms like other charged subatomic particles. One of such, called tauonium by the analogy to muonium, consists of an antitauon and an electron: {{SubatomicParticle|Tau+}}{{SubatomicParticle|Electron}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brodsky&quot;/&gt;

'''Def.''' &quot;a subatomic particle formed by the bound state of a matter tauon with its antimatter partner antitauon&quot;&lt;ref name=TauoniumWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:70.51.44.60|70.51.44.60]]
|title=tauonium
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=18 October 2015
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tauonium
|accessdate=16 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called '''tauonium'''.

Another one is an onium atom {{SubatomicParticle|Tau+}}{{SubatomicParticle|Tau-}} called ''true tauonium'' and is difficult to detect due to tau's extremely short lifetime at low (non-relativistic) energies needed to form this atom. Its detection is important for quantum electrodynamics.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brodsky&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
 | last=Brodsky | first=Stanley J.
 | last2=Lebed  |first2=Richard F.
 | year=2009
 | title=Production of the Smallest QED Atom: True Muonium (μ&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;μ&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt;)
 | journal=Physical Review Letters
 | volume=102 | issue=21 | page=213401
 | arxiv=0904.2225
 | bibcode= 2009PhRvL.102u3401B
 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.213401
| pmid=19519103 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;An interesting possibility is the formation of the analogous leptonic atoms, true muonium μ&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt; −μ&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; and true tauonium τ&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt; − τ&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;. Initial considerations[74] were dismissed due to the short decay times of the constituent particles[75,76]. Recently however, we have revisited the question of leptonium in astrophysical environments[77].&quot;&lt;ref name=Ellis&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=S. C. Ellis and J. Bland-Hawthorn
|title=Astrophysical signatures of leptonium
|journal=The European Physical Journal D
|date=January 2018
|volume=72
|issue=18
|pages=1-9
|url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/1712.02022.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1140/epjd/e2017-80488-7
|pmid=
|accessdate=16 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Because of the intrinsic instability of the particles to decay, leptonium atoms will only form for a small fraction, ∼ 10&lt;sup&gt;−6&lt;/sup&gt; – 10&lt;sup&gt;−7&lt;/sup&gt;, of pairs produced with energies less than the ionisation energy of the atoms. Of these pairs, most will form leptonium, the cross-section for annihilation being much smaller under astrophysical conditions. After formation, it is possible to again produce recombination lines before annihilation, though this is complicated by the fact that the constituent particles may decay.&quot;&lt;ref name=Ellis/&gt;

&quot;The corresponding {{chem|1|S|0}} and {{chem|3|S|1}} lifetimes of (τ&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; τ&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;) are 35.8 and 107 fs [1], respectively, to be compared with the free τ lifetime 291 fs (or half this for a system of two τ’s). The (τ&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; τ&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;) annihilation decay and the weak decay of the constituent τ’s actually compete, making (τ&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; τ&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;) not a pure QED system like (e&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; e&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;) [1].&quot;&lt;ref name=Emami/&gt;

&quot;Nevertheless, there are significant branching ratios for both two photon annihilation and recombination lines for true muonium and small probabilities for true tauonium. Furthermore, even improbable transitions may give rise to significant signatures if the lepton pairs are produced in sufficient quantity - a situation which is common in high energy astrophysical environments. [...] In practice, leptonium formation within micro-quasar jet-star interactions, or within the accretion discs of both AGN and micro-quasars could yield signatures brighter than current detection limits, with those from micro-quasars offering the brightest estimates due to their proximity.&quot;&lt;ref name=Ellis/&gt;

&quot;Analogously to the formation of positronium, it is possible to form atoms of true muonium and true tauonium. Since muons and tauons are intrinsically unstable, the formation of such leptonium atoms will be localised to their places of origin. Thus observations of true muonium or true tauonium can provide another way to distinguish between truly diffuse sources such as dark matter decay, and an unresolved distribution of point sources.&quot;&lt;ref name=Ellis/&gt;

==Mesons==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Mesons}}
[[Image:Neusun1 superk1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This &quot;neutrino image&quot; of the Sun is produced by using the Super-Kamiokande to detect the neutrinos from nuclear fusion coming from the Sun. Credit: R. Svoboda and K. Gordan (LSU).{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Astronomy that benefits from the detection of mesons, directly or indirectly, is '''meson astronomy'''.

For antiproton-proton annihilation at rest, a meson result is, for example,

:&lt;math&gt;p^+ + \bar{p}^- \rightarrow \pi^+ + \pi^-,&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=Klempt&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Eberhard Klempt, Chris Batty, Jean-Marc Richard
|title=The antinucleon-nucleon interaction at low energy: annihilation dynamics
|journal=Physics Reports
|month=July
|year=2005
|volume=413
|issue=4-5
|pages=197-317
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PhR...413..197K
|arxiv=hep-ex/0501020
|bibcode=2005PhR...413..197K
|doi=10.1016/j.physrep.2005.03.002
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;{\pi}^+ \rightarrow {\mu}^+ + {\nu}_{\mu} \rightarrow e^+ + {\nu}_e + {\bar{\nu}}_{\mu} + {\nu}_{\mu},&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=Waxman&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Eli Waxman and John Bahcall
|title=High energy neutrinos from astrophysical sources: An upper bound
|journal=Physical Review D
|month=December 14,
|year=1998
|volume=59
|issue=2
|pages=e023002
|url=http://prd.aps.org/abstract/PRD/v59/i2/e023002
|arxiv=hep--ph/9807282
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.59.023002
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and

:&lt;math&gt;D_S \rightarrow \tau + \bar{\nu}_{\tau} \rightarrow \nu_{\tau} + \bar{\nu}_{\tau}.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=Kodama&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=K. Kodama, N. Ushida1, C. Andreopoulos, N. Saoulidou, G. Tzanakos, P. Yager, B. Baller, D. Boehnlein, W. Freeman, B. Lundberg, J. Morfin, R. Rameika, J.C. Yun, J.S. Song, C.S. Yoon, S.H.Chung, P. Berghaus, M. Kubanstev, N.W. Reay, R. Sidwell, N. Stanton, S. Yoshida, S. Aoki, T. Hara, J.T. Rhee, D. Ciampa, C. Erickson, M. Graham, K. Heller, R. Rusack, R. Schwienhorst, J. Sielaff, J. Trammell, J. Wilcox, K. Hoshino, H. Jiko, M. Miyanishi, M. Komatsu, M. Nakamura, T. Nakano, K. Niwa, N. Nonaka, K. Okada, O. Sato, T. Akdogan, V. Paolone, C. Rosenfeld, A. Kulik, T. Kafka, W. Oliver, T. Patzak, and  J. Schneps
|title=Observation of tau neutrino interactions
|journal=Physics Letters B
|month=April 12,
|year=2001
|volume=504
|issue=3
|pages=218-24
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370269301003070
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-10 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;All other sources of ν&lt;sub&gt;τ&lt;/sub&gt; are estimated to have contributed an additional 15%.&quot;&lt;ref name=Kodama/&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\tau \rightarrow e + \nu_{\tau} + \nu_e,&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=Kodama/&gt;

for two neutrinos.&lt;ref name=Kodama/&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\tau \rightarrow h + \nu_{\tau} + X,&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=Kodama/&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is a hadron, for two neutrinos.&lt;ref name=Kodama/&gt;
{{clear}}

==B mesons==
[[Image:LHCb data on B0 meson production.png|right|thumb|300px|Comparison of the LHCb data on B&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; meson production, both for central and for forward rapidities, with the theoretical predictions from POWHEG and aMC@NLO. Credit: Rhorry Gauld, Juan Rojo, Luca Rottoli and Jim Talbert.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
&quot;The K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;-K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; bar, D&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;-D&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; bar, and B&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;-B&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; bar oscillations are extremely sensitive to the K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; and K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; bar energy at rest. The energy is determined by the values mc&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; with the related mass as well as the energy of the gravitational interaction. Assuming the CPT theorem for the inertial masses and estimating the gravitational potential through the dominant contribution of the gravitational potential of our Galaxy center, we obtain from the experimental data on the K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;-K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; bar oscillations the following constraint: |(m&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt;/m&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; - (m&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt;/m&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; bar&lt;/sub&gt;| ≤ 8·10&lt;sup&gt;-13&lt;/sup&gt;, CL=90%. This estimation is model dependent and in particular it depends on a way we estimate the gravitational potential. Examining the K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;-K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; bar, B&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;-B&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; bar, and D&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;-D&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; bar oscillations provides us also with weaker, but model independent constraints, which in particular rule out the very possibility of antigravity for antimatter.&quot;&lt;ref name=Karshenboim&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Savely G. Karshenboim
|title=Oscillations of neutral mesons and the equivalence principle for particles and antiparticles
|journal=Pis'ma v Zhurnal 'Fizika Ehlementarnykh Chastits i Atomnogo Yadra'
|month=
|year=2009
|volume=6
|issue=155
|pages=745-53
|url=https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:41133347
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-10-02 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;In spite of the apparent parity non-invariance of the ordinary particles, the universe could still be left-right symmetric if [charge conjugation parity] CP were an exact symmetry[11]. But this option is [...] ruled out by experiments on kaons and B-mesons!).&quot;&lt;ref name=Foot&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=R. Foot and Z. K. Silagadze
|title=Supernova explosions, 511 keV photons, gamma ray bursts and mirror matter
|journal=International Journal of Modern Physics D Gravitation; Astrophysics and Cosmology
|month=January
|year=2005
|volume=14
|issue=01
|pages=143-52
|url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0404515
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1142/S0218271805006523
|pmid=
|accessdate=2017-04-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the graphs on the right, the Large Hadron Collider beauty (LHCb) detector data for the production of B&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; mesons, both for central and for forward rapidities, by pp collisions is compared with the theoretical predictions from the Positive Weight Hardest Emission Generator (POWHEG) and the automation of Monte Carlo (MC) at next-to-leading order (NLO) (aMC@NLO).

&quot;The indicated theory uncertainty band includes only the scale uncertainties, and we have verified that parton distribution function (PDF) uncertainties are not so relevant in this case. As in the case of charm, satisfactory agreement between theory and data for B meson production in the forward region is found.&quot;&lt;ref name=Gauld&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Rhorry Gauld, Juan Rojo, Luca Rottoli and Jim Talbert
|title=Charm production in the forward region: constraints on the small-x gluon and backgrounds for neutrino astronomy
|journal=Journal of High Energy Physics
|date=4 November 2015
|volume=11
|issue=9
|pages=
|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/JHEP11(2015)009#citeas
|arxiv=1506.08025
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1007/JHEP11(2015)009
|pmid=
|accessdate=11 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
|+ B mesons
! Particle
! Symbol 
! Anti-particle 
! class=&quot;unsortable&quot;|Quark&lt;br /&gt;content
! Charge
! Isospin&lt;br /&gt;(I)
! Spin and parity&lt;br /&gt;(J&lt;sup&gt;P&lt;/sup&gt;)
! Rest mass&lt;br /&gt;(MeV/''c''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
! strangeness (S
! charm (C)
! bottomness (B')
! Mean lifetime&lt;br /&gt;(s)
! Commonly decays to
|-
| B meson
| B&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| B&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;
| u&lt;math&gt;\bar{b}&lt;/math&gt;
| +1
| {{sfrac|1|2}}
| 0&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{val|5279.29|0.15}}
| 0
| 0
| +1
| {{val|1.638|0.004|e=-12}}
| See [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2015/listings/rpp2015-list-B-plus-minus.pdf &lt;math&gt;B^{+-}&lt;/math&gt; decay modes]
|-
| B meson
| B&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\bar{B}^0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\bar{b}&lt;/math&gt;
|0
| {{sfrac|1|2}}
| 0&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{val|5279.61|0.16}}
| 0
| 0
| +1
| {{val|1.520|0.004|e=-12}}
| See [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2015/listings/rpp2015-list-B-zero.pdf B&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; decay modes]
|-
| Strange B meson
| &lt;math&gt;B^0_s&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\bar{B}^0_s&lt;/math&gt;
| s&lt;math&gt;\bar{b}&lt;/math&gt;
|0
| 0
| 0&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{val|5366.79|0.23}}
| −1
| 0
| +1
| {{val|1.510|0.005|e=-12}}
| See [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2015/tables/rpp2015-tab-mesons-bottom-strange.pdf Strange B&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; decay modes]
|-
| Charmed B meson
| &lt;math&gt;B^+_c&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;B^-_c&lt;/math&gt;
| c&lt;math&gt;\bar{b}&lt;/math&gt;
| +1
| 0
| 0&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{val|6275.1|1.0}}
| 0
| +1
| +1
| {{val|0.507|0.009|e=-12}}
| See [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2015/tables/rpp2015-tab-mesons-bottom-charm.pdf &lt;math&gt;B^{+-}_c&lt;/math&gt; decay modes]
|}
{{clear}}

==Psions==
[[Image:Jpsi-fit-mass.gif|thumb|right|250px|J/Ψ production is graphed. Credit: Fermilab.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is a graph of the production of psi mesons (psions) at Fermilab.

The &quot;discovery of the psi meson in 1974, independently by Samuel C.C. Ting and Burton Richter [22, 23] [pointed out] its lifetime, which was about a thousand times longer than any other similar particle’s lifetime.&quot;&lt;ref name=Apers&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Simon Apers
|title=Improving the IceCube sensitivity with a wavelength
|date=2 June 2014
|publisher=Universiteit Gent
|location=Ghent, Belgium
|pages=88
|url=http://lib.ugent.be/fulltxt/RUG01/002/153/467/RUG01-002153467_2014_0001_AC.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2017-04-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The &quot;SLAC-LBL group looked between a pair of 100-MeV &quot;milestones&quot; and discovered the extremely narrow psi resonance that sent the counting rate up by more than a factor of 100, within the space of 1 MeV and within an observing time interval of 2 hours.&quot;&lt;ref name=Alvarez&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Luis W. Alvarez
|title=Experimental evidence that an asteroid impact led to the extinction of many species 65 million years ago
|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
|month=January
|year=1983
|volume=80
|issue=
|pages=627-42
|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC393431/pdf/pnas00628-0326.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2017-04-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Hadronic decay modes of {{SubatomicParticle|J/Psi}} are strongly suppressed because of the OZI Rule, Susumu Okubo, George Zweig and Jugoro Iizuka in the 1960s&lt;ref&gt;S. Okubo, ''Phys. Lett.'' '''5''', 165 (1963).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;G. Zweig, ''CERN Report'' No.8419/TH412 (1964).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;J. Iizuka, ''Prog. Theor. Phys. Suppl.'' '''37''', 21 (1966).&lt;/ref&gt; which strongly increases the lifetime of the particle and thereby gives it a very narrow decay width of just {{val|93.2|2.1|u=keV}}, electromagnetic decays begin to compete with hadronic decays, and the {{SubatomicParticle|J/Psi}} has a significant branching fraction to leptons:&lt;ref&gt;[http://pdg.lbl.gov/2010/listings/rpp2010-list-J-psi-1S.pdf PDG,J/&amp;psi;(1S)], K. Nakamura et al. (Particle Data Group), JP G 37, 075021 (2010) (URL: http://pdg.lbl.gov)&lt;/ref&gt;

{|
|-
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm antiquark}} &amp;rarr; ggg  || || (64.1 &amp;plusmn; 1.0)%
|-
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm antiquark}} &amp;rarr; &amp;gamma;gg || || (8.8 &amp;plusmn; 0.5)%
|-
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm antiquark}} &amp;rarr; &amp;gamma; || || (~25.4)%
|-
| ||  &amp;gamma;&amp;rarr; hadrons || (13.5 &amp;plusmn; 0.3)%
|-
| ||  &amp;gamma;&amp;rarr; e&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;e&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; || (5.94 &amp;plusmn; 0.06)%
|-
| ||  &amp;gamma;&amp;rarr; &amp;mu;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;mu;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; || (5.93 &amp;plusmn; 0.06)%
|}
{{clear}}

==Omegas==

Ω{{su|p=0|b=c}} has a rest mass of 2695.2 ± 1.7 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Beringer/&gt;

Ω{{su|p=−|b=b}} has a rest mass of 6071 ± 40 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Beringer/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+Omega
|-
! class=unsortable Particle
! Symbol
! Quark&lt;br&gt;content
! Rest mass&lt;br&gt;(electron volt MeV/speed of light ''c''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
! Spin (physics) J&lt;sup&gt;Parity (physics) P&lt;/sup&gt;
! charge (physics) Q&lt;br&gt;(elementary charge ''e'')
! strangeness S
! charm (quantum number) C
! {{nowrap|bottomness|B′}}
! Mean lifetime&lt;br&gt;(second s)
! class=unsortable Decays to
|-
| Charmed omega&lt;ref name=PDGCharmedOmega0&gt;{{cite book |author=Particle Data Group |url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2018/listings/rpp2018-list-omegac-zero.pdf |title={{SubatomicParticle|Charmed omega0}} listing – {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed Omega0}}|accessdate=13 Aug 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed Omega0}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
| {{val|2697.5|2.6}}
| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| −2
| +1
| 0
| {{val|6.9|1.2|e=-14}}
| See [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2018/listings/rpp2018-list-omegac-zero.pdf {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed omega0}} Decay Modes]
|-
| Bottom omega&lt;ref name=CDF&gt;
{{cite journal
 |author=T. Aaltonen ''et al.'' (Collider Detector at Fermilab, CDF Collaboration)
 |year=2009
 |title=Observation of the {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Omega-}} and Measurement of the Properties of the {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi-}} and {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Omega-}}
 |journal=Physical Review D
 |volume=80 |issue=7 |pages=072003
 |arxiv=0905.3123
 |bibcode=2009PhRvD..80g2003A
 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.80.072003
|hdl=1721.1/52706
 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Omega-}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
| {{val|6054.4|6.8}}
| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| −1
| −2
| 0
| −1
|{{val|1.13|0.53|e=-12}}
|{{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Omega-}} + {{SubatomicParticle|J/Psi}}}} (seen)
|-
| Double charmed omega†
| {{SubatomicParticle|Double charmed Omega+}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
|
| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| +1
| −1
| +2
| 0
|
|
|-
| Charmed bottom omega†
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed bottom Omega0}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|
| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| −1
| +1
| −1
|
|
|-
| Double bottom omega†
| {{SubatomicParticle|Double Bottom Omega-}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|
| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| −1
| −1
| 0
| −2
|
|
|-
| Triple charmed omega†
| {{SubatomicParticle|Triple charmed Omega++}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
|
| {{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| +2
| 0
| +3
| 0
|
|
|-
| Double charmed bottom omega†
| {{SubatomicParticle|Double charmed bottom Omega+}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|
| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| +1
| 0
| +2
| −1
|
|
|-
| Charmed double bottom omega†
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed double bottom Omega0}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|
| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| 0
| +1
| −2
|
|
|-
| Triple bottom omega†
| {{SubatomicParticle|Triple Bottom Omega-}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|
| {{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| −1
| 0
| 0
| −3
|
|
|-
|}
† Particle (or quantity, i.e. spin) has neither been observed nor indicated.

==Xis==

Ξ{{su|p=0|b=b}} has a rest mass of 5787.8 ± 5.0 ± 1.3 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Beringer/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+Xi baryons&lt;ref name=&quot;Abazov&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
 |author=V. Abazov et al. (D0 Collaboration)
 |year=2007
 |title=Direct observation of the strange b baryon {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi-}}
 |journal=Physical Review Letters
 |volume=99 |issue=5 |pages=52001
 |arxiv=0706.1690
 |bibcode=2007PhRvL..99e2001A
 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.052001 
|pmid=17930744
 |hdl=10211.3/194385
 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 |date=13 June 2007
 |title=Fermilab physicists discover &quot;triple-scoop&quot; baryon
 |url=http://www.fnal.gov/pub/presspass/press_releases/Dzero_baryon.html
 |publisher=Fermilab
 |accessdate=2007-06-14
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 |date=25 June 2007
 |title=Back-to-Back b Baryons in Batavia
 |url=http://www.fnal.gov/pub/presspass/press_releases/backtobackBaryons.html
 |publisher=Fermilab
 |accessdate=2007-06-25
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Aaltonen&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
 |author=T. Aaltonen et al. (CDF Collaboration)
 |year=2007
 |title=Observation and mass measurement of the baryon Xi(b)-
 |journal=Physical Review Letters
 |volume=99 |issue=5 |pages=52002
 |arxiv=0707.0589
 |bibcode=2007PhRvL..99e2002A
 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.052002
|pmid=17930745
 |hdl=10261/8530
 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
! class=unsortable Particle
! Symbol
! Makeup
! Rest mass&lt;br&gt;electron volt MeV/speed of light ''c''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
! Isospin&lt;br&gt;Isospin I
! Spin (physics) Spin (Parity (physics) parity)&lt;br&gt;Spin (physics) J&lt;sup&gt;Parity (physics) P&lt;/sup&gt;
! charge (physics) Q
! strangeness S
! charm (quantum number) C
! bottomness B
! Mean lifetime&lt;br&gt;second s
! class=unsortable Decays to
|-
| charmed Xi&lt;ref name=&quot;PDGCharmedBaryons&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
 |author=W.-M. Yao et al. (Particle Data Group)
 |year=2006
 |title=Particle listings – Charmed baryons
 |journal=Journal of Physics G
 |url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/tables/bxxxcharm.pdf
 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=1–1232
 |arxiv= astro-ph/0601168
 |bibcode= 2006JPhG...33....1Y
 |doi= 10.1088/0954-3899/33/1/001
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed Xi+}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|2467.9|0.4}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|4.42|0.26|e=-13}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| See [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/tables/bxxxcharm.pdf {{SubatomicParticle|charmed Xi+}} Decay Modes]
|-
| charmed Xi&lt;ref name=&quot;PDGCharmedBaryons&quot; /&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed Xi0}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|2471.0|0.4}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|1.12|+0.13|-0.10|e=-13}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| See [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/tables/bxxxcharm.pdf {{SubatomicParticle|charmed Xi0}} Decay Modes]
|-
| charmed Xi resonance &lt;ref name=&quot;PDGCharmedBaryons&quot; /&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed xi'+}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|2575.7|3.1}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;{{efn|name=&quot;notobservered&quot;|Particle (or quantity, i.e. spin) has neither been observed nor indicated}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed xi+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Photon}} (Seen)}}
|-
| charmed Xi resonance &lt;ref name=&quot;PDGCharmedBaryons&quot; /&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed xi'0}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|2578.0|2.9}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;{{efn|name=&quot;notobservered&quot;}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|1.1|e=-13}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed xi0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Photon}} (Seen)}}
|-
| Ξcc++ double charmed Xi&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url = 
https://press.cern/press-releases/2017/07/lhcb-experiment-charmed-announce-observation-new-particle-two-heavy-quarks|title = The LHCb experiment is charmed to announce observation of a new particle with two heavy quarks|date = 6 Jul 2017|work = |accessdate = }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Double charmed Xi++}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 3621.40 ± 0.72 ± 0.27 ± 0.14
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +2
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +2
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| &lt;math&gt;0.256_{-0.022}^{+0.024}&lt;/math&gt;±0.014×10&lt;sup&gt;−12&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://home.cern/about/updates/2018/05/long-live-doubly-charmed-particle&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed lambda+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Kaon-}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion+}}}}
|-
| double charmed Xi{{efn|name=&quot;dispute&quot;|Some controversy exists about this data. See references}} &lt;ref name=&quot;PDGDoubleCharmedxi&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
 |author=W.-M. Yao et al. (Particle Data Group)
 |year=2006
 |title=Particle listings – &amp;Xi;{{su|p=+|b=cc}}
 |url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/listings/s065.pdf
 |journal=Journal of Physics G
 |volume=33 |issue=1 |page=1
 |arxiv= astro-ph/0601168
 |bibcode= 2006JPhG...33....1Y
 |doi= 10.1088/0954-3899/33/1/001
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Double charmed Xi+}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|3518.9|0.9}}{{efn|name=&quot;dispute&quot;}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +2
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| &amp;lt;{{val|3.3|e=-14}}{{efn|name=&quot;dispute&quot;}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed lambda+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Kaon-}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion+}}}}&lt;sup&gt;[e]&lt;/sup&gt; or &lt;br&gt; {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Proton+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|D+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Kaon-}}}}&lt;sup&gt;[e]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| bottom Xi &lt;ref name=&quot;PDGBottomXi&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
 |author=W.-M. Yao et al. (Particle Data Group)
 |year=2006
 |title=Particle listings – Xi&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;
 |journal=Journal of Physics G
 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=1–1232
 |url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/listings/s060.pdf
|arxiv = astro-ph/0601168 |bibcode = 2006JPhG...33....1Y |doi = 10.1088/0954-3899/33/1/001 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi0}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|5792|3}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;*
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|1.42|+0.28|-0.24|e=-12}}{{efn|name=&quot;halflife&quot;|This is actually a measurement of the average lifetime of b-baryons that decay to a jet containing a same-sign  {{SubatomicParticle|Xi}}&lt;sup&gt;±&lt;/sup&gt; {{SubatomicParticle|Lepton}}&lt;sup&gt;±&lt;/sup&gt;  pair. Presumably the mix is mainly {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom xi}}, with some {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom lambda}}.}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| See [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/listings/s060.pdf {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi}} Decay Modes]
|-
| bottom Xi or&lt;br/&gt;Cascade B&lt;ref name=&quot;Abazov&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Aaltonen&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;PDGBottomXi&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
 |author=T. Aaltonen et al. (Collider Detector at Fermilab|CDF Collaboration)
 |year=2007
 |title= Observation and mass measurement of the baryon {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi-}}
 |journal=Physical Review Letters
 |volume=99 |issue=5 |pages=052002
 |arxiv=0707.0589
 |bibcode=2007PhRvL..99e2002A
 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.052002
|pmid=17930745
 |hdl=10261/8530
 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi-}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|5792.9|3.0}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|1.42|e=-12}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| See [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/listings/s060.pdf {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi}} Decay Modes] &lt;br&gt; ({{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Xi-}} + {{SubatomicParticle|J/Psi}}}} was also seen)
|-
|
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi'-}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|arxiv = 1411.4849|title = Observation of two new Ξ{{su|p=−|b=b}} baryon resonances|year = 2015|journal = Physical Review Letters|volume = 114|issue = 6|pages = 062004|doi =10.1103/PhysRevLett.114.062004 |pmid = 25723210|bibcode = 2015PhRvL.114f2004A|last1 = Aaij|first1 = R |displayauthors = etal |collaboration=LHCb Collaboration}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 5935.02 ± 0.02 ± 0.01± 0.50
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 1/2+
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 
|-
|
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi*-}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 5955.33 ± 0.12 ± 0.06 ± 0.50
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 3/2+
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 
|-
|
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi}}(6227)&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |arxiv = 1805.09418|last1 =Aaij|first1 = R. |collaboration=CMS Collaboration |display-authors=etal |title = Observation of a new Ξ{{su|b=b|p=−}} resonance|journal = Physical Review Letters|volume = 121|issue = 72002|pages = 072002|year = 2018|doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.121.072002|pmid = 30169090}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 6226.9 ± 2.0 ± 0.3 ± 0.2
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom lambda}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Kaon-}} &lt;br/&gt; {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Xi0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion-}}
|-
| double bottom Xi{{efn|name=&quot;notobservered&quot;}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Double Bottom Xi0}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −2
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|-
| double bottom Xi{{efn|name=&quot;notobservered&quot;}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Double Bottom Xi-}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −2
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|-
| charmed bottom Xi{{efn|name=&quot;notobservered&quot;}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed bottom Xi+}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|-
| charmed bottom Xi{{efn|name=&quot;notobservered&quot;}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed bottom Xi0}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{sfrac|1|2}}*&amp;thinsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| −1
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|-
|}

{{notelist}}

==Sigmas==

Σ{{su|p=−|b=b}} has a rest mass of 5815.5 +0.6 −0.5 ± 1.7 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Beringer&gt;J. Beringer ''et al.'' (2012) and 2013 partial update for the 2014 edition: [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2013/tables/rpp2013-sum-baryons.pdf Particle summary tables – Baryons]&lt;/ref&gt;

The symbols encountered in these lists are: I (''isospin''), J (''total angular momentum''), P (''parity (physics)|parity''), u (''up quark''), d (''down quark''), s (''strange quark''), c (''charm quark''), t (''top quark''), b (''bottom quark''), Q (''electric charge''), S (''strangeness''), C (''charmness''), B′ (''bottomness''), T (''topness''), as well as other subatomic particles (hover for name).

Antiparticles are not listed in the table; however, they simply would have all quarks changed to antiquarks (and vice versa), and Q, B, S, C, B′, T, would be of opposite signs. I, J, and P values in red have not been firmly established by experiments, but are predicted by the quark model and are consistent with the measurements.&lt;ref&gt;C. Amsler et al. (2008): [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/tables/rpp2008-sum-baryons.pdf Particle summary tables – Baryons]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;J. G. Körner et al. (1994)&lt;/ref&gt;

=== J&lt;sup&gt;P&lt;/sup&gt; = {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; Sigma baryons ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+J&lt;sup&gt;P&lt;/sup&gt; = {{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; Sigma baryons
|-
! class=unsortable|Particle name
! Symbol
! class=unsortable|Quark&lt;br&gt;content
! Rest mass (electron volt|MeV/speed of light|''c''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
! width=&quot;50&quot;|Isospin|I
! width=&quot;50&quot;|Total angular momentum|J&lt;sup&gt;Parity (physics)|P&lt;/sup&gt;
! width=&quot;50&quot;|charge (physics)|Q (elementary charge|''e'')
! width=&quot;50&quot;|strangeness|S
! width=&quot;50&quot;|charm (quantum number)|C
! width=&quot;50&quot;|bottomness|B'
! width=&quot;50&quot;|topness|T
! Mean lifetime (second|s)
! class=unsortable|Commonly decays to
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| charmed Sigma&lt;ref name=PDGCharmedSigma(2455)&gt;{{cite book |first1=C. |last1=Amsler |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/b104.pdf |series=Particle listings |title={{SubatomicParticle|Charmed Sigma}}(2455) |department=Particle Data Group |publisher=Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed sigma++}}(2455)
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
| 2,454.02&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.18
| 1
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +2
| 0
| +1
| 0
| 0
| {{nowrap|3.0 ± 0.4 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−22&lt;/sup&gt;}}&lt;sup&gt;[a]&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed lambda+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion+}}}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| charmed Sigma&lt;ref name=PDGCharmedSigma(2455)/&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed sigma+}}(2455)
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
| 2,452.9&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.4
| 1
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +1
| 0
| +1
| 0
| 0
| {{nowrap|&gt;1.4 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−22&lt;/sup&gt;}}&lt;sup&gt;[a]&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed lambda+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion0}}}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| charmed Sigma&lt;ref name=PDGCharmedSigma(2455)/&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed sigma0}}(2455)
| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
| 2,453.76&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.18
| 1
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| 0
| +1
| 0
| 0
| {{nowrap|3.0 ± 0.5 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−22&lt;/sup&gt;}}&lt;sup&gt;[a]&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed lambda+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion-}}}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| bottom Sigma&lt;ref name=BottomSigma&gt;T. Aaltonen et al. (2007a)&lt;/ref&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Sigma+}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
| 5,807.7 ± 3.8
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +1
| 0
| 0
| −1
| 0
| Unknown
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Lambda0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion+}} (seen)}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| bottom Sigma&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Undiscovered|†}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Sigma0}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
| Unknown
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| 0
| 0
| −1
| 0
| Unknown
| Unknown
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| bottom Sigma&lt;ref name=BottomSigma/&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Sigma-}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
| 5,815.2&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;2.7
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| −1
| 0
| 0
| −1
| 0
| Unknown
|{{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Lambda0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion-}} (seen)}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Top Sigma&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Undiscovered|†}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Top sigma++}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Top quark}}
| —
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +2
| 0
| 0
| 0
| +1
| —
| —
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Top Sigma&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Undiscovered|†}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Top sigma+}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Top quark}}
| —
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +1
| 0
| 0
| 0
| +1
| —
| —
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Top Sigma&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Undiscovered|†}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Top sigma0}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Top quark}}
| —
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| 0
| 0
| 0
| +1
| —
| —
|-
|}
&lt;sup&gt;†&lt;/sup&gt;  The standard model predicts that this particle cannot exist due to the short lifetime of the top quark. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;[a]&lt;/sup&gt;  PDG reports the resonance width (Γ). Here the conversion τ&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;{{sfrac|ħ|&amp;Gamma;}} is given instead. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;[b]&lt;/sup&gt;  The specific values of the name has not been decided yet, but will likely be close to {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Sigma}}(5810).

=== J&lt;sup&gt;P&lt;/sup&gt; = {{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; Sigma baryons ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+J&lt;sup&gt;P&lt;/sup&gt; = {{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; Sigma baryons
|-
! class=unsortable|Particle name
! Symbol
! class=unsortable|Quark&lt;br&gt;content
! Rest mass (electron volt|MeV/speed of light|''c''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
! width=&quot;50&quot;|Isospin|I
! width=&quot;50&quot;|Total angular momentum|J&lt;sup&gt;Parity (physics)|P&lt;/sup&gt;
! width=&quot;50&quot;|charge (physics)|Q (elementary charge|''e'')
! width=&quot;50&quot;|strangeness|S
! width=&quot;50&quot;|charm (quantum number)|C
! width=&quot;50&quot;|bottomness|B'
! width=&quot;50&quot;|topness|T
! Mean lifetime (second|s)
! class=unsortable|Commonly decays to
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| charmed Sigma&lt;ref name=PDGCharmedSigma*&gt;{{cite book |first1=C. |last1=Amsler |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/b115.pdf |series=Particle listings |title={{SubatomicParticle|Charmed Sigma}}(2520) |department=Particle Data Group |publisher=Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed sigma*++}}(2520)
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
| 2,518.4&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.6
| 1
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +2
| 0
| +1
| 0
| 0
| {{nowrap|4.4 ± 0.6 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−23&lt;/sup&gt;}}&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Lifetime2|[c]}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed Lambda+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion+}}}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| charmed Sigma&lt;ref name=PDGCharmedSigma*/&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed sigma*+}}(2520)
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
| 2,517.5&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;2.3
| 1
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +1
| 0
| +1
| 0
| 0
| {{nowrap|&gt;3.9 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−23&lt;/sup&gt;}}&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Lifetime2|[c]}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed Lambda+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion0}}}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| charmed Sigma&lt;ref name=PDGCharmedSigma*/&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Charmed sigma*0}}(2520)
| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}
| 2,518.0&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.5
| 1
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| 0
| +1
| 0
| 0
| {{nowrap|4.1 ± 0.5 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−23&lt;/sup&gt;}}&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Lifetime2|[c]}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{nowrap|{{SubatomicParticle|Charmed Lambda+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Pion-}}}}
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| bottom Sigma&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Undiscovered2|†}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Sigma*+}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
| Unknown
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +1
| 0
| 0
| −1
| 0
| Unknown
| Unknown
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| bottom Sigma&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Undiscovered2|†}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Sigma*0}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
| Unknown
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| 0
| 0
| −1
| 0
| Unknown
| Unknown
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| bottom Sigma&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Undiscovered2|†}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom Sigma*-}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}
| Unknown
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| −1
| 0
| 0
| −1
| 0
| Unknown
| Unknown
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Top Sigma&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Undiscovered2|†}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Top sigma*++}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Top quark}}
| —
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +2
| 0
| 0
| 0
| +1
| —
| —
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Top Sigma&lt;sup&gt;{{ref|Undiscovered2|†}}&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Top sigma*+}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Top quark}}
| —
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| +1
| 0
| 0
| 0
| +1
| —
| —
|- style=&quot;height:40px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Top Sigma&lt;sup&gt;†&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{SubatomicParticle|Top sigma*0}}
| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Top quark}}
| —
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{sfrac|3|2}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
| 0
| 0
| 0
| 0
| +1
| —
| —
|-
|}
&lt;sup&gt;†&lt;/sup&gt;  The standard model predicts that this particle cannot exist due to the short lifetime of the top quark. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;[c]&lt;/sup&gt;  PDG reports the resonance width (Γ). Here the conversion τ&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;{{sfrac|ħ|&amp;Gamma;}} is given instead.

==Lambdas==

Λ{{su|p=+|b=c}} has a rest mass of 2286.46 ± 0.146 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Amsler&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=C. Amsler et al. Particle Data Group
|title=Review of Particle Physics
|journal=Physics Letters B
|volume=667
|issue=1
|pages=1
|year=2008
|doi=10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018
|bibcode = 2008PhLB..667....1A }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 13 July 2015, the [[w:LHCb|LHCb collaboration]] at [[w:CERN|CERN]] reported results consistent with pentaquark states in the decay of bottom Lambda baryons (Λ{{su|p=0|b=b}}).&lt;ref name=&quot;LHCb2015&quot;&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=R. Aaij et al. LHCb collaboration
|year=2015
|title=Observation of J/ψp resonances consistent with pentaquark states in Λ{{su|p=0|b=b}}→J/ψK&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt;p decays
|journal=Physical Review Letters
|volume=115
|issue=7
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.072001
|arxiv = 1507.03414
|bibcode = 2015PhRvL.115g2001A }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Rest mass = 5619.4 ± 0.6 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.

==D mesons==
[[Image:D0 and D± production in pp collisions.png|right|thumb|300px|Comparison of GM-VFNS predictions with experimental data on open D&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; ({{SubatomicParticle|AntiD0}}) and {{SubatomicParticle|D+-}} production in pp collisions collected by the ALICE Collaboration at √''S'' = 7 TeV. Credit: Michael Benzke, Maria V. Garzelli and Bernd A. Kniehl.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
In the graphs on the right are comparisons of general-mass variable-flavor-number scheme (GM-VFNS) predictions with experimental data on open D&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; ({{SubatomicParticle|AntiD0}}) and {{SubatomicParticle|D+-}} production in pp collisions collected by the A Large Ion Collider Experiment (ALICE) Collaboration at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN at √''S'' = 7 TeV. These data represent likely fluxes arising from the decay of pp collisions produced by the interactions of high-energy cosmic rays in the Earth’s atmosphere.

:&lt;math&gt;D_S \rightarrow \tau + \bar{\nu}_{\tau} \rightarrow \nu_{\tau} + \bar{\nu}_{\tau}.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=Kodama&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=K. Kodama, N. Ushida1, C. Andreopoulos, N. Saoulidou, G. Tzanakos, P. Yager, B. Baller, D. Boehnlein, W. Freeman, B. Lundberg, J. Morfin, R. Rameika, J.C. Yun, J.S. Song, C.S. Yoon, S.H.Chung, P. Berghaus, M. Kubanstev, N.W. Reay, R. Sidwell, N. Stanton, S. Yoshida, S. Aoki, T. Hara, J.T. Rhee, D. Ciampa, C. Erickson, M. Graham, K. Heller, R. Rusack, R. Schwienhorst, J. Sielaff, J. Trammell, J. Wilcox, K. Hoshino, H. Jiko, M. Miyanishi, M. Komatsu, M. Nakamura, T. Nakano, K. Niwa, N. Nonaka, K. Okada, O. Sato, T. Akdogan, V. Paolone, C. Rosenfeld, A. Kulik, T. Kafka, W. Oliver, T. Patzak, and  J. Schneps
|title=Observation of tau neutrino interactions
|journal=Physics Letters B
|month=April 12,
|year=2001
|volume=504
|issue=3
|pages=218-24
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370269301003070
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-10 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+D mesons
|-
! class=unsortable|Particle name
! Particle &lt;br&gt;symbol
! Antiparticle &lt;br&gt;symbol
! [[w:Rest mass|Rest mass]] ([[w:electron volt|MeV]]/[[w:Speed of light|speed of light|c]]&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
! width=&quot;50&quot;|[[w:Isospin|I]]&lt;sup&gt;[[w:G parity|G]]&lt;/sup&gt;
! width=&quot;50&quot;|[[w:Total angular momentum|J]]&lt;sup&gt;[[w:Parity (physics)|P]][[w:C parity|C]]&lt;/sup&gt;
! width=&quot;50&quot;|[[w:strangeness|S]]
! width=&quot;50&quot;|[[w:charm (quantum number)|C]]
! width=&quot;50&quot;|[[w:bottomness|B']]
! [[w:Mean lifetime|Mean lifetime]] ([[second|s]])
! class=unsortable|Commonly decays to&lt;br&gt;
(&gt;5% of decays)
|-
| D meson&lt;ref name=PDGD+&gt;C. Amsler ''et al.''. (2008): [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/s031.pdf Particle listings – {{Subatomic particle|D+-}}]&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|D+}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|D-}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 1,869.62&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.20
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{frac|1|2}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|1.040 ± 0.007 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−12&lt;/sup&gt;}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/s031.pdf See {{Subatomic particle|D+}} decay modes]
|-
| D meson&lt;ref name=PDGD0&gt;C. Amsler ''et al.''. (2008): [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/s032.pdf Particle listings – {{Subatomic particle|D0}}]&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|D0}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|AntiD0}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 1,864.84&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.17
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{frac|1|2}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|4.101 ± 0.015 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−13&lt;/sup&gt;}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/s032.pdf See {{Subatomic particle|D0}} decay modes]
|-
| Strange D meson&lt;ref name=PDGDs&gt;N. Nakamura ''et al''. (2010): [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2010/listings/rpp2010-list-Ds-plus-minus.pdf Particle listings – {{Subatomic particle|Strange D+-}}]&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|Strange D+}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|Strange D-}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{val|1968.47|0.33}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| (5.00±0.07) x 10&lt;sup&gt;-13&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2010/listings/rpp2010-list-Ds-plus-minus.pdf See {{Subatomic particle|Strange D+}} decay modes]
|-
| D meson&lt;ref name=PDGD*+&gt;C. Amsler ''et al.''. (2008): [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/m062.pdf Particle listings – {{Subatomic particle|D*+-}}(2010)]&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|D*+}}(2010)
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|D*-}}(2010)
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 2,010.27.62&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.17
|align=&quot;center&quot;| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{frac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|6.9 ± 1.9 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−21&lt;/sup&gt;}}&lt;sup&gt;[a]&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|{{Subatomic particle|D0}} + π&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; or}}&lt;br&gt;{{nowrap|{{Subatomic particle|D+}} + π&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;}}
|-
| D meson&lt;ref name=PDGD*0&gt;C. Amsler ''et al.''. (2008): [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/m061.pdf Particle listings – {{Subatomic particle|D*0}}(2007)]&lt;/ref&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|D*0}}(2007)
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Subatomic particle|AntiD*0}}(2007)
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 2,006.97&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.19
|align=&quot;center&quot;| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;{{frac|1|2}}&lt;/span&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +1
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|&gt;3.1 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−22&lt;/sup&gt;}}&lt;sup&gt;[a]&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{nowrap|{{Subatomic particle|D0}} + π&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; or}}&lt;br&gt;{{nowrap|{{Subatomic particle|D0}} + γ}}
|-
|}

&lt;sup&gt;[a]&lt;/sup&gt; PDG reports the resonance width (Γ). Here the conversion τ&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;{{frac|ħ|&amp;Gamma;}} is given instead.
{{clear}}

==Pair production==

The reverse reaction, electron–positron creation, is a form of [[w:pair production|pair production]] governed by [[w:Two-photon physics|two-photon physics]].

'''Two-photon physics''', also called '''gamma-gamma physics''', [studies] the [[w:interaction|interaction]]s between two [[w:photons|photons]]. If the [[w:energy|energy]] in the [[w:center of mass|center of mass]] system of the two photons is large enough, [[w:matter|matter]] can be created.&lt;ref name=Moffat&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Moffat JW
|title=Superluminary Universe: A Possible Solution to the Initial Value Problem in Cosmology
|journal=Intl J Mod Phys D
|month=
|year=1993
|volume=2
|issue=3
|pages=351–65
|arxiv=gr-qc/9211020
|doi=10.1142/S0218271893000246
|bibcode = 1993IJMPD...2..351M }}&lt;/ref&gt;

:{{SubatomicParticle|Photon}}&amp;nbsp;&amp;rarr;&amp;nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Electron}}&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}

In [[w:nuclear physics|nuclear physics]], [the above reaction] occurs when a high-energy [[w:photon|photon]] interacts with a [[w:atomic nucleus|nucleus]]. The photon must have enough energy [&gt; 2*511 keV, or 1.022 MeV] to create an electron plus a positron. Without a nucleus to absorb momentum, a photon decaying into electron-positron pair (or other pairs for that matter [such as a muon and anti-muon or a tau and anti-tau] can never conserve energy and momentum simultaneously. &lt;ref name=Hubbell&gt;{{ cite journal
 | last=Hubbell | first=J. H. | title=Electron positron pair production by photons: A historical overview
 | journal=Radiation Physics and Chemistry
 | year=2006 | month=June | volume=75 | issue=6
 | pages=614–623 | doi=10.1016/j.radphyschem.2005.10.008
 | bibcode=2006RaPC...75..614H }}&lt;/ref&gt;

These interactions were first observed in [[w:Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett|Patrick Blackett]]'s counter-controlled [[w:cloud chamber|cloud chamber]]. In 2008 the [[w:Titan laser|Titan laser]] aimed at a 1-millimeter-thick gold target was used to generate positron–electron pairs in large numbers.&lt;ref name=Bevy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Bevy
|title=Laser technique produces bevy of antimatter
|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27998860/ 
|work=MSNBC
|date=2008
|accessdate=2008-12-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The LLNL scientists created the positrons by shooting the lab's high-powered Titan laser onto a one-millimeter-thick piece of gold.&quot;&lt;ref name=Bevy/&gt;

==Leptons==
[[Image:Feynman diagram of decay of tau lepton.svg|thumb|right|260px|Feynman diagram shows the common decays of the tau by emission of an off-shell W boson. Credit: [[w:user:JabberWok|JabberWok]] and [[c:user:Time3000|Time3000]].{{tlx|free media}}]] 
[[Image:Arrival direction of the anomalous CR event and air shower.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The arrival direction of the anomalous CR event and air shower are described. Credit: P. W. Gorham, B. Rotter, P. Allison, O. Banerjee, L. Batten, J. J. Beatty, K. Bechtol, K. Belov, D. Z. Besson, W. R. Binns, V. Bugaev, P. Cao, C. C. Chen, C. H. Chen, P. Chen, J. M. Clem, A. Connolly, L. Cremonesi, B. Dailey, C. Deaconu, P. F. Dowkontt, B. D. Fox, J. W. H. Gordon, C. Hast, B. Hill, K. Hughes, J. J. Huang, R. Hupe, M. H. Israel, A. Javaid, J. Lam, K. M. Liewer, S. Y. Lin, T.C. Liu, A. Ludwig, L. Macchiarulo, S. Matsuno, C. Miki, K. Mulrey, J. Nam, C. J. Naudet, R. J. Nichol, A. Novikov, E. Oberla, M. Olmedo, R. Prechelt, S. Prohira, B. F. Rauch, J. M. Roberts, A. Romero-Wolf, J. W. Russell, D. Saltzberg, D. Seckel, H. Schoorlemmer, J. Shiao, S. Stafford, J. Stockham, M. Stockham, B. Strutt, G. S. Varner, A. G. Vieregg, S. H. Wang, S. A. Wissel.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:Balloons on Ice Launch - 2 takes flight in Antarctica (30561119904).jpg|left|thumb|300px|The second of three ANITA missions as part of NASA’s Antarctica Long Duration Balloon Flight Campaign was successfully launched at 8:10 a.m. EDT, Dec. 2, 2016. Credit: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center from Greenbelt, MD, USA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
&quot;The other two types of electrically charged leptons in the Standard Model, which can annihilate into photons, are the muons μ and tauons τ with masses M&lt;sub&gt;μ&lt;/sub&gt; = 105.6 MeV and M&lt;sub&gt;τ&lt;/sub&gt; =1777 MeV, respectively [466]. It is worth noting that in contrast to the electrons and positrons, the muons and the tauons can not be produced in radioactive decays of atomic nuclei, owing to their superior masses. As such, the maps based on the μ&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + μ&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt; and/or τ&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + τ&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt; annihilation peaks can provide a cleaner signal and a new information about the sites of enhanced [dark matter] DM concentration which would be complementary to the data obtained from the 511-keV surveys.&quot;&lt;ref name=Kirilova&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=G. Vankova-Kirilova, V. Bozhilov, V. Kozhuharov, S. Lalkovski
|title=All-sky mapping in the 100 MeV region in search for point-like dark matter sources
|journal=arxiv
|month=
|year=2017
|volume=
|issue=
|pages=112
|url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/1711.01265#page=106
|arxiv=1711.01265
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2018-4-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The tau was detected in a series of experiments between 1974 and 1977.&lt;ref name=&quot;Perl1975&quot;&gt;{{ cite journal
 |last1=Perl|first1= M. L. 
 |title=Evidence for Anomalous Lepton Production in {{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}{{SubatomicParticle|Electron}} Annihilation
 |journal=Physical Review Letters
 |volume=35 |issue=22 |page=1489
 |year=1975
 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.35.1489
|bibcode=1975PhRvL..35.1489P
 |last2=Abrams
 |first2=G.
 |last3=Boyarski
 |first3=A.
 |last4=Breidenbach
 |first4=M.
 |last5=Briggs
 |first5=D.
 |last6=Bulos
 |first6=F.
 |last7=Chinowsky
 |first7=W.
 |last8=Dakin
 |first8=J.
 |last9=Feldman
 |first9=G. |displayauthors=8 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{ cite book
 |author=L. B. Okun
 |title= Leptons and Quarks
 |page=103
 |publisher=North-Holland Publishing
 |year=1980
 |isbn=978-0444869241 
 |others=V.I. Kisin (trans.) }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{ cite conference
 |author=M.L. Perl
 |title=Evidence for, and properties of, the new charged heavy lepton, In: ''Proceedings of the XII Rencontre de Moriond''
 |url=http://slac.stanford.edu/pubs/slacpubs/1750/slac-pub-1923.pdf
 |editor=T. Thanh Van
 |volume= |page=
 |date=1977
 |doi=
 |id=SLAC-PUB-1923 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;We have discovered 64 events of the form {{SubatomicParticle|Positron}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Electron}} &amp;rarr; {{SubatomicParticle|Electron+-}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Muon-+}} + at least two undetected particles for which we have no conventional explanation.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Perl1975&quot;/&gt;

&quot;The advantage of using unstable leptons, rather than using electrons, for tracing DM particles is in their finite lifetime. The tauons have a lifetime of 2.9 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−13&lt;/sup&gt; s, while the muons have lifetimes of 2.2 μs. Their finite lifetimes provide an unique opportunity for mapping of DM regions with an enhanced precision. Thus, for example, DM particles with masses of the order of M&lt;sub&gt;χ&lt;/sub&gt; = 100 GeV can either annihilate or decay into muons.&quot;&lt;ref name=Kirilova/&gt;

Tau mass is 1776.86 ± 0.12 MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;,&lt;ref name=&quot;PDG2018&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
 |author=M. Tanabashi et al. (Particle Data Group)
 |title=Review of Particle Physics
 |year= 2018
 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.98.030001
 |volume=98
 |issue=3
 |pages=030001
 |journal=Physical Review D
 |url=http://pdglive.lbl.gov/Particle.action?node=S035 }}&lt;/ref&gt; mean lifetime is 2.903 ±0 .005 x 10&lt;sup&gt;-13&lt;/sup&gt; s,&lt;ref name=&quot;PDG2018&quot;/&gt; electric charge = −1 ''e'',&lt;ref name=&quot;PDG2018&quot;/&gt; and spin is 1/2&lt;ref name=&quot;PDG2018&quot;/&gt;.

The &quot;tauon (τ􏰁&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;) is about 3,477 times heavier than the electron and since its interaction is very similar to that of the electron, a tauon can be thought of as a much heavier version of the electron.&quot;&lt;ref name=Emami/&gt;

&quot;Since a tauon decays into a light meson (lepton) with neutrino(s), the measurements of angular distribution for tauon on &lt;math&gt;\overline{B}&lt;/math&gt; → D&lt;sup&gt;(∗)&lt;/sup&gt;τ&lt;math&gt;\overline{\nu}_{\tau}&lt;/math&gt; are difficult.&quot;&lt;ref name=Sakaki&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Yasuhito Sakaki and Hidekazu Tanaka
|title=Constraints on the charged scalar effects using the forward-backward asymmetry on &lt;math&gt;\overline{B}&lt;/math&gt; → D&lt;sup&gt;(∗)&lt;/sup&gt;τ&lt;math&gt;\overline{\nu}_{\tau}&lt;/math&gt; 
|journal=Physical Review D
|month=1 March
|year=2013
|volume=87
|issue=5
|pages=054002
|url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/1205.4908
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2018-4-03 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The tau is the only lepton that can decay into hadrons – the other leptons do not have the necessary mass. Like the other decay modes of the tau, the hadronic decay is through the weak interaction.&lt;ref name=&quot;NCP&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal
  | last =Riazuddin 
  | title =Non-standard interactions 
  | journal =NCP 5th Particle Physics Sypnoisis 
  | volume =1 
  | issue =1 
  | pages =1–25 
  | year =2009 
  | url =http://www.ncp.edu.pk/docs/snwm/Riazuddin_Non_Standartd_Interaction.pdf
  | doi = 
  | accessdate = }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The branching ratio of the dominant hadronic tau decays are:&lt;ref name=&quot;PDG2018&quot;/&gt;
*25.49% for decay into a charged pion, a neutral pion, and a tau neutrino;
*10.82% for decay into a charged pion and a tau neutrino;
*9.26% for decay into a charged pion, two neutral pions, and a tau neutrino;
*8.99% for decay into three charged pions (of which two have the same electrical charge) and a tau neutrino;
*2.74% for decay into three charged pions (of which two have the same electrical charge), a neutral pion, and a tau neutrino;
*1.04% for decay into three neutral pions, a charged pion, and a tau neutrino.

In total, the tau lepton will decay hadronically approximately 64.79% of the time.

Since the tauonic lepton number is conserved in weak decays, a tau neutrino is always created when a tau decays.&lt;ref name=&quot;NCP&quot;/&gt;

The branching ratio of the common purely leptonic tau decays are:&lt;ref name=&quot;PDG2018&quot;/&gt;
*17.82% for decay into a tau neutrino, electron and electron antineutrino;
*17.39% for decay into a tau neutrino, muon and muon antineutrino.
The similarity of values of the two branching ratios is a consequence of lepton universality.

The tau was anticipated.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |journal=Physical Review D |first=Yung-Su |last=Tsai |date=1971-11-01 |volume=4 |issue=9 |page=2821 |title=Decay correlations of heavy leptons in e&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + e&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt; → l&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + l&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt; |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.4.2821 |bibcode = 1971PhRvD...4.2821T}}&lt;/ref&gt;

An &quot;upward traveling, radio-detected cosmic-ray-like impulsive event [has] characteristics closely matching an extensive air shower. This event, observed in the third flight of the Antarctic Impulsive Transient Antenna (ANITA), a NASA-sponsored long-duration balloon payload, is consistent with a similar event reported in a previous flight. These events may be produced by the atmospheric decay of an upward-propagating τ-lepton produced by a ν&lt;sub&gt;τ&lt;/sub&gt; interaction, although their relatively steep arrival angles create tension with the standard model (SM) neutrino cross section. Each of the two events have ''a posteriori'' background estimates of ≲10&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt; events. If these are generated by τ-lepton decay, then either the charged-current ν&lt;sub&gt;τ&lt;/sub&gt; cross section is suppressed at EeV energies, or the events arise at moments when the peak flux of a transient neutrino source was much larger than the typical expected cosmogenic background neutrinos.&quot;&lt;ref name=Gorham&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=P. W. Gorham, B. Rotter, P. Allison, O. Banerjee, L. Batten, J. J. Beatty, K. Bechtol, K. Belov, D. Z. Besson, W. R. Binns, V. Bugaev, P. Cao, C. C. Chen, C. H. Chen, P. Chen, J. M. Clem, A. Connolly, L. Cremonesi, B. Dailey, C. Deaconu, P. F. Dowkontt, B. D. Fox, J. W. H. Gordon, C. Hast, B. Hill, K. Hughes, J. J. Huang, R. Hupe, M. H. Israel, A. Javaid, J. Lam, K. M. Liewer, S. Y. Lin, T.C. Liu, A. Ludwig, L. Macchiarulo, S. Matsuno, C. Miki, K. Mulrey, J. Nam, C. J. Naudet, R. J. Nichol, A. Novikov, E. Oberla, M. Olmedo, R. Prechelt, S. Prohira, B. F. Rauch, J. M. Roberts, A. Romero-Wolf, J. W. Russell, D. Saltzberg, D. Seckel, H. Schoorlemmer, J. Shiao, S. Stafford, J. Stockham, M. Stockham, B. Strutt, G. S. Varner, A. G. Vieregg, S. H. Wang, S. A. Wissel
|title=Observation of an Unusual Upward-going Cosmic-ray-like Event in the Third Flight of ANITA
|journal=arXiv
|date=14 March 2018
|volume=
|issue=
|pages=
|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/1803.05088
|arxiv=1803.05088
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=29 September 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The upward traveling event is detected and described in the image and graph on the lower right. &quot;Top: Interferometric map of the arrival direction of the anomalous CR event 15717147. Bottom: ANITA combined amplitude spectral density (ASD) for the event, from 50-800 MHz, including data from the ANITA Low Frequency Antenna (ALFA). A simulated upward-propagating extensive air shower spectral-density curve is overlain.&quot;&lt;ref name=Gorham/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Muons==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Muons}}
[[Image:Muon.svg|thumb|left|250px|This lepton box provides information about muons. Credit: [[c:User:MissMJ|MissMJ]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Muon Decay.svg|thumb|right|250px|This is a Feynman Diagram of the most common of Muon Decays. Credit: Richard Feynman.{{tlx|free media}}]]
&quot;TeV muons from γ ray primaries ... are rare because they are only produced by higher energy γ rays whose flux is suppressed by the decreasing flux at the source and by absorption on interstellar light.&quot;&lt;ref name=Halzen&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Francis Halzen, Todor Stanev, Gaurang B. Yodh
|title=γ ray astronomy with muons
|journal=Physical Review D Particles, Fields, Gravitation, and Cosmology
|month=April 1,
|year=1997
|volume=55
|issue=7
|pages=4475-9
|url=http://prd.aps.org/abstract/PRD/v55/i7/p4475_1
|arxiv=astro-ph/9608201
|bibcode=1997PhRvD..55.4475H
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.55.4475
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-01-18 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''muon''' from the Greek letter mu (μ) used to represent it) is an [[w:elementary particle|elementary particle]] similar to the electron, with unitary negative electric charge (−1) and a spin of {{frac|1|2}}.

&quot;A muon is a particle which has similar properties as the electron, except that it is about 207 times heavier than the electron (m&lt;sub&gt;µ&lt;/sub&gt; ≃ 207 m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;).&quot;&lt;ref name=Emami&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Mohsen Emami-Razavi
|title=A short review about some exotic systems containing electrons, muons, and tauons
|journal=Journal of Theoretical and Applied Physics
|date=27 October 2014
|volume=9
|issue=
|pages=1-6
|url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s40094-014-0154-4.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1007/s40094-014-0154-4
|pmid=
|accessdate=20 January 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Together with the electron, the tau, and the three neutrinos, it is classified as a lepton. As is the case with other leptons, the muon is not believed to have any sub-structure at all (i.e., is not thought to be composed of any simpler particles).

The muon is an unstable subatomic particle with a mean lifetime of 2.2 µs.&lt;ref name=Emami/&gt; This comparatively long decay lifetime (the second longest known) is due to being mediated by the weak interaction. The only longer lifetime for an unstable subatomic particle is that for the free neutron, a baryon particle composed of quarks, which also decays via the weak force. Muon decay produces three particles, an electron plus two neutrinos of different types.

Like all elementary particles, the muon has a corresponding antiparticle of opposite charge (+1) but equal mass and spin: the '''antimuon''' (also called a ''positive muon''). Muons are denoted by {{SubatomicParticle|Muon-}} and antimuons by {{SubatomicParticle|Muon+}}.
{{clear}}

==Neutrinos==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Neutrinos}}
[[Image:figs_all-nu-spectrum-mod.png|thumb|right|250px|The diagram plots the measured and expected fluxes of natural and reactor neutrinos. Credit: Christian Spiering.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:figs_KGF-skymap.png|thumb|right|250px|This is the first neutrino sky map. Credit: Christian Spiering and Krishnaswamy.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:figs_nt200+goldplated.png|thumb|right|200px|One of the first upward moving muons from a neutrino interaction is illustrated. Credit: Christian Spiering.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:figs_antares-muonzenith.png|thumb|right|250px|The figure shows the muon reconstructed zenith. Credit: Christian Spiering.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:figs_antares-skymap.png|thumb|left|250px|Equatorial skymap of neutrino-induced muon events from 295 days of ANTARES data in 2007/2008. Credit: Christian Spiering.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
'''Neutrino oscillation''' is predicted a quantum mechanical phenomenon&lt;ref name=&quot;Pontecorvo1957&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
 |author=B. Pontecorvo
 |title=Mesonium and anti-mesonium
 |journal=Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz.
 |volume=33
 |pages=549–551
 |year=1957
 |doi= }} reproduced and translated in {{cite journal
 |journal=Sov. Phys. JETP
 |volume=6
 |pages=429
 |year=1957
 |doi= }} and
{{cite journal
 |author=B. Pontecorvo
 |title=Neutrino Experiments and the Problem of Conservation of Leptonic Charge
 |journal=Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz.
 |volume=53
 |pages=1717
 |year=1967
 |doi= }} reproduced and translated in {{cite journal
 |journal=Sov. Phys. JETP
 |volume=26
 |pages=984
 |year=1968
 |doi=
|bibcode = 1968JETP...26..984P }}&lt;/ref&gt;
whereby a [[w:neutrino|neutrino]] created with a specific [[w:lepton|lepton]] [[w:flavor (particle physics)|flavor]] ([[electron]], [[w:muon|muon]] or [[w:tau lepton|tau]]) can later be [[w:Quantum measurement|measured]] to have a different flavor. The probability of measuring a particular flavor for a neutrino varies periodically as it propagates. Neutrino oscillation is of [[w:theoretical physics|theoretical]] and [[w:experimental physics|experimental]] interest since observation of the phenomenon implies that the neutrino has a non-zero mass.

A great deal of evidence for neutrino oscillation has been collected from many sources, over a wide range of neutrino energies and with many different detector technologies.&lt;ref name=&quot;Garcia&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
 | author=M. C. Gonzalez-Garcia and Michele Maltoni
 | year=2008
 | journal=Physics Reports
 | volume=460
| pages=1-129
 | arxiv=0704.1800
 | title=Phenomenology with Massive Neutrinos
 | doi=10.1016/j.physrep.2007.12.004
|bibcode = 2008PhR...460....1G }}&lt;/ref&gt;

A [[w:neutrino|neutrino]] created with a specific [[w:lepton|lepton]] [[w:flavor (particle physics)|flavor]] ([[electron]], [[w:muon|muon]] or [[w:tau lepton|tau]]) can later be [[w:Quantum measurement|measured]] to have a different flavor.

The image at right shows the measured &quot;and expected fluxes of natural and reactor neutrinos [...] The energy range from keV to several GeV is the domain of underground detectors. The region from tens of GeV to about 100 PeV, with its much smaller fluxes, is addressed by Cherenkov light detectors underwater and in ice. The highest energies are only accessible with huge detector volumes&quot;.&lt;ref name=Spiering&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Christian Spiering
|title=Towards High-Energy Neutrino Astronomy. A Historical Review
|publisher=INSPIRE, the High Energy Physics information system
|location=
|date=2013
|url=http://inspirehep.net/record/1123342/plots
|accessdate=2014-03-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The second image at right is the &quot;first neutrino sky map with the celestial coordinates of 18 KGF neutrino events [...] Due to uncertainties in the azimuth, the coordinates for some events are arcs rather than points. The labels reflect the numbers and registration mode of the events (e.g. &quot;S&quot; for spectrograph). Only for the ringed events the sense of the direction of the registered muon is known.&quot;&lt;ref name=Spiering/&gt;

&quot;Sufficiently energetic muons produced in [...] interactions [in the Earth atmosphere are called] &quot;atmospheric muons&quot; [...] Upward-going muons must have been produced in neutrino interactions.&quot;&lt;ref name=Spiering/&gt;

The third image at right illustrates the &quot;Baikal Neutrino Telescope NT200. [...] One of the first upward moving muons from a neutrino interaction recorded with the 4-string stage of the detector in 1996 [...] The Cherenkov light from the muon is recorded by 19 channels.&quot;&lt;ref name=Spiering/&gt;

The fourth image at right contains the number &quot;of reconstructed muons in the 2008 ANTARES data, as a function of the reconstructed zenith angle (black error bars). Also indicated are the simulation results for atmospheric muons (red dashed), and muons induced by atmospheric neutrinos (blue). The shaded band indicates the systematic uncertainties.&quot;&lt;ref name=Spiering/&gt;

The image at left shows an equatorial &quot;skymap of neutrino-induced muon events from 295 days of ANTARES data in 2007/2008. The background color scale indicates the sky visibility in percent of the time. The most significant accumulation of events, marked with a red circle, is fully compatible with the background expectation&quot;&lt;ref name=Spiering/&gt;

&quot;Atmospheric neutrinos can interact with the detector producing also hadrons. The most probable of these reactions is the single pion production [20][21]:&quot;&lt;ref name=Undagoitia&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=T. Marrodán Undagoitia, F. von Feilitzsch, M. Göger-Neff, C. Grieb, K. A. Hochmuth, L. Oberauer, W. Potzel, and M. Wurm
|title=Search for the proton decay p→ K+ ν in the large liquid scintillator low energy neutrino astronomy detector LENA
|journal=Physical Review D
|month=1 October
|year=2005
|volume=72
|issue=7
|pages=075014
|url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/hep-ph/0511230.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.72.075014
|pmid=
|accessdate=2015-06-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\nu_{\mu} + p \rightarrow \mu^- + \pi^+ + p^'.&lt;/math&gt;

&quot;There is also a small loss due to inelastic hadronic interactions of the decay particles before they are stopped.&quot;&lt;ref name=Undagoitia/&gt;

The &quot;optical properties of mixtures of PXE [phenyl-o-xylylethane] and derivatives of mineral oils are under investigation [3].&quot;&lt;ref name=Undagoitia/&gt;

&quot;Neutrino detection includes four remarkable reactions:&quot;&lt;ref name=Berezinsky&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=V. Berezinsky
|title=Ultra High Energy Neutrino Astronomy
|journal=Nuclear Physics. B, Proceedings Supplements
|date=January 2006
|volume=151
|issue=1
|pages=260-9
|url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0505220.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=2006NuPhS.151..260B
|doi=10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2005.07.062
|pmid=
|accessdate=10 July 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
# Muon production ν&lt;sub&gt;μ&lt;/sub&gt; + N → μ + all gives an excellent tool to search for the discrete sources, since directions of UHE muon and neutrino coincide.
# Resonant production of W-boson, {{SubatomicParticle|Antineutrino}}&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; + e → W&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt; → hadrons results in production of monoenergetic showers with energy ''E''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = &lt;math&gt;m^2_W&lt;/math&gt;/2m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; = 6.3 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; GeV. This reaction has a large cross-section.
# Tau production in a detector, ν&lt;sub&gt;τ&lt;/sub&gt; + N → τ + hadrons, is characterised by time sequence of three signals: a shower from prompt hadrons, the Cherenkov light from τ and hadron shower from τ-decay. SuperGZK ν&lt;sub&gt;τ&lt;/sub&gt; are absorbed less in the Earth due to regeneration: absorbed ν&lt;sub&gt;τ&lt;/sub&gt; is converted into τ, which decays producing ν&lt;sub&gt;τ&lt;/sub&gt; again.
# Z-bursts provide a signal from the space, caused by the resonant Z&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; production on DM neutrinos, ν + {{SubatomicParticle|Antineutrino}}&lt;sub&gt;DM&lt;/sub&gt; → Z&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; → hadrons. The energy of the detected neutrino must be tremendous: E&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; = &lt;math&gt; \frac{m^2_Z}{2m_{\nu}} = 1.7 \times 10^{13} \frac{0.23 eV}{m_{\nu}} GeV.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-accelerator neutrino sources &quot;include objects with annihilation of DM (the Sun, Earth, cores of the galaxies), objects with the decays of superheavy DM particles (galactic halos) and topological defects. In the last two cases neutrinos are produced in the decays of superheavy particles with the masses up to M&lt;sub&gt;GUT&lt;/sub&gt; ∼ 10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt; GeV. A particle decays to virtual particles, partons, which are cascading due to QCD interaction, and at the confinement radius cascade partons are converted to hadrons, most of which are pions. Neutrinos are produced in pion decays with spectrum which can be approximately described at highest energies as dE/E&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=Berezinsky/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Gamma rays==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Gamma rays}}
The &quot;leptons can be created not only via processes involving DM particles such as χ + χ → l&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + l&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt;, but in high energy astrophysical environments a significant number of them can also be produced via the γ + γ → l&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt; + l&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; and e&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt; + e&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; → l&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt; + l&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; reactions. However, the muons created in these high-energy environments have energies much higher than the ionization energy (E&lt;sub&gt;ion&lt;/sub&gt; ≈ 1.4 keV) of the true muonium [460] and, hence, only a small fraction of pairs with energies less then E&lt;sub&gt;ion&lt;/sub&gt; will form a bound system. The muonium has two states, depending on the particles spin orientation. These are para- and orto-muonium. The para-muonioum predominantly decays via two-photon annihilation, while the orto-muonium – via electron-positron annihilation. The energy released in the two-photon annihilation is E=105.66 MeV [460].&quot;&lt;ref name=Kirilova/&gt;

==Earth==

&quot;For ultrahigh energies the neutrino spectrum at the detector is influenced by neutrino-nucleon interactions and tauon decays during the passage through the interior of the earth.&quot;&lt;ref name=Hettlage&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Hettlage, C.; Mannheim, K.
|title=Tau Sources in the Sky
|journal=AG Abstract Services
|month=20-25 September
|year=1999
|volume=15
|issue=04
|pages=
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu//abs/1999AGM....15..I04H
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1999AGM....15..I04H
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-10-02 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The &quot;incoming neutrino flux [is disentangled] from the consequent τ air-shower physics. [To] establish the τ production rate we introduce an effective volume and mass for Earth-skimming τ’s, which is independent on any incoming neutrino flux [...]. This volume describes a strip within the Earth where neutrino/antineutrino-nucleon, ν&lt;sub&gt;τ&lt;/sub&gt; (&lt;math&gt;\overline{\nu}_{\tau}&lt;/math&gt;) − ''N'', interactions may produce emerging τ&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt;,τ&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; leptons which then shower in air. [General] τ upward-going showers [can be compared] to detectors such as the ongoing photo-fluorescence ground-based observatory Auger&quot;.&lt;ref name=Fargion&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=D. Fargion, P.G. De Sanctis Lucentini, M. De Santis. M.Grossi
|title=Tau Air Showers from Earth
|journal=The Astrophysical Journal
|month=10
|year=2004
|volume=613
|issue=2
|pages=1285-1301
|url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/hep-ph/0305128
|arxiv=
|bibcode=2004ApJ...613.1285F
|doi=10.1086/423124
|pmid=
|accessdate=2018-4-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Tau penetrating power appears only at ultra-high velocity and energy (above petaelectronvolt energies), when time dilation extends their path-length.&lt;ref name=Fargion/&gt;

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Alpha particles|Alpha-particle astronomy]]
* [[Radiation/Cosmic rays|Cosmic-ray astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Baryons|Baryon astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Beta particles|Beta-particle astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Electrons|Electron astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Gamma rays|Gamma-ray astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Hadrons|Hadron astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Mesons|Meson astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Muons|Muon astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Neutrinos|Neutrino astronomy]]
* [[Radiation/Neutrons|Neutron astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Positrons|Positron astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Protons|Proton astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Subatomics|Subatomics astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Ultraviolets|Ultraviolet astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-ray astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==

&lt;!-- footer templates --&gt;
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[[Category:Radiation astronomy/Lectures]]</text>
      <sha1>gnpkw968bxhvqq32rti5xbsvys7uh1a</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Is management a science or an art?</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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Define  management. Explain whether management is an art or science.  

       Management is the process of planning and organising the resources and activities of a business to achieve specific goals in the most effective and efficient manner possible. Efficiency in management refers to the completion of tasks correctly and at minimal costs. Effectiveness in management relates to the completion of tasks within specific timelines to yield tangible results.

''Management can be considered as both science as well as an art.''

Management is science because of several reasons like - it has universally accepted principles, it has cause and effect relationship etc, and at the same time it is art because it requires perfection through practice, practical knowledge, creativity, personal skills etc.

It is considered as a science because it has an organized body of knowledge which contains certain universal truth. It is called an art because managing requires certain skills which are personal possessions of managers. Science provides the knowledge &amp; art deals with the application of knowledge and skills.

A manager to be successful in his profession must acquire the knowledge of science &amp; the art of applying it. Therefore management is a judicious blend of science as well as an art because it proves the principles and the way these principles are applied is a matter of art. Science teaches to ‘know’ and art teaches to ‘do’. E.g. A person cannot become a good singer unless he has knowledge about various ragas &amp; he also applies his personal skill in the art of singing. Same way it is not sufficient for manager to first know the principles but he must also apply them in solving various managerial problems that is why, science and art are not mutually exclusive but they are complementary to each other (like tea and biscuit, bread and butter etc.).

== '''Management As Science '''== 

Yes,Science is a systematic body of knowledge pertaining to a specific field of study that contains general facts which explains a phenomenon. It establishes cause and effect relationship between two or more variables and underlines the principles governing their relationship. These principles are developed through scientific method of observation and verification through testing.
Science is characterized by the following main features:

1.	Universally acceptance principles – Scientific principles represents basic truth about a particular field of enquiry. These principles may be applied in all situations, at all time &amp; at all places. E.g. – law of gravitation which can be applied in all countries irrespective of the time. 
Management also contains some fundamental principles  which can be applied universally like the Principle of Unity of Command i.e. one man, one boss. This principle is applicable to all type of organization – business or non business.

2.	Experimentation &amp; Observation – Scientific principles are derived through scientific investigation &amp; researching i.e. they are based on logic. E.g. the principle that earth goes round the sun has been scientifically proved. 
Management principles are also based on scientific enquiry &amp; observation and not only on the opinion of Henry Fayol. They have been developed through experiments &amp; practical experiences of large number of managers. E.g. it is observed that fair remuneration to personal helps in creating a satisfied work force.

3.	Cause &amp; Effect Relationship – Principles of science lay down cause and effect relationship between various variables. E.g. when metals are heated, they are expanded. The cause is heating &amp; result is expansion. 
The same is true for management, therefore it also establishes cause and effect relationship. E.g. lack of parity (balance) between authority &amp; responsibility will lead to ineffectiveness. If you know the cause i.e. lack of balance, the effect can be ascertained easily -in effectiveness. Similarly if workers are given bonuses, fair wages they will work hard but when not treated in fair and just manner, reduces productivity of organization.

4.	Test of Validity &amp; Predictability – Validity of scientific principles can be tested at any time or any number of times. They stand the test of time. Each time these tests will give same result. Moreover future events can be predicted with reasonable accuracy by using scientific principles. E.g. hydrogen &amp; oxygen will always give water. 
Principles of management can also be tested for validity. E.g. principle of unity of command can be tested by comparing two persons – one having single boss and one having 2 bosses. The performance of 1st person will be better than 2nd.
It cannot be denied that management has a systematic body of knowledge but it is not as exact as that of other physical sciences like biology, physics, and chemistry etc. The main reason for the inexactness of science of management is that it deals with human beings and it is very difficult to predict their behavior accurately. Since it is a social process, therefore it falls in the area of social sciences. It is a flexible science &amp; that is why its theories and principles may produce different results at different times and therefore it is a behavioral science. Ernest Dale has called it as a Soft Science.

=='''Management as Art'''==

Art implies application of knowledge &amp; skill to trying about desired results. An art may be defined as personalized application of general theoretical principles for achieving best possible results. Art has the following characters –

1.	Practical Knowledge: Every art requires practical knowledge therefore learning of theory is not sufficient. It is very important to know practical application of theoretical principles. E.g. to become a good painter, the person may not only be knowing different colour and brushes but different designs, dimensions, situations etc to use them appropriately. A manager can never be successful just by obtaining degree or diploma in management; he must have also know how to apply various principles in real situations by functioning in capacity of manager. 

2.	Personal Skill: Although theoretical base may be same for every artist, but each one has his own style and approach towards his job. That is why the level of success and quality of performance differs from one person to another. E.g. there are several qualified painters but M.F. Hussain is recognized for his style. Similarly management as an art is also personalized. Every manager has his own way of managing things based on his knowledge, experience and personality, that is why some managers are known as good managers (like Aditya Birla, Rahul Bajaj) whereas others as bad. 

3.	Creativity: Every artist has an element of creativity in line. That is why he aims at producing something that has never existed before which requires combination of intelligence &amp; imagination. Management is also creative in nature like any other art. It combines human and non-human resources in useful way so as to achieve desired results. It tries to produce sweet music by combining chords in an efficient manner. 

4.	Perfection through practice: Practice makes a man perfect. Every artist becomes more and more proficient through constant practice. Similarly managers learn through an art of trial and error initially but application of management principles over the years makes them perfect in the job of managing. 

5.	Goal-Oriented: Every art is result oriented as it seeks to achieve concrete results. In the same manner, management is also directed towards accomplishment of pre-determined goals. Managers use various resources like men, money, material, machinery &amp; methods to promote growth of an organization. 
Thus, we can say that management is an art therefore it requires application of certain principles rather it is an art of highest order because it deals with moulding the attitude and behavior of people at work towards desired goals.

6.    Work by effectively. manager manage all problem in every environment so  this is not science, it is an art that how he manage every problem of organization in every environment.

=='''Management as both Science and Art'''==
Management is both an art and a science. The above mentioned points clearly reveals that management combines features of both science as well as art. It is considered as a science because it has an organized body of knowledge which contains certain universal truth. It is called an art because managing requires certain skills which are personal possessions of managers. Science provides the knowledge &amp; art deals with the application of knowledge and skills.
A manager to be successful in his profession must acquire the knowledge of science &amp; the art of applying it. Therefore management is a judicious blend of science as well as an art because it proves the principles and the way these principles are applied is a matter of art. Science teaches to ’know’ and art teaches to ’do’. Example. a person cannot become a good singer unless he has knowledge about various ragas &amp; he also applies his personal skill in the art of singing. Same way it is not sufficient for manager to first know the principles but he must also apply them in solving various managerial problems that is why, science and art are not mutually exclusive but they are complementary to each other (like tea and biscuit, bread and butter etc.).
The old saying that “Manager are Born” has been rejected in favor of “Managers are Made”. It has been aptly remarked that management is the oldest of art and youngest of science. To conclude, we can say that science is the root and art is the fruit.

=='''Management as Profession'''==

mangement is both. A profession may be defined as an occupation that requires specialized knowledge and intensive academic preparations to which entry is regulated by a representative body. The essentials of a profession are:

1.	Specialized Knowledge – A profession must have a systematic body of knowledge that can be used for development of professionals. Every professional must make deliberate efforts to acquire expertise in the principles and techniques. Similarly a manager must have devotion and involvement to acquire expertise in the science of management. 

2.	Formal Education &amp; Training – There are no. of institutes and universities to impart education &amp; training for a profession. No one can practice a profession without going through a prescribed course. Many institutes of management have been set up for imparting education and training. For example, a CA cannot audit the A/C’s unless he has acquired a degree or diploma for the same but no minimum qualifications and a course of study has been prescribed for managers by law. For example, MBA may be preferred but not necessary. 

3.	Social Obligations – Profession is a source of livelihood but professionals are primarily motivated by the desire to serve the society. Their actions are influenced by social norms and values. Similarly a manager is responsible not only to its owners but also to the society and therefore he is expected to provide quality goods at reasonable prices to the society. 

4.	Code of Conduct – Members of a profession have to abide by a code of conduct which contains certain rules and regulations, norms of honesty, integrity and special ethics. A code of conduct is enforced by a representative association to ensure self discipline among its members. Any member violating the code of conduct can be punished and his membership can be withdrawn. The AIMA has prescribed a code of conduct for managers but it has no right to take legal action against any manager who violates it. 

5.	Representative Association – For the regulation of profession, existence of a representative body is a must. For example, an institute of Charted Accountants of India establishes and administers standards of competence for the auditors but the AIMA (Alternative Investment Management Association) however does not have any statuary powers to regulate the activities of managers. 
From above discussion, it is quite clear that management fulfills several essentials of a profession, even then it is not a full fledged profession because: - 
a.	It does not restrict the entry in managerial jobs for account of one standard or other. 
b.	No minimum qualifications have been prescribed for managers. 
c.	No management association has the authority to grant a certificate of practice to various managers. 
d.	All managers are supposed to abide by the code formulated by AIMA, 
e.	Competent education and training facilities do not exist. . 
f.	Managers are responsible to many groups such as shareholders, employees and society. A regulatory code may curtail their freedom. 
g.	Managers are known by their performance and not mere degrees. 
h.	The ultimate goal of business is to maximize profit and not social welfare. That is why Haymes has rightly remarked, “The slogan for management is becoming – ’He who serves best, also profits most’.”

i think management is more of art than science.it is the accumulated knwoledge which comprises science. through exastive aquentence with management over the history it has added itself with knowledge. But when matter comes to practies of management it is purely art.with help of knowledge available.</text>
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Define  management. Explain whether management is an art or science.  

       Management is the process of planning and organising the resources and activities of a business to achieve specific goals in the most effective and efficient manner possible. Efficiency in management refers to the completion of tasks correctly and at minimal costs. Effectiveness in management relates to the completion of tasks within specific timelines to yield tangible results.

''Management can be considered as both science as well as an art.''

Management is science because of several reasons like - it has universally accepted principles, it has cause and effect relationship etc, and at the same time it is art because it requires perfection through practice, practical knowledge, creativity, personal skills etc.

It is considered as a science because it has an organized body of knowledge which contains certain universal truth. It is called an art because managing requires certain skills which are personal possessions of managers. Science provides the knowledge &amp; art deals with the application of knowledge and skills.

A manager to be successful in his profession must acquire the knowledge of science &amp; the art of applying it. Therefore management is a judicious blend of science as well as an art because it proves the principles and the way these principles are applied is a matter of art. Science teaches to ‘know’ and art teaches to ‘do’. E.g. A person cannot become a good singer unless he has knowledge about various ragas &amp; he also applies his personal skill in the art of singing. Same way it is not sufficient for manager to first know the principles but he must also apply them in solving various managerial problems that is why, science and art are not mutually exclusive but they are complementary to each other (like tea and biscuit, bread and butter etc.).

== '''Management As Science '''== 

Yes,Science is a systematic body of knowledge pertaining to a specific field of study that contains general facts which explains a phenomenon. It establishes cause and effect relationship between two or more variables and underlines the principles governing their relationship. These principles are developed through scientific method of observation and verification through testing.
Science is characterized by the following main features:

1.	Universally acceptance principles – Scientific principles represents basic truth about a particular field of enquiry. These principles may be applied in all situations, at all time &amp; at all places. E.g. – law of gravitation which can be applied in all countries irrespective of the time. 
Management also contains some fundamental principles  which can be applied universally like the Principle of Unity of Command i.e. one man, one boss. This principle is applicable to all type of organization – business or non business.

2.	Experimentation &amp; Observation – Scientific principles are derived through scientific investigation &amp; researching i.e. they are based on logic. E.g. the principle that earth goes round the sun has been scientifically proved. 
Management principles are also based on scientific enquiry &amp; observation and not only on the opinion of Henry Fayol. They have been developed through experiments &amp; practical experiences of large number of managers. E.g. it is observed that fair remuneration to personal helps in creating a satisfied work force.

3.	Cause &amp; Effect Relationship – Principles of science lay down cause and effect relationship between various variables. E.g. when metals are heated, they are expanded. The cause is heating &amp; result is expansion. 
The same is true for management, therefore it also establishes cause and effect relationship. E.g. lack of parity (balance) between authority &amp; responsibility will lead to ineffectiveness. If you know the cause i.e. lack of balance, the effect can be ascertained easily -in effectiveness. Similarly if workers are given bonuses, fair wages they will work hard but when not treated in fair and just manner, reduces productivity of organization.

4.	Test of Validity &amp; Predictability – Validity of scientific principles can be tested at any time or any number of times. They stand the test of time. Each time these tests will give same result. Moreover future events can be predicted with reasonable accuracy by using scientific principles. E.g. hydrogen &amp; oxygen will always give water. 
Principles of management can also be tested for validity. E.g. principle of unity of command can be tested by comparing two persons – one having single boss and one having 2 bosses. The performance of 1st person will be better than 2nd.
It cannot be denied that management has a systematic body of knowledge but it is not as exact as that of other physical sciences like biology, physics, and chemistry etc. The main reason for the inexactness of science of management is that it deals with human beings and it is very difficult to predict their behavior accurately. Since it is a social process, therefore it falls in the area of social sciences. It is a flexible science &amp; that is why its theories and principles may produce different results at different times and therefore it is a behavioral science. Ernest Dale has called it as a Soft Science.

=='''Management as Art'''==

Art implies application of knowledge &amp; skill to trying about desired results. An art may be defined as personalized application of general theoretical principles for achieving best possible results. Art has the following characters –

1.	Practical Knowledge: Every art requires practical knowledge therefore learning of theory is not sufficient. It is very important to know practical application of theoretical principles. E.g. to become a good painter, the person may not only be knowing different colour and brushes but different designs, dimensions, situations etc to use them appropriately. A manager can never be successful just by obtaining degree or diploma in management; he must have also know how to apply various principles in real situations by functioning in capacity of manager. 

2.	Personal Skill: Although theoretical base may be same for every artist, but each one has his own style and approach towards his job. That is why the level of success and quality of performance differs from one person to another. E.g. there are several qualified painters but M.F. Hussain is recognized for his style. Similarly management as an art is also personalized. Every manager has his own way of managing things based on his knowledge, experience and personality, that is why some managers are known as good managers (like Aditya Birla, Rahul Bajaj) whereas others as bad. 

3.	Creativity: Every artist has an element of creativity in line. That is why he aims at producing something that has never existed before which requires combination of intelligence &amp; imagination. Management is also creative in nature like any other art. It combines human and non-human resources in useful way so as to achieve desired results. It tries to produce sweet music by combining chords in an efficient manner. 

4.	Perfection through practice: Practice makes a man perfect. Every artist becomes more and more proficient through constant practice. Similarly managers learn through an art of trial and error initially but application of management principles over the years makes them perfect in the job of managing. 

5.	Goal-Oriented: Every art is result oriented as it seeks to achieve concrete results. In the same manner, management is also directed towards accomplishment of pre-determined goals. Managers use various resources like men, money, material, machinery &amp; methods to promote growth of an organization. 
Thus, we can say that management is an art therefore it requires application of certain principles rather it is an art of highest order because it deals with moulding the attitude and behavior of people at work towards desired goals.

6.    Work by effectively. manager manage all problem in every environment so  this is not science, it is an art that how he manage every problem of organization in every environment.

=='''Management as both Science and Art'''==
Management is both an art and a science. The above mentioned points clearly reveals that management combines features of both science as well as art. It is considered as a science because it has an organized body of knowledge which contains certain universal truth. It is called an art because managing requires certain skills which are personal possessions of managers. Science provides the knowledge &amp; art deals with the application of knowledge and skills.
A manager to be successful in his profession must acquire the knowledge of science &amp; the art of applying it. Therefore management is a judicious blend of science as well as an art because it proves the principles and the way these principles are applied is a matter of art. Science teaches to ’know’ and art teaches to ’do’. Example. a person cannot become a good singer unless he has knowledge about various ragas &amp; he also applies his personal skill in the art of singing. Same way it is not sufficient for manager to first know the principles but he must also apply them in solving various managerial problems that is why, science and art are not mutually exclusive but they are complementary to each other (like tea and biscuit, bread and butter etc.).
The old saying that “Manager are Born” has been rejected in favor of “Managers are Made”. It has been aptly remarked that management is the oldest of art and youngest of science. To conclude, we can say that science is the root and art is the fruit.

=='''Management as Profession'''==

A profession may be defined as an occupation that requires specialized knowledge and intensive academic preparations to which entry is regulated by a representative body. The essentials of a profession are:

1.	Specialized Knowledge – A profession must have a systematic body of knowledge that can be used for development of professionals. Every professional must make deliberate efforts to acquire expertise in the principles and techniques. Similarly a manager must have devotion and involvement to acquire expertise in the science of management. 

2.	Formal Education &amp; Training – There are no. of institutes and universities to impart education &amp; training for a profession. No one can practice a profession without going through a prescribed course. Many institutes of management have been set up for imparting education and training. For example, a CA cannot audit the A/C’s unless he has acquired a degree or diploma for the same but no minimum qualifications and a course of study has been prescribed for managers by law. For example, MBA may be preferred but not necessary. 

3.	Social Obligations – Profession is a source of livelihood but professionals are primarily motivated by the desire to serve the society. Their actions are influenced by social norms and values. Similarly a manager is responsible not only to its owners but also to the society and therefore he is expected to provide quality goods at reasonable prices to the society. 

4.	Code of Conduct – Members of a profession have to abide by a code of conduct which contains certain rules and regulations, norms of honesty, integrity and special ethics. A code of conduct is enforced by a representative association to ensure self discipline among its members. Any member violating the code of conduct can be punished and his membership can be withdrawn. The AIMA has prescribed a code of conduct for managers but it has no right to take legal action against any manager who violates it. 

5.	Representative Association – For the regulation of profession, existence of a representative body is a must. For example, an institute of Charted Accountants of India establishes and administers standards of competence for the auditors but the AIMA (Alternative Investment Management Association) however does not have any statuary powers to regulate the activities of managers. 
From above discussion, it is quite clear that management fulfills several essentials of a profession, even then it is not a full fledged profession because: - 
a.	It does not restrict the entry in managerial jobs for account of one standard or other. 
b.	No minimum qualifications have been prescribed for managers. 
c.	No management association has the authority to grant a certificate of practice to various managers. 
d.	All managers are supposed to abide by the code formulated by AIMA, 
e.	Competent education and training facilities do not exist. . 
f.	Managers are responsible to many groups such as shareholders, employees and society. A regulatory code may curtail their freedom. 
g.	Managers are known by their performance and not mere degrees. 
h.	The ultimate goal of business is to maximize profit and not social welfare. That is why Haymes has rightly remarked, “The slogan for management is becoming – ’He who serves best, also profits most’.”

i think management is more of art than science.it is the accumulated knwoledge which comprises science. through exastive aquentence with management over the history it has added itself with knowledge. But when matter comes to practies of management it is purely art.with help of knowledge available.</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Female killer motivation</title>
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      <text bytes="32399" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Female killer motivation:&lt;br&gt;What motivates females to kill others?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eX0hClcgUqU&amp;t=3s}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
The act of taking another person’s life is perhaps the most heinous crime a person can commit. [[wikipedia:Homicide|Homicide]] is an illegal act that results in severe punishment. Today convicted perpetrators are incarcerated or even put to death, and subsequently, homicide rates are decreasing around the world. However, there are still people engage in acts of homicide, [[wikipedia:Murder|murder]] and [[wikipedia:Serial_killer|serial killing]]. Research surrounding the motivations of homicide offenders is endless, yet one topic remains largely overlooked; female homicide offenders and their motives. Studies typically combine gender when analysing motivations behind homicide suggesting that motivations of men and women who kill do not differ. Conversely, there is research identifying significant gender differences in the &quot;why?&quot; that underlies killing, recognising that women are likely to kill for different reasons than men (Flynn, Abel, While, Mehta, &amp; Shaw, 2011). 

{{Rquote|left|&lt;big&gt;Our culture is in denial of women's proclivity for aggression&lt;/big&gt;&lt;br&gt;|[[q:author|Patricia Pearson]]}}

Around the world, homicide offenders are, in most cases, male. In 2012 the global prevalence of male killers was almost four times that of female killers (UNODC, 2013). In light of this, it is unsurprising that, of the multitudes of research surrounding homicide offenders, only a small minority looks exclusively at female offenders. The contrasting number of female versus male killers is just one of the various reasons why women are not typically the focus of homicide research. Another reason, as depicted in Pearson's quote, is that society typically rejects the idea of &quot;violent women&quot; because it goes against social norms and stereotypical gender roles (Harrison, Murphy, Ho, Bowers, &amp; Flaherty, 2015). An extreme result of this sees Western society reluctant to convict female killers, seeing them as victims themselves (Pearson, 1998). Whilst these reasons may result in the overlooking of female killers the reality is that some women do commit heinous acts of killing other people. Consequently, it is important to look into female offenders and their motives. 

This chapter explores female killers, looking specifically at why women commit homicide and identifying the evident gender differences that exist in killers (see ''Figure 1.''). Psychological theories and case studies are discussed to further detail the salient motivations of female killers. 

;Focus questions:
* What motivates females to kill?
* How do female and male killers differ?

[[File:Gender. for mande.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Killer motivations vary across genders.|377x377px|alt=]]

== Gender differences in killers ==
Males and females differ widely when it comes to committing homicide. Motives, victims, and methods are just some of the dissimilarities that exist. It is important to highlight these difference in order to give context to this chapter.

Research has shown significant differences in the types of victims male and female homicide offenders take. Whilst men typically target [[wikipedia:Stranger|strangers]], research has shown that women are most likely to target people familiar to them (Trägårdh, Nilsson, Granath, &amp; Sturup, 2016). A 2015 study analysing 64 female serial killers (FSK) found that in 92.2% of the cases the perpetrators knew all or most of their victims (Harrison et al., 2015). In killing people close to them women are more likely than men to kill children. Palermo (2002) identified that of 131 cases of [[wikipedia:Filicide|filicide]], 88 of the killers were mothers compared to 43 who were fathers. This is likely related to empirical research which identifies that women are more likely than men to kill vulnerable people like children and the elderly (Harrison et al., 2015) 

Unsurprisingly, with differing types of victims, females also differ from males in their motives to kill. For example, sexual desires are more often than not the motives of male killers however the typical typologies of female killers rarely point to sexual motivations (Kelleher &amp; Kelleher, 1998). Female motives often revolve around resource attainment whilst men are almost always sexually driven (Harrison, Hughes, &amp; Gott, 2019). Additionally, females differ from men in the way they kill their victims. Females typically avoid killing through direct contact by using poison, cars or guns whereas male offenders may often use strong violence in their kills (Roe-Sepowitz, 2007).  

{{Robelbox|theme=2|title=Take a quiz|width=75%}}&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
Women typically kill out of sexual motivations?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Statistics indicate that the global prevalence of male killers is almost four times that of female killers?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+True
-False
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

== Motives of female killers ==
To gain insight into why females commit homicide academic literature typically looks to examine the motives of past female killers. This helps to identify the most common motives of current killers and the likely motives of future offenders. The dominant motives acknowledged in literature are explored below.

===Financial gain===
[[File:Amy-Archer-Gilligan.png|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Amy Archer-Gilligan]]

Financial gain is one of the most identified motives behind females who kill. A 2015 study by Harrison et al. analysed the crimes of 64 FSK's identifying financial gain as the most common motive. Furthermore, in Kelleher and Kelleher’s 1988 book on female murderers, they note killing for profit as a primary motive. The authors found such a strong prevalence of women killing for money in the 19th century that they were prompted to create a motivation typology called the &quot;black widow&quot;. Black widows typically kill husband after husband in order to inherit their wealth. [[wikipedia:Amy_Archer-Gilligan|Amy Archer-Gilligan]] (see ''Figure 2.'') is often considered one of the most infamous black widow killers of the 19th century. The woman killed multiple husbands and various nursing home patients in order to profit from their life insurance policies.   

Some attributions for financial gain motives of female killers may include:  

* '''Evolutionary adaptions:''' From an evolutionary psychology point of view financial gain is a sex-specific motivational tendency for resource gain, adopted from our ancestors (Harrison et al., 2019). This is highlighted in detail in the evolutionary perspective section of the chapter.
* '''Drug addiction:''' Killing for profit has also been attributed to drug [[wikipedia:Addiction|addiction]]. In a 1996 study of 215 American women incarcerated for homicide, many perpetrators self-reported ‘needing money to buy drugs’ as their reason for killing (Spunt, Brownstein, Crimmins, &amp; Langley, 1996).

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Money and extrinsic motivation}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Financial gain is a unique motive as it is an [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Extrinsic_motivation extrinsic motivation]. Whilst revenge and self-defence motivations (see below) typically stem from internal needs, killing for money is a behaviour that is motivated purely by external rewards. This motivation arises from outside the individual with money acting as an [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incentive incentive]. Killing for money can be seen as an externally regulated behaviour that is performed to obtain reward (Reeve, 2018). Unsurprisingly, people who are motivated through external regulation show poor functioning and poor outcomes, both of which can be related to homicidal behaviour (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017).
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

===Revenge===
[[File:Medeia child Louvre K300.jpg|thumb|''Figure 3.'' Depiction of Medea murdering her child in revenge against her husband ]]

In relation to homicide, [[wikipedia:Revenge|revenge]] is defined as a motive to kill in which the avenger wants to eliminate an uncomfortable and painful emotion (Grobbink, Derksen, &amp; Marle, 2015). Revenge is commonly seen as a human emotion associated with aggression, anger, and hate, emotions which are often linked to violent crime and homicide. Other research sees revengefulness as a pursuit, rather than an emotion or feeling (Frijda, 2008). This view, while different, remains valid as it is feasible to understand revenge in the form of murder as a [[wikipedia:Goal|goal]] a female killer may pursue. Moreover, the pursuit of revenge as a motive of female killers makes statistical sense. As indicated earlier in the chapter, women are far more likely to kill people they know than strangers. This makes revenge against someone who has done them wrong a perceivable motive.

Revenge has been documented as a common motive for female killers (Harrison et al., 2015) with research indicating that a revengeful motive may come from either suspicion or confirmation of a partner's [[wikipedia:Infidelity|infidelity]] (Bourget, &amp; Gagné, 2012). A husband/boyfriend proven or presumed to be unfaithful is likely to motivate revengeful pursuit as it can cause women to feel a desire for revenge{{rewrite}}. Recognised by Grobbink et al. (2015), these desires include humiliation, drive for a restoration of power and wish to cause harm.

A large number of female killers take their own children as their victims. Some research has implicated revenge as a possible motive in these instances, identifying that women may kill their children in an act of revenge against the child’s father. This is typically understood as ‘spousal revenge filicide’ (Carruthers, 2016) or the ‘[[wikipedia:Medea|Medea]] complex’ (see Figure 3), as [[wikipedia:Greek_mythology|Greek mythology]] depicts Medea seeking revenge against her unfaithful husband by killing their children (Palermo, 2002).

To fully grasp revenge as the motive of a female killer{{gr}} it is helpful to consider some examples. Below are some instances in which female killers have identified revenge as the reason they committed their offence: 

* Vigilante '''Marianne Bachmeir''' became famous in the 1980’s{{gr}} after she shot the alleged murderer of her child in a court room (Source: [[wikipedia:Marianne_Bachmeier|Marianne]]).
* '''Stacy Smalls''' posted the words ‘hope she was worth it’ on her Facebook page before killing her one-year-old twins in revenge against her husband whom she believed to be having an affair (Source: [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-human-equation/201209/is-why-i-killed-your-kids Psychology today]).
* In 2018, American women '''Jennair Gerardot''' put in motion a calculated revenge plot in which she shot to death her husband’s mistress and then herself, leaving him with no one (Source: [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/woman-kill-husband-mistress-dead-affair-pennsylvania-latest-cheating-jennair-gerardot-a8322981.html Independent News]).
* '''Katherine Knight''' was the first Australian women to be sentenced to life imprisonment without parole after she stabbed, skinned and decapitated her de facto husband John. One of her identified motives was to get revenge after John broke up with her, kicked her out of their house and filed a restraining order against her (Source: [[wikipedia:Katherine_Knight|Knight and Price]]).

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=General Strain Theory}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Robert Agnew’s General Strain Theory (1992) is a theory that aims to provide an explanation of crime motivations by focusing on negative events and the role of negative emotions in the motivations of offenders. Agnew and White (1992) explain that strains (a variety of negative events including negative relationships) lead to negative emotions which subsequently provide pressure for collective action. This collective action is said to involve criminal acting out as crime can be used to escape from the strain, temper negative emotions, or seek '''revenge''' against the source of the strain (Grobbink et al., 2015). Agnew’s theory therefore may suggest that female revenge killing is motivated by the need to pursue collective action against a negative relationship in one’s life that is causing strain.
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

=== Self-defence ===
One motive that is consistently linked to female killers is [[wikipedia:Self-defense|self-defence]]. Literature highlights this motive as prominent in cases where women kill men, specifically their spouse or partner (Faigman, 1986). For example, an American study of more than 40,000 juvenile female homicide offenders identified that they were nine times more likely to kill intimate partners than their male counterparts (Heide, Roe-Sepowitz, Solomon, &amp; Chan, 2012). 

Self-defence as a motive is most common in cases where [[wikipedia:Domestic_violence|domestic violence]] is involved. Research suggests that women may kill their abusing partners as an extreme reaction to their victimisation, in reaction to a perceived sense of danger, or out of fear of future harm (Bourget &amp; Gagne, 2012). The perpetrator often indicates that they felt they could not escape the violence and that their lives could or would be ended by their abuser. Studies found that women who killed their abusing partners experienced acts of violence against them just prior to the homicide and, feeling that their life was threatened, reacted out of self-defence (Hamilton &amp; Sutterfield, 1998). 

Of particular interest to the scope of this chapter is [[wikipedia:Battered_woman_syndrome|battered woman syndrome]]. This syndrome is exclusively related to self-defence homicides when women are offenders. Battered woman syndrome is used to explain the motivations of women who kill in self-defence when no immediate threat is present (Faigman, 1986). Battered women may claim that long-running abuse creates two mental spaces. One, the woman fears that she is in imminent danger at all times not just during the times of violence, and two, the woman has succumbed to [[wikipedia:Learned_helplessness|learned helplessness]] (Faigman, 1986). This ultimately results in a woman killing their partner at a time when they pose no immediate threat. Thus, the syndrome works as a justification of self-defence motivation even though a woman did not kill in the typical circumstances needed to prove ‘self-defence’. 

{{Robelbox|theme=3|title=Case study: Battered woman syndrome}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
In 1977, American woman [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francine_Hughes Francine Hughes] killed her ex-husband James Hughes. Francine had suffered 13 years of extreme domestic violence at the hand of James both during and after their marriage. On the night of the homicide James came home to the pairs{{gr}} house drunk, raping and physically assaulting Francine. After this ordeal, an intoxicated James passed out in his bed. Whilst asleep Francine lit fire to the bed James was in killing him. Whilst James was asleep at the time of the offence and presented no threat to Francine she was found not guilty of his murder. 
Through a defence centred around battered woman syndrome Francine made a plea of temporary insanity. She claimed that the long-running abuse had caused her to fear for her safety constantly, not just during the times James was violent towards her. As a result, Francine was found not guilty with the jury believing she acted in self-defence despite no imminent threat to her life.  

Source: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francine_Hughes Francine Hughes]
 
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

=== Psychopathology ===
{{Rquote|right|women offenders, whatever their crimes may be, have a higher chance of being dealt with as mentally abnormal..|Smart, 1977}}

The relationship between psychopathology and female killers is well documented. A study by Roe-Sepowitz (2007) reviewed 29 female adolescent homicide offender’s{{gr}} finding that a third of the group had current mental health diagnoses. Mental disorders including psychotic thinking, schizophrenia, antisocial personality disorder, and impulsivity have all been empirically associated with why women commit murder (Trägårdh, et al., 2016; Lewis et al., 1985; Harrison et al., 2015). Mental illness is repeatedly identified in cases where woman kill their children. Palermo (2002) postulated that mental illness in the form of severe delusional depression or dissociative episodes, may at times be part of the disordered behaviour of murderous parents. This study acknowledged that schizophrenia, melancholia and manic-depressive disorders, and character disorders were among diagnoses of mothers who killed their children. In all of these instances, researchers recognise that the presence of psychotic, disordered or unstable thinking and the absence of secure mental health can act together as motivation for a woman to take another person’s life (Trägårdh et al., 2016).

Carol Smart’s 1977 book highlights some important information. Females who commit fatal crimes with no specific motive often have mental health issues and that therefore becomes the motivation in itself. This is a naively simple take on the relationship between homicide offenders and mental illness. Realistically research suggests that mental illness may be ascribed after the perpetrator is caught. Smart explains that the perception is that only a mentally ill person is capable of such heinous crimes. Thus, one needs to interpret a female killers{{gr}} current and previous mental health with caution. Consider the question, what came first the chicken or the egg? Smart postulates that in some instances delusional and disordered mental health may prompt a female to murder but in other cases mental disorders may actually be the result of the homicide offence itself. 

== Psychological theory ==
To obtain a comprehensive understanding of the motives behind any human behaviour it is vital to consider psychological theory. A strong research background makes theories an optimal choice when examining the explanation of behaviours.

=== Attachment theory ===
[[wikipedia:Attachment_theory|Attachment theory]] is a psychological approach that looks at early life experiences, often focusing on the bond between a child and their primary [[wikipedia:Caregiver|caregiver]]. The theory was developed from work done by [[wikipedia:John_Bowlby|Bowlby]] who defined attachment as biologically based behaviours that exist between an attachment figure and a child to ensure the child’s proximity to said figure (Bolen, 2000). According to research on attachment theory by Lee and Choi (2014), successful development of a child is based largely upon its early bond with its primary caregiver, if this bond is broken a child is likely to partake in crime and [[wikipedia:Juvenile_delinquency|delinquency]] over the lifespan. Furthermore, it is critical for a child to develop trust and security from their primary caregivers. Without this development, the child learns to feel that others are unreliable and untrustworthy, emotions that motivate erratic behaviour (Arrigo &amp; Griffin, 2014). Particularly relevant to the motivations of violent females, Bowlby (1969) explained that separation from a primary caregiver can result in powerful and intense anger. 

Various research supports attachment theory and its notion that poor attachment may be a motivator for female killers. A 2012 meta-analysis examining 74 studies concluded that poor attachment to parents was significantly linked to delinquency in boys and girls, highlighting a relationship between criminal behaviour and attachment (Hoeve et al., 2012). Yourstone, Lindholm, and Kristiansson (2008) noted, in their Swedish study of 43 female and male killers respectively, that over one third grew up without their biological parents.&lt;br /&gt;{{Robelbox|theme=3|title=Case study: Aileen Wuornos}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;

[[File:Wuornos.jpg|left|thumb|''Figure 4''. Wuornos mugshot]]

The relationship between poor parental attachment and female murderers is epitomised by serial killer [[w:Aileen Wuornos|Aileen Wuornos]] (see ''Figure 4.''). Wuornos was a middle-aged American woman who shot and killed seven men between 1989-1990. Wuornos was convicted of six murders, sentenced to death and was subsequently executed by lethal injection in October 1992. Professionals have offered various perspectives on the motives of Wuornos' acts; one particular perspective is attachment theory.&amp;nbsp;

Shortly after Aileen’s birth, she was abandoned by her mother and left with her abusive and neglectful grandparents. Aileen’s father was never really in her life. Below are quotes from Aileen depicting her relationships with her biological parents:
*“He was as cold as ice”
*“Our so-called cough cough… real biological mother we never really knew”

Attachment theory highlights the importance of Aileen’s childhood separation in which she suffered from a lack of attachment with any primary caregiver. As research in attachment theory would support, this led to aggressive impulses and delinquency which resulted in an ability to devalue people, eventually allowing Aileen to kill in an angry and remorseless fashion (Arrigo &amp; Griffin, 2014). 

Source: [https://books.google.com.au/books/about/Dear_Dawn.html?id=Yj_8LT-dJsYC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;source=kp_read_button&amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Dear dawn]
&lt;/div&gt;
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=== Evolutionary perspective ===
A substantial amount of research on killer motivations looks at the topic through an evolutionary lens. The [[wikipedia:Evolutionary_psychology|evolutionary approach]] explains that the motives of female killers may be the by-products of ancestral tendencies. 

One recent study proposed and tested a 'hunter-gather' model of serial murder which aimed to explain motivational tendencies of killers from an evolutionary psychology perspective (Harrison et al., 2019). The model analysed sex differences between serial murders putting forward the argument that MSKs are theoretical ‘hunters’ of victims and FSKs are theoretical ‘gatherers' of victims. The hypothesis was that these different motivations may have derived from sex-specific tendencies of labour divisions in the ancestral environment in which men hunted animals as prey and women gathered nearby plants for food. Findings of the study supported the hypothesis, promoting the evolutionary motivation model. Similar to this, some studies suggest that from an evolutionary viewpoint, variance in women’s reproduction tells us that they are in competition (Campbell, 2013). It is this competition that motivates aggression and violence which in turn may motivate females to kill. Other literature argues that women kill primarily for resources and men primarily for sex, follows evolutionary sex-specific [[wikipedia:Reproduction|reproduction]] maximisation tactics (Harrison et al., 2015). What this suggests is that because of different reproductive potential it makes evolutionary sense for men to seek sexual opportunity and women to seek resources.  

{{Robelbox|theme=2|title=Take a quiz}}&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
Which of the following would research suggest as a likely motive of a female killer?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Sexual drive
+ Financial gain
- Strong mother-daughter bond
- Hunting thrill

{The tendency for men to 'hunt' and women to 'gather' their victims comes out of which psychological perspective?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Psychodynamic 
- Humanistic
+ Evolutionary
- Behavioural 
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

== Conclusion ==
This chapter offers insight into the minds of female killers. Statistics identify strong differences between all aspects of male and female committed homicides. It is therefore vital that gender is considered when making conclusions about homicide offenders as this ensures generalisations are not made.

Studies commonly find that FSK’s are motivated by financial gain and identify revenge as a strong motive in spousal homicide and filicide. Research highlights that self-defence motivation is typically brought on by domestic violence. Mental illness can act as a motive in various different crimes across all genders. Specific to female killers the research indicates that disorders which produce unstable thinking are often present when women kill. Research in support of attachment theory identifies poor attachment to a primary caregiver as a possible antecedent to homicidal behaviour. Evolutionary psychology explains the acts of female killers in terms of evolved ancestral tendencies.

On a final note, it is important to consider the scope of this chapter before making conclusions. There are hundreds of different reasons as to why a female may kill another human being. Similarly, many psychological theories would be able to explain these motives. This chapter simply highlights some of the dominant motivations and theories, therefore the deductions taken from this reading should acknowledge that. 

== See also ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Serial killing motivation|Serial killing motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Violent crime motivation|Violent crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2010)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Intimate partner violence motivation|Intimate partner violence]] (Book chapter, 2017)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Filicide motivation|Filicide motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. ''Criminology'', ''30'', 47-88. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01093.x

Agnew, R., &amp; White, H. (1992). An empirical test of general strain theory. ''Criminology'', ''30'', 475-499. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01113.x

Arrigo, B., &amp; Griffin, A. (2004). Serial murder and the case of Aileen Wuornos: Attachment, theory, psychopathy, and predatory aggression. ''Behavioural Sciences and the Law'', ''22'', 375-393. https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bsl.583 

Bolen, R. M. (2000). Validity of attachment theory. ''Trauma, violence and abuse'', ''1'', 128-153. https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1524838000001002002

Bourget, D., &amp; Gagné, P. (2012). Women who kill their mates. ''Behavioural sciences and the law'', ''30'', 598-614. https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2033

Bowlby, J. (1969).&amp;nbsp;''Attachment and loss'': Vol. 1. Attachment. New York: Basic.

Campbell, A. (2013). The evolutionary psychology of women’s aggression. ''Philosophical transactions of the royal society B'', ''368(1631)'', 1-11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0078  

Carruthers, G. (2016). Making sense of spousal revenge filicide. ''Aggression and violent behaviour'', ''29'', 30-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2016.05.007

Faigman, D. L. (1986). The battered woman syndrome and self-defence: legal and empirical dissent. ''Virginia Law Review'', ''72'', 619-648.

Flynn, S., Abel, K., While, D., Mehta, H., &amp; Shaw, J. (2011). Mental illness, gender and homicide: A population-based descriptive study. ''Psychiatry Research '', ''185'', 368-375. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2010.07.040

Frijda, N. H. (2008). ''The laws of emotions''. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Bert Bakker.

Grobbink, L., Derksen, J., &amp; van Marle, H. (2015). Revenge: An analysis of its psychological underpinnings. ''International journal of offender therapy and comparative criminology'', ''59'', 892-907. https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0306624X13519963

Hamilton, G., &amp; Sutterfield, T. (1998) Comparison study of women who have and have not murdered their abusive partners. ''Women &amp;amp; Therapy'', '' 20'', 45-55.
https://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J015v20n04_04

Harrison, M., Hughes. S., &amp; Gott, A. (2019). Sex differences in serial killers. ''Evolutionary Behavioural Sciences'', ''13'', 295-310. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ebs0000157 

Harrison, M. A., Murphy, E. A., Ho, L. Y., Bowers, T. G., &amp; Flaherty, C. B. (2015). Female serial killers in the Unites States: means, motives, and makings.&amp;nbsp;''The journal of forensic psychiatry &amp; psychology'', ''26'', 383- 406. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2015.1007516

Heide, K. M., Roe-Sepowitz, D., Solomon, E. P., &amp; Chan, H. C. (2012). Male and female juveniles arrested for murder: A comprehensive analysis of U.S data by offender gender. ''International journal of offender therapy and comparative criminology'', ''56'', 356-384. 
https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0306624X11406418

Hoeve, M., Stams, G., van der Put, C., Dubas, J., van der Laan, P., &amp; Gerris, J. (2012). A meta-analysis of attachment to parents and delinquency. ''Journal of abnormal child psychology'', ''40'', 771-785. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10802-011-9608-1

Kelleher, M. D., &amp; Kelleher, C. L. (1998). ''Murder most rare: The female serial killer''. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Lee, J., &amp; Choi, K. (2014). Serial murder: An exploration and evaluation of theories and perspectives. ''American International Journal of Contemporary Research'', ''4'', 99-106.  

Lewis, D. O., Moy, E., Jackson, L. D., Aaronson, R., Restifo, N., Serra, S., . . . Simos, A. (1985). Biopsychosocial characteristics of children who later murder: a prospective study.&amp;nbsp;''The American journal of psychiatry'',&amp;nbsp;''142'', 1161–1167. https://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.142.10.1161 

Palermo, G. B. (2002). Murderous parents. ''International journal of offender therapy and comparative criminology'', ''46'', 123-143. https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0306624X02462002

Pearson, P. (1998). ''When she was bad: How and why women get away with murder''. Toronto, ON: Penguin random house Canada.

Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding Motivation and Emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

Roe-Sepowitz, D. (2007). Adolescent female murderers: Characteristics and treatment implications. ''American journal of orthopsychiatry'', ''77'', 489-496. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.77.3.489  

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2017). ''Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness''. New York: Guilford Press.

Smart, C. (1977). ''Women, Crime and Criminology''. London, UK: Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul 

Spunt, B., Brownstein, H., Crimmins, S., &amp; Langley, S. (1996). Drugs and homicide by women. ''Substance use and misuse'', ''37'', 825-845. https://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10826089609063959
 
Trägårdh, K., Nilsson, T., Granath, S., &amp; Sturup, J. (2016). A time trend study of Swedish male and female homicide offenders from 1990 to 2010. ''International journal of forensic mental health'', ''15'', 125-135. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14999013.2016.1152615

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2013). ''Global study on homicide 2013: Trends, contexts and data.'' Vienna, Austria: UNODC. Retrieved from: https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/statistics/GSH2013/2014_GLOBAL_HOMICIDE_BOOK_web.pdf

Yourstone, J., Lindholm, T., &amp; Kristiansson, M. (2008). Women who kill: A comparison of the psychosocial background of female and male perpetrators. ''International journal of law and psychiatry'', ''31'', 374-383. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2008.06.005
}}

== External links ==

*[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/03/190320110622.htm Why male and female serial killers differ] (Science daily, Penn State University)
*[https://au.video.search.yahoo.com/search/video;_ylt=AwrT4pMlYGFdbEkALAEL5gt.;_ylu=X3oDMTByNWU4cGh1BGNvbG8DZ3ExBHBvcwMxBHZ0aWQDBHNlYwNzYw--?p=deadly+women+australia&amp;fr=mcafee&amp;guccounter=1&amp;guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly9hdS5zZWFyY2gueWFob28uY29tL3NlYXJjaDtfeWx0PUF3cjlKLnZSWDJGZENxd0FmZGtMNWd0LjtfeWx1PVgzb0RNVEV3YzJSdllqQnJCR052Ykc4RFozRXhCSEJ2Y3dNMUJIWjBhV1FEQkhObFl3TnlaV3d0WW05MD9wPWRlYWRseSt3b21lbithdXN0cmFsaWEmdHlwZT1FMjExQVU3MTRHMCZlaT1VVEYtOCZmcjI9cnMtYm90dG9tJTJDcCUzQXMlMkN2JTNBdyUyQ20lM0FhdC1zJmZyPW1jYWZlZQ&amp;guce_referrer_sig=AQAAALiFMotpCBHy2KTALGSNC3VvOH51rt3vQ4OBWfYRGAHqWirK-NeFh9zbdMHwNi4bFKlp6QV5L_gZlffKB1TDHoqHUojHIf94JihpBS7yizrw7fcwhwikM1Oj57bbQpd83tpoRXFzrCaBvoGdU2wNbnfEa7eiK4ckljhPsmReturt Deadly women]  (Youtube)
*[https://www.crimestats.aic.gov.au Crime statistics Australia] (Statistical information)

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{{MECR3|1=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=haewVQyEiqc}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
With the era of technology rapidly taking over, we are seeing a decline in face to to face interaction, physical activity and solid connections being made with the environment. By encouraging individuals and groups to shut down the display and get out in the wilderness, an improved level of awareness can be achieved particularly in relation to emotions, both personal and relating. Improving intrapersonal and interpersonal interactions can be facilitated through developing emotional understanding and utilisation.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Focus questions'''
#What is outdoor education and emotional development?
#How does outdoor education affect emotional development?
# What forms of encouragement can result in more involvement? {{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Outdoor education==
[[File:Hikers with packs.jpg|thumb|391x391px|''Figure 1.'' Hiking outdoors can be a therapeutic release. ]]
Getting outside in nature can be a great way to build an individual's emotional repertoire. The intention of [[outdoor education]] is to apply kinaesthetic learning and be able to practically use the information outside the traditional classroom setting. This has demonstrated many benefits for those who struggle to learn in the traditional setting (Price, 2018). Engaging in an activity and having personal experience is a better way of learning than just being told something. Outdoor educated is a great opportunity to gain these experience in an environment where the right tools are available to the participants (mental, physical and group problem solving) (Howden, 2012). Placing people in these circumstances, particularly during the periods of major development, can have significant positive effects as they have to step forward and take responsibility, independently of their parents (James &amp; Williams, 2017).  

Outdoor education has many uses and approaches. It can be used as a therapeutic release to intentionally or incidentally promote growth (Berman &amp; Davis-Berman, 2000). There are many different delivery methods of outdoor education, ranging from a five-day hike or camp, an overnight kayaking trip, to a day trip of natural rock-climbing. Each approach can influence individuals differently lending itself as an opportunity to grow.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Case Study'''
Mario, a 14 year old boy is in grade 8 at school. When he comes home from school he is device dependent, playing computer games and scrolling on his phone. When his parents try to reduce or take away his screen time he becomes slight aggressive. He doesn't socialise much at school and doesn't participate in much physical activity.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Emotional development ==
Emotional development is a broad term relating to expanding ones abilities to recognise, express, understand and regulate their own feelings. The rate of development is affected by multiple factors, however, more emotional engagement tends to have more growth as there is are chance for reflection and conscious awareness of the perceived emotions (Thorburn &amp; Marshall, 2014). There are a few specific areas that can be addressed to enhance understanding of this complex system. 

=== Emotional intelligence ===
[[Emotional intelligence]] (EI) refers to the ability to accurately interpret emotions and enhance thinking processes (Mayer, Roberts &amp; Barsade, 2008). There are many facets to EI. It involves a level of self-awareness and management, social awareness and the ability to manage relationships, all of which can affect wellbeing, physical, social and mental alike. Someone with high EI require less brain activation, much like some with a high IQ, to negotiate emotional issues as they are more efficient (Mayer et al, 2008). A high EI is also associated with taking a positive perspective, often score high on agreeable and opens on the big five and generally have lower levels of interference from emotions as their ability to self-regulate is enhanced. EI is developed from a young age and can be assessed through assertion, cooperation and self-control from as early as kindergarten (Mayers et al, 2008). 

===Expression ===
How a person communicates their internal emotions to others is termed [[wikipedia:Emotional expression|emotional expression]], which can be in a verbal or non-verbal manner. This process is regarded as predominantly controlled consciously (Thomas &amp; Marshall, 2014), however, there can be situations that arouse an emotional response which is expressed unconsciously. While most expressions are universal, some expressions vary slightly in different cultures (For example, Jack, &amp; Schyns (2011), found western cultures focus on the eyebrows and mouth whereas asian countries tend to focus on the eyes). Some expressions are innate while others are developed through the experience of watching others. Sometimes development involves learning to hold back an expression or reading others expressions, similar to empathy.

=== Empathy ===
The definition of [[empathy]] is being able to understand, relate to and share the feelings of others broken down into two components; cognitive and emotional. This is seen as a pro-social behaviour as it establishes rapport between the affected and the responding. Those who can empathise effectively have the ability to pick up non-verbal cues more accurately, creating a more supportive environment for those around them (Thorburn &amp; Marshall, 2014, Uhls et al, 2014). Ampuero and colleagues (2013) associated empathy with more sustainable behaviours, particularly using critical thinking to solve environmental problems. Empathy is needed to be able to work in a team. Multiple studies (Howden, 2012, Neill, 2008, &amp; Price, 2018), alluded to the ability to enhance empathy through group work. Being able to pick up on verbal and non-verbal cues, particularly for those with a disability (Price, 2018), is greatly improved when building the skill of empathy. 

[[File:1511 The Limbic Lobe.jpg|thumb|448x448px|''Figure 2.'' The limbic system is the emotional control centre in the brain.|alt=]]

=== The limbic system ===
The [[wikipedia:Limbic_system|limbic system]] is in place to deal with emotions. As referred to in Figure 1, its colloquially know as the emotional control centre. It sits in the subcortical brain. Some of the structures include; 

* Amygdala: its role is to initiate an emotional response and some detection and evaluation. It is main response mechanism is fear. 
* Hypothalamus: among its many functions of hormone control and managing the autonomic nervous system (both of which are used in emotions and expression), it controls the fight or flight response, as well as hunger, thirst and sex, all of which are vital for survival. 
* Insula: it wraps around the limbic system to transfers and process information, evidently around risk. It plays a vital role in intuitive feelings that are generally outside of conscious control. 

Many studies have shown damage to this sub-cortical area of the brain less to a reduced ability to exhibit, respond and evaluate emotions effectively (Yip, Leung, Li &amp; Lee, 2004). Sowell and colleagues (2002) reviewed MRI scans of developing brains to find the differences in grey and white matter and cerebrospinal fluid. they pointed to the fact that while the brain still develops the environment can stimulate or dampen further development.

Overall, Thompson (1991) summarised that emotions and the components are all developed over time. they are intrinsically and extrinsically regulated, monitored and processed. At a young age, regulation is heavily reliant on extrinsic course such as parents, through modelling and reinforcement, but evolve with neurophysiological changes, enhanced cognitive and linguistic skills and overall emotional understanding until it is primarily self-regulated.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
;Emotional Development
# There are multiple facets to emotional development, all of equal importance
# The limbic system is the main area of the brain in charge of emotions
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==How does outdoor education affect emotional development?==
Outdoor education effects emotional development through improving skills such as empathy, expression (both verbal and non-verbal), social awareness and overall emotional control.

=== Positive psychological factors ===
Outdoor education is a dominant approach when aiming to improve emotional development. Through outdoor education engagement, particularly applying the experiential learning, participants start to develop a sense of independence and responsibility (James and Williams, 2017). Berman and Davis-Berman (2005) found multiple positive psychological factors associated with outdoor education particularly in learning to control and release tense emotions, enjoyment in the experience and developing skills of friendships and support. Evidence also supports emerging leadership, social competence and overall control skills, even negative emotions, all occur when implementing outdoor education, notably enhanced when placed in a challenging but achieve situation (Neill, 2008, Sheard &amp; Golby, 2006). 
[[File:Survival Skills and Wilderness Therapy.jpg|thumb|430x430px|''Figure 3''. Obtaining survival skills in wilderness therapy ]]
It's often hard to tell whether the positive emotional effects of outdoor education arise particularly from being outside in nature or from the group environments (Neill, 2008). This forced group environment however, has displayed advancement in team work and therefore emotional skills (Howden, 2012). Research into the role of nature in emotional development has been effective in finding it as a significant element. Returning from wilderness programs, Taylor and Kuo (2006) stated an improved self-confidence and identity. This in turn develops into a better understanding of others as they can relate on a more advanced level. This social and emotional learning in natural environments is highly effective for everyone but especially for those with a disability (Price, 2018). 

=== Negative correlation of screen time on emotional development ===
One particular study by Uhls and Colleagues (2014) reviewed the skills of preteens after 5 days on camp without screens. They found negative correlations of screen time on emotional development but, reducing screen time through the 5 day nature camp, a significant improvement in many aspects of emotional development due to the increased amount of social interaction. Areas such as empathy and the ability to read others non-verbal cues were among the skills that benefited most from this group based 'forced' interaction in nature. 

== What forms of encouragement can result in more involvement? ==
More involvement should be encouraged. This could be as simple as a workplace going on a day hike nearby.

'''HERE.'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Case Study'''
Mario was enrolled into a 5 day outdoor immersion program where no devices were allowed. The first couple of days were rough, but as he started to interact with the others in the group, his social-awareness and emotional intelligence were tested at the beginning of the week and at the end, displaying positive signs of improvement. Mario is now better at displaying empathy and is more aware of his expressions, thanks to the use of practical learning in natural environments.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Conclusion==

Amidst all of the research, there is a significant consensus that outdoor education has a significant positive impact on all aspects of emotional development. Through creating the perfect opportunity of adversity but educating and supplying the tools to achieve, outdoor education builds self-confidence, social awareness, empathy for their group, better control over positive and negative emotions, and an opportunity to practice the newly learnt skills first hand. Components of outdoor education should be highly encouraged, if not written somewhat into school curriculum's. Not only will this reduce the amount of screen time that is beginning to become the norm, but improve the interactions students have with their peers and teachers alike. Outside of the school environment, outdoor education should still be encouraged and used as a form of therapy and a way to disconnect from the increasingly online world to so individuals can reconnect with themselves and those in close proximity to them. 

==Test yourself==
Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Outdoor education improves emotional development through all EXCEPT...?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Social awareness
- Empathy
+ Learning how to disrespect others
- Develop a positive relationship with nature and others

{Emotional development doesn't include:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ regulating someone else's feelings
- self awareness
- non verbal expression
- reasoning negative emotions
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==See also==

*[[w:Emotion|Emotion]] (Wikipedia)
*[[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Wikipedia)
*[[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self regulation]] (Wikipedia)
*[[w:Emotional expression|Emotional expression]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Limbic_system|Limbic System]](Wikipedia)
*[[w:Outdoor education|Outdoor education]] (Wikipedia)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Outdoor education and the self|Outdoor education and the self]] (Book chapter, 2018)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1= 

Ampuero, D., Miranda, C., Delgado, L., Goyen, S., &amp; Weaver, S. (2013). Empathy and critical thinking: primary students solving local environmental problems through outdoor learning. Journal Of Adventure Education And Outdoor Learning, 15, 64-78. doi: 10.1080/14729679.2013.848817

Berman, D., &amp; Davis-Berman, J. (2000). Therapeutic Uses of Outdoor Education. ERIC Digest. Retrieved 20 October 2019, from http://www.wilderdom.com/adventuretherapy/BermanBerman2000TherapeuticUsesOfOutdoorEducation.html

Berman, D., &amp; Davis-Berman, J. (2005). Positive Psychology and Outdoor Education. Journal Of Experiential Education, 28, 17-24. doi: 10.1177/105382590502800104

Howden, E. (2012). Outdoor experiential education: Learning through the body. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2012(134), 43–51. doi: 10.1002/ace.20015

Jack, R., Caldara, R., &amp; Schyns, P. (2012). Internal representations reveal cultural diversity in expectations of facial expressions of emotion. Journal Of Experimental Psychology: General, 141, 19-25. doi: 10.1037/a0023463

James, J., &amp; Williams, T. (2017). School-Based Experiential Outdoor Education. Journal Of Experiential Education, 40, 58-71. doi: 10.1177/1053825916676190

Mayer, J., Roberts, R., &amp; Barsade, S. (2008). Human Abilities: Emotional Intelligence. Annual Review Of Psychology, 59, 507-536. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093646

Price, A. (2018). Using outdoor learning to augment social and emotional learning (SEL) skills in young people with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties (SEBD). Journal Of Adventure Education And Outdoor Learning, 19, 315-328. doi: 10.1080/14729679.2018.1548362

Sheard, M., &amp; Golby, J. (2006). The Efficacy of an Outdoor Adventure Education Curriculum on Selected Aspects of Positive Psychological Development. Journal Of Experiential Education, 29, 187-209. doi: 10.1177/105382590602900208

Sowell, E., Trauner, D., Gamst, A., &amp; Jernigan, T. (2002). Development of cortical and subcortical brain structures in childhood and adolescence: a structural MRI study. Developmental Medicine And Child Neurology, 44, 4-16. doi: 10.1017/s0012162201001591

Is contact with nature important for healthy child development? State of the evidence. Taylor, A. F., Kuo, F. E., Spencer, C., &amp; Blades, M. (2011). Children and their Environments. Cambridge, GBR: Cambridge University Press.

Thompson, R. (1991). Emotional regulation and emotional development. Educational Psychology Review, 3, 269-307. doi: 10.1007/bf01319934

Thorburn, M., &amp; Marshall, A. (2014). Cultivating lived-body consciousness: Enhancing cognition and emotion through outdoor learning. Journal Of Pedagogy, 5. doi: 10.2478/jped-2014-0006

Neill, J. (2008). Enhancing Life Effectiveness: the Impacts of Outdoor Education Programs. (Doctor of Philosophy). University of Western Sydney, Sydney, Australia

Uhls, Y. T., Michikyan, M., Morris, J., Garcia, D., Small, G. W., Zgourou, E., &amp; Greenfield, P. M. (2014). Five days at outdoor education camp without screens improves preteen skills with nonverbal emotion cues. Computers in Human Behavior, 39, 387–392. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.036

Yip, J., Leung, K., Li, L., &amp; Lee, T. (2004). The role of sub-cortical brain structures in emotion recognition. Brain Injury, 18, 1209-1217. doi: 10.1080/02699050410001719916
}}

==External links==

*Outdoor education Australia (https://outdooreducationaustralia.org.au)
* Outdoor education information (http://www.wilderdom.com/research.php)
*Outdoor education United Kingdom (https://www.ed.ac.uk/education/institutes/etl/outdoor-education/academic-courses/personal-social-dev)

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&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --&gt;

==Overview==
This tutorial discusses:
# basic psychological needs
# Deci and Ryan's taxonomy of motivation
# topic development checklist

==Needs==
Brainstorm and discuss:

{{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' for physiological and psychological health and well-being (e.g., eating (nutrients/energy), hydration, temperature, sleeping).}}
{{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential stimuli'' (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}}
{{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful distinction is between deficit and growth needs.}}
{{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}}

==Taxonomy of motivation==
Discuss:

{{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? e.g.?'''|External reasons for behaving. Can be caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}}
{{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? e.g.?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''want'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}}
{{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}}
{{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}}
{{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''|
* Amotivation
* Extrinsic motivation
** External regulation
** Introjection
** Identification
** Integration
* Intrinsic motivation}}
&lt;!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--&gt;

==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Checklist|Topic development - Checklist]]==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Checklist}}

==Recording==
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/73c5999c38034ba99b4d56a6a875977f Tutorial 04 recording] (2022)&lt;!--
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 04 recording] (2021)
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5e49954053d442258eccb7ed53c9068b Tutorial 04 recording] (2020) --&gt;

==See also==
;Additional tutorial material
* [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]]
* [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]]
* [[/Self-determination theory/]]
&lt;!--
;Book chapters
--&gt;
&lt;!--
;Wikipedia
--&gt;
; Lecture
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]]

;Tutorials
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial)
&lt;!--
;Admin
* [[/Instructor notes/]]
--&gt;

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., &amp; Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54-67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf?sequence=1&amp;isAllowed=y Full pdf]}}

==External links==
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins)
&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;
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{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}}
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --&gt;

==Overview==
This tutorial discusses:
# basic psychological needs
# Deci and Ryan's taxonomy of motivation
# topic development checklist

==Needs==
Brainstorm and discuss:

{{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' for physiological and psychological health and well-being (e.g., eating (nutrients/energy), hydration, temperature, sleeping).}}
{{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential stimuli'' (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}}
{{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful distinction is between deficit and growth needs.}}
{{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}}

==Taxonomy of motivation==
Discuss:

{{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? e.g.?'''|External reasons for behaving. Can be caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}}
{{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? e.g.?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''want'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}}
{{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}}
{{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}}
{{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''|
* Amotivation
* Extrinsic motivation
** External regulation
** Introjection
** Identification
** Integration
* Intrinsic motivation}}
&lt;!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--&gt;

==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Checklist|Topic development - Checklist]]==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Checklist}}

==Recording==
* Tutorial 04 recording (2022) TBA
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 04 recording] (2021)
&lt;!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5e49954053d442258eccb7ed53c9068b Tutorial 04 recording] (2020) --&gt;

==See also==
;Additional tutorial material
* [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]]
* [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]]
* [[/Self-determination theory/]]
&lt;!--
;Book chapters
--&gt;
&lt;!--
;Wikipedia
--&gt;
; Lecture
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]]

;Tutorials
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial)
&lt;!--
;Admin
* [[/Instructor notes/]]
--&gt;

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., &amp; Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54-67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf?sequence=1&amp;isAllowed=y Full pdf]}}

==External links==
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins)
&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;
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{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}}
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --&gt;

==Overview==
This tutorial discusses:
# basic psychological needs
# taxonomy of motivation
# topic development checklist

==Needs==
Brainstorm and discuss:

{{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' for physiological and psychological health and well-being (e.g., eating (nutrients/energy), hydration, temperature, sleeping).}}
{{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential stimuli'' (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}}
{{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful distinction is between deficit and growth needs.}}
{{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}}

==Taxonomy of motivation==
Discuss:

{{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? e.g.?'''|External reasons for behaving. Can be caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}}
{{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? e.g.?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''want'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}}
{{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}}
{{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}}
{{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''|
* Amotivation
* Extrinsic motivation
** External regulation
** Introjection
** Identification
** Integration
* Intrinsic motivation}}
&lt;!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--&gt;

==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Checklist|Topic development - Checklist]]==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Checklist}}

==Recording==
* Tutorial 04 recording (2022) TBA
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 04 recording] (2021)
&lt;!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5e49954053d442258eccb7ed53c9068b Tutorial 04 recording] (2020) --&gt;

==See also==
;Additional tutorial material
* [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]]
* [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]]
* [[/Self-determination theory/]]
&lt;!--
;Book chapters
--&gt;
&lt;!--
;Wikipedia
--&gt;
; Lecture
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]]

;Tutorials
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial)
&lt;!--
;Admin
* [[/Instructor notes/]]
--&gt;

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., &amp; Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54-67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf?sequence=1&amp;isAllowed=y Full pdf]}}

==External links==
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins)
&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]]</text>
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{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}}
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --&gt;

==Overview==
This tutorial provides an interactive discussion about:
# basic psychological needs
# taxonomy of motivation
# topic development checklist

==Needs==
Brainstorm and discuss:

{{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' for physiological and psychological health and well-being (e.g., eating (nutrients/energy), hydration, temperature, sleeping).}}
{{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential stimuli'' (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}}
{{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful distinction is between deficit and growth needs.}}
{{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}}

==Taxonomy of motivation==
Discuss:

{{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? e.g.?'''|External reasons for behaving. Can be caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}}
{{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? e.g.?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''want'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}}
{{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}}
{{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}}
{{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''|
* Amotivation
* Extrinsic motivation
** External regulation
** Introjection
** Identification
** Integration
* Intrinsic motivation}}
&lt;!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--&gt;

==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Checklist|Topic development - Checklist]]==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Checklist}}

==Recording==
* Tutorial 04 recording (2022) TBA
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 04 recording] (2021)
&lt;!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5e49954053d442258eccb7ed53c9068b Tutorial 04 recording] (2020) --&gt;

==See also==
;Additional tutorial material
* [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]]
* [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]]
* [[/Self-determination theory/]]
&lt;!--
;Book chapters
--&gt;
&lt;!--
;Wikipedia
--&gt;
; Lecture
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]]

;Tutorials
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial)
&lt;!--
;Admin
* [[/Instructor notes/]]
--&gt;

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., &amp; Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54-67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf?sequence=1&amp;isAllowed=y Full pdf]}}

==External links==
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins)
&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]]</text>
      <sha1>8n3aawxdym5cy8rgail0sdv7wnbenf0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418205</id>
      <parentid>2418152</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T08:41:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
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{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}}
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --&gt;

==Overview==
This tutorial provides an interactive discussion about:
# basic psychological needs
# taxonomy of motivation
# topic development checklist

==Needs==
Brainstorm and discuss:

{{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' for physiological and psychological health and well-being (e.g., eating (nutrients/energy), hydration, temperature, sleeping).}}
{{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential stimuli'' (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}}
{{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful distinction is between deficit and growth needs.}}
{{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}}

==Taxonomy of motivation==
Discuss:

{{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? e.g.?'''|External reasons for behaving. Can be caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}}
{{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? e.g.?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''want'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}}
{{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}}
{{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}}
{{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''|
* Amotivation
* Extrinsic motivation
** External regulation
** Introjection
** Identification
** Integration
* Intrinsic motivation}}
&lt;!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--&gt;

==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Checklist|Topic development - Checklist]]==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Checklist}}

==Recording==
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 04 recording] (2022)&lt;!--
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 04 recording] (2021)
&lt;!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5e49954053d442258eccb7ed53c9068b Tutorial 04 recording] (2020) --&gt;

==See also==
;Additional tutorial material
* [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]]
* [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]]
* [[/Self-determination theory/]]
&lt;!--
;Book chapters
--&gt;
&lt;!--
;Wikipedia
--&gt;
; Lecture
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]]

;Tutorials
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial)
&lt;!--
;Admin
* [[/Instructor notes/]]
--&gt;

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., &amp; Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54-67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf?sequence=1&amp;isAllowed=y Full pdf]}}

==External links==
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins)
&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]]</text>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-24T08:45:19Z</timestamp>
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        <id>10242</id>
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      <comment>/* Needs */ Update</comment>
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{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}}
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --&gt;

==Overview==
This tutorial provides an interactive discussion about:
# basic psychological needs
# taxonomy of motivation
# topic development checklist

==Needs==
Brainstorm and discuss:

{{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving and thriving i.e., for physiological and psychological health and well-being. There are deficit-based needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness).}}
{{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}}
{{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological, and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful distinction is between deficit and growth needs. Or the Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs.}}
{{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}}

==Taxonomy of motivation==
Discuss:

{{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? e.g.?'''|External reasons for behaving. Can be caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}}
{{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? e.g.?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''want'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}}
{{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}}
{{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}}
{{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''|
* Amotivation
* Extrinsic motivation
** External regulation
** Introjection
** Identification
** Integration
* Intrinsic motivation}}
&lt;!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--&gt;

==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Checklist|Topic development - Checklist]]==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Checklist}}

==Recording==
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 04 recording] (2022)&lt;!--
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 04 recording] (2021)
&lt;!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5e49954053d442258eccb7ed53c9068b Tutorial 04 recording] (2020) --&gt;

==See also==
;Additional tutorial material
* [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]]
* [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]]
* [[/Self-determination theory/]]
&lt;!--
;Book chapters
--&gt;
&lt;!--
;Wikipedia
--&gt;
; Lecture
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]]

;Tutorials
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial)
&lt;!--
;Admin
* [[/Instructor notes/]]
--&gt;

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., &amp; Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54-67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf?sequence=1&amp;isAllowed=y Full pdf]}}

==External links==
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins)
&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]]</text>
      <sha1>l8skdnoe9lfx5bphtg96yoextdesvll</sha1>
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      <contributor>
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      <text bytes="4628" xml:space="preserve">{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 04: Psychological needs|fourth}}
{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}}
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --&gt;

==Overview==
This tutorial provides an interactive discussion about:
# basic psychological needs
# taxonomy of motivation
# topic development checklist

==Needs==
Brainstorm and discuss:

{{collapse box|'''What are needs?'''|Needs are ''requirements'' (essential) for surviving and thriving i.e., for physiological and psychological health and well-being. There are deficit-based needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, sleep) and growth-based needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, relatedness).}}
{{collapse box|'''How do needs differ from desires, wants, likes etc.?'''|Needs are ''essential'' for survival and well-being whereas desires, wants, likes etc. are motivations for ''non-essential'' stimuli (e.g., an umbrella in the rain).}}
{{collapse box|'''What types of needs are there?'''|Needs can be classified as physiological, psychological, and implicit (social) (Reeve 2018). Another useful distinction is between deficit and growth needs. Or the Alderfer ERG theory refers to existence, relatedness, and growth needs.}}
{{collapse box|'''What are the basic psychological needs?'''|According to self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness}}

==Taxonomy of motivation==
Discuss:

{{collapse box|'''What characterises [[extrinsic motivation]]? e.g.?'''|External (environmental) reasons for behaving. Caused by carrots (incentives and rewards e.g., praise) or sticks (threats and punishments e.g., insults).}}
{{collapse box|'''What characterises [[intrinsic motivation]]? e.g.?'''|Internal reasons for behaving. Involves volition (i.e., ''I want to'') and enjoyment (e.g., hobbies). External influences are absent.}}
{{collapse box|'''Advantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|Simple and easy to understand. Helps with research designs.}}
{{collapse box|'''Disadvantages of the I-E motivation distinction?'''|A dichotomous distinction is overly simplistic. Motivational sources are often complex and dynamic, involving aspects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.}}
{{collapse box|'''Types of motivation described by [http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf Deci and Ryan (2000)]?'''|
* Amotivation
* Extrinsic motivation
** External regulation
** Introjection
** Identification
** Integration
* Intrinsic motivation}}
&lt;!-- Handout a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WHEwSmoyUWhOZm8/view?usp=sharing blanked version of Deci and Ryan's taxonomy] and facilitate the class to define, discuss, and generate examples for each of the components:--&gt;

==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Checklist|Topic development - Checklist]]==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Checklist}}

==Recording==
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/8eeaa7d6c18c4efbafc2c28984bfbaca Tutorial 04 recording] (2022)&lt;!--
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee193c24a6414276b3d47acba500d433 Tutorial 04 recording] (2021)
&lt;!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5e49954053d442258eccb7ed53c9068b Tutorial 04 recording] (2020) --&gt;

==See also==
;Additional tutorial material
* [[../Needs/Implicit motives/|Implicit motives]]
* [[../Needs/Models which provide organisation of needs/|Models which organise needs]]
* [[/Self-determination theory/]]
&lt;!--
;Book chapters
--&gt;
&lt;!--
;Wikipedia
--&gt;
; Lecture
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]]

;Tutorials
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Previous tutorial)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] (Next tutorial)
&lt;!--
;Admin
* [[/Instructor notes/]]
--&gt;

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=Deci, R. M., &amp; Ryan, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 54-67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/20.500.12799/2958/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivations%20Classic%20Definitions%20and%20New%20Directions.pdf?sequence=1&amp;isAllowed=y Full pdf]}}

==External links==
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting motivation, health, and excellence] (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx, YouTube 14:05 mins)
&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs]]</text>
      <sha1>rfx51nltj8cfl4s1pj9tgwkkfcrr7a2</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/ERG theory</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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        <id>2948261</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Case studies */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11369" xml:space="preserve">----&lt;/noinclude&gt;{{title|ERG Theory


What is Alderfer's ERG theory?}}{{MECR3|https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}

== Overview ==
The ERG model was created by Clayton Alderfer and was based on [[What Matters/Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs|Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.]] This model stands for Existence, Relatedness and Growth, It is a three factor model based on the theory of motivation. 

Alderfer's ERG theory explains that individuals can be motivated by multiple levels of need at the same time, and that the level the level which is most important to them can change over time. These levels of motivation can move upwards or downwards at anytime making the individuals priorities fluid. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are the three components to the ERG theory?
* How can this theory be used? 
* How does this theory affect motivation?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.}}
[[File:Alderfer's ERG Theory.svg|thumb|Figure 1. Alderfer's ERG Theory]]

== Main headings ==
'''What are the three tiers of the ERG theory?''' 

Similar to Maslows Heirarch of Needs, the ERG theory suggests that a person has three main core groups of needs. As with life, these needs shift and change over depending on priorities and life in general.

The first level is Existence and is categorised as a physiological need, also refered to as existence need. This entails categories such as food, water, shelter, and feeling safe. If you are unable to satisfy your existence needs then you are unable to move forward and reach your higher needs. For example, if you do not have enough food and don't have access to source any, then your life is in immediate peril and sourcing food will occupy most of your thoughts, at the expense of almost all of your other needs. 

The second level is Relatedness and refers to our need to relate to other people and develop relationships. While it is not a survival need, human needs good relationships and interactions in order to be happy and content. 

The third level is Growth and refers to our need of personal development, to be creative and perform meaningful work. This growth allows us to explore our day to day lives to see what potential may be in our environment. 
[[File:Maslow hierarchy of needs.jpg|thumb|Maslow's Hierarchy ]] 


'''What is Frustration-Regression Principle?''' 

The ERG theory proposes that if a higher level need is not satisfied, a person may regress backwards to a lower level in order to fulfil their lower needs first.  For example, if an ambitious employee is not given growth opportunities or duties which utilise their knowledge and skillset, then their motivation will drop. This will result in them becoming frustrated and focusing on their relatedness goals instead, which would involve forming relationships with other colleagues and socialising with the team more. 

 
== Learning features ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

=== Case studies ===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[User:WUser1307#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

A study conducted in 2019 analysed the motivation factor under The ERG Theory. The study used university students to see what motivated them to participate during events. Results indicated that between existence, growth, and relatedness, using growth as motivation was the most successful method in getting the students to participate. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Take home messages
* 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Quizzes ===
Let's test your knowledge!  Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What does the R in the ERG Theory, stand for? 
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Relatable
- Relatedness

{What is the ERG theory based on?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Needs
+ Desires
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[User:WUser1307#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?}}

== See also ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Social needs|Basic Social Needs]] (Wikiversity, 2011)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Physiological needs|Physiological Needs]] (Wikiversity 2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Psychological needs and implicit motives|Psychological Needs and Implicit Motivations]] (Wikiversity, 2021)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Psychological distress|Psychological Stress]] (Book Chapter, 2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Reward system, motivation, and emotion|Reward System, Motivation, and Emotion]] (Book Chapter, 2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Self-actualisation#Maslow Hierarchy of needs and ERG theory of motivational forces in organisations|Self Actualisation]] (Wikiversity, 2021)
== References ==
List the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:


Har, C.O. (2018). A CASE STUDY OF ALDERFERS’ THEORY OF MOTIVATION ON COLLEGE STUDENTS VOLUNTEERING IN EVENTS.

https://nfct.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/journal/published_paper/volume-3/issue-3/eJYQc2F6.pdf


{{Hanging indent|Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x}}https://worldofwork.io/2019/02/alderfers-erg-theory-of-motivation/&lt;nowiki/&gt;{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
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* Common mistakes include:
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** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

== External links ==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:

* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
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[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt; &lt;/noinclude&gt;


{{METE}}
{{title|ERG theory:&lt;br&gt;What is Alderfer's ERG theory? }}
{{MECR3|1=Replace this text with the URL}}
__TOC__

*
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are the three sections of ERG?
* How does ERG motivate people? 
* Where has ERG Theory been applied?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#

==Application of ERG theory==
There are many applications that ERG theory has been applied too.
* Development (Arnolds &amp; Boshoff, 2002; Poulou &amp; Norwich, 2019)
* Job performance/productivity (Arnolds &amp; Boshoff, 2002; Caulton, 2012)
* Travel (Bláfoss Ingvardson et al., 2020)
* Leadership (Sosik et al., 2013)

==Conclusion==


==See also==

*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Motivation measurement|Motivation measurement]] (Book chapter, 2019)
*[[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alderfer, C. P., Kaplan, R. E., &amp; Smith, K. K. (1974). The effect of variations in relatedness need satisfaction on relatedness desires. ''Administrative Science Quarterly, 19''(4), 507–532. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.2307/2391808

Arnolds, C. A., &amp; Boshoff, C. (2002). Compensation, esteem valence and job performance: An empirical assessment of Alderfer’s ERG theory. ''The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13''(4), 697–719. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09585190210125868
Bláfoss Ingvardson, J., Kaplan, S., de Abreu e Silva, J., di Ciommo, F., Shiftan, Y., &amp; Nielsen, O. (2020). Existence, relatedness and growth needs as mediators between mode choice and travel satisfaction: evidence from Denmark. ''Transportation (Dordrecht), 47''(1), 337–358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-018-9886-3

Caulton, J. R. (2012). The development and use of the theory of ERG: A literature review. ''Emerging Leadership Journeys, 5''(1), 2-8.

David Snow. (2019). The Big Picture: How the New Use of an Old Theory will Enhance Leaders’ Perspective on Management. ''The Journal of Applied Business and Economics, 21''(1), 117–130. https://doi.org/10.33423/jabe.v21i1.662

Poulou, M., &amp; Norwich, B. (2019). Adolescent students’ psychological needs: Development of an existence, relatedness, and growth needs scale. ''International Journal of School &amp; Educational Psychology: IJSEP Supplemental Issue 2019, 7''(sup1), 75–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683603.2018.1479320

Sosik, J. J., Chun, J. U., Blair, A. L., &amp; Fitzgerald, N. A. (2013). Possible selves in the lives of transformational faith community leaders. ''Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 5''(4), 283–293. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0032646}}

== External links ==
*[https://study.com/academy/lesson/alderfers-erg-theory-employee-motivation-in-the-workplace.html ERG theory in the work place]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=upBHae2J-LI YouTube video about ERG Theory]

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    <title>Quasi-minimal prime</title>
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      <text bytes="2046252" xml:space="preserve">A '''quasi-minimal prime''' is a [[w:Prime number|prime number]] for which there is no shorter [[w:Subsequence|subsequence]] of its [[w:Numerical digit|digit]]s in a given [[w:Radix|base]] ''b'' that form a prime &gt; ''b''. For example, 857 is a quasi-minimal prime in [[w:Decimal|decimal]] because there is no prime &gt; 10 among the shorter subsequences of the digits: 8, 5, 7, 85, 87, 57. The subsequence does not have to consist of consecutive digits, so 149 is not a quasi-minimal prime in decimal (because 19 is prime and 19 &gt; 10). But it does have to be in the same order; so, for example, 991 is still a quasi-minimal prime in decimal even though a subset of the digits can form the shorter prime 19 &gt; 10 by changing the order.

(using A−Z to represent digit values 10 to 35)

For the quasi-minimal primes in bases up to 36, I have only solved (found all quasi-minimal primes and proved that these are all such primes) bases 2~12, 14~16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 30 (bases 11, 16, 22, 30 need primality proving of the probable primes). For the remain bases 13, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25~29, 31~36, there are some ''x''{''d''}''y'' (with ''x'', ''y'' strings (may be [[w:Empty string|empty]]) with digits in base ''b'', ''d'' digit in base ''b'') families which are not solved (not even a probable prime is known nor can be ruled out as only contain composites (only count the numbers &gt; base (''b'')).

I left as a challenge to readers the task of solving (finding all quasi-minimal primes and proving that these are all such primes) bases 13, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25~29, 31~36 (this will be a hard problem, e.g. base 23 has a quasi-minimal prime 9E&lt;sub&gt;800873&lt;/sub&gt;, and base 36 has quasi-minimal prime P&lt;sub&gt;81993&lt;/sub&gt;SZ).

Proving the set of the quasi-minimal primes in base ''b'' is ''S'', is equivalent to:

* Prove that all elements in ''S'', when read as base ''b'' representation, are primes &gt; ''b''.

* Prove that all [[w:Proper subset|proper]] subsequence of all elements in ''S'', when read as base ''b'' representation, which are &gt; ''b'', are composite.

* Prove that all primes &gt; ''b'', when written in base ''b'', contain at least one element in ''S'' as subsequence (equivalently, prove that all strings not containing any element in ''S'' as subsequence, when read as base ''b'' representation, which are &gt; ''b'', are composite).

e.g. proving the set of the quasi-minimal primes in base ''b'' = 10 is {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}, is equivalent to:

* Prove that all of 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027 are primes &gt; 10.

* Prove that all proper subsequence of all elements in {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027} which are &gt; 10 are composite.

* Prove that all primes &gt; 10 contain at least one element in {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027} as subsequence (equivalently, prove that all numbers &gt; 10 not containing any element in {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027} as subsequence are composite).

==Condensed table==

{|class=wikitable
|''b''||number of quasi-minimal primes base ''b''||base-''b'' form of largest known quasi-minimal prime base ''b''||length of largest known quasi-minimal prime base ''b''||algebraic ((''a''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+''c'')/''d'') form of largest known quasi-minimal prime base ''b''||number of unsolved families in base ''b''||searching limit of length for the unsolved families in base ''b'' (if there are different searching limits for the unsolved families in base ''b'', choose the lowest searching limit)
|-
|2||1||11||2||3||0||–
|-
|3||3||111||3||13||0||–
|-
|4||5||221||3||41||0||–
|-
|5||22||10&lt;sub&gt;93&lt;/sub&gt;13||96||5&lt;sup&gt;95&lt;/sup&gt;+8||0||–
|-
|6||11||40041||5||5209||0||–
|-
|7||71||3&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;1||17||(7&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/2||0||–
|-
|8||75||4&lt;sub&gt;220&lt;/sub&gt;7||221||(4×8&lt;sup&gt;221&lt;/sup&gt;+17)/7||0||–
|-
|9||151||30&lt;sub&gt;1158&lt;/sub&gt;11||1161||3×9&lt;sup&gt;1160&lt;/sup&gt;+10||0||–
|-
|10||77||50&lt;sub&gt;28&lt;/sub&gt;27||31||5×10&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt;+27||0||–
|-
|11&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||1068||57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;||62669||(57×11&lt;sup&gt;62668&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/10||0||–
|-
|12||106||40&lt;sub&gt;39&lt;/sub&gt;77||42||4×12&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;+91||0||–
|-
|13&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||3195~3197||80&lt;sub&gt;32017&lt;/sub&gt;111||32021||8×13&lt;sup&gt;32020&lt;/sup&gt;+183||2||128000
|-
|14||650||4D&lt;sub&gt;19698&lt;/sub&gt;||19699||5×14&lt;sup&gt;19698&lt;/sup&gt;−1||0||–
|-
|15||1284||7&lt;sub&gt;155&lt;/sub&gt;97||157||(15&lt;sup&gt;157&lt;/sup&gt;+59)/2||0||–
|-
|16&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||2347||3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF||116139||(16&lt;sup&gt;116139&lt;/sup&gt;+619)/5||0||–
|-
|17&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||10410~10428||F70&lt;sub&gt;186767&lt;/sub&gt;1||186770||262×17&lt;sup&gt;186768&lt;/sup&gt;+1||18||39000
|-
|18||549||C0&lt;sub&gt;6268&lt;/sub&gt;C5||6271||12×18&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+221||0||–
|-
|19&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||31404~31435||1E70&lt;sub&gt;122896&lt;/sub&gt;1||122900||634×19&lt;sup&gt;122897&lt;/sup&gt;+1||31||20000
|-
|20||3314||G0&lt;sub&gt;6269&lt;/sub&gt;D||6271||16×20&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+13||0||–
|-
|21&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||13375~13395||CF&lt;sub&gt;479147&lt;/sub&gt;0K||479150||(51×21&lt;sup&gt;479149&lt;/sup&gt;−1243)/4||20||20000
|-
|22&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||8003||BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5||22003||(251×22&lt;sup&gt;22002&lt;/sup&gt;−335)/21||0||–
|-
|24||3409||N00N&lt;sub&gt;8129&lt;/sub&gt;LN||8134||13249×24&lt;sup&gt;8131&lt;/sup&gt;−49||0||–
|-
|26&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||25250~25259||5&lt;sub&gt;19391&lt;/sub&gt;6F||19393||(26&lt;sup&gt;19393&lt;/sup&gt;+179)/5||9||20000
|-
|28&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||25526~25529||O4O&lt;sub&gt;94535&lt;/sub&gt;9||94538||(6092×28&lt;sup&gt;94536&lt;/sup&gt;−143)/9
|-
|30&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||2619||OT&lt;sub&gt;34205&lt;/sub&gt;||34206||25×30&lt;sup&gt;34205&lt;/sup&gt;−1||0||–
|-
|36&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||35257~35263||P&lt;sub&gt;81993&lt;/sub&gt;SZ||81995||(5×36&lt;sup&gt;81995&lt;/sup&gt;+821)/7||6||20000
|}

&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; Data assumes the primality of the [[w:probable prime|probable prime]]s.

Except bases ''b'' = 13, 17, 19, 21, 26, 28, 36, all bases in this table are completely solved (if we allow strong probable primes &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;25000&lt;/sup&gt;), also, except bases ''b'' = 11, 13, 16, 17, 19, 21, 22, 26, 28, 30, 36, all bases in this table are completely solved even if we only allow definitely primes (thus, we can complete the classification of the quasi-minimal primes in these bases, i.e. the “quasi-minimal problems” in these bases are now theorems), for the quasi-minimal primes see the data below.

==Data for quasi-minimal primes==

===Base 2===

11

===Base 3===

12, 21, 111

===Base 4===

11, 13, 23, 31, 221

===Base 5===

12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 104, 111, 131, 133, 313, 401, 414, 3101, 10103, 14444, 30301, 33001, 33331, 44441, 300031, 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013

===Base 6===

11, 15, 21, 25, 31, 35, 45, 51, 4401, 4441, 40041

===Base 7===

14, 16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 43, 52, 56, 61, 65, 113, 115, 131, 133, 155, 212, 221, 304, 313, 335, 344, 346, 364, 445, 515, 533, 535, 544, 551, 553, 1022, 1051, 1112, 1202, 1211, 1222, 2111, 3031, 3055, 3334, 3503, 3505, 3545, 4504, 4555, 5011, 5455, 5545, 5554, 6034, 6634, 11111, 11201, 30011, 30101, 31001, 31111, 33001, 33311, 35555, 40054, 100121, 150001, 300053, 351101, 531101, 1100021, 33333301, 5100000001, 33333333333333331

===Base 8===

13, 15, 21, 23, 27, 35, 37, 45, 51, 53, 57, 65, 73, 75, 107, 111, 117, 141, 147, 161, 177, 225, 255, 301, 343, 361, 401, 407, 417, 431, 433, 463, 467, 471, 631, 643, 661, 667, 701, 711, 717, 747, 767, 3331, 3411, 4043, 4443, 4611, 5205, 6007, 6101, 6441, 6477, 6707, 6777, 7461, 7641, 47777, 60171, 60411, 60741, 444641, 500025, 505525, 3344441, 4444477, 5500525, 5550525, 55555025, 444444441, 744444441, 77774444441, 7777777777771, 555555555555525, 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447

===Base 9===

12, 14, 18, 21, 25, 32, 34, 41, 45, 47, 52, 58, 65, 67, 74, 78, 81, 87, 117, 131, 135, 151, 155, 175, 177, 238, 272, 308, 315, 331, 337, 355, 371, 375, 377, 438, 504, 515, 517, 531, 537, 557, 564, 601, 638, 661, 702, 711, 722, 735, 737, 751, 755, 757, 771, 805, 838, 1011, 1015, 1101, 1701, 2027, 2207, 3017, 3057, 3101, 3501, 3561, 3611, 3688, 3868, 5035, 5051, 5071, 5101, 5501, 5554, 5705, 5707, 7017, 7075, 7105, 7301, 8535, 8544, 8555, 8854, 20777, 22227, 22777, 30161, 33388, 50161, 50611, 53335, 55111, 55535, 55551, 57061, 57775, 70631, 71007, 77207, 100037, 100071, 100761, 105007, 270707, 301111, 305111, 333035, 333385, 333835, 338885, 350007, 500075, 530005, 555611, 631111, 720707, 2770007, 3030335, 7776662, 30300005, 30333335, 38333335, 51116111, 70000361, 300030005, 300033305, 351111111, 1300000007, 5161111111, 8333333335, 300000000035, 311111111161, 544444444444, 2000000000007, 5700000000001, 7270000000007, 88888888833335, 100000000000507, 5111111111111161, 7277777777777777707, 8888888888888888888335, 30000000000000000000051, 1000000000000000000000000057, 56111111111111111111111111111111111111, 7666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666662, 27777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777707, 300000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011

===Base 10===

11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027

===Base 11===

12, 16, 18, 21, 27, 29, 34, 38, 3A, 43, 49, 54, 56, 61, 65, 67, 72, 76, 81, 89, 92, 94, 98, 9A, A3, 10A, 115, 117, 133, 139, 153, 155, 171, 193, 197, 199, 1AA, 225, 232, 236, 25A, 263, 315, 319, 331, 335, 351, 353, 362, 373, 379, 391, 395, 407, 414, 452, 458, 478, 47A, 485, 4A5, 4A7, 502, 508, 511, 513, 533, 535, 539, 551, 571, 579, 588, 595, 623, 632, 70A, 711, 715, 731, 733, 737, 755, 759, 775, 791, 797, 7AA, 803, 847, 858, 85A, 874, 885, 887, 913, 919, 931, 937, 957, 959, 975, 995, A07, A1A, A25, A45, A74, A7A, A85, AA1, AA7, 1101, 11A9, 1305, 1451, 1457, 15A7, 175A, 17A5, 17A9, 2023, 2045, 2052, 2083, 20A5, 2333, 2A05, 2A52, 3013, 3026, 3059, 3097, 3206, 3222, 3233, 3307, 3332, 3505, 4025, 4151, 4157, 4175, 4405, 4445, 4487, 450A, 4575, 5017, 5031, 5059, 5075, 5097, 5099, 5105, 515A, 517A, 520A, 5301, 5583, 5705, 577A, 5853, 5873, 5909, 5A17, 5A57, 5A77, 5A8A, 6683, 66A9, 7019, 7073, 7079, 7088, 7093, 7095, 7309, 7451, 7501, 7507, 7578, 757A, 75A7, 7787, 7804, 7844, 7848, 7853, 7877, 78A4, 7A04, 7A57, 7A79, 7A95, 8078, 8245, 8333, 8355, 8366, 8375, 8425, 8553, 8663, 8708, 8777, 878A, 8A05, 9053, 9101, 9107, 9305, 9505, 9703, A052, A119, A151, A175, A515, A517, A575, A577, A5A8, A719, A779, A911, AAA9, 10011, 10075, 10091, 10109, 10411, 10444, 10705, 10709, 10774, 10901, 11104, 11131, 11144, 11191, 1141A, 114A1, 13757, 1411A, 14477, 144A4, 14A04, 14A11, 17045, 17704, 1774A, 17777, 177A4, 17A47, 1A091, 1A109, 1A114, 1A404, 1A411, 1A709, 20005, 20555, 22203, 25228, 25282, 25552, 25822, 28522, 30037, 30701, 30707, 31113, 33777, 35009, 35757, 39997, 40045, 4041A, 40441, 4045A, 404A1, 4111A, 411A1, 42005, 44401, 44474, 444A1, 44555, 44577, 445AA, 44744, 44A01, 47471, 47477, 47701, 5057A, 50903, 5228A, 52A22, 52A55, 52A82, 55007, 550A9, 55205, 55522, 55557, 55593, 55805, 57007, 57573, 57773, 57807, 5822A, 58307, 58505, 58A22, 59773, 59917, 59973, 59977, 59999, 5A015, 5A2A2, 5AA99, 60836, 60863, 68636, 6A609, 6A669, 6A696, 6A906, 6A966, 70048, 70103, 70471, 70583, 70714, 71474, 717A4, 71A09, 74084, 74444, 74448, 74477, 744A8, 74747, 74774, 7488A, 74A48, 75773, 77144, 77401, 77447, 77799, 77A09, 78008, 78783, 7884A, 78888, 788A8, 79939, 79993, 79999, 7A051, 7A444, 7A471, 80005, 80252, 80405, 80522, 80757, 80AA5, 83002, 84045, 85307, 86883, 88863, 8A788, 90073, 90707, 90901, 95003, 97779, 97939, 99111, 99177, 99973, A0111, A0669, A0966, A0999, A0A09, A1404, A4177, A4401, A4717, A5228, A52AA, A5558, A580A, A5822, A58AA, A5A59, A5AA2, A6096, A6966, A6999, A7051, A7778, A7808, A9055, A9091, A9699, A9969, AA52A, AA58A, 100019, 100079, 101113, 101119, 101911, 107003, 140004, 144011, 144404, 1A0019, 1A0141, 1A5001, 1A7005, 1A9001, 222223, 222823, 300107, 300202, 300323, 303203, 307577, 310007, 332003, 370777, 400555, 401A11, 404001, 404111, 405AAA, 41A011, 440A41, 441011, 451777, 455555, 470051, 470444, 474404, 4A0401, 4A4041, 500015, 500053, 500077, 500507, 505577, 522A2A, 525223, 528A2A, 531707, 550777, 553707, 5555A9, 555A99, 557707, 55A559, 5807A7, 580A0A, 580A55, 58A0AA, 590007, 599907, 5A2228, 5A2822, 5A2AAA, 5A552A, 5AA22A, 5AAA22, 60A069, 683006, 6A0096, 6A0A96, 6A9099, 6A9909, 700778, 701074, 701777, 704408, 704417, 704457, 704484, 707041, 707441, 707708, 707744, 707784, 710777, 717044, 717077, 740008, 74484A, 770441, 770744, 770748, 770771, 777017, 777071, 777448, 777484, 777701, 7778A8, 777A19, 777A48, 778883, 78A808, 790003, 7A1009, 7A4408, 7A7708, 80A555, 828283, 828883, 840555, 850505, 868306, 873005, 883202, 900701, 909739, 909979, 909991, 970771, 977701, 979909, 990739, 990777, 990793, 997099, 999709, 999901, A00009, A00599, A01901, A05509, A0A058, A0A955, A10114, A555A2, A55999, A59991, A5A222, A5A22A, A60609, A66069, A66906, A69006, A79005, A87888, A90099, A90996, A96006, A96666, A97177, A97771, AA0A58, AA5A22, AAA522, 1000501, 1011141, 1030007, 1070047, 111114A, 1111A14, 1111A41, 1144441, 14A4444, 1700005, 1700474, 1A44444, 2555505, 2845055, 3030023, 3100003, 3333397, 4000111, 4011111, 41A1111, 4411111, 444441A, 4444771, 4470004, 4505005, 4744417, 4774441, 4777404, 4777417, 4777747, 4A11111, 4A40001, 5000093, 50005A7, 5005777, 5050553, 5055503, 5070777, 5222222, 5222AAA, 52AAAA2, 52AAAAA, 5505053, 5552AAA, 5555599, 5555A58, 5558A0A, 5558A55, 5558AAA, 55A0009, 55AAA52, 580000A, 5822222, 58AAAAA, 5A2222A, 5AA2222, 6000A69, 6000A96, 6A00069, 7000417, 7000741, 7000835, 7000857, 7007177, 7008305, 7014447, 7017444, 7074177, 7077477, 7077741, 7077747, 7100447, 7174404, 717444A, 7400404, 7700717, 7701077, 7701707, 7707778, 7774004, 7777104, 777741A, 7777441, 777774A, 7777A47, 7779003, 777A008, 777A778, 777A808, 77A4777, 7900399, 8305007, 8500707, 8555707, 8883022, 8AA5222, 9000035, 9007999, 9009717, 9009777, 9009997, 9090997, 9099907, 9355555, 9790099, 9900991, 9900997, 9907909, 9909079, 9979009, 9990079, 9990091, 9990907, 9999771, 9999799, 9999979, A000696, A000991, A001091, A006906, A010044, A040041, A0AAA58, A141111, A5222A2, A600A69, A906606, A909009, A990009, A997701, AA55A52, AAA5552, AAAAA52, 10004747, 10005007, 17000744, 22888823, 28888223, 30010111, 30555777, 31011111, 33000023, 40A00041, 45000055, 47040004, 50377777, 50555553, 5282AAA2, 55505003, 555A5A52, 555AAA2A, 55A5A552, 5AAAAA2A, 60A99999, 70000057, 70070474, 70074704, 70174004, 70700078, 70700474, 70704704, 70710707, 70771007, 70777177, 71074004, 74470001, 77000177, 77070477, 77100077, 77470004, 77700404, 77710007, 77717707, 77748808, 7774A888, 77770078, 77770474, 77774704, 77777008, 77777404, 77777778, 80555055, 88828823, 88888326, 88888823, 8A522222, 90097909, 90700999, 90977777, 97000001, 97000717, 97770007, 99000001, 99000771, 99077001, 99090097, 99777707, 99900097, 99970717, 99999097, 99999707, A0000058, A0004041, A00055A9, A000A559, A1900001, A5555009, A5A55552, A9700001, A9909006, A9990006, A9990606, A9999917, A9999966, 100000507, 100035077, 100050777, 100057707, 101111114, 15A000001, 170000447, 300577777, 40000A401, 447771777, 44A444441, 474000004, 477700004, 477777774, 505000003, 55555AA2A, 5555A5A2A, 700000147, 700017004, 700044004, 700077774, 700170004, 701000047, 701700004, 704000044, 704040004, 707070774, 707077704, 707770704, 707777004, 717000004, 717700007, 770000078, 770004704, 770070747, 770070774, 770700008, 770700084, 770707074, 777000044, 777000774, 777717007, 777770477, 777770747, 7777777A4, 77A700008, 888888302, 900000091, 900090799, 970009099, 990990007, 997000077, 999999997, A0000AA58, A00990001, A05555559, A44444111, A44444777, A44477777, A66666669, A90000606, A99999006, A99999099, 1000007447, 1005000007, 1500000001, 2888882883, 2888888883, 3555555509, 3577777077, 3700000001, 4000000005, 40000005AA, 5377777707, 5555505553, 555555580A, 600000A999, 7000100047, 7000704777, 7007777107, 7057777777, 7070007774, 7077707774, 7077777074, 7100000704, 7470000041, 7701000004, 7707077774, 7770707774, 7777707074, 8888822883, 9555555503, 9900000979, 9999770007, A000144444, A900000066, A999999971, 10000000477, 33333333337, 44444444447, 44444444777, 55A55555552, 60000008883, 68888888306, 68888888883, 70000003999, 70000007717, 70004777777, 70477777777, 77007770004, 77700000477, 77707000704, 77707770074, 77707777774, 77777077774, 77777770004, 83000000006, 97000000999, A0000000001, A0014444444, A4777777771, 100000000057, 305007777777, 305777777777, 370000000007, 377777770007, 377777777107, 700000007474, 707077000074, 707077777774, 707777777717, 770000010004, 771007000007, 777070700004, 777700000704, A95555555555, A99999777777, 1000000003007, 40000000A0041, 58A5555555555, 7004400000004, 7700000000104, 7707000007047, 7707707000004, 7777007000004, 7777700000004, 7777770077704, 7777777710077, 9977777777717, A000000014444, A044444444441, A144444444411, 40000000000401, 45557777777777, 4555AAAAAAAAAA, 59077777777777, 70007777777771, 70077070000074, 70700000004777, 77000007700704, 77700000700047, 77777777770704, 88888888830006, 90900000000799, A0000044444441, 300000000005777, 302000000000002, 55555555A555552, 700000000000174, 770000000000474, 771700000000007, 777070000000047, 777777777771777, 777777777777177, 990000000000799, A00000000444441, 1000000000000073, 1000000000000404, 4700000000000404, 5777777770777777, 6000000000000083, 7077777777777771, 7707000700000047, 7770000000000084, 7770000000007047, 8888888888888306, 8888888888888322, 9707777777777777, 11111111111111111, 14444444444441111, 44444444444444111, 70000000000000004, 70000000000040044, 70000000007477777, 77777777777770044, 77777777777771007, 77777777777777717, A1444444444444444, A5555555555555509, A9999999999999996, 320000000000000002, 597777777777777707, 707700700000000074, 770000000000077704, 805055555555555555, 888888888888888883, 997700000000000007, 1444444444444444444, 5077777777777777077, 7777777777777777771, 7777777777777777793, 8550555555555555555, 8555505555555555555, 9777777777777777773, 4000000000000000A041, 555555555555555550503, 5555555555555555A5552, 55AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA58, 855555555055555555555, 45AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA, 5307777777777777777777, 7707777777777777777704, 7900000000000000000005, 9777777777777777777707, A999999999999999999999, 10000000000000000000747, 970000000000000000000777, 999900000000000000000007, 3577777777777777777777777, 5555555555555555555555A52, 7000000000000000000777771, 7000000000000000077777771, AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA000058, 10000000000000000000000044, 77700000000000000000000008, 500777777777777777777777777, 777777777777777777777770774, 855555555555555555555055555, A44444444444444444444444441, 1500000000000000000000000007, 40000000000000000000000000041, 440000000000000000000000000001, 70000000000000000000000000007771, 999999999999999999999999999999991, 95555555555555555555555555555555553, 1900000000000000000000000000000000001, 7777777777777777777777777777777777474, 7777777777777777777777777777777777704, 10000000000000000000000000000000000000307, 50777777777777777777777777777777777777707, 475777777777777777777777777777777777777777, 555555555555555555555555555555555555555A2A, 5900000000000000000000000000000000000000003, A477777777777777777777777777777777777777777, 90000000000000000000000000000000000000009799, 444444444444444444444444444444444444444444441, 577777777777777777777777777777777777777777707777, 9700000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000007, AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA0058, 8055555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555, A9997777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777, 44777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777, 99777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777, 577077777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777, 835000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000007, 74700000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001, 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000035, 555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555558A, 10000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000037, 57777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777077, AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA058, 55555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555053, 3266666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666, 10000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000051, 500000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000057, 555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555552A, 5077777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777, 8555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555505, AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA58, 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===Base 12===

11, 15, 17, 1B, 25, 27, 31, 35, 37, 3B, 45, 4B, 51, 57, 5B, 61, 67, 6B, 75, 81, 85, 87, 8B, 91, 95, A7, AB, B5, B7, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1, 2BB, 401, 421, 447, 471, 497, 565, 655, 665, 701, 70B, 721, 747, 771, 77B, 797, 7A1, 7BB, 907, 90B, 9BB, A41, B21, B2B, 2001, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B, 4441, 4707, 4777, 6A05, 6AA5, 729B, 7441, 7B41, 929B, 9777, 992B, 9947, 997B, 9997, A0A1, A201, A605, A6A5, AA65, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41, 600A5, 7999B, 9999B, AAAA1, B04A1, B0B9B, BAA01, BAAA1, BB09B, BBBB1, 44AAA1, A00065, BBBAA1, AAA0001, B00099B, AA000001, BBBBBB99B, B0000000000000000000000000009B, 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077

===Base 13===

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===Base 14===

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===Base 15===

12, 14, 18, 1E, 21, 27, 2B, 2D, 32, 38, 3E, 41, 47, 4B, 4D, 54, 58, 5E, 67, 6B, 6D, 72, 74, 78, 87, 8B, 92, 94, 9E, A1, A7, AD, B2, B8, BE, C1, CB, CD, D2, D4, E1, ED, 111, 11B, 131, 137, 13B, 13D, 157, 15B, 15D, 171, 177, 197, 19D, 1B7, 1BB, 1D1, 1DB, 1DD, 234, 298, 311, 31B, 337, 33D, 344, 351, 357, 35B, 364, 377, 391, 39B, 39D, 3A4, 3BD, 3C4, 3D7, 3DB, 3DD, 452, 51B, 51D, 531, 53B, 551, 55D, 562, 571, 577, 5A2, 5B1, 5B7, 5BB, 5BD, 5C2, 5D1, 5D7, 634, 652, 681, 698, 717, 71B, 731, 737, 757, 75D, 77D, 79B, 79D, 7B1, 7B7, 7BD, 7D7, 7DD, 801, 852, 88D, 8D8, 91D, 93B, 93D, 95B, 95D, 971, 977, 97B, 97D, 988, 991, 9BD, 9C8, 9D1, A98, AAB, B1D, B31, B3B, B44, B51, B57, B7B, B7D, B97, B9B, BB7, BC4, BD1, BD7, BDD, C07, C34, C52, C7E, C98, CC7, CE7, D0E, D1D, D31, D51, D5B, D68, D77, D7B, D91, D97, DA8, DAE, DCE, DD1, EB4, EEB, 107B, 1091, 10B1, 1107, 110D, 1561, 1651, 1691, 1B01, 2052, 2502, 2522, 303B, 307D, 3097, 30BB, 30D1, 3107, 3361, 3701, 3907, 3B01, 3B0B, 3C97, 4434, 4498, 4834, 4898, 49A8, 4E34, 5037, 507D, 5091, 509B, 5107, 5161, 5202, 53C7, 5552, 570B, 590B, 590D, 59C7, 5A5B, 5C97, 5D0D, 5DAB, 6061, 6151, 6191, 6511, 6601, 6911, 707B, 7091, 7097, 70AE, 70BB, 70CE, 70DB, 7561, 760E, 7691, 76CE, 7907, 7961, 7A0E, 7A3B, 7AEE, 7B0B, 7BAB, 7C0E, 7C77, 7CAE, 7D0B, 7D61, 7DAB, 7E5B, 7E6E, 7E7B, 7EBB, 8098, 811D, 8191, 835D, 853D, 8881, 8908, 8951, 8968, 899D, 8D3D, 8D5D, 8D6E, 8DDD, 8E98, 9011, 9037, 9097, 90D7, 9301, 93C7, 95C7, 9611, 9631, 96A8, 9811, 9851, 989D, 990B, 990D, 998D, 99AB, 99C7, 99D8, 9A08, 9A9B, 9AA8, 9ABB, 9B61, 9BC7, 9D0B, 9DAB, 9DC7, 9DD8, A052, A304, A502, A55B, A9BB, AB04, AB64, B09D, B107, B10B, B161, B1AB, B1C7, B30D, B3C7, B50B, B664, B691, B6A4, B707, B761, B90D, B961, BA5B, BABB, BBAB, BBB4, BC37, BC77, C777, C937, C997, D011, D03D, D05D, D09B, D0B1, D0BD, D101, D10B, D30D, D3AB, D507, D50D, D66E, D761, D7DE, D811, D85D, D86E, D89D, D8C8, D8E8, D9AB, D9D8, DA3B, DA9B, DABB, DB01, DB61, DBAB, DC88, DD07, DD0B, DD7E, DD8D, DDE7, DE6E, E252, E33B, E522, E57B, E7AE, E7CE, E898, E997, E9A8, E9BB, EA34, EB5B, EE98, EEC7, 10017, 10B0D, 170AB, 17A0B, 19001, 19601, 1A09B, 1D0C7, 22E52, 2EA52, 30017, 3001D, 300B1, 301C7, 30334, 30631, 307AB, 3300B, 3333B, 36031, 36301, 37A0B, 37BBB, 39997, 3A30B, 3B0C7, 3D001, 3D601, 40034, 40968, 43334, 49668, 49998, 50022, 5009D, 501C7, 50222, 50507, 505C7, 50611, 50C57, 53007, 53997, 55537, 5555B, 5557B, 5599B, 56101, 56691, 56961, 5700D, 5755B, 59001, 59557, 59997, 5999D, 599DB, 59DDD, 5D99B, 5DD3D, 5DD9D, 60931, 63031, 65691, 66951, 69031, 69361, 69561, 70011, 70051, 7005B, 7006E, 7030D, 703AB, 70501, 70701, 707C7, 71601, 71951, 7300D, 7333B, 75001, 7555B, 75911, 76011, 76051, 766EE, 76EEE, 7700B, 77191, 77661, 7776E, 77771, 777BB, 77911, 77BBB, 79001, 7A05B, 7A66E, 7AA6E, 7AAAE, 7ACCE, 7C6EE, 7CCEE, 7CECE, 7CEEE, 7D3BB, 7E7C7, 7EECE, 80034, 80304, 80434, 809DD, 80A34, 84A34, 850DD, 85961, 86661, 88151, 88331, 88511, 88591, 88898, 890DD, 89998, 89D0D, 8D90D, 8E434, 90017, 90051, 900A8, 900DB, 901C7, 90C57, 90D8D, 91007, 91061, 9199B, 95997, 96068, 96561, 99397, 99537, 9999B, 999B7, 999D7, 999DB, 999DD, 99BBB, 99DBB, 99DD7, 99DDD, 9B007, 9B00B, 9B0AB, 9BB11, 9BBBB, 9D007, 9D08D, 9D537, 9D9BB, 9D9DB, 9DD57, 9DDB7, 9DDDB, 9DDDD, A0A34, A0B5B, A0BBB, A0E34, A2E52, A330B, A8434, A8834, A8E34, A909B, AAA34, AAE52, AB0BB, AB334, ABB34, AE034, AE834, AE99B, AEA52, AEE52, B0011, B0071, B0077, B00B1, B0611, B0A64, B500D, B599D, B6101, B7771, B7911, BA064, BAAA4, BAB34, BB061, BB304, BB53D, BB601, BBB91, BBB9D, BBBBD, BDA0B, BDBBB, D0088, D00D7, D0307, D05C7, D070D, D0888, D0B07, D0BC7, D0C08, D0DC7, D0DD8, D1661, D59DD, D5D3D, D5DDD, D6611, D700D, D8D0D, D900B, D9908, D999D, D9BBB, D9D9D, D9DDB, DB007, DB00D, DB1B1, DB53D, DB59D, DB99D, DBBB1, DD0D8, DD33B, DD3B7, DD3BB, DD57D, DD898, DD9DD, DDB37, DDBDB, DDD08, DDD3D, DDD5D, DDD7D, DDD88, DDD9D, DDDB7, DDDC8, DDDD7, DDE98, DE037, DE998, DEB07, E0098, E00C7, E0537, E0557, E077B, E0834, E0968, E3334, E37AB, E39C7, E4034, E5307, E55AB, E705B, E750B, E766E, E76EE, E8304, E8434, E9608, E9C37, EAE52, EBB0B, EC557, EC597, EC957, 1000BD, 1009AB, 10A90B, 1900AB, 190661, 19099B, 190A0B, 1A900B, 222A52, 2AAA52, 31000D, 330331, 333334, 3733AB, 373ABB, 3BBB61, 430004, 490068, 490608, 5000DB, 500D0B, 505557, 505A0B, 50D00B, 50DDDB, 50DDDD, 522222, 5500AB, 5500C7, 550957, 550A0B, 555A9B, 559057, 560011, 590661, 633331, 666331, 666591, 666661, 7050AB, 705A0B, 706101, 70A50B, 7300AB, 761661, 76666E, 777011, 777101, 77750B, 777A5B, 777CEE, 779051, 791501, 7E7797, 7ECCCE, 7EEE97, 800D9D, 808834, 836631, 83D661, 843004, 856611, 884034, 884304, 888E34, 88A434, 88AE34, 8A4034, 8AEE34, 8E8034, 8E8E34, 8EEE34, 9000BB, 9001AB, 900B07, 900D98, 903661, 905661, 906651, 9080DD, 9099A8, 909D9B, 90A668, 90DD9B, 90DDBB, 910001, 9100AB, 91A00B, 930007, 950001, 956661, 9909A8, 995907, 999068, 999507, 999907, 9B0B1B, 9B0BB1, 9BB01B, 9C5597, 9C5957, 9D09DD, 9D0D9D, 9D800D, 9DB307, 9DD09D, A00034, A0033B, A033B4, A2A252, AAAA52, ABBBBB, B00004, B0001B, B0003D, B00A04, B0555B, B07191, B07711, B07777, B0B911, B0BDBB, B77011, B777C7, BB0001, BB0034, BB035D, BB055B, BB0BDB, BB9101, BBB0DB, BBB50D, BBBB01, BBD0BB, C55397, C55557, C55597, D0003B, D00057, D0007D, D000B7, D000C8, D008DD, D00DAB, D0333B, D05537, D099DD, D09DDD, D0DDBB, D555C7, D5C537, D88008, D88088, D888EE, D909DD, D9D0DD, D9DD0D, DB0BBB, DBBB0B, DBBB0D, DC0008, DC5537, DDDDD8, DDDEBB, DDE99B, DE0808, DE0C57, DE300B, DE5537, DE8888, DEE088, DEE307, DEE888, DEEE37, DEEE57, DEEEC8, E0000B, E007BB, E00A52, E03BC7, E07ABB, E09B07, E0A99B, E0C397, E0E76E, E50057, E55007, E55597, E55937, E730AB, E73A0B, E80E34, E88834, E8E034, E90008, E95557, EA099B, EE4304, EE5057, EE5507, EE8E34, EE9307, EEE434, 100001D, 1000A9B, 1000DC7, 22AA252, 3000BC7, 3033301, 3076661, 333B304, 33B3034, 3B33304, 3D66661, 50007AB, 5005957, 5500597, 5550057, 5559007, 5559597, 5595007, 5966661, 5DDDDDB, 6366631, 7010001, 7066651, 7100061, 733BBBB, 766A6AE, 77505AB, 7776501, 777775B, 777AACE, 777ECCE, 777EEAE, 7CCCCCE, 7E30A0B, 7EEEEAE, 8300004, 8363331, 8693331, 880E834, 8833304, 8888034, 8888434, 888A034, 88A3334, 88E8834, 88EE034, 88EE304, 8AA3334, 8D0009D, 8EE8834, 9000361, 9000668, 9003331, 9005557, 9006008, 9008D0D, 9083331, 9090968, 90BBB01, 90D0908, 9500661, 9555597, 9555957, 9660008, 9900968, 9995597, 9996008, 9999557, 9999597, 9999908, 9A66668, A003B34, A003BB4, AA22252, B00B034, B00B35D, B033334, B0B6661, B0BB01B, B100001, B333304, B777777, B99999D, BA60004, BAA0334, BBB001B, BBB6611, BBBBB11, BBBD00B, BD000AB, D0000DB, D009098, D00CCC8, D00D908, D00D99D, D03000B, D0BB0BB, D0D9008, D0D9998, D1000C7, D800008, D8DDEEE, D90080D, DBBBBBB, DD09998, DDD5557, DDDDBBB, DDDDDBD, DDDE8EE, DECC008, DECCCC8, DEE0CC8, DEEC0C8, E000397, E0003BB, E000434, E00076E, E000937, E007A5B, E00909B, E0090B7, E009307, E00B077, E00E434, E00E797, E00E937, E05999B, E09009B, E0900B7, E0E0937, E0E7E97, E0EAA52, E0EEA52, E555057, E5555C7, E7777C7, E77E797, E88EE34, E999998, EA5999B, EB000BB, EB0BBBB, EE00434, EE0E797, EEE076E, EEE706E, EEE8834, EEEE557, EEEE797, 30333331, 30B66661, 33000034, 33030004, 33B33004, 500575AB, 55000007, 5500075B, 55500907, 55555057, 55555907, 55559507, 60003301, 60033001, 60330001, 7000003D, 70106661, 70666611, 77000001, 7777770B, 777777C7, 77777ACE, 77777EAE, 777E30AB, 777E3A0B, 7CCCC66E, 800005DD, 88AA0834, 90000008, 900008DD, 90099668, 90500557, 90555007, 90666668, 90909998, 90990998, 90996668, 9099999D, 90D00098, 90D90998, 95500057, 99099098, 99555057, 99900998, 99966608, 99966668, 99999668, 99999998, 9D009008, 9D090998, A0803334, A2222252, AAA52222, B00005AB, B000B55B, B0BBBB5B, B3330034, BB0BBB1B, BBAA3334, BBB0BB1B, BBB0BB5B, BBDB000B, D000BBBB, D00100C7, D8888888, D900008D, D9000098, DBB000BB, DC0CCCC8, DCC0CCC8, DCCCC008, DD000908, DD09009D, DDDDDDAB, DDDDDEEE, DDDEEE8E, DDDEEEE8, DEE80008, E0777E97, E0E0E397, E0E77797, E0EE0397, E7777797, E9066668, EE00E397, EE077797, EE0E0397, EEE00797, EEE07E97, EEE0AA52, EEE55397, EEE55557, EEEAAA52, EEEEE834, EEEEEA52, 300003331, 300007661, 300330031, 333000004, 333300001, 333B00034, 3700000AB, 3B3300034, 500000057, 555555007, 555555557, 5DDDDDDDD, 600000331, 7500000AB, 75000A00B, 75A00000B, 761000001, 77000E0C7, 777700EC7, 7777730AB, 7777777AE, 77777EE97, 7777E7E97, 777999997, 7A500000B, 7BBBBBB5B, 88888A834, 900000031, 900666608, 909990098, 90D009998, 950000557, 966666008, 990000007, 990555507, 999999997, A000000B4, A0005999B, AAEEEEE34, B000AA334, BBBBB005B, BBBBBBB5B, D09999998, D0D90009D, D800000DD, D90009998, DCCCC0CC8, DE88EEEEE, DEEEEEE88, E000B7777, E000BBBBB, E003ABBBB, EE0000797, EE0EEE397, EE5555557, EE777EE97, EEEEEE537, EEEEEE937, 2222222252, 3000000071, 3330030001, 3333303001, 3333330001, 500000007B, 5555555097, 7000000071, 77000000C7, 8333333331, 8888883334, 8888888834, 888888AA34, 900000009B, 900000009D, 900000DD9D, 9000099998, 9955555507, 9D0000099D, 9D05555557, AB0000005B, B000000DAB, B00000BBDB, BB00BB0B5B, BB0BB00B5B, D000099998, D00090008D, D0D000909D, D0DDDDDDDB, D300000007, D88EEEEEEE, D900999998, DD00900008, DDD6EEEEEE, DDDDDDD6EE, DDDDDDDDDE, DDDEEEEEEE, DEEEEE8008, E000000797, 7777777CCCE, 88888830004, 90000009D9D, 99955555557, 9999999999D, B00000D00AB, BB000BBB05B, BBBB0000B5B, D000009080D, D000090800D, D090800000D, DDDDDDD999B, DDDDDDDDD9B, EEEEEE00397, EEEEEEE0397, 333000000301, 5000000000DD, 73A00000000B, 9000000000B7, 903333333331, ABB00000000B, D000000001C7, DCCCCCCCCCC8, E0EEEEEEE397, 19A000000000B, 3333333333331, 3BBBBBBBBBBBB, 9333333333331, A00000000099B, B00000000050D, EEEEEEEEEE76E, 1000000000999B, 71000000000001, 908D000000000D, BBBBBBBBBB6661, 77777777777777B, BB00000000BBB5B, DEEEEEEEEEEEEEE, 7777777777777E97, B0BBBBBBBBBBBB1B, BB0000000000DB0B, D000000000000998, D908000000000000D, DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDB, E9666666666666668, 3330000000000000031, D00000000000000908D, E0BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB, 2EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE52, 77777777777777777ECE, 5000000000000000005AB, 777777777777777777997, 7BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB, BB0000000000000000DBB, DD000000000000000909D, D900000000000000000DDD, DD0000000000000000099D, BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB1, B00000000000000000000005B, B0700000000000000000000001, B70000000000000000000000001, 705000000000000000000000000B, 633000000000000000000000000001, EBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB, 500000000000000000000000000000000017, 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777CCE, 7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777CE, 96666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666608, EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE397, 7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777797

===Base 16===

11, 13, 17, 1D, 1F, 25, 29, 2B, 2F, 35, 3B, 3D, 43, 47, 49, 4F, 53, 59, 61, 65, 67, 6B, 6D, 71, 7F, 83, 89, 8B, 95, 97, 9D, A3, A7, AD, B3, B5, BF, C1, C5, C7, D3, DF, E3, E5, E9, EF, F1, FB, 14B, 15B, 185, 199, 1A5, 1BB, 1C9, 1EB, 223, 22D, 233, 241, 277, 281, 287, 28D, 2A1, 2D7, 2DD, 2E7, 301, 337, 373, 377, 38F, 3A1, 3A9, 41B, 42D, 445, 455, 45D, 481, 4B1, 4BD, 4CD, 4D5, 4E1, 4EB, 50B, 515, 51B, 527, 551, 557, 55D, 577, 581, 58F, 5AB, 5CB, 5CF, 5D1, 5D5, 5DB, 5E7, 623, 709, 727, 737, 745, 74B, 755, 757, 773, 779, 78D, 7BB, 7C3, 7C9, 7CD, 7DB, 7EB, 7ED, 805, 80F, 815, 821, 827, 841, 851, 85D, 85F, 8A5, 8DD, 8E1, 8F5, 923, 98F, 99B, 9A9, 9EB, A21, A6F, A81, A85, A99, A9F, AA9, AAB, ACF, B1B, B2D, B7B, B8D, B99, B9B, BB7, BB9, BCB, BDD, BE1, C0B, CB9, CBB, CEB, D01, D21, D2D, D55, D69, D79, D81, D85, D87, D8D, DAB, DB7, DBD, DC9, DCD, DD5, DDB, DE7, E21, E27, E4B, E7D, E87, EB1, EB7, ED1, EDB, EED, F07, F0D, F4D, FD9, FFD, 1069, 1505, 1609, 1669, 16A9, 19AB, 1A69, 1AB9, 2027, 204D, 2063, 207D, 20C3, 20ED, 2221, 22E1, 2327, 244D, 26C3, 274D, 2E01, 2E0D, 2ECD, 3023, 3079, 3109, 3263, 3341, 36AF, 3941, 3991, 39AF, 3E41, 3E81, 3EE1, 3EE7, 3F79, 4021, 40DB, 440B, 444B, 44A1, 44AB, 44DB, 4541, 45BB, 4A41, 4B0B, 4BBB, 4C4B, 4D41, 4DED, 5045, 50A1, 50ED, 540D, 5441, 555B, 556F, 5585, 560F, 56FF, 5705, 574D, 580D, 582D, 5855, 588D, 5A01, 5AA1, 5B01, 5B4B, 5B87, 5BB1, 5BEB, 5C4D, 5CDD, 5CED, 5DD7, 5DDD, 5E0D, 5E2D, 5EBB, 68FF, 6A69, 6AC9, 6C8F, 6CA9, 6CAF, 6F8F, 6FAF, 7033, 7063, 7075, 7087, 70A5, 70AB, 7303, 7393, 74DD, 754D, 7603, 7633, 7663, 7669, 7705, 772D, 775D, 77D5, 7807, 7877, 7885, 7939, 7969, 7993, 79AB, 7A05, 7A69, 7A9B, 7AA5, 7B77, 7BA9, 7D4D, 7D75, 7D77, 8077, 808D, 80D7, 80E7, 8587, 86CF, 8777, 8785, 8885, 88CF, 88ED, 88FD, 8C6F, 8C8F, 8E8D, 8EE7, 8F2D, 8F8D, 9031, 9041, 90AF, 90B9, 9221, 9319, 9401, 944B, 9881, 9931, 9941, 9991, 99AF, 9A0F, 9A1B, 9A4B, 9AFF, 9BA1, 9BB1, 9CAF, 9E81, 9EA1, 9FAF, A001, A05B, A0C9, A105, A10B, A4CB, A55B, A6C9, A88F, A91B, A9B1, A9BB, AA15, AB01, AB0B, AB19, ABBB, AC09, AF09, B041, B04B, B069, B07D, B087, B0B1, B0ED, B1A9, B201, B40B, B40D, B609, B70D, B7A9, B807, B9A1, BA41, BAA1, BB4B, BBB1, BBDB, BBED, BD19, BD41, BDBB, BDEB, BE07, BEE7, C0D9, C203, C24D, C6A9, C88D, C88F, C8CF, C8ED, C9AF, C9CB, CA09, CA4B, CA69, CAC9, CC0D, CC23, CC4D, CC9B, CD09, CDD9, CE4D, CEDD, CFA9, CFCD, D04B, D099, D405, D415, D44B, D4A5, D4DD, D50D, D70B, D74D, D77B, D7CB, D91B, D991, DA05, DA09, DA15, DA51, DB91, DBEB, DD7D, DDA1, DDED, DE0B, DE41, DE4D, DEA1, E02D, E07B, E0D7, E1CB, E2CD, E401, E801, EABB, EACB, EAEB, EBAB, EC4D, ECDD, ED07, EDD7, EE7B, EE81, EEAB, EEE1, F08F, F0A9, F227, F2ED, F3AF, F485, F58D, F72D, F763, F769, F787, F7A5, F7E7, F82D, F86F, F877, F88D, F8D7, F8E7, F8FF, FCCD, FED7, FF85, FF8F, FFA9, 100AB, 10BA9, 1A0CB, 1BA09, 200E1, 2C603, 2CC03, 30227, 303AF, 30AAF, 32003, 32207, 32CC3, 330AF, 33169, 33221, 33391, 33881, 33AFF, 38807, 38887, 3AFFF, 3F203, 3F887, 3FAFF, 400BB, 4084D, 40A4B, 42001, 44221, 44401, 444D1, 4480D, 4488D, 44CCB, 44D4D, 44E8D, 4804D, 4840D, 4A0CB, 4A54B, 4CACB, 4D0DD, 4D40D, 4D44D, 5004D, 50075, 502CD, 5044D, 50887, 50EE1, 5448D, 548ED, 55A45, 55F45, 5844D, 5A4A5, 5AE41, 5B0CD, 5B44D, 5BBCD, 5D4ED, 5E0E1, 5EB4D, 5EC8D, 5ECCD, 5EE41, 5F06F, 5F7DD, 5F885, 5F8CD, 5FC8D, 5FF75, 6088F, 60AFF, 630AF, 633AF, 660A9, 668CF, 669AF, 66A09, 66A0F, 66FA9, 6886F, 6A00F, 6A0FF, 6A8AF, 6AFFF, 7002D, 7024D, 70B0D, 70B7D, 7200D, 73363, 73999, 7444D, 770B7, 777D7, 77B07, 77D7D, 77DD7, 79003, 79999, 7B00D, 7D05D, 7D7DD, 8007D, 800D1, 8074D, 82CCD, 82E4D, 8448D, 8484D, 8704D, 8724D, 87887, 88001, 8800D, 880CD, 88507, 88555, 8866F, 8872D, 8877D, 888D1, 888D7, 88AA1, 88C2D, 88D57, 88D75, 88D77, 8AFAF, 8C2CD, 8C40D, 8C8CD, 8CCED, 8CE2D, 8CFED, 8E007, 8E20D, 8E24D, 8F6FF, 8FAAF, 900CB, 901AB, 90901, 909A1, 90AB1, 90AE1, 90EE1, 910AB, 93331, 940AB, 963AF, 966AF, 99019, 99109, 99A01, 9AAE1, 9B00B, 9B0AB, 9B441, 9BABB, 9BBBB, 9E441, A00BB, A0405, A044B, A08AF, A0A51, A0B91, A0C4B, 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4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444DD

===Base 17===

12, 16, 1C, 1E, 23, 27, 29, 2D, 32, 38, 3A, 3G, 43, 45, 4B, 4F, 54, 5C, 5G, 61, 65, 67, 6B, 78, 7C, 81, 83, 8D, 8F, 94, 9A, 9E, A3, A9, AB, B4, B6, BA, BC, C7, D2, D6, D8, DC, E1, E3, ED, F2, F8, FE, FG, G5, G9, GB, 104, 111, 115, 117, 11B, 137, 139, 13D, 14A, 14G, 155, 159, 15F, 171, 17B, 17D, 188, 191, 197, 19F, 1A4, 1A8, 1B3, 1BB, 1BF, 1DB, 1DD, 1F3, 1FD, 1G8, 1GA, 1GG, 20F, 214, 221, 225, 241, 25A, 25E, 285, 2B8, 2C5, 2CF, 2E5, 2EB, 2F6, 30E, 313, 331, 33B, 346, 34C, 351, 35F, 36E, 375, 37B, 391, 39B, 39D, 3B7, 3B9, 3BF, 3D3, 3D5, 3D9, 3DF, 3E4, 3EC, 3F1, 3F7, 407, 418, 447, 44D, 472, 474, 47E, 47G, 489, 49C, 4A1, 4C1, 4CD, 4D4, 4G1, 502, 506, 508, 50E, 519, 522, 528, 52A, 52E, 533, 53F, 551, 55D, 562, 566, 573, 577, 57F, 582, 593, 599, 59B, 59F, 5A6, 5B5, 5D1, 5D3, 5EA, 5EE, 5F9, 60D, 62F, 634, 649, 689, 692, 6CD, 6EF, 6F4, 6FA, 704, 706, 70G, 71D, 726, 737, 739, 73D, 73F, 753, 755, 764, 766, 76G, 771, 77B, 793, 7AA, 7AE, 7B3, 7BB, 7D7, 7E6, 7F3, 7F9, 7FF, 7G2, 7GE, 7GG, 825, 82B, 849, 852, 85E, 869, 876, 87A, 87G, 88B, 892, 898, 89C, 8C5, 8E7, 8G7, 908, 90G, 913, 91F, 92C, 935, 937, 93B, 951, 953, 957, 95D, 968, 96G, 979, 97B, 98C, 98G, 99D, 9B1, 9B3, 9B9, 9BD, 9BF, 9DB, 9DF, 9F1, 9F5, 9G6, A07, A0D, A1A, A2F, A4D, A72, A7A, A7E, AA1, AA7, ACF, ADA, AG1, AG7, B02, B08, B17, B1D, B28, B2G, B57, B71, B73, B79, B7F, B88, B8E, B8G, B9B, B9F, BB5, BB7, BD7, BDD, BEG, BFF, BGG, C01, C2F, C3E, C56, C6D, C89, C92, C9G, CA5, CBG, CC1, CC5, CF4, CFA, D04, D0A, D15, D3D, D3F, D55, D59, D5B, D71, D75, D7D, D91, D97, D99, D9D, DA4, DAG, DB3, DDB, DF1, DF7, DF9, DFF, E05, E0B, E2B, E52, E58, E69, E92, E9C, EAF, EB8, EC9, ECB, EE5, F04, F15, F1B, F35, F3B, F46, F51, F53, F64, F6A, F73, F79, F95, FAC, FB1, FCA, FD5, FDB, FF1, FF7, FFD, G0D, G0F, G18, G1A, G1G, G2F, G34, G63, G7G, GA7, GC3, GDG, GEF, GFA, GG7, GGD, 1013, 101D, 1033, 1035, 1051, 105B, 105D, 1077, 108A, 109B, 10AG, 10B1, 10B7, 10BD, 10FB, 1149, 1189, 11AF, 11G3, 1303, 130B, 1314, 1341, 1479, 14D9, 1501, 1503, 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DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD

====Additional known quasi-minimal primes (not necessarily the next)====

570&lt;sub&gt;51310&lt;/sub&gt;1, 49&lt;sub&gt;111333&lt;/sub&gt;, 970&lt;sub&gt;166047&lt;/sub&gt;1, F70&lt;sub&gt;186767&lt;/sub&gt;1

===Base 18===

11, 15, 1B, 1D, 21, 25, 27, 2B, 2H, 35, 37, 3D, 3H, 41, 47, 4B, 4H, 57, 5B, 5D, 5H, 61, 65, 71, 75, 7B, 7D, 85, 87, 8D, 91, 95, 9B, 9H, A1, AB, AD, AH, B1, BD, C7, CB, CD, CH, D5, D7, DH, E5, EB, EH, F1, F7, FB, FD, G5, H1, H5, H7, HB, 107, 167, 16H, 177, 17H, 1G7, 1HH, 20D, 24D, 26D, 29D, 30B, 36B, 381, 3BB, 405, 445, 44D, 49D, 4A5, 4DD, 4F5, 4GD, 501, 545, 5E1, 607, 62D, 64D, 66B, 66H, 67H, 68B, 697, 6A7, 6BB, 6E7, 6G7, 6GB, 6HH, 767, 76H, 77H, 797, 7HH, 801, 80H, 831, 83B, 86B, 88H, 8BB, 8FH, 8GH, 94D, 96D, 977, 9DD, 9ED, 9GD, A77, AC5, AE7, B07, B0H, B55, B77, B8B, B97, BB5, BB7, BBH, BE7, BFH, BGB, C01, C31, CA5, CG1, D2D, D4D, D81, DBB, DD1, DDB, DGD, E0D, E17, E31, E4D, E67, E6D, EA7, EDD, EE1, EED, EG7, F0H, F45, F8H, FC5, FFH, G0D, G17, G2D, G6B, G6H, GBB, GBH, GD1, GDD, GE1, GE7, GED, GFH, GG7, GGB, GHD, GHH, H0D, H2D, H8H, H9D, HGH, HHD, 100H, 19E7, 1A97, 1EE7, 1G8H, 1GGH, 22ED, 22GD, 2DED, 2E2D, 3001, 3031, 30C1, 30E1, 3331, 33G1, 3CC1, 40ED, 45C5, 46ED, 4CC5, 5331, 5551, 55G1, 5C05, 608H, 60ED, 60FH, 60HD, 666D, 66ED, 699D, 6B67, 6BGH, 6D0D, 6DDD, 6E9D, 6EGD, 6G0H, 6G9D, 6HGD, 700H, 70A7, 7A07, 7FGH, 7G77, 808B, 8881, 88G1, 88GB, 8BHH, 8EG1, 8GC1, 8H6H, 900D, 90E7, 90G7, 9667, 9907, 999D, 99E7, 9A67, 9A97, 9E97, 9EE7, 9G07, 9G67, 9GA7, AA45, AA97, AGA7, B005, B03B, B06B, B0C5, B60B, B63B, BAA5, BAA7, BCC5, BFA5, BG8H, C045, C055, C555, C5C1, C5F5, CC05, CC81, CCC5, D06D, D09D, D0ED, D38B, D3E1, D60D, D6DD, D8GB, DD6D, DE9D, DG01, E001, E097, E0G1, E8C1, EDC1, EE97, EGC1, EGG1, EGGD, FH6H, G007, G00B, G00H, G03B, G067, G097, G0C1, G0G1, G1GH, G33B, G38B, G3G1, G70H, G777, G88B, GA67, GAA7, GG81, GGC1, GGGH, H0FH, H66D, HEGD, HFHH, 1AAA7, 222DD, 30GG1, 3388B, 33E01, 38G8B, 3G3C1, 3GGG1, 4002D, 500C5, 50C55, 50CF5, 53GG1, 558C1, 55CC5, 55CF5, 58GG1, 5C8C1, 5CFF5, 5G881, 5GG31, 6000H, 6003B, 6006D, 600DB, 6033B, 606GD, 60D0B, 66GGD, 6D03B, 6D33B, 6H6DD, 6HD6D, 6HDED, 70G07, 70GGH, 777A7, 7AAG7, 7G0GH, 80G0B, 8888B, 8CCE1, 90067, 90097, 9022D, 99967, 99997, 9A007, 9A0A7, 9AA07, 9AAA7, 9E007, A0045, A0455, A0667, A09G7, A0A07, A0G07, A0G97, A9997, AA0A7, AAG67, B0AF5, B6GGH, B7GGH, B8HHH, BA045, BAF05, BG667, C0F05, C5005, C5581, C88C1, C8CC1, C8CE1, CCF55, D03C1, D060B, D080B, D0CC1, D0G0B, D0G8B, D3G3B, D600B, DDDED, DG331, DG80B, E8G81, E9007, F6GGH, G018H, G0301, G0331, G466D, G6667, G66GD, GD08B, GG18H, GG6GD, GGG4D, H060H, HGGGD, HHH6H, 199AA7, 40006D, 40600D, 46600D, 5055C5, 5505C5, 55CCC1, 588CC1, 58CCC1, 60000D, 60009D, 7077G7, 7707G7, 777G07, 88000B, 9099A7, A000A7, A009A7, A09067, A099A7, A0AAA7, A90AA7, A99AA7, AA0007, AA6667, AAAG07, BFFF05, BFFFF5, C0FFF5, CCECC1, CECCC1, CF0FF5, CFF005, D0008B, D0033B, D0088B, D0333B, D033GB, D03G31, D0633B, DD990D, DGGG31, FHHHHH, G00081, G6GGGD, G8GGG1, GGG001, GGG331, GGGGG1, GGGGGD, H0006H, H00H6H, HH600H, 222222D, 22DDDDD, 333333B, 5CCCCC1, 70007G7, 88CCCC1, 9000007, 9000A07, A000G67, AAAA667, BBBB33B, C000CF5, C000FF5, CCCCCE1, CCCCEC1, D00063B, D00GG31, D63333B, DCCCCC1, DDDDD9D, DGCCCC1, GCCCCC1, GG00031, 4022222D, 6000GGGD, 66666667, 770000G7, AAAAA007, B6666667, BBBBBB3B, CFFFFF55, D00000C1, D0000EC1, 455555555, 5555550C5, 667777777, A00000967, A00009097, A00009967, A45555555, AAAAAAA07, BHHHHHHHH, CCCCCCCC1, CF0000005, CFFFFFF05, D00000G3B, E0CCCCCC1, G00000031, 70000000G7, A000000097, D000003301, 777777700G7, A0000900007, D0000000001, D000000GGG1, 677777777777, 8HHHHHHHHHHH, 2DDDDDDDDDDDD, 55555555555C5, 77AAAAAAAAAA7, D00000000006B, D0000000003GB, AAAAAAAAAAAAAA7, D0000000000000B, 77777777777777G7, CCFFFFFFFFFFFFFF5, BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB6B, CFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF5, GG0000000000000000000000000000001, HDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD, C00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000F5, 80000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000B, HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHFH, C0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000C5

===Base 19===

====Additional known quasi-minimal primes (not necessarily the next)====

90&lt;sub&gt;42994&lt;/sub&gt;G, 4F0&lt;sub&gt;49847&lt;/sub&gt;6, FG6&lt;sub&gt;110984&lt;/sub&gt;, 1E70&lt;sub&gt;122896&lt;/sub&gt;1

===Base 20===

13, 19, 1B, 1H, 21, 23, 27, 2D, 2J, 31, 37, 3B, 3D, 3J, 43, 49, 4H, 51, 53, 57, 59, 5D, 67, 6B, 6H, 6J, 79, 7B, 7H, 83, 87, 8D, 8J, 91, 9B, 9D, 9H, 9J, AB, B3, B7, B9, BD, BJ, C1, CB, CH, D3, D9, DB, DH, E1, E3, ED, F7, FB, FD, FH, GB, GH, H7, H9, HD, HJ, I7, ID, IJ, J3, J9, JH, 101, 10J, 111, 11D, 11J, 147, 14J, 161, 171, 177, 1A1, 1A7, 1AD, 1AJ, 1C7, 1CD, 1CJ, 1D1, 1DD, 1F1, 1FJ, 1G7, 1GD, 1GJ, 1I1, 1J7, 209, 20B, 22H, 25B, 269, 28B, 28H, 2A9, 2BB, 2C9, 2EB, 2EH, 2F9, 2G9, 2HB, 2IB, 30H, 329, 33H, 3A9, 3E9, 3G3, 3H3, 401, 407, 40D, 40J, 411, 417, 44D, 44J, 461, 46D, 471, 477, 47D, 47J, 4A1, 4BB, 4C7, 4D1, 4D7, 4DD, 4DJ, 4F1, 4GD, 4J7, 4JD, 4JJ, 50B, 50H, 54J, 55B, 5BH, 5EH, 5GJ, 5HB, 5HH, 5IB, 5IH, 5JJ, 661, 6A9, 6E9, 6G9, 701, 703, 70J, 71D, 747, 77D, 7A1, 7AJ, 7D1, 7D7, 7DJ, 7FJ, 7G1, 7I3, 7J1, 7J7, 809, 80H, 811, 82B, 82H, 869, 881, 88B, 899, 8C9, 8EB, 8G9, 8H1, 8HH, 8IB, 907, 989, 9A3, 9C7, 9E9, 9G3, 9G9, A01, A03, A07, A0D, A0J, A11, A17, A29, A2H, A4D, A4J, A69, A6D, A7D, A7J, A8H, AA1, AAH, AAJ, AC3, ACD, ACJ, AD1, ADD, AE9, AEH, AG7, AGJ, AHH, AI3, B11, B2B, B2H, B41, B5H, B81, BB1, BBH, BEB, BG1, BHB, C0D, C5J, C6D, C73, C89, C97, CA3, CA9, CCJ, CE7, CEJ, CFJ, D17, D1D, D41, D6D, D77, DA7, DAD, DAJ, DDJ, DF1, DFJ, DG1, DG7, DJ1, E2B, E2H, E5B, E5H, EA7, EC9, EEH, EG7, EGJ, EJ7, F61, FA3, FEJ, FF1, FG3, FG9, FI1, G11, G17, G29, G39, G41, G61, G69, G77, G7D, G89, GA7, GAJ, GCD, GCJ, GD1, GDD, GDJ, GE9, GF1, GF3, GF9, GFJ, GGD, GI1, GI3, GJ1, GJD, H03, H2H, H33, H5B, H5H, H81, H8B, H8H, HA1, HC3, HF3, HG1, HHB, HIH, I0B, I61, I89, IAH, IE9, IG3, IG9, IH1, II1, IIH, J07, J11, J1J, J41, J47, J4B, J4J, J71, J7D, J7J, JCD, JD7, JDD, JDJ, JF1, JFJ, JG7, JGD, JJD, 104D, 10E7, 1DE7, 1DEJ, 1E7J, 1EJJ, 1G81, 1J6D, 1J81, 20AH, 25AH, 2829, 28E9, 2A5H, 2E29, 2H0H, 2HAH, 2IHH, 3089, 30A3, 30G9, 325H, 358H, 38F9, 3A63, 3CG9, 3F89, 3GC9, 402B, 40IB, 44I1, 458B, 45CJ, 45FJ, 4841, 484B, 485B, 48G1, 4AEJ, 4AFJ, 4BI1, 4CAD, 4CAJ, 4CGJ, 4E4B, 4EJB, 4F5J, 4FAJ, 4G81, 4GEJ, 4I2B, 4I8B, 4IG1, 4J81, 4JB1, 4JIB, 52AH, 542B, 548B, 550J, 55EJ, 584B, 5A5J, 5B4B, 5C0J, 5E4B, 5FAJ, 6029, 610D, 6141, 616D, 6299, 62I9, 6389, 641D, 6441, 64CD, 64G1, 66G3, 68G1, 6A41, 6AF1, 6AG1, 6AI1, 6D01, 6DA1, 6DCD, 6F01, 6F29, 6G01, 6G03, 6G0D, 6G4D, 6GA1, 6GG1, 6I01, 6I29, 6IF1, 704D, 70A7, 70GD, 715J, 71E7, 73F3, 745J, 74CD, 74CJ, 74EJ, 7641, 76A3, 76AD, 76GD, 7761, 7773, 77G3, 7841, 78I1, 7C4J, 7C63, 7CA7, 7CC3, 7F41, 7FF3, 7G6D, 7GA3, 7GE7, 7GG3, 7I41, 7I81, 7J5J, 8041, 804B, 80BB, 80F1, 8229, 8289, 82E9, 84G1, 86A1, 86F1, 86G1, 8889, 88A9, 88E9, 88IH, 8AA9, 8B4B, 8B61, 8BIH, 8EA9, 8F01, 8FA1, 8FE9, 8FF9, 8FG1, 8H4B, 8I29, 8I5H, 8II9, 9629, 9763, 9973, 9997, 9A77, 9AA7, 9AC9, 9AI9, 9E47, 9E77, 9F29, 9G47, A0A9, A0F9, A0G9, A0I9, A3F9, A3I9, A481, A633, A681, A6G1, A6G3, A7A3, A7C7, A7F1, A8I1, A909, A933, A9F3, A9I9, AA73, AAC7, AC09, AC77, ACC9, ACF9, ADC7, ADE7, AEC7, AEJJ, AF39, AF81, AF93, AFA9, AFC9, AFI9, AFJ1, AFJJ, AG81, AGG9, AH63, AI41, AI5H, AIF9, AJ5J, AJ61, AJE7, AJI1, B001, B08H, B0F1, B40B, B601, B84B, B8IH, BAIH, BFA1, BHF1, BI5B, BIA1, C0E9, C0G3, C0G9, C299, C2I9, C447, C4AD, C4G7, C707, C74D, C74J, C777, C7AD, C7CD, C7GD, C7GJ, CAA7, CAAD, CAD7, CADJ, CAGD, CAJD, CCE9, CD07, CD47, CD4D, CD7J, CDD7, CDGD, CDJJ, CE99, CEG9, CG07, CG09, CG4J, CG63, CG7J, CGC3, CGC7, CGD7, CGI9, CJ0J, CJAD, D011, D047, D05J, D081, D0E7, D0JD, D0JJ, D181, D4EJ, D50J, D761, D781, D7CD, D7EJ, D801, DA81, DC47, DC4D, DC7J, DCDD, DCGD, DCGJ, DCJJ, DD01, DD61, DDCD, DE0J, DEC7, DECJ, DG0J, DJC7, E00J, E047, E069, E0BH, E0C7, E0E9, E0EB, E2E9, E45J, E4AJ, E4EB, E4EJ, E5CJ, E5EJ, E5FJ, E6I9, E7EJ, E80B, E829, EA09, EA99, EAG9, EB0B, EB4B, EC0J, EC7J, EE0J, EE97, EEA9, EEE9, EEEJ, EEJB, EF89, EF99, EFAJ, EFCJ, EFI9, EFJJ, EG09, EG99, EH4B, EI4B, EI99, EIHB, EIHH, EII9, EJ0B, EJ8B, EJBB, EJEB, EJIB, F029, F0A9, F0FJ, F1G1, F2I9, F389, F4G1, F5AJ, F629, F8A1, FAC9, FAF9, FC0J, FE99, FF0J, FG4J, FGA1, FGGJ, FI29, FJ01, FJAJ, FJCJ, FJG1, G01D, G04J, G05J, G07J, G099, G0A1, G0A3, G0AD, G0E7, G0G1, G0G7, G0GJ, G0JJ, G10D, G15J, G333, G3A3, G3C3, G45J, G4E7, G663, G6C3, G947, G973, G993, G9C9, G9G7, G9I9, GAG9, GC33, GC47, GC99, GCI9, GDC7, GEJJ, GG01, GG97, GGA9, GGEJ, GI09, GI99, GIA9, GIC9, GJ5J, GJE7, GJEJ, H0AH, H0BH, H0I1, H141, H601, H6I3, HA63, HB01, HB0B, HB0H, HB61, HBAH, HBH1, HBI1, HEIB, HHH1, HI41, HI4B, HIF1, I081, I0A3, I141, I20H, I25H, I2BH, I441, I48B, I52B, I52H, I55H, I5EB, I629, I6A3, I85B, I88H, I8A1, I8HB, IA33, IA63, IAC9, IAF1, IAF3, IE8B, IEBH, IEIB, IF01, IFA9, IG01, IGG1, IHEB, IHHH, IHI3, IHIB, J04D, J05B, J0AD, J0AJ, J0BB, J0J1, J16D, J22B, J5EB, J64D, J6AD, J7C7, J7E7, J801, J8G1, JA5J, JAI1, JB5B, JB61, JBA1, JBBB, JCA7, JCAJ, JD61, JDI1, JE77, JE8B, JEBB, JEJB, JEJJ, JG0J, JG5J, JGEJ, JI5B, JI81, JIB1, JIBB, JIEB, JIG1, JIIB, JJ61, JJEJ, 1060D, 1666D, 1706D, 17E5J, 17JJJ, 1D007, 1D7JJ, 1J5EJ, 1JJJ1, 200IH, 20I5H, 22299, 2242B, 2244B, 22929, 29229, 29I99, 2E8I9, 2HHHH, 2I2I9, 2II99, 33389, 33G99, 366A3, 368I9, 38A5H, 38EAH, 38EIH, 3E8IH, 3G0I9, 3GGG9, 3HHAH, 404EB, 40E0B, 41EEJ, 4224B, 444EB, 444G1, 44E47, 44EEB, 44GG1, 455AJ, 45EAJ, 4A447, 4A55J, 4AE47, 4CCCD, 4EEAJ, 4EIEB, 4EIIB, 4G447, 4G4G7, 4GG1J, 4II4B, 4II5B, 4J80B, 4JE0B, 5005J, 50CAJ, 50ECJ, 5588H, 55A5H, 55FCJ, 5AEFJ, 5E5AJ, 5EAFJ, 5EB8B, 5EE8B, 5EEBB, 5EF0J, 5EFFJ, 6014D, 604AD, 6060D, 60689, 606A3, 606CD, 60AAD, 60AF3, 60AGD, 60DGD, 60G33, 60GAD, 60I81, 62229, 62889, 633A3, 6600D, 668F9, 66929, 66AAD, 66CCD, 66DGD, 66IA3, 68FI9, 68I41, 69929, 6A663, 6A6F3, 6D0GD, 6DDI1, 6G6AD, 6GGA3, 7066D, 707G7, 70C07, 70CAD, 70CCD, 70CG7, 70DDD, 71JJJ, 73363, 74441, 7606D, 76363, 76663, 76C4D, 76F11, 76G33, 77107, 77441, 7777J, 777C7, 777G7, 77AC7, 77AF3, 77C07, 77E4J, 77E7J, 77GGJ, 77JGJ, 7A733, 7AAA7, 7ACC7, 7C077, 7CC4D, 7CF33, 7CG4D, 7CJ4D, 7CJGJ, 7DD0D, 7ECJJ, 7EJEJ, 7F333, 7F6C3, 7FC33, 7G007, 7G4GJ, 7G733, 7G763, 7G7C3, 7GCC7, 7GGC7, 7GGGJ, 7GJGJ, 7J06D, 7JAAD, 7JGJJ, 800B1, 80BA1, 80IA1, 84I41, 8555H, 8558H, 85A5H, 8855H, 8888H, 88F29, 8A6I1, 8AGG1, 8AIF1, 8AIG1, 8BB0B, 8BE8H, 8EEF9, 8EF29, 8F829, 8F8I9, 8FIA9, 8GAG1, 8H00B, 8HBBB, 8IE8H, 900A9, 90AF9, 90IA9, 92II9, 97333, 97F33, 990A9, 994A7, 994G7, 999A9, 99A47, 99A99, 9A009, 9A999, 9C029, 9C929, 9CC29, 9FFA9, 9FIA9, 9I9A9, 9IA99, 9IAF9, A3009, A3309, A3333, A3393, A3939, A3963, A3993, A39C9, A3A33, A3AA3, A3C99, A3FF3, A4E47, A4EE7, A555H, A66F3, A6F63, A7771, A77F3, A7AA7, A7EE7, A8641, A88F9, A9399, A94A7, A9663, A9777, A97A7, A97E7, A9977, A9999, A9EE7, AA3A3, AA4A7, AA7A7, AA9E7, AAA33, AAA89, AAA97, AAAF3, AAF89, AAG09, AAG93, ACA47, ACCC7, AEE47, AEE77, AF099, AF363, AF5FJ, AF889, AFF09, AFF99, AFFF3, AGAI9, AGG33, AGGG1, AHGG3, AI009, AIA09, AIA99, AIII9, AJAA7, AJAAD, AJJC7, AJJG1, AJJJ7, B00IB, B044B, B06A1, B08BB, B0EAH, B0EHH, B44IB, B544B, B5BBB, B8E8H, BAH61, BB44B, BB45B, BBB5B, BBBIB, BE0AH, BH00H, BH0H1, BH6I1, BI0EH, BI44B, BI8BB, BIBBB, BIE8H, C0029, C04AJ, C07G7, C0A77, C0C29, C0CC7, C0G47, C0GGJ, C0I29, C2EE9, C6C29, C7AC7, C9029, C9929, C9C29, CC0C7, CC3G9, CC7C7, CCA77, CCAC7, CCCCD, CCF29, CCG03, CCG47, CCG93, CCGAD, CCGC9, CD0GJ, CE0I9, CE629, CE6F9, CEIF9, CFC29, CFE09, CFEF9, CFF29, CG003, CG033, CGGG9, D0061, D00A1, D00D1, D00GJ, D01EJ, D074D, D07DD, D07GJ, D0C4J, D0CCD, D0D7D, D0EEJ, D0G4D, D0GGJ, D155J, D4CCD, D4EE7, D55CJ, D6001, D60A1, D6IA1, D7D0D, D7DGD, D7G4J, D7GGJ, D7JCJ, DC0J7, DCC07, DD7I1, DDC07, DDD07, DDD11, DDD47, DDDD1, DDDGD, DDG0D, DE4E7, DEE7J, DEJ5J, DG4GJ, DGE4J, DGJJJ, DJ55J, DJEEJ, DJGJJ, DJJJ7, E00HB, E00I9, E00IH, E044B, E04FJ, E08BB, E08HB, E0999, E09A9, E09E7, E09F9, E0AIH, E0BBB, E0C4J, E0E7J, E0F4J, E0GA9, E0I09, E0IA9, E0JEJ, E0JJB, E22I9, E2I29, E448B, E6009, E6229, E6889, E69F9, E6F09, E6FF9, E755J, E7CJJ, E7EC7, E7JJJ, E844B, E888H, E8A89, E8EI9, E8IA9, E90A9, E90I9, E9699, E96F9, E9IA9, E9IF9, EA55J, EA889, EAEFJ, EAFF9, EAFFJ, EB0AH, EB0IH, EB88H, EBI0H, ECC47, EE00B, EE299, EE4FJ, EE74J, EE7C7, EEBIB, EEF29, EF229, EFF4J, EFFA9, EGAI9, EH0IB, EHBIB, EHEEB, EHH0H, EHIIB, EI00H, EI229, EI8BB, EIEBB, EIF09, EIFF9, EIIEB, EJAJJ, EJE5J, F0001, F000J, F0081, F0089, F00CJ, F0141, F041J, F04GJ, F0841, F08F9, F08G1, F0AJJ, F0CE9, F0E69, F0F89, F0FE9, F0GG1, F0GJJ, F1J5J, F2229, F2289, F22E9, F4FGJ, F500J, F50CJ, F5FFJ, F8EE9, F9A09, F9A99, F9IA9, FA099, FA8G1, FC4GJ, FCJJJ, FE0I9, FE669, FEAA9, FEAI9, FEF69, FEFE9, FEFF9, FEI69, FEIF9, FF089, FF4FJ, FF55J, FF8I9, FFA09, FFAI9, FFE69, FFF29, FFF5J, FFF89, FFFE9, FFIA9, FFJGJ, FG081, FGG81, FJ05J, FJA81, FJJ0J, G001J, G0047, G004D, G0063, G00C7, G0363, G0603, G0633, G066D, G0963, G0AC9, G0AI9, G0CC7, G0CC9, G0II9, G4AAD, G4EEJ, G600D, G64AD, G666D, G66AD, G6G33, G7E4J, G7GJJ, G7JGJ, G9009, G9303, G9603, G9A09, G9CC3, GA6A3, GAA33, GAA93, GAG33, GC009, GC093, GC0C3, GCC03, GCC09, GD447, GDE47, GEE07, GEEC7, GG00J, GG073, GG1JJ, GG763, GG7C3, GG8A1, GGG07, GGG4J, GGG71, GGGC7, GGGGJ, GGGJ7, GGJ0J, GGJJJ, GJ00J, GJGJJ, GJJJ7, H00EH, H024B, H04B1, H0E4B, H0F41, H0H11, H0HEH, H4E0B, H6I11, HAAA3, HAAG3, HAGA3, HB44B, HBBBB, HBHHH, HGGA3, 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CDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD, G0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000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===Base 21===

12, 18, 1A, 1G, 1K, 21, 25, 2B, 2H, 2J, 34, 38, 3A, 3G, 3K, 45, 4D, 4H, 4J, 52, 54, 58, 61, 65, 6B, 6D, 72, 74, 7A, 7G, 7K, 85, 8B, 8D, 92, 94, 98, 9A, A1, AD, AH, AJ, B2, B8, BA, BK, C5, CB, CH, CJ, D4, D8, DA, DK, ED, EH, EJ, F2, FG, G1, GB, GD, GH, H2, HA, HG, I1, I5, IB, IJ, J2, JA, JK, K1, KB, KD, KJ, 111, 115, 11H, 135, 13H, 13J, 151, 15B, 15H, 164, 175, 17B, 17D, 17J, 191, 19B, 19D, 19H, 1B1, 1B5, 1BB, 1BJ, 1D5, 1DD, 1DJ, 1E4, 1F1, 1F5, 1FD, 1FH, 1HB, 1HD, 1I4, 1JD, 1JH, 1JJ, 22D, 232, 29G, 29K, 2DG, 2F4, 2FK, 31H, 322, 33D, 351, 355, 35B, 35J, 362, 371, 37B, 37D, 37H, 37J, 39B, 39J, 3B5, 3BD, 3BH, 3D1, 3D5, 3DB, 3DD, 3DH, 3E2, 3FJ, 3HD, 3HH, 3HJ, 3J1, 3JB, 3JJ, 414, 481, 49K, 4B4, 4BG, 4C1, 4EB, 4F4, 4F8, 4FA, 4FK, 50G, 51B, 51D, 51H, 531, 535, 53D, 53J, 551, 56A, 56G, 56K, 575, 57J, 595, 59H, 5B1, 5B5, 5BB, 5CA, 5CG, 5CK, 5F1, 5FB, 5FJ, 5GA, 5GG, 5HH, 5IA, 5J5, 5JD, 5JH, 60H, 632, 66H, 66J, 678, 68J, 69G, 6F8, 6FA, 6GJ, 6H8, 6HK, 6IH, 6J4, 6JG, 6KH, 711, 71B, 71D, 73D, 73H, 73J, 75B, 75H, 768, 77H, 77J, 7B1, 7B5, 7BB, 7BD, 7C8, 7D1, 7DB, 7DD, 7E8, 7F5, 7FB, 7H5, 7HD, 7HH, 7HJ, 7J5, 7JD, 801, 80J, 832, 841, 86H, 86J, 881, 89G, 8E1, 8F4, 8F8, 8FA, 8FK, 8H4, 8IH, 8J4, 8JG, 90K, 91B, 91D, 91H, 93H, 93J, 955, 95H, 95J, 96G, 97B, 97D, 97H, 991, 99J, 9B1, 9BB, 9BH, 9BJ, 9CK, 9D1, 9DB, 9DH, 9DJ, 9EK, 9F5, 9FD, 9H1, 9HB, 9HD, 9IG, 9J5, 9KK, A0B, ABG, AF4, AF8, AG5, B15, B1H, B35, B3H, B3J, B4G, B51, B5B, B5D, B5H, B6G, B71, B75, B7B, B7D, B9B, B9J, BB5, BBH, BBJ, BC4, BCG, BF1, BF5, BFD, BH1, BHJ, BI4, BJB, C2D, C9K, CCD, CDG, CID, D0G, D2G, D35, D3B, D3H, D51, D55, D5B, D5D, D5J, D62, D71, D7H, D91, D95, D9H, DBH, DC2, DD1, DD5, DE2, DEG, DF5, DFJ, DH1, DHB, DI2, DJ1, DJB, DJJ, E14, E4B, E5K, E78, E81, E9G, EA5, EBG, EC1, EE1, EE5, EK5, F04, F11, F1H, F31, F3B, F3D, F44, F4A, F4K, F5D, F5H, F6K, F71, F7H, F7J, F88, F8A, F8K, F9J, FA4, FA8, FBB, FBH, FC4, FDB, FDJ, FE8, FFH, FFJ, FH5, FHB, FHJ, FI4, FI8, FIK, FJ5, FJD, FK4, FK8, G32, G5G, G78, G8J, GGJ, GJ4, GK5, H0K, H15, H1B, H1J, H31, H3D, H3H, H48, H51, H55, H5J, H6K, H75, H84, H88, H91, H95, H9D, H9H, HBD, HC4, HC8, HDJ, HF5, HFB, HFH, HHD, HHJ, HI4, HI8, HJ5, HJB, HKK, I0D, I2D, I6H, I78, I8H, I9K, IFA, IFK, IID, J08, J1J, J31, J35, J3J, J44, J5H, J68, J6G, J71, J7B, J7D, J7H, J8G, J95, J9D, JBD, JBH, JBJ, JCG, JDB, JDH, JE4, JE8, JEG, JF5, JFD, JFJ, JG4, JGG, JH1, JH5, JHB, JHH, JI4, JJ1, JJ5, K0H, K5G, K6H, K9K, KG5, KH4, KKH, 101B, 103D, 1044, 1055, 10DH, 10FB, 10H1, 10H5, 10J1, 110J, 11CD, 11EB, 11ID, 130D, 13C1, 13EB, 141B, 1444, 1471, 14FB, 1505, 15CD, 167H, 16FJ, 16HH, 176H, 17C1, 17IH, 190J, 1BF4, 1BID, 1C04, 1C3D, 1CD1, 1D6H, 1DE1, 1DEB, 1E1B, 1E71, 1E95, 1EFB, 1F0B, 1F4B, 1FB4, 1H01, 1H05, 1H41, 1H6H, 1H6J, 1HC1, 1HE1, 1HF4, 1IDH, 1IHH, 1JE5, 1JF4, 20CD, 20D2, 20ID, 2278, 22F8, 239D, 23FD, 2478, 2708, 27FD, 293D, 29DD, 2A78, 2C0D, 2CF8, 2F0A, 2F9D, 2FAA, 2FDD, 2GFA, 2IF8, 3015, 301D, 301J, 3031, 3035, 305D, 30F1, 30FB, 30FD, 30HB, 30I2, 3105, 31C1, 329D, 330H, 336J, 33E1, 33EB, 33IH, 35CD, 363H, 390H, 39E5, 39ID, 3B0J, 3B6J, 3BC1, 3BEB, 3CC2, 3CF1, 3CFD, 3D32, 3E3B, 3E91, 3EF1, 3EFB, 3F05, 3FC1, 3FE1, 3FEB, 3H01, 3H0B, 3HC1, 3I3H, 3I9D, 404B, 4078, 40E1, 411B, 4131, 4171, 41FB, 4331, 4391, 43BB, 43FB, 43I2, 4432, 444B, 44E1, 477B, 4931, 4971, 499B, 49CG, 4A32, 4A4B, 4A78, 4A9G, 4B1B, 4B31, 4B3B, 4BFB, 4C78, 4E32, 4F1B, 4FB1, 5011, 509D, 50BD, 50DB, 50DD, 50EK, 50FD, 50H1, 50HJ, 50IK, 50JJ, 5101, 5105, 51E1, 530B, 53EB, 53IH, 550D, 550H, 55AB, 55BG, 55DG, 55E5, 55KH, 563H, 56JJ, 5701, 570H, 57EB, 57ID, 57IH, 590D, 59C1, 59CD, 5A3B, 5A7B, 5AGK, 5AIG, 5AKG, 5B0D, 5B9G, 5BCD, 5BGJ, 5BIH, 5C91, 5CD1, 5D0D, 5D0J, 5D6H, 5D6J, 5DC1, 5DG5, 5DIH, 5DJG, 5E0A, 5E11, 5E3B, 5E71, 5EAK, 5EEA, 5EKK, 5F0H, 5F9K, 5G0K, 5G9J, 5GF5, 5GIK, 5H0B, 5H5K, 5H9K, 5HE5, 5HID, 5I3H, 5I7D, 5IKG, 5J6J, 5JE1, 5KAG, 5KEK, 5KFH, 5KH5, 60FK, 63FH, 67JH, 69JH, 6E9K, 6F0K, 6F64, 6FJH, 6H04, 6HE4, 6HFJ, 6IF4, 6J9H, 6J9J, 7015, 7031, 703B, 7055, 705J, 7088, 709B, 709D, 709H, 70DJ, 70I8, 710J, 716J, 730B, 73C1, 73E5, 7501, 769H, 76FJ, 76JJ, 770D, 77E1, 77E5, 77EB, 7888, 78FH, 78H1, 78JH, 790H, 79CD, 79IH, 7B0J, 7B6H, 7C31, 7C91, 7C9D, 7E35, 7E75, 7E91, 7EF1, 7F01, 7F78, 7FCD, 7FH8, 7FIH, 7FJ8, 7H81, 7HC1, 7HF8, 7J6J, 7J78, 7JC1, 7JF8, 7JH8, 7JJ8, 809K, 80H8, 81H1, 81HH, 81J1, 839H, 83FH, 869K, 871H, 8731, 8771, 8788, 879J, 87F1, 87FJ, 87JH, 888H, 8911, 8931, 896K, 8A78, 8A9K, 8CC1, 8E9K, 8F3H, 8F9H, 8FF1, 8FHH, 8FJH, 8G9K, 8GJ8, 8H3J, 8H7H, 8H8K, 8HEK, 8HF1, 8HFJ, 8HH1, 8HJJ, 8HK8, 8J7J, 8J91, 8JC8, 8JFH, 8JJH, 8K78, 8K8H, 8KH8, 901J, 9035, 903B, 9071, 90CG, 90GG, 90JD, 9101, 91E5, 9301, 93E1, 93EB, 95CD, 95DG, 95FK, 967J, 969H, 96HH, 96HJ, 96JJ, 9705, 97C1, 9905, 995K, 999G, 99CD, 99EB, 99K5, 9B5G, 9BE5, 9BID, 9C0G, 9C11, 9C71, 9C9D, 9CEG, 9CGG, 9D05, 9D5G, 9DDG, 9DE5, 9E35, 9E3B, 9E71, 9EB5, 9EEG, 9EF1, 9EFB, 9F0J, 9F6H, 9F9K, 9FC1, 9FIH, 9FKH, 9G35, 9G95, 9GIK, 9GJJ, 9GKG, 9H0H, 9H5K, 9H6H, 9HKH, 9I6K, 9I9H, 9IDD, 9J6J, 9JEB, 9JGJ, 9JID, 9JJG, 9K35, 9K95, 9KEG, A33B, A3F5, A432, A478, A53B, A5IK, A788, A795, A878, A975, A99B, A9CG, A9GG, AAAB, AB44, AB55, ABFB, AC32, AC78, ACFA, AE32, AE5A, AE9K, AEEB, AEFA, AEFK, AF75, AFCA, AFCK, AFEA, AFFB, AG9G, AGFA, AI32, B064, B091, B09H, B0B1, B0D5, B0DH, B0EG, B0FB, B0FH, B0H5, B0HD, B114, B141, B14B, B1B4, B1E1, B411, B431, B444, B4B1, B59G, B5G5, B5JG, B67H, B67J, B69H, B6FH, B6FJ, B6HH, B6JH, B96H, B9DG, B9G5, BB14, BBB4, BC1D, BC31, BCDD, BD05, BD0H, BD6H, BDC1, BDE5, BDIH, BE0G, BE31, BEBB, BEE4, BEIG, BF0B, BF0H, BF6J, BFEB, BFIH, BG0G, BG55, BG95, BGG4, BGGG, BGIG, BGJ5, BH0B, BHEB, BIEG, BIGG, BIHH, BJ01, BJ0J, BJC1, BJF4, BJID, C041, C081, C09G, C0E1, C0FK, C104, C131, C171, C1C4, C1D1, C2F8, C2FA, C39D, C3F1, C478, C6FK, C7FD, C8C1, C90G, C911, C971, C99D, CAFK, CC78, CC81, CCE1, CCF8, CD02, CD31, CDFD, CE01, CE32, CF0A, CF48, CF64, CF68, CF6A, CF91, CFAK, CFDD, CFEA, CFEK, CIF4, CK32, CK9G, CKFA, D01D, D01H, D07B, D0DB, D0F1, D0FD, D0HD, D0HH, D10D, D10H, D16H, D1EB, D1IH, D23D, D3E1, D56H, D63J, D6CG, D6IG, D70B, D70D, D70J, D99G, D9GJ, D9ID, D9JG, DBC1, DBCD, DBE1, DBJG, DC11, DC9D, DCF1, DCFD, DCGG, DCIG, DD0H, DD6J, DDGJ, DDID, DDJG, DE31, DE75, DFC1, DFID, DFIH, DG22, DG6G, DG75, DG9J, DGCG, DGIG, DH6H, DHE5, DI6G, DICG, DIDH, DIFD, DIFH, DIGG, DJCD, DJDG, DJG5, E032, E05A, E0EB, E11B, E2F8, E31B, E331, E375, E395, E3C2, E3F1, E3F5, E3FB, E3I2, E53B, E555, E591, E59B, E5EG, E6F4, E755, E775, E89K, E915, E935, E93B, E96K, E9FB, EA32, EAEB, EAFK, EB44, EB95, ECFA, ECFK, EE32, EEEB, EEFK, EF08, EF35, EF48, EF55, EF64, EF68, EF75, EF95, EFB1, EFCA, EFCK, EFEA, EFIA, EFKK, EGF4, EIF4, EKF4, EKF8, EKFA, F008, F051, F075, F095, F09H, F0CA, F0CK, F0DD, F0FB, F0H1, F0IA, F0JJ, F105, F10B, F10D, F16J, F1B4, F1EB, F1ID, F1J4, F36H, F468, F47B, F491, F4C8, F501, F50B, F648, F66A, F69H, F705, F778, F864, F8F1, F90D, F99K, F9C1, F9HK, FA6A, FA75, FA7B, FA95, FAEA, FAFB, FB0D, FB14, FBCD, FBE1, FBJ4, FC1D, FC68, FC9D, FCAA, FCCK, FCD1, FCEA, FD6H, FDIH, FE0K, FE1B, FE64, FE95, 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====Additional known quasi-minimal primes (not necessarily the next)====

40&lt;sub&gt;47333&lt;/sub&gt;9G, CF&lt;sub&gt;479147&lt;/sub&gt;0K

===Base 22===

11, 17, 19, 1F, 1J, 1L, 23, 29, 2F, 2H, 31, 35, 37, 3D, 3H, 41, 49, 4D, 4F, 4J, 4L, 53, 5H, 5L, 65, 67, 6H, 6J, 73, 79, 7D, 7J, 83, 85, 8F, 8H, 8L, 91, 9D, A3, A7, A9, AD, AJ, AL, B9, BF, BL, C5, C7, CD, CH, CJ, D7, DL, E3, E5, E9, F1, F7, FH, FJ, G1, G7, GF, GL, H5, H9, HF, I1, I5, ID, J1, J3, JD, JF, JL, K3, K9, KH, KL, L1, L5, LH, 103, 12D, 145, 155, 15D, 163, 18D, 1A5, 1BD, 1BH, 1C3, 1D3, 1DH, 1EH, 1G3, 1GH, 1I3, 1K5, 1KD, 221, 227, 22J, 22L, 245, 247, 25D, 25J, 271, 277, 287, 28J, 2A5, 2B7, 2BD, 2BJ, 2D5, 2E1, 2E7, 2ED, 2EL, 2K1, 2KJ, 2LL, 30J, 343, 389, 39J, 3B3, 3GJ, 3IJ, 3J9, 3JJ, 3KF, 3LJ, 427, 443, 445, 457, 4A5, 4C3, 4E7, 4G5, 4I7, 4K5, 4K7, 515, 52D, 551, 559, 55D, 55J, 575, 58D, 59F, 5B1, 5C9, 5CF, 5D1, 5D5, 5DD, 5E1, 5ED, 5G5, 5GJ, 5J5, 5JJ, 5K1, 5KJ, 60D, 61D, 62L, 661, 66D, 689, 6C1, 6D1, 6DD, 6G3, 6KF, 701, 721, 751, 76L, 775, 77F, 77H, 787, 7A5, 7AF, 7B1, 7B7, 7CL, 7E1, 7FF, 7FL, 7H7, 7HH, 7K5, 809, 81D, 821, 827, 82D, 847, 869, 871, 881, 889, 899, 8A1, 8BD, 8BJ, 8D1, 8DJ, 8GJ, 8J7, 907, 90H, 92L, 93J, 943, 947, 95F, 977, 997, 9AF, 9B5, 9EF, 9F5, 9H3, 9HL, 9I7, 9J9, 9JJ, 9K5, A25, A45, A51, A61, A6F, AAH, AB5, ABH, ACF, AG5, AGH, AHH, AK1, B15, B2D, B2J, B33, B45, B47, B57, B71, B75, B81, B87, B8J, BB3, BB7, BC3, BDD, BE7, BEJ, BGD, BGH, BH3, BHD, BHJ, BIH, BJ7, BKJ, CA1, CAF, CB3, CC1, CEF, CG3, CKF, D09, D0J, D13, D21, D33, D39, D3F, D4H, D5J, D63, D81, D8D, DAH, DBD, DBH, DBJ, DCF, DD3, DEJ, DFF, DG9, DGH, DHD, DI3, DIF, DJ9, DK1, DK5, E0F, E0H, E27, E2D, E2L, E47, E7H, E87, E8J, EA1, EAH, EB1, EDH, EEJ, EFF, EFL, EH1, EIF, EIL, EJH, EJJ, EKD, ELF, F25, F43, FB5, FD3, FDD, FDF, FEF, FEL, FFD, FG9, G09, G0D, G25, G3J, G5D, G5J, G63, G8D, G99, GC3, GC9, GD9, GEH, GG5, GJ5, GJ9, GJH, H03, H1D, H21, H2J, H2L, H33, H63, H77, H8J, HCL, HDD, HE1, HE7, HGH, HGJ, HH7, HHL, HI3, HIH, HJH, HK1, HKD, HL3, I07, I0J, I43, I47, I7L, I9J, IBH, IEL, IG3, IHH, IIJ, IJ7, IL7, J07, J55, J69, J8J, J99, J9J, JA5, JAH, JE7, JEH, JHH, JI9, JJ5, JJ9, JJH, JK7, K2J, K51, K5D, K75, K81, KA1, KB1, KB7, KBJ, KD1, KEJ, KG5, KIF, KJ5, KKD, KKJ, L0D, L47, L7F, L97, LAF, LD3, LD9, LDD, LEF, LGD, LI7, LJ7, LJJ, LLD, 104H, 10D5, 1205, 12B5, 140H, 1433, 144H, 14AH, 14B3, 16ED, 1AIH, 1B43, 1DD5, 1DDD, 1E6D, 1EGD, 1G05, 1GDD, 1GED, 1GGD, 1HB3, 1HHH, 1IAH, 200L, 2015, 2051, 20A1, 20DJ, 20GD, 20IL, 21B5, 21DD, 220D, 226D, 228D, 22B5, 22G5, 22K5, 22KD, 2555, 2557, 2581, 25C1, 26A1, 26B1, 2725, 2755, 2801, 2861, 288D, 28B1, 28KD, 2AA1, 2B25, 2B51, 2BB1, 2C81, 2D6D, 2DA1, 2DDJ, 2DGD, 2G0J, 2GB5, 2GDD, 2GGJ, 2I0L, 2I6L, 2ICL, 2J05, 2JK5, 2K07, 2K2D, 2K55, 2K6D, 2KB5, 2KI7, 2L2D, 2L8D, 2LK7, 302L, 30G3, 320L, 32IL, 332L, 33G3, 33G9, 36AF, 36EF, 382J, 388J, 39EL, 3AAF, 3BBJ, 3CG9, 3E2J, 3E6F, 3E6L, 3EEF, 3FAF, 3G69, 3GI3, 3GI9, 3IG9, 3LEL, 3LG3, 4025, 404H, 4063, 4075, 40AH, 40B5, 40B7, 40GH, 4225, 4363, 4447, 444H, 447H, 4487, 44B7, 44H7, 4525, 4555, 45B5, 4663, 4777, 47GH, 4807, 4B0H, 4BB5, 4BG3, 4EBH, 4G4H, 4GB3, 4HH3, 4I03, 4I63, 4IGH, 5069, 5077, 50KD, 5255, 52IJ, 5455, 5477, 5507, 5527, 556F, 557F, 5587, 56EF, 56FF, 56GD, 56KD, 5771, 57C1, 57EF, 5807, 580J, 589J, 58E7, 58IJ, 58K7, 5905, 5945, 5957, 5969, 5989, 598J, 5999, 59EJ, 59K7, 5AEF, 5B25, 5B55, 5BA5, 5BI7, 5BIJ, 5BK5, 5BK7, 5C21, 5EAF, 5EE7, 5F09, 5F6F, 5F95, 5FKD, 5G6D, 5G89, 5I09, 5I0F, 5I27, 5I6F, 5I89, 5IB7, 5IBJ, 5IFF, 5J77, 5K07, 5K25, 5K27, 5K6F, 5K87, 5KK7, 6013, 60A1, 60AF, 60EL, 6281, 62B1, 62KD, 63G9, 6403, 6643, 66EL, 66G9, 68KD, 69B3, 6A01, 6A0F, 6AAF, 6AFF, 6B21, 6B8D, 6BBD, 6BK1, 6D03, 6D43, 6D69, 6D6F, 6D93, 6D9F, 6E21, 6E81, 6E8D, 6EBD, 6ECL, 6ELL, 6FD9, 6GBD, 6GG9, 6IEF, 6K21, 6K8D, 6KBD, 6KE1, 6L43, 6LB3, 6LDF, 6LEL, 6LG9, 700F, 7027, 7057, 70EH, 70LF, 710H, 71G5, 7207, 7225, 7255, 727L, 7505, 7507, 755F, 75EF, 75F5, 75I7, 766F, 7681, 76CF, 7771, 7781, 77IL, 7861, 7A0H, 7A4H, 7BB5, 7C6F, 7EEH, 7EHL, 7FG5, 7G45, 7HEL, 7I0L, 7I27, 7IE7, 7IGH, 7K07, 7K61, 7K77, 7KC1, 7L27, 7LCF, 7LK7, 802J, 80B1, 80GD, 80JJ, 80KJ, 820J, 86E1, 880D, 882J, 88E7, 88I7, 892J, 89EJ, 8B61, 8BI7, 8CI9, 8CK1, 8D6D, 8DD9, 8DGD, 8E01, 8E07, 8EE1, 8EI7, 8EK1, 8EKJ, 8I77, 8I87, 8IC9, 8IK7, 8J0J, 8K6D, 8KI7, 8KIJ, 8KK7, 9025, 9055, 9089, 9275, 92EJ, 92G5, 92GJ, 93EL, 9455, 9505, 9557, 9599, 96B3, 970L, 976F, 97G5, 982J, 98E7, 98I9, 98K7, 9905, 990J, 9925, 9995, 999H, 99BH, 99EL, 99G9, 99GJ, 99LJ, 9A55, 9B03, 9B27, 9BGJ, 9BH7, 9BK7, 9CG9, 9E6L, 9EHJ, 9EKJ, 9ELL, 9G39, 9G45, 9G4H, 9GA5, 9GAH, 9GBJ, 9GEJ, 9GHH, 9GHJ, 9GI9, 9GIJ, 9H7H, 9H87, 9HAH, 9HB7, 9I89, 9I9H, 9IB3, 9IEH, 9IKF, 9J7H, 9J87, 9JB7, 9JGH, 9K0F, 9K27, 9KGJ, 9KKF, 9L89, 9L9J, 9LG9, 9LGJ, 9LIJ, 9LKF, A081, A14H, A1IH, A201, A2C1, AA15, AA81, AAIF, ABC1, AC01, AHC1, AIIF, AKEF, B005, B01D, B01H, B051, B05D, B0A5, B0B1, B0BJ, B0DH, B0E1, B0GJ, B0H1, B0JH, B143, B16D, B255, B2B5, B2C1, B2G5, B2K7, B4EH, B4G3, B501, B5A5, B5BJ, B5C1, B5IJ, B5K5, B621, B663, B6I3, B6K1, B777, B7I7, B80D, B88D, B8ED, B8KD, BB01, BB0J, BB21, BB25, BB4H, BB6D, BBD5, BBE1, BBEH, BBH1, BBIJ, BBJH, BCK1, BD61, BDB5, BDGJ, BEE1, BG55, BGB5, BGGJ, BGIJ, BH27, BH7H, BHC1, BHH1, BHK7, BI77, BIGJ, BJ0H, BJBH, BJIJ, BJJJ, BK25, BK27, BK55, BKA5, BKK1, C043, C143, C2B1, C32L, C3G9, C601, C6EL, C6G9, C8B1, CBK1, CC2L, CC89, CE21, CECL, CF2L, CF89, CG69, CIG9, D003, D015, D045, D05D, D06D, D06F, D0DH, D0H1, D1D5, D1GD, D205, D26D, D2DJ, D32J, D38J, D403, D525, D561, D56D, D5AF, D5F5, D5GD, D6C9, D6D9, D6DF, D6E1, D6ED, D6F9, D6FD, D8IJ, D8JJ, D945, D993, D99F, D9C9, D9F3, D9G5, D9KJ, DA15, DAA5, DAE1, DAKF, DB25, DB61, DBC1, DBG3, DC43, DC99, DCE1, DD0F, DD1D, DD2D, DD2J, DD5D, DD9H, DDA5, DDD5, DDDJ, DDED, DDH1, DDHJ, DDI9, DDJ5, DE0D, DED1, DEDF, DEFD, DF03, DF45, DF55, DF5D, DF6D, DG05, DGGJ, DH0H, DH43, DHC1, DHEH, DHH3, DHJJ, DI8J, DIC9, DII9, DIJH, DJG5, DJHJ, DJKJ, DK6D, DKAF, DKDD, DKGD, E081, E0BJ, E0DD, E0DJ, E0E1, E0ED, E0J7, E0K7, E0KJ, E1GD, E1IH, E201, E281, E66F, E6BD, E6ED, E6K1, E6LL, E7EF, E861, E86D, E88D, EB0D, EB4H, EBHH, EBI7, EC6F, ECEL, ED0D, ED1D, ED6D, EDAF, EDDD, EDFD, EE01, EE0D, EE1H, EE21, EECF, EEE1, EEGH, EEH7, EF8D, EGGD, EGHH, EGIH, EGIJ, EH07, EH0L, EH8D, EHBH, EHBJ, EHK7, EHL7, EI4H, EIK7, EIKJ, EJ77, EK07, EK0J, EKC1, EKIJ, EKK1, EKK7, EL6L, ELBD, ELCL, ELDJ, ELK7, F059, F20L, F26L, F28D, F2GD, F2KD, F32L, F3AF, F3G3, F455, F56F, F595, F5KD, F6AF, F6GD, F88D, F8I9, F955, F995, F9B3, F9G3, F9KF, FB03, FB8D, FBI3, FC89, FD99, FDA5, FDI9, FEGD, FF59, FG2D, FGI3, FGKD, FI89, FIB3, FIKF, FK2D, FK45, FKD5, FL6D, FLG3, G003, G04H, G055, G0BH, G0HH, G0HJ, G0I3, G0K5, G0KJ, G26D, G2DJ, G2GJ, G303, G333, G393, G3G9, G3I3, G403, G40H, G433, G4AH, G4GH, G4H3, G4IH, G589, G5G9, G80J, G89J, G94H, G9G3, GAA5, GAIH, GB0H, GB43, GB6D, GBB5, GBG3, GBGJ, GBJJ, GD0H, GD45, GDD5, GDKD, GG2D, GG39, GG8J, GG9H, GGAH, GGDJ, GGEJ, GGGH, GGH3, GGKJ, GH0H, GHG3, GHH3, GHHH, GHJJ, GI03, GI2J, GI93, GIAH, GIEJ, GIG9, GII3, GJJJ, GJKJ, GK05, GKDD, GKGD, GKGJ, GKIJ, H081, H087, H0AH, H0BJ, H0D1, H0HJ, H0LL, H1HH, H20D, H22D, H26D, H2I7, H2K7, H30L, H3KJ, H40H, H447, H4G3, H4H3, H4HH, H66L, H6ED, 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5IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIF, D555555555555555555555550555, EEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAF, HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHEEBH, K66666666666666666666666666F, LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLEEB7, D5555555555555555555555555A55, GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG3, GIG0000000000000000000000000H, HH00000000000000000000000001H, K0000000000000000000000005KEF, 5BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBD, HB0000000000000000000000000001, K000000000000000000000000505EF, L7777777777777777777777777772L, 2000000000000000000000000000CB1, C8CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC9, IKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKFF, JE0000000000000000000000000000J, K000000000000000000000000000261, A0000000000000000000000000004I4H, HD000000000000000000000000000001, K000000000000000000000000000EC01, K0FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFCF, D0002222222222222222222222222222D, FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFL2L, I700000000000000000000000000000GH, K00000000000000000000000000000E61, 20000000000000000000000000000000JJ, DD5KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKF, 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LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL0KE7, 44HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH, F0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000L89, J000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000JJIJ, K222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222DD, KCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCF, LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLKCF, D55KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKF, K000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000077, 22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222D, K000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000008IJ, DFA00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000005, CC4IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII3, JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJE0J, 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777EK7, 6000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000043, KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKB5, HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHEEH, 4HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHEH, 50000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000002C1, K0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000055EF, H700000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000H, 80000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000K1, EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE0I7, HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHEH, 5000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000BB5, J000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000BIJ, C4IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII3, F0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000066B3, G0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000A5, D5KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKF, HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHBH, L0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000IKF, 4IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII3, A400000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000H, DKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKF, 4HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH, E0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000071, 7LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLIL, LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLK77, EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEI7, LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLIB3, I7G00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000H, 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77EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEK7, JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJKJ, 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LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLKE7, 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777772L, BKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK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KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK5

===Base 24===

15, 17, 1D, 1H, 1J, 1N, 25, 2B, 2D, 2J, 2N, 31, 37, 3B, 3H, 41, 45, 47, 4B, 4D, 4H, 57, 5B, 5H, 5J, 65, 67, 6D, 6J, 6N, 75, 7B, 7D, 7N, 81, 85, 87, 8J, 97, 9B, 9D, 9H, 9N, A1, AB, AH, AN, B5, B7, BD, BH, BJ, C5, CJ, CN, D1, D5, DJ, E1, EB, ED, EH, EN, F7, FD, FJ, FN, G5, GD, GH, H1, HB, HD, HN, I1, I7, IB, IH, J1, J5, J7, JB, JN, K7, KB, KJ, KN, L5, LH, LJ, MD, MJ, N5, NB, NH, NJ, 101, 10B, 111, 1F1, 1FB, 1GB, 1LB, 201, 221, 22H, 261, 271, 277, 28H, 2A7, 2C7, 2G7, 2H7, 2L1, 2L7, 2MH, 305, 30D, 30J, 33N, 34N, 35D, 35N, 38D, 395, 3A5, 3AJ, 3CD, 3DD, 3DN, 3E5, 3EJ, 3GJ, 3IJ, 3JJ, 3K5, 3KD, 3ND, 43N, 44N, 49J, 4EJ, 4GJ, 4GN, 4NN, 50N, 535, 54N, 551, 55N, 5C1, 5CD, 5E5, 5K1, 5KD, 5LN, 5M5, 5N1, 601, 60B, 61B, 66H, 68B, 691, 6CH, 6FH, 6GB, 6HH, 6MH, 70H, 70J, 711, 761, 771, 77H, 77J, 78H, 7C7, 7CH, 7FH, 7G7, 7H7, 7HH, 7IJ, 7JJ, 7K1, 7M1, 7M7, 80D, 82H, 83N, 88D, 88H, 8AD, 8CD, 8DB, 8DD, 8DH, 8DN, 8GB, 8KD, 8MB, 8MH, 905, 911, 921, 935, 955, 99J, 9AJ, 9G1, 9JJ, 9K5, 9L1, 9M5, A0J, A3J, A95, AA7, AD7, AE5, AG7, AGJ, AI5, AIJ, AJD, AL7, ALD, B01, B0N, B11, B61, B6B, B8N, B91, BIN, BL1, BLN, BNN, C1B, C21, C27, C2H, C3D, C61, C8H, C91, CA7, CB1, CBB, CC7, CCB, CCD, CDD, CFB, CG1, CGB, CK1, CL1, CMB, CMH, D0B, D3D, D3N, D4N, D6B, D6H, D7H, D8B, D8N, DAD, DCD, DCH, DDH, DDN, DG7, DGB, DID, DMN, DND, E05, E4J, EA7, EEJ, EF5, EGJ, EI5, EJJ, EM5, EM7, F01, F21, F51, F8H, F95, FC1, FF1, FFB, FKH, FM5, G0B, G0N, G11, G3N, G6B, G77, G7J, G8B, G8N, G91, GA7, GBB, GC7, GFB, GG1, GGJ, GGN, GK1, GL1, GLN, GMN, GN1, GNN, H0J, H2H, H3J, H4J, H77, HA5, HA7, HE5, HFH, HIJ, HJJ, HKH, HL7, HMH, I0N, I3D, I3J, I3N, I4N, I5D, I95, IA5, IAJ, IE5, IEJ, IF5, IGJ, IJD, IK5, IKD, J0D, J4J, J8D, JAD, JDH, JEJ, JFH, JHH, JKD, JMH, K35, K6H, KCD, KFH, KH5, KLD, KM1, L01, L0B, L0D, L0N, L61, L6B, L8D, LA7, LC7, LDD, LF1, LG7, LGB, LGN, LID, LK1, LKD, LL1, LLB, LLD, LMN, LNN, M0H, M11, M21, M4N, M71, M91, M95, MA5, MA7, MBN, MC7, MF1, MF5, MFB, MFH, MG7, MI5, MIN, ML1, ML7, MLB, MMH, N01, N21, N4N, N71, N8N, NC1, ND7, NE7, NG1, NID, NK1, NL7, NMN, NN7, 11CB, 11MB, 1291, 12G1, 16C1, 16CB, 16K1, 186B, 18CB, 19K1, 1BK1, 1C8B, 1K91, 1KC1, 1KL1, 1L21, 1LC1, 1LM1, 1M61, 1M8B, 1MG1, 206H, 20CH, 20M7, 21C1, 21M1, 2207, 260H, 26KH, 2991, 2C6H, 2CC1, 2CM1, 2F11, 2FHH, 2MC1, 2MK1, 2MM1, 308N, 30GN, 30IN, 30LN, 30MN, 333J, 33JD, 33LD, 343J, 344J, 35I5, 380N, 393J, 394J, 3A3D, 3FI5, 3IMN, 3J3D, 3JID, 3L3D, 3L8N, 3M0N, 3M55, 3NGN, 404J, 408N, 40LN, 434J, 44AJ, 4ILN, 4JAJ, 4L8N, 5091, 5095, 50F1, 50I5, 51L1, 5211, 5291, 52G1, 53ID, 53MN, 5595, 55AD, 56F1, 588N, 58MN, 58ND, 5961, 5991, 5A5D, 5AAD, 5F91, 5GF1, 5GIN, 5I05, 5I55, 5I8D, 5IDD, 5IDN, 5IIN, 5IMN, 5KI5, 5M61, 5M8N, 5N3N, 602H, 6211, 62F1, 62G1, 66C1, 66FB, 66M1, 66MB, 6B21, 6BM1, 6BMB, 6C6B, 6CF1, 6CLB, 6FG1, 6K21, 6K2H, 6KG1, 6KKH, 6L21, 6LCB, 6LM1, 6MB1, 6MBB, 6MG1, 6MK1, 7001, 7027, 7207, 726H, 739J, 793J, 79C1, 7A4J, 7A9J, 7AE7, 7C01, 7CC1, 7FL1, 7G21, 7G9J, 7GAJ, 7GC1, 7HGJ, 7J2H, 7J6H, 7MKH, 800B, 800H, 804N, 806H, 808N, 80BN, 80FH, 80LN, 80MN, 840N, 848N, 866B, 86FB, 880B, 880N, 884N, 88CB, 88FB, 88LN, 88MN, 8BBB, 8BLB, 8C6B, 8CCH, 8CFH, 8F0B, 8FHH, 8FLB, 8H0H, 8HCH, 8IGN, 8ILN, 8KKH, 8L8B, 8LBB, 8LFB, 8LIN, 8M8N, 8MLN, 8N0N, 8NGN, 8NLN, 9061, 9091, 90EJ, 90F1, 90GJ, 90K1, 940J, 9501, 95F1, 9CC1, 9E0J, 9E95, 9F61, 9FI5, 9G3J, 9II5, 9K01, 9KK1, 9M01, A007, A05D, A0AD, A33D, A3AD, A3F5, A44J, A727, A9EJ, AA0D, AAAD, AAAJ, ACM7, AD8D, ADKD, AE27, AE9J, AEAJ, AEE7, AIAD, AIDD, AIID, AJ9J, AK5D, AM07, AM27, AM35, AMK5, B08B, B0CB, B0GB, B18B, B1CB, B80B, B8CB, BB21, BB4N, BBCB, BBF1, BBFB, BBK1, BC8B, BCF1, BCLB, BF1B, BF8B, BFB1, BFM1, BGC1, BGF1, BK21, BL8B, BLFB, BM1B, BM3N, BMB1, BMMN, BNF1, C00D, C06B, C077, C0D7, C0H7, C0L7, C0LB, C0M1, C60H, C6LB, C76H, C7E7, CAID, CC01, CCFH, CCKH, CDLB, CGE7, CH07, CHE7, CI8D, CIAD, CK0D, CL8B, CLDB, CLE7, CM01, CM07, CME7, CMM1, D007, D08D, D0C7, D0HH, D0LN, D0M7, D0NN, D207, D2KH, D2M7, D777, D7E7, D80H, D8LD, DA27, DAC7, DAM7, DBFB, DBMB, DC77, DCLB, DDL7, DE77, DF0H, DF2H, DFFH, DFMB, DH27, DH8H, DHC7, DHHH, DILN, DK0H, DK2H, DK8H, DKHH, DLIN, DLL7, DLM7, DLMB, DM07, DMH7, DMMB, DNGN, E07J, E09J, E335, E355, E555, E5A5, E5K5, E79J, E93J, E995, EA35, EE95, EKE5, F00B, F00H, F06H, F08B, F0I5, F11B, F18B, F1L1, F20H, F26H, F2FH, F355, F661, F6K1, F80B, F86B, F8BB, FBGB, FBK1, FBLB, FC0B, FC6H, FCLB, FEK5, FGB1, FH05, FH0H, FH35, FH6H, FHCH, FHF5, FHHH, FI05, FK91, FKK1, FL1B, FLB1, FLBB, FM61, FMBB, FMK1, G00J, G021, G027, G0EJ, G0JJ, G0M1, G0M7, G1CB, G2E7, G40J, G4AJ, G4IJ, G4JJ, G6C1, G701, G94J, G9IJ, GAEJ, GAJJ, GB21, GBM1, GC01, GCF1, GCLB, GE0J, GEAJ, GEE7, GEG7, GEIJ, GEL7, GFM1, GGE7, GGMB, GI0J, GIIJ, GIIN, GJ9J, GM27, GMB1, GNM7, H005, H0K5, H0M5, H207, H2E7, H335, H3I5, H595, H5K5, H60H, H68H, H76H, H80H, H8HH, HAAJ, HE7J, HEC7, HGE7, HGM7, HH35, HI55, HIM5, I00J, I035, I08D, I0CD, I4JJ, IC0D, ICID, II0D, II0J, II35, IIAD, IILD, IIM5, IIMN, IJ9J, ILCD, IM05, IM35, IMNN, INLD, J03J, J0HJ, J0JH, J2CH, J39J, J3ID, J60H, J62H, J8CH, J9IJ, JGAJ, JGJJ, JH9J, JI0J, JIDD, JJ0H, JJCD, JJJD, JJLD, JL3D, JLCD, K0E5, K0I5, K0K1, K0KH, K191, K211, K2F1, K2G1, K591, K5AD, K6F1, K6G1, K9I5, KA0D, KAAD, KAM5, KCCH, KCHH, KD8D, KDDD, KFI5, KG01, KG61, KH0H, KHHH, KI55, KIDD, KK21, KK8H, KKF1, KKK1, KKKD, KM8H, KMHH, KMK5, L027, L0M7, L1C1, L1MB, L211, L727, L8BB, L8BN, L8FB, L8LN, L9C1, L9M1, LB8B, LBC1, LBM1, LCAD, LD77, LDIN, LDL7, LDM7, LF8B, LG21, LIIN, LLLN, LLN7, LM07, LM1B, LM77, LMG1, LN77, LNM1, M00N, M01B, M03N, M055, M077, M08B, M0B1, M0C1, M0GB, M0K1, M0M7, M0N7, M18B, M1BB, M1MB, M26H, M335, M3GN, M3M5, M3MN, M3NN, M501, M53N, M5M1, M5NN, M6BB, M6C1, M6G1, M6KH, M88B, M88N, M8BB, M8NN, MBB1, MC01, MCC1, MCKH, MCM1, ME07, ME35, MEK5, MGGB, MGMB, MH35, MH8H, MHE7, MHM5, MK8H, MKC1, MKG1, MKHH, MKK5, ML8N, MM01, MM8B, MMC1, MMLN, MMM5, MMMN, MMN1, MN0N, MN27, MNGN, MNLN, N007, N027, N077, N0C7, N0DN, N0IN, N1M1, N227, N2M7, N661, N707, N727, N8LD, NA27, NA3D, NC07, ND0D, ND0N, NDLD, NF11, NF61, NGG7, NILN, NK3D, NK8D, 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5N03D, 5N3LD, 5NA8D, 5NADD, 5NDGN, 5NNGN, 600KH, 61661, 616L1, 61MM1, 66161, 66611, 666B1, 666L1, 666LB, 66BB1, 66BG1, 66BLB, 66G61, 66KF1, 66LBB, 66LG1, 6BBBB, 6BFCB, 6CC11, 6F1M1, 6F66B, 6F6B1, 6F6L1, 6FBCB, 6FLMB, 6FMCB, 6FMM1, 6FMMB, 6GCM1, 6GM61, 6GMC1, 6K1C1, 6K1K1, 6KK11, 6KKL1, 6KL11, 6L1G1, 6LBFB, 6LCC1, 6LFMB, 6MM61, 6MM6B, 70291, 702C1, 702G1, 72CF1, 72EE7, 7433J, 7443J, 77A07, 79901, 799F1, 7AAEJ, 7EE27, 7H9EJ, 7K2KH, 7KK2H, 7KKKH, 7KKMH, 7L2C1, 800NN, 806BB, 808BB, 808LB, 80F8B, 80IIN, 833ID, 860KH, 8886B, 888NN, 8BG4N, 8CH6H, 8CKHH, 8FC0H, 8FFCH, 8HHHH, 8IIIN, 8K0HH, 8LL4N, 8M0NN, 8MNNN, 8NNND, 9000J, 900M1, 9034J, 90IIJ, 94IIJ, 96CM1, 96KF1, 96MM1, 990C1, 990M1, 99591, 99961, 999C1, 99F91, 99FM1, 99KF1, 99M61, 99MK1, 9AAA5, 9FEE5, 9FFA5, 9FFF5, 9II4J, 9K6C1, 9K9C1, 9K9F1, 9KF91, 9M6M1, 9MK61, A02M7, A0A35, A0AM5, A0C77, A0D0D, A0DDD, A0EC7, A0M55, A0MM7, A2ME7, A3335, A33M5, A3555, A3MM5, A550D, A58ID, A5D0D, A5DDD, A74AJ, A7E07, AA0M5, AA3ID, AA3M5, AA83D, AA8ID, AAAM5, 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EGG07, EGG27, EGL07, EI9IJ, F02HH, F06LB, F0C6B, F0CCH, F0CHH, F0E55, F0EA5, F0FH5, F0GGB, F0M2H, F0MGB, F0MMB, F1BMB, F3FF5, F3I35, F3II5, F6BCB, FA035, FB1MB, FBBM1, FBBMB, FBM8B, FC0HH, FC88B, FCFHH, FFC0H, FFCFH, FFCHH, FFF0H, FFF6H, FFFH5, FFHI5, FFI55, FG1MB, FGGCB, FGM1B, FHK55, FI5I5, FKEA5, FKKI5, FKL11, FM16B, FM1CB, FM62H, FM6CB, FMBG1, FMM0B, G0001, G00E7, G039J, G06F1, G07C1, G07F1, G0A9J, G0G07, G0GG7, G0I4J, G0I9J, G0LL7, G22M7, G2M07, G339J, G433J, G62M1, G6M61, G6MM1, G903J, G933J, GAA9J, GBCC1, GE007, GGGGB, GGGL7, GJ0IJ, GL007, GL2M7, GLL07, GLLM7, GMGCB, GMM07, GMM1B, H007H, H05I5, H0CCH, H0CM7, H0GG7, H0H27, H0H8H, H0HC7, H0HH5, H0I35, H0MM7, H3555, H35F5, H3F55, H3FF5, H5055, H50F5, H7HEJ, H9995, H9GEJ, HCC0H, HCC6H, HCGG7, HCHM7, HE027, HE0G7, HEE07, HEEG7, HEG27, HF0F5, HF505, HF555, HFF05, HFKF5, HG0G7, HH06H, HH08H, HH0H5, HH5I5, HH7HJ, HH9EJ, HH9I5, HHCHH, HHE07, HHGG7, HHH05, HHH7H, HHH9J, HHKI5, HHM05, HHM07, HHM27, HI0I5, HJ86H, HJC0H, HK055, HK9F5, HKF05, HKFF5, HKFK5, HKII5, HKK95, HM2M7, HME27, HMKM5, HMM05, HMM27, HMM55, HMMM7, I00DD, I00M5, I044J, I0505, I09IJ, I0AAD, I0D0D, I0DDD, I0I05, I0IDD, I0II5, I0IJJ, I0JIJ, I33M5, I4I4J, I5INN, I888N, I8NND, I8NNN, I904J, I94IJ, IA8ID, IAADD, IAI8D, IDDDD, IDINN, II88N, II8NN, IID8D, IIDIN, III8N, IIIDD, IIIID, IIIIN, IIIND, IIN8D, IINDD, IJJ0J, IJJJJ, ILILN, ILLIN, IMM8N, INA0D, INDNN, INGIN, INNDN, INNND, J000H, J002H, J00AJ, J00GJ, J00KH, J02KH, J068H, J080H, J090J, J0A9J, J0AAJ, J0C0H, J0G0J, J0IIJ, J0JGJ, J0JIJ, J0K8H, J2K0H, J2KKH, J6K8H, J86KH, JC00H, JC0KH, JCCCH, JCK0H, JCKCH, JDDLD, JG93J, JIIJJ, JJ0IJ, JJ2KH, JJ9GJ, JJCCH, JJG9J, JJGIJ, JJJ9J, JJJJH, JJK8H, JK08H, JK0CH, JK8KH, JKC0H, JKKKH, K0001, K0091, K020H, K02C1, K03ID, K0611, K06L1, K083D, K08HH, K0961, K09C1, K0CF1, K0F91, K0KM5, K0LG1, K1G21, K20HH, K29K1, K2KHH, K5001, K500D, K58ID, K5D0D, K5L11, K6621, K6C11, K6LC1, K8CKH, K8KCH, K96C1, K99E5, K9F91, K9FA5, K9FE5, K9K91, KA55D, KC011, KCF11, KD02H, KD0MH, KD20H, KDM2H, KEA55, KEAA5, KEK95, KEKK5, KF1G1, KF1K1, KF611, KF6L1, KFEA5, KH8CH, KI005, KIMM5, KK05D, KK0AD, KK0DH, KK2CH, KK2KH, KK33D, KK961, KK9C1, KKA5D, KKD0D, KKE55, KKI0D, KKIID, KKIM5, KKK0H, KKKM5, KLGC1, KMK2H, L188B, L1991, L2007, L22M7, L2EE7, L2MM7, L333D, L3LIN, L7291, L72G1, L88IN, L8C8B, L9991, LBB1B, LBBBB, LBBBN, LD0E7, LDBBN, LE207, LFMCB, LGCC1, LL227, LL3IN, LL48N, LLM27, LLMM7, LMBCB, LME27, LMMBB, LMMM7, LN33D, LN3AD, LNAAD, LNACD, M0007, M0061, M00K5, M0207, M066B, M0BCB, M0EE5, M0G01, M0GM1, M0M8N, M27KH, M2E27, M2M07, M2M27, M5005, M5555, M66CB, M66K1, M6K61, M6MCB, M7007, M7EE7, M8C0B, M8KCH, M8MGN, MBBGB, MBGM1, MCCCH, MCHCH, MEE55, MGBC1, MGMM1, MH227, MH2M7, MHH7H, MKM55, ML3LN, MM0CB, MM16B, MM227, MM661, MM6K1, MME55, MMEE7, MMKE5, MMM07, MMM6B, MMMB1, MMMGB, MMMM7, MNM61, MNN3N, N00CD, N00KD, N03LN, N0A8D, N0AM7, N0D8D, N0KKD, N0L3N, N0LAD, N0NDD, N16L1, N3GIN, N3LAD, N3LIN, N3NNN, N61L1, N96M1, N9M61, NA0CD, NAK0D, NAKKD, NCA8D, NCM77, NDGIN, NDIIN, NDLLN, NF991, NGM07, NIIIN, NINNN, NKKDD, NLNAD, NN0LN, NN191, NN3NN, NN6L1, NN83D, NNAAD, NNDIN, NNGIN, NNL3N, NNLND, NNM61, NNNIN, 166G21, 16G621, 19MMM1, 1BBBMB, 1BBGM1, 1GCCC1, 1GCCM1, 1MMM1B, 200E27, 2E0027, 2HH0HH, 2HHC0H, 2KK0HH, 2M0E27, 2M22E7, 30NNNN, 3333M5, 333AID, 333I35, 33I555, 3F5FF5, 3I3MM5, 3I88GN, 3II8LN, 3IIII5, 400IJJ, 40J00J, 40JJ3J, 40JJJJ, 44403J, 444I0J, 44IJJJ, 44J0JJ, 44JJIJ, 48I8IN, 4I440J, 4II8IN, 4IJ0IJ, 4JIIIJ, 4JJ0JJ, 4JJJ0J, 50033D, 5003AD, 5008ID, 500D8D, 500G01, 500L11, 500LAD, 500MG1, 503LAD, 508ILD, 50DDLD, 50ILAD, 50M001, 516G61, 519MM1, 538NNN, 53NNNN, 55005D, 5508ID, 550D8D, 558ILD, 55F5I5, 56G661, 58333D, 58NNNN, 5999F5, 59AAF5, 5DNNNN, 5F55I5, 5FMMM1, 5G6661, 5K9AA5, 5KK9F5, 5KKK95, 5M0001, 5NDD8D, 5NDINN, 5NN33D, 5NNLAD, 5NNNAD, 5NNNDN, 608K0H, 61CCM1, 61G621, 661G21, 666621, 6666CB, 6666F1, 66K661, 6BCCC1, 6BKKC1, 6F6BBB, 6G6621, 6GCCC1, 6GMMM1, 6K6K61, 6M666B, 70A077, 70L991, 7722E7, 772E27, 7772E7, 777A27, 777L27, 77A777, 77EL27, 7A7077, 7A7777, 7E7227, 7L2E27, 7LEL27, 7LL2E7, 7LLE27, 7LLL27, 800GIN, 80NINN, 80NNNN, 8BBMGN, 8C888B, 8C88LB, 8MM0GN, 900001, 90043J, 959MM1, 96K661, 9999F1, 9999K1, 999AF5, 999FF5, 99EEE5, 99K991, 99MMM1, 9AAFF5, 9EIIIJ, 9F9991, 9F9MM1, 9FEAA5, 9G444J, 9K9991, 9M6661, A000CD, A000KD, A000M5, A0083D, A00I0D, A00M05, A022E7, A07E77, A0FF35, A0K3ID, A0K83D, A4AJJJ, A77777, AA0035, AA0355, AAA035, ADDD0D, ADDDDD, AF0035, AFFF35, AKK8ID, AM0M05, AM7777, B0F0MB, BBBBM1, BBLBMB, BFBBBB, BFM0MB, BFMMMB, BLBBMB, BLMBBB, C00071, C000E7, C007C1, C00G07, C07KKH, C0CC6H, C0CH6H, C0EEE7, C0HHHH, C777L7, C77L77, C7L777, C7LL07, C8088B, CAAK8D, CAKKAD, CC000H, CC0CHH, CD000H, CD0KKH, CE0007, CEE0E7, CELL77, CG0007, CGGL07, CH0CHH, CHCH0H, CHHH6H, CK0C0H, CKAK8D, CKKA8D, CL7707, D002FH, D0D0KD, D0DA77, D0DKKD, D0IIIN, D0K0DD, D0KDKD, D0KKDD, D0KKKH, DC0EE7, DCEEE7, DD0227, DD0D27, DD0DKD, DD0KKD, DD2E27, DDD0D7, DDD0LD, DDD227, DDDA77, DDDBCB, DDDCE7, DDDDFB, DDDMM7, DDEEE7, DDMBCB, DEEC07, DH000H, DHMEE7, DIIIGN, DK0KDD, DKMKKH, DMBBBB, DMEEE7, DMMM27, E00G27, E07727, E0C707, E0CE77, E0E027, E0EEG7, E0EGE7, E0EL27, E0GE27, E0L207, E0LE27, E0LL27, E2E2E7, E7L2E7, E900IJ, E9EEE5, EAAKK5, EC00E7, EC0G07, EC7007, ECEG07, EE0G07, EE0GE7, EE72E7, EE7L27, EECE07, EECEG7, EEEEE5, EEEK55, EEEKA5, EEEL27, EEGLL7, EELE27, EGLLL7, EKK595, EKKA55, EKKAK5, EKKKK5, F000E5, F0AA35, F0F035, F0FFFH, F0HKK5, F0KKE5, F16BB1, F16MM1, F1BBBB, F1MC6B, F666BB, F66BBB, F6GMM1, FB0BBB, FB1BBB, FBBB0B, FBMMG1, FC0FFH, FCFCCH, FEEE55, FEEEA5, FF03F5, FF0FFH, FF3F35, FFEE35, FFF2CH, FFFCCH, FFFFE5, FFI335, FFKFE5, FGLMMB, FK55I5, FKFE55, FLM8CB, FMC66B, FMMC6B, G0AA4J, G0CCC1, G0LE07, G666F1, GG0007, GG00G7, GG0L07, GGLLL7, GGLMM7, GI444J, GJJ33J, GLLE27, GLMMCB, GM0661, GMMM61, H00G07, H05555, H09FF5, H0C0E7, H0CE07, H0CEE7, H0E227, H0H007, H0H5F5, H0H995, H0HHE7, H0HHH7, H55505, H55II5, H5FII5, H99FF5, HEG007, HFFK55, HH0007, HH02M7, HH0C0H, HH7AEJ, HHC0E7, HHE227, HHH0C7, HHH0M7, HHH995, HHHC0H, HHHE27, HHHEAJ, HHHH07, HHHH8H, HHHHE7, HHHHI5, HHHHJH, HHHJ8H, HHHJCH, HHJ00H, HHK095, HHKKM5, HKK0F5, HKK5F5, HKKK55, HKKKK5, HKM555, HMEEE7, I00555, I05555, I0I94J, I333I5, I33555, I444IJ, I55055, I55505, I55555, IAAC8D, ID000D, IDD0LD, II9I4J, III4IJ, III505, IIIC8D, IIJIJJ, IJIIIJ, IM8LLN, IN00AD, INAACD, INCAAD, ININGN, J00CCH, J0IJJJ, J0J09J, J3333D, JIJIIJ, JJ68KH, JJIJIJ, JJJAJJ, JJJHGJ, JJJJAJ, JJJJGJ, JJJJIJ, K0008H, K00161, K001G1, K001L1, K002CH, K002HH, K00521, K00AKD, K00C0H, K00GF1, K00I0D, K00K95, K00M05, K01621, K05021, K0505D, K051G1, K059F5, K05K95, K0C0C1, K0L291, K0M005, K0M505, K1K661, K2CK0H, K33IAD, K3IIID, K5550D, K56121, K59AA5, K612K1, K61CC1, K66661, K6K611, K900C1, K99661, K9AFF5, K9C001, KAKI8D, KC00C1, KDK00D, KF9991, KI0IID, KK000D, KK01L1, KK0661, KK0I8D, KK0L11, KK0M2H, KK5661, KK59F5, KK61C1, KK9995, KK9EE5, KKA3ID, KKA83D, KKAI8D, KKC001, KKC0C1, KKC1C1, KKCCC1, KKD2HH, KKK595, KKK9A5, KKKK95, KKKKKH, KKKMCH, KKM505, KKMEE5, KKMKCH, KM0005, L222E7, L33AAD, L38I8N, LCCC11, LDFBCB, LEL2E7, LELE27, LELL27, LGMMM1, LLE2E7, LM2ME7, M000M5, M006MB, M00E27, M00MM1, M02227, M06M61, M06MM1, M0E227, M0EE27, M0KME5, M0M5GN, M0MM61, M0MMCB, M0MNNN, M0NNM1, M38LLN, M5K505, M77707, M7E227, M7E727, M8CHHH, MBMMCB, MBMMM1, MEEE77, MHH027, MHH505, MHHC6H, MHHH6H, MHHK05, MKK001, MM2ME7, MM7707, MM7E77, MMBMK1, MMM2E7, MMMC0B, MMMK61, N0003D, N0008D, N0030N, N030NN, N0C0AD, N0CKAD, N0DKDD, N0N3GN, N0NN3N, N333AD, N777A7, N77A77, NAACKD, NAAKDD, NACAKD, NACKAD, NC0AKD, NC0KAD, NCA0KD, NCKAKD, NDNNLN, NNNLAD, NNNNLD, 1BBBBBB, 1BBBBG1, 1M6MMMB, 1MMBBBB, 1MMMMK1, 2000227, 2000EE7, 20EEEE7, 2C0FFFH, 2E2EEE7, 2KKKHCH, 2MEE227, 2MEEE27, 333333D, 3333355, 3335555, 333FFF5, 333IIID, 388NNNN, 38INNNN, 3INNNNN, 4000IMN, 4000JJJ, 400IIIN, 444444J, 44JJJJJ, 488888N, 4IIJIIJ, 4JJJ33J, 50002M1, 5001G21, 5006621, 500LGM1, 555083D, 55555I5, 5616G21, 59MMMM1, 5K999A5, 61CCCC1, 66666K1, 6K0000H, 6K0080H, 70000A7, 70077A7, 70700A7, 7070A77, 77700A7, 77770A7, 7777227, 7777E27, 77L2227, 7LE22E7, 888888B, 888888N, 8888BBN, 8888IIN, 888B88B, 888I8IN, 88IINNN, 88NIINN, 88NNIIN, 8INNNNN, 90444IJ, 904I44J, 9666661, 9666FK1, 9666K61, 9966FK1, A00KK0D, A0K000D, AAAAA35, AAKKI8D, BB8888B, BBB0BLB, BBBB1BB, BBBBBB1, BBBBBGB, BBBBBLB, BBBLMBB, C0007KH, C000F11, C00FFFH, C00HH0H, C00K00H, C0C0HHH, C0CCHHH, C0CHH0H, C0CHHCH, C0FFFFH, C0H0H0H, C0KKC0H, CC0HH0H, CCCCC11, CCCCCC1, CCHHHHH, CDKKKKH, CEL7777, CGGG0G7, CGGGGG7, CH00HHH, CHGGGG7, CHHHH0H, CHHHHCH, CHHHHHH, CK0000H, CKDKKKH, D00DDKD, DD0DDD7, DDBBBLB, DDD2EE7, DDDBBLB, DDDDD27, DDDDDBB, DDDDDC7, DDDDDKD, DDDDDMB, DDDDEE7, DDDDKKD, DDDDLDB, DDDFBBB, DDDLFCB, DDDMEE7, DDM2227, DHHEEE7, DK000KD, DK00D0D, DK0D00D, DNN000N, E000CL7, E000EG7, E000GE7, E00C0G7, E00CE07, E00EE27, E0C00G7, E0C0EG7, E0CE007, E0EC0G7, E0EE207, E0G0007, E20EE27, E22EEE7, E2EE227, E2EEE27, E772227, E77LL27, E7L2227, E9IIIIJ, EAKKKA5, EC000G7, ECG00G7, EE00L27, EE0E0G7, EE20EE7, EEE0EG7, EEE22E7, EEEE727, EEEEE27, EEEEG07, EEEEGE7, EEEKKK5, EELLL27, EI0IIIJ, EKKKAA5, ELLLE27, F00FA35, F0333F5, F0F0FE5, F333335, FAAFF35, FCF0FCH, FEEEE35, FF03335, FF0FA35, FF0FE35, FF0FMCH, FFF0A35, FFF0F35, FFFAF35, FFFF5I5, FFFFM2H, FFFI3I5, FFFIII5, FFH5555, FH55555, FL1MMM1, G0000G7, G0000L7, GGGG007, GLE2227, GLLLLE7, GLLLLL7, H000007, H0000C7, H000HCH, H000HM7, H000M27, H000ME7, H00G227, H00HHM7, H02M227, H0C0HHH, H0CH00H, H0E0007, H0FFF35, H0FFFF5, H0H0ME7, H0HFII5, H0HHHCH, H0M0227, H555555, H5F5FF5, HC000G7, HC00H0H, HCCHHCH, HCHHHCH, HCHHHHH, HEEEE27, HFF5FF5, HFF5FI5, HFKKK05, HG00007, HH00E27, HH0G227, HHH2MM7, HHH55F5, HHH9FF5, HHHFFK5, HHHFK55, HHHH7EJ, HHHHCM7, HHHHHAJ, HHHHHF5, HHHHHHJ, HKK5505, I000055, I00A0ID, I0I4IIJ, I0IIIIJ, I88NIIN, III0055, III0I55, III444J, IINNLIN, J000IJJ, K0000DH, K0000KD, K00033D, K000A5D, K000K5D, K00555D, K009995, K00K00D, K00K8ID, K00KI8D, K00KIAD, K01GCC1, K05033D, K0999F5, K2KKKCH, K53333D, K956661, K999991, KCCC1C1, KFFFE55, KFFKKE5, KFKFKE5, KK009A5, KK00C11, KK01GC1, KK99001, KKIII05, KKK09F5, KKKE9E5, KKKEAK5, KKKKI05, KKKKKE5, KMMEEE5, L1BBBG1, LBMMMCB, LBMMMMB, LDEEE07, LEE22E7, LEE2E27, LEEE2E7, LLLLE27, M0000CB, M000C6B, M02EEE7, M0K0005, M0M0005, M2CHHHH, M2HHHHH, M6MMMM1, MC0000B, MCHHHHH, ME7E777, MEE7777, MEEE2E7, MG06661, MHHHCCH, MHHHH27, MHHHHH7, MHM0027, MM6666B, MM77777, MMC000B, MMM7727, MMNM777, N000NLN, N00333D, N003AAD, N0A00DD, N0NN33D, N0NNLLN, N30000N, N777777, NDNNNNN, NN0N0GN, NN0N30N, NNN300N, NNN333D, NNN3LLN, NNNDDDD, NNNNN3N, NNNNNND, 33333F35, 33FFFF35, 3555FFF5, 3FFFFF55, 3NNNNNLN, 40000I0J, 40I0IIIJ, 444440IJ, 4J0000IJ, 500006G1, 5D00DDDD, 5L1MMMM1, 5MMMMMG1, 5NNDDDDD, 5NNNNDDD, 5NNNNN8D, 6000080H, 777777A7, 77777A77, 7944444J, 800000IN, 996666K1, 999999I5, 9999FEA5, A00003ID, AAAAFF35, BBBGMMMB, C0000011, C000007H, C0CC0H0H, C666666B, CCCH0HHH, CCHH0HCH, CE777777, CEEEEE07, CHH0H00H, D00000GN, D000D0LD, D000IIGN, D0DDDDD7, DDD0E2E7, DDDDDDDB, DDDDDME7, DEEEELE7, DEEELEE7, DEELEEE7, DELEE0E7, E00000C7, E00000G7, E0000CG7, E000C0E7, E000G007, E00CG007, E00E0CG7, E0C00007, E0CGGGG7, E0GGGGG7, E20000E7, EAAKAAA5, EAKKAAA5, EE00E727, EE020007, EEEE2027, ELEE2227, F00003F5, F0000A35, F0003335, F0FFFA35, F1999991, F1999MM1, FAAAAF35, FBBBBBG1, FEAAAAA5, FF000A35, FF00FF35, FF0KEEE5, FFAAAF35, FFF555I5, FFFF33I5, FFFFF035, FFFFF3F5, FFFFFKI5, FFFFFMHH, FKFKEEE5, FKKFEEE5, FMMMMMCB, FMMMMMM1, G2000007, GGGGGMM7, GJJJJJ0J, GJJJJJ3J, H0000E27, H0000G27, H000C0G7, H000CEG7, H000CHH7, H000E0E7, H000EE27, H00CHHG7, H00EEE27, H00M0EE7, H05FF5F5, H0E00EE7, H55FF5F5, HCHH0H0H, HE000EE7, HFFIIII5, HGGG2227, HH00CEG7, HH00H0CH, HH0EEEE7, HH0FFFI5, HHEEEEE7, HHH000CH, HHH00EG7, HHHC00G7, HHHFFFF5, HHHHHKK5, HHHK5F55, HK5555F5, I4IIIIIJ, IA0000ID, II0005I5, III000I5, III055I5, III5NNNN, IIIII9IJ, IIIIIII5, IIINNNGN, JAJJJJJJ, JJAJJJJJ, K000005D, K00009A5, K0000M55, K000M555, K008IIID, K00D0K0D, K00III8D, K00K550D, K00LCC11, K0999951, K0D0000H, K0K00595, K0K9AAF5, K0KK0095, K0KK9FF5, K3333IID, KFKFEEE5, KFKKEEE5, KK00000H, KK0000M5, KK099991, KK55583D, KKKEEEA5, KKKKKKI5, LEEEE227, LLLEEE27, LLLL2E07, M000006B, M000M6CB, M0MMMMM1, M222EEE7, M777E777, M7E77777, ME222EE7, ME2EEEE7, MEE222E7, MM0NNNNN, MME77727, MMM6MMM1, N00003GN, N0000ADD, N000N0GN, N000NNND, N033333D, N0NN0NGN, NDDDDKDD, NN000N3N, NN00N03N, NN03000N, NNN003GN, NNNNDNLN, NNNNNADD, 199999MM1, 200FFFFFH, 222MEEEE7, 2FFFFFFCH, 30000000N, 30N00000N, 400000J3J, 500000M01, 5000166G1, 5000666G1, 50DDDDDDD, 8NN33333D, 999999991, C000000FH, C00000K0H, C000H00HH, C77777707, CH00H000H, CHH0000HH, D00000DKD, D00000DLD, D0000200H, D0000KK0D, D000KK00D, D00D0DDLD, D0D00DDLD, D0LEEEEE7, DDBBBBBBB, DDD000KDD, DDDDDDDE7, DK00000DD, DNNNNNNNN, E00000E27, E00007L27, E0000E727, E0E000C07, E20000027, EAAAAKAA5, EAKAAAAK5, EE0000C07, EEE000E27, EEEEEEGL7, F00FFFF35, F0FFFFF35, FF0000035, FF0FFFF35, FF5555FI5, FFFFFFA35, FFFFFFF35, FFFFFFFI5, FKKKKEEE5, FMMMMMMMB, GGGGG2227, GGGGGG207, GJJJJJJJJ, GLMMMMMMB, H000022M7, H000222M7, H000EEEE7, H0EEEEEE7, H0H0000CH, H0IIIIII5, HCH00000H, HE0EEEEE7, HFFFFFI35, HFFFFKKK5, HHHHHHG27, HHHHHHH55, HHHHHHHH7, HHHHHHM55, HHHKK5555, HHIIIII05, HIIIIII05, HKK5555I5, I000000AD, I000000ID, I000A000D, I00A0000D, IIIII0555, IIIIIII9J, K000000AD, K00000595, K000009F5, K0000550D, K099999A5, K0C00000H, K0I00000D, KK0000595, KK0000HCH, KKK000095, KKKFKFFE5, KKKIIIII5, M77777777, MEEEE2227, MMMMMMMM1, N0000000D, N0000003N, N000003NN, N00000N3N, N00000NGN, N00N000GN, N00NNNN8D, N0NNN00GN, N0NNNN3AD, N0NNNNNGN, N999999M1, NN0NNNNGN, NNN000NGN, NNNNNDD8D, NNNNNN0GN, 16MMMMMMMB, 1MMMMMMBCB, 3333333335, 33333333I5, 400000000N, 40IIIIIIJJ, 4IIIIIIIJJ, 4IIIIIIJIJ, 50000000M1, 70F9999991, 777E777727, 9999995MM1, ADD000000D, C00000088B, C000000CF1, C00000F0HH, CH00000H0H, D00KD0000D, D0D0DDDDLD, D0E2EEEEE7, D2EEEEEEE7, DBBBBBBBBB, DD000000KD, DD0000DDLD, DLE0EEEEE7, EEE0000727, EEEAAAAAA5, EEEEEE00G7, EEEEEEE0G7, F000000F35, F00FFKEEE5, F00KFFEEE5, F0M666666B, FCFFFFFFFH, FFFFFFF2HH, FFFKKKEEE5, GGGGGGG227, H00000C06H, H0000HHH6H, H555FFFFF5, H55FFFFF55, H5FFFFFF55, HF5FFFFFF5, HHHH0H0HCH, HHHHH0HHCH, HHHHHH0HCH, HHHHHHHHM5, HHHIIIIII5, IIDNNNNNLN, IIIIIJJIIJ, IIINNNNNLN, IINNNNNNGN, INNNNNNNLN, J0000000IJ, K0000II8ID, K099999995, K0I0000AID, K0K0009FF5, K9999999F5, KK00000095, KKFFFKEEE5, LLLLLLLME7, LLLMEEEEE7, LMEEEEEEE7, M000000005, MHHHHHHHH5, MK00000005, MMMMMMMBCB, NN000000GN, NN0000NNGN, NN99999991, 2HHHHHHHHHH, 38NNNNNNNNN, 3MNNNNNNNNN, 40IIIIIIIIJ, 4AJJJJJJJJJ, 4J000000J0J, 4JJJJJJJJJJ, 506666666G1, 5DDDDDDDDLD, 999999999F5, 99999999EA5, 99999999FE5, A0000000035, C0000000007, C00000000G7, C00000000KH, CEEEEEEEEL7, D0000000FMH, D000DDDDDLD, D0KD000000D, DDDD00000KD, DEEE0EEEEE7, DEL0EEEEEE7, DELEEEEEE07, E0000E20007, E7777777727, EE000000207, EEE20000007, FFFFFFFFMCH, FM66666666B, GGGGGGGG2M7, HFFFFFFFF55, HHHHHHHHH6H, HHHHHHHHHCH, HHHHHK55555, I9IIIIIIIIJ, IIIIIIII44J, IIIIIIIJJIJ, IINNNNNNNNN, JDDDDDDDDDD, JJIIIIIIIIJ, K00000I8IID, LLLLLLLLL27, 9999999EEAA5, AI000000000D, C77700000007, CH0HH000000H, D00D000000LD, DEEEEEEE0EE7, DN000000000N, EAKAAAAAAAA5, EKAAAAAAAAK5, F6666666666B, H000HHHHHH6H, H55FFFFFFFF5, HFFFFFFFFKK5, K00000000I8D, K999999999A5, 3555555555FF5, 5000000000001, 6G66666666661, 99999999999A5, C00000000000H, CFFFFFFFFFFCH, CHHH00000000H, D00000000K0KD, D0000000K00KD, D0D00000000LD, DEEEEEEEEEL07, E000E20000007, E00E200000007, EEE0000000027, GGGGGGGGGGGM7, GGGGGGGGGGM07, H00000000CHHH, H00HC0000000H, HFFFFFFFFFFK5, I0A000000000D, J000000000J9J, K000000000095, K000000000M2H, M0000000000M1, M0EEEEEEEEEE7, MHHHHHHHHHHHH, MMNNNNNNNNNNN, MNNNNNNNNNNNN, N000000DDDDDD, N000DDDDDDDDD, NNDDDDDDDDDDD, 22EEEEEEEEEEE7, 35FFFFFFFFFFF5, 400000000000JJ, 800000000000GN, DDDDDDDDDDD077, DDDDDDDDDDDDD7, E0000000000L27, EAAAAAAAAAAKA5, EEG00000000007, H0000000000C6H, I5500000000005, II0000000000I5, M0666666666661, M6MMMMMMMMMMMB, 4JJ00000000000J, 506666666666661, BGMMMMMMMMMMMCB, CFFFFFFFFFFFFFH, D0000000000KD0D, D0HEEEEEEEEEEE7, F0BBBBBBBBBBBBB, HGGGGGGGGGGGGG7, K0000000000000D, K00000000000MCH, M0M6MMMMMMMMMMB, 5DDDDDDDDDDDDDDD, C00000000000008B, D00000000000000H, DEEEEEEEEEEEE0L7, DEEEEEEEEEEEEEL7, EEE2EEEEEEEEEEE7, GM66666666666661, H5FFFFFFFFFFFFF5, IIIIIIIIIIIIIJJJ, BGMMMMMMMMMMMMMMB, DLEEEEEEEEEEEEEE7, H0000000000000CHH, H000000000C0000HH, I000000000000000D, IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIJJ, INNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN, J000000000000009J, M666666666666666B, N0000000000000LLN, N00DDDDDDDDDDDDDD, 355555555555555555, 60000000000000008H, 6M6666666666666661, C000000000000000F1, N0DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD, 666666666666666666B, 800000000000000000N, AD000000000000000DD, DEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE7, I500000000000000005, 20000000000000000027, 4000000000000000003J, 400000000000000000IJ, 99999999999999999995, DD00DDDDDDDDDDDDDDLD, E2EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE7, N00000000000000000LN, 500000000066666666661, EE0000000000000000727, GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG07, H0000000000000000006H, 40000000000000IIIIIIIJ, AD0000000000000000000D, K0000000000000000000M5, CL777777777777777777777, D000000000000000000000N, D0000000000000000000IIN, HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHK5, NDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD, 1MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMBB, D00DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDLD, FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFH, 4J0000000000000000000000J, 566666666666666666666666G1, EKKAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA5, 6666666666666666666666666G1, AJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ, H00000000000000000000000008H, N0000000000000000000000000GN, DD0000000000000000000000000LD, IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIJ, G0666666666666666666666666666661, GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG7, K000000000000000000000000000000000H, EAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA5, LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLM7, M2EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE7, C000000000000000000000000000000000000000001, MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMCB, E00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000727, 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777727, EG000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000007, D000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000LD, EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEG7, 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===Base 26===

====Additional known quasi-minimal primes (not necessarily the next)====

===Base 28===

====Additional known quasi-minimal primes (not necessarily the next)====

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===Base 30===

11, 17, 1B, 1D, 1H, 1N, 1T, 21, 27, 2B, 2D, 2J, 2N, 2T, 37, 3B, 3D, 3H, 3J, 3N, 47, 4B, 4H, 4J, 4T, 51, 57, 5D, 5H, 5N, 5T, 61, 6B, 6D, 6H, 6J, 71, 7D, 7H, 7J, 7N, 7T, 81, 8B, 8H, 8N, 8T, 91, 97, 9B, 9D, 9N, A7, AB, AD, AH, B1, B7, BH, BJ, BN, BT, C7, CD, CJ, CN, CT, D7, DB, DJ, DT, E1, EB, ED, EJ, EN, ET, F7, FB, FD, FH, FT, G7, GB, GJ, GN, GT, HB, HD, I1, I7, IH, IN, IT, J1, J7, JH, JN, JT, K1, K7, KD, KH, KJ, L1, LB, LD, LH, LN, LT, M1, MD, MH, MN, N1, NB, NJ, NT, O7, OD, OJ, ON, P1, P7, PB, PJ, PN, Q7, QH, QT, R1, RB, RD, RH, RJ, RT, SD, SH, SJ, SN, T7, TB, TD, TH, 10J, 15J, 1IJ, 1JJ, 1LJ, 1MJ, 1QJ, 22H, 29H, 2EH, 2GH, 30T, 331, 33T, 36T, 39T, 3A1, 3C1, 3G1, 3KT, 3MT, 3OT, 3S1, 3T1, 40D, 40N, 431, 44D, 46N, 48D, 4AN, 4DD, 4DN, 4F1, 4FN, 4GD, 4ID, 4PD, 4S1, 50J, 58J, 59J, 5CB, 5FJ, 5IB, 5IJ, 5JB, 5MB, 5MJ, 5OB, 5SB, 607, 63T, 687, 6E7, 6KT, 6L7, 6M7, 6MT, 6NN, 6QN, 6R7, 6S7, 6ST, 6TT, 70B, 77B, 787, 7KB, 7M7, 7MB, 7SB, 807, 80D, 80J, 84D, 85J, 877, 88J, 89J, 8DD, 8FJ, 8ID, 8IJ, 8JJ, 8M7, 8MJ, 8PD, 8QD, 8R7, 90H, 93T, 95J, 99H, 99J, 9AJ, 9AT, 9EH, 9GH, 9HH, 9HJ, 9JJ, 9MJ, 9OH, 9OT, 9PH, 9ST, 9TT, A01, A0T, A1J, A31, A6N, A6T, AAJ, AAN, AFN, AKN, AKT, ALJ, AMJ, AMT, AO1, AOT, AQ1, AQN, ARN, AT1, B5B, BBD, BCB, BDD, BID, BOB, BPD, BQB, C31, C9H, CC1, CCB, CCH, CF1, CH1, CIB, CKB, CMB, D01, D0H, D2H, D41, D4D, D6N, D8D, D9H, DDH, DDN, DGH, DH1, DHH, DID, DKN, DNN, DO1, DOH, DQN, DS1, EEH, EHH, EM7, EOH, EPH, ER7, F0N, F31, F5J, F8J, F9J, FLJ, FO1, FQ1, FQN, FS1, G01, G4D, G8D, GF1, GGH, GO1, GOH, GQD, GS1, H07, H0J, H0T, H1J, H2H, H31, H4N, H8J, HA1, HAJ, HAT, HC1, HE7, HEH, HFN, HGH, HH7, HIJ, HJJ, HKN, HL7, HNH, HPH, HQN, HS1, HTJ, HTN, I4D, I5B, I5J, I8D, IAJ, IDD, IGD, IIJ, IKB, IMB, IMJ, IOB, IPD, IQD, J8J, J9J, JAJ, JBD, JCB, JFJ, JIJ, JJB, JJD, JLJ, JPD, JQB, K3T, K4N, KAT, KBB, KCB, KMB, KNN, KOB, KOT, KQN, KST, KTT, L0J, L5J, L67, LAJ, LJJ, LQJ, LR7, M0J, M3T, M5B, M7B, M87, M9J, MAT, MFJ, MIJ, MJJ, MKB, MMJ, MOT, MQJ, N07, N0H, N67, N6N, N87, NAN, NDH, NGD, NHH, NKN, NN7, NNH, NPH, NQD, NQN, NR7, O01, O0B, O0H, OAT, OC1, OCH, OEH, OF1, OH1, OKT, OMB, OOT, OPH, OQ1, OQB, OS1, OST, P3T, P6T, P9H, PCH, PDH, PEH, PGD, PHH, PHT, PID, PMT, PPT, PQD, PST, PTT, Q5B, Q6N, Q9J, QAJ, QBB, QBD, QC1, QDN, QFJ, QFN, QGD, QJB, QKN, QLJ, QMB, QND, QNN, QO1, QQ1, QQN, QSB, R4N, R77, R87, RAN, RKN, RM7, RNN, RR7, RS7, S0T, S41, S6T, S87, SBB, SC1, SM7, SMT, SOB, SQ1, SR7, SS1, STT, T0J, T6T, T9T, TAN, TFN, TKN, TKT, TNN, TO1, TOT, TPT, TQ1, TQN, TTN, 18AJ, 19FJ, 1AFJ, 1FAJ, 20CH, 20PH, 2C0H, 2CHH, 2COH, 2H0H, 2HCH, 2HHH, 2POH, 2PPH, 3001, 34Q1, 3F41, 3FF1, 3QF1, 3SPT, 3SST, 3TTT, 40A1, 4441, 44KN, 44QN, 4AC1, 4C01, 4CA1, 4DG1, 4GA1, 4GC1, 4NND, 4NRN, 4OA1, 4Q4N, 4QA1, 4QRN, 4RQN, 550B, 555B, 55KB, 5A5J, 5AJJ, 5BKB, 5JQJ, 5KKB, 5QQB, 5QQJ, 604N, 606T, 60FN, 60KN, 60OT, 60PT, 660N, 660T, 664N, 66AT, 66FN, 66KN, 66TN, 6A0N, 6A9T, 6AAT, 6FKN, 6FRN, 6K0N, 6KFN, 6KKN, 6O6T, 6PAT, 6RFN, 6RRN, 6T6N, 6TRN, 7067, 70R7, 75BB, 77R7, 7C5B, 7CQB, 7E67, 7IQB, 7O5B, 7OIB, 7QOB, 7R07, 7RE7, 8667, 88L7, 88S7, 8E87, 8EE7, 8EL7, 8J8D, 8LL7, 8LS7, 906T, 908J, 90FJ, 90QJ, 90TJ, 92CH, 966T, 99MT, 99PT, 9I0J, 9I8J, 9LFJ, 9LIJ, 9M6T, 9MKT, 9MMT, 9PKT, 9QQJ, 9TLJ, A04N, A0QJ, A3AT, A3ST, A4A1, A4G1, A5QJ, A8QJ, A90J, A9PT, AA3T, AA41, AAAT, AAF1, AAG1, AAPT, AC41, ACS1, AF0J, AFC1, AFIJ, AG41, AGA1, AGG1, AI8J, AIJJ, AIQJ, AJ5J, AJJJ, AQ8J, AQJJ, AQQJ, AS3T, AT4N, AT5J, ATST, B04D, B0QD, BBIB, BBKB, BI0B, BK0B, BKIB, BKSB, BMIB, BMSB, BQ4D, BQQD, BSMB, C00B, C05B, C0A1, C0BB, C0EH, C0GH, C0Q1, C0QB, C2OH, C2PH, C441, C4Q1, C50B, CB0B, CBSB, CEGH, CG2H, CGHH, CHHH, CHOH, COGH, COO1, COOB, COOH, CQ01, CQ0B, CQQB, CQS1, CS0B, D00N, D0PD, D44N, DA0N, DCEH, DCG1, DCQ1, DDC1, DDF1, DDPD, DDQ1, DECH, DF4N, DFA1, DFRN, DG0D, DGD1, DGQ1, DNEH, DPDD, DQA1, DQPD, DRFN, DRRN, E20H, E667, E767, E8L7, E8S7, ECGH, EG2H, EH67, EH77, ES67, F001, F01J, F0MJ, F0QJ, F44N, F4G1, F4RN, F6RN, FA0J, FAC1, FAF1, FAIJ, FC01, FCG1, FFAJ, FFC1, FFG1, FFIJ, FGA1, FJJJ, FJQJ, FKAN, FR6N, FRFN, G09H, G0EH, G0HH, G20H, G341, G3Q1, G4G1, G92H, GA41, GAC1, GC0H, GCEH, GCG1, GCPH, GD31, GDA1, GDG1, GDPD, GE2H, GE9H, GGG1, GGGD, GHCH, GHHH, GP0D, GP2H, GPPD, GQ31, GQA1, GQG1, H00N, H0CH, H3ST, H4O1, H667, H66N, H677, H69T, H99T, H9CH, H9KT, H9LJ, H9PT, H9QJ, HH6N, HHF1, HHFJ, HHH1, HHHT, HHLJ, HHOH, HHQ1, HHST, HK6T, HL9J, HLMJ, HMKT, HMMT, HNM7, HNRN, HOPT, HQ01, HQ5J, HR0N, HR6N, HS77, HSKT, HT01, I0BB, I0JD, I0JJ, I98J, I9LJ, I9QJ, ICBB, IF0J, IFFJ, IFQJ, IIBD, IJBB, IJID, IL8J, ILFJ, IQ8J, IQJJ, IQQJ, IS0B, ISQB, J00D, J05J, J0BB, J0MJ, J0OB, J4QD, J50B, J5QJ, JBKB, JBMB, JDGD, JDQD, JGDD, JI0D, JIIB, JISB, JKIB, JKKB, JM0B, JOIB, JQ4D, JQDD, JQID, JQJJ, JQMJ, JSIB, JSMB, K06N, K0KB, K0KT, K0MT, K0PT, K0SB, K5QB, K60T, K66T, K6AN, K6FN, K6PT, K6RN, K96T, K99T, KA0N, KF6N, KFKN, KI0B, KK0T, KK6N, KK6T, KKFN, KKKB, KKKT, KKQB, KKTN, KMMT, KQ0B, KQQB, KR0N, KS5B, L0M7, L8E7, L98J, LFFJ, LI8J, LIFJ, LL87, LL9J, LLIJ, LLM7, LM77, LML7, LMM7, M09T, M0E7, M0IB, M0L7, M0M7, M0TT, M55J, M5LJ, M60T, M69T, M707, M767, M777, M7E7, M7S7, M8LJ, M96T, M9KT, MC0B, MCOB, ME07, MIBB, MJ0B, MJBB, MJSB, MLLJ, MLS7, MM07, MM0T, MML7, MMOB, MMR7, MOBB, MOCB, MP0T, MP9T, MPKT, MQ0B, MQIB, MQOB, MS07, MSPT, MSSB, MT8J, MTTT, N00D, N04D, N04N, N0FN, N0ND, N0RN, N2OH, N92H, NCGH, ND0D, ND4N, NDPD, NEGH, NEL7, NF4N, NFRN, NGCH, NGEH, NHM7, NME7, NML7, NMM7, NN0D, NN4D, NN4N, NNDN, NNID, NNND, NNRN, NP4D, NSL7, NSS7, O00T, O03T, O0MT, O0PT, O2HH, O2OH, O341, O4A1, O4G1, O4O1, O5KB, O90T, OA41, OBSB, OC5B, OCOB, OG2H, OG31, OH9H, OH9T, OHHH, OHTT, OICB, OISB, OM0T, OM6T, OMPT, OMTT, OO2H, OO9H, OOA1, OOCB, OOGH, OOKB, OOO1, OSKB, OTMT, P00T, P04D, P08D, P09T, P0KT, P90T, PAAT, PKKT, PO0T, PP0D, PPPD, Q00B, Q0AN, Q0D1, Q0F1, Q0IB, Q0JJ, Q0MJ, Q0OB, Q55J, Q5QJ, Q88D, QA0N, QA41, QA4N, QDF1, QDPD, QF41, QFA1, QG31, QIQJ, QJ0J, QJ8D, QJDD, QJJJ, QJMJ, QJQD, QKKB, QKQB, QOKB, QOOB, QP0D, QPDD, QQ8D, QQID, QQJD, QQPD, QQQB, QS01, QSA1, R00N, R067, R06N, R0FN, R0L7, R60N, RE67, RFRN, RRFN, RRRN, S00B, S3AT, S3ST, S50B, S5QB, S99T, SAAT, SC0B, SE67, SGG1, SICB, SIQB, SK5B, SKIB, SKKT, SKPT, SKQB, SM0B, SMMB, SMSB, SOA1, SOG1, SPOT, SQCB, SQQB, SS0B, SS67, ST31, STG1, T00N, T03T, T041, T04N, T0AT, T0C1, T0MT, T0ST, T1AJ, T3F1, T4A1, T4RN, T5JJ, T66N, T8AJ, T9FJ, T9QJ, TA3T, TAA1, TAG1, TAIJ, TCS1, TFA1, TFAJ, TFF1, TFFJ, TFG1, TGA1, TI9J, TIJJ, TIQJ, TL8J, TL9J, TM0T, TM5J, TM8J, TMAJ, TMLJ, TMST, TSF1, TSG1, TT01, TT5J, TT8J, TTA1, TTC1, TTFJ, TTG1, TTLJ, TTMJ, 30441, 30O41, 30OO1, 34O41, 3AATT, 3ASAT, 3O441, 3Q041, 40G41, 40GQ1, 40O41, 40OG1, 40OO1, 44001, 440C1, 440G1, 4444N, 44CG1, 44GQ1, 4AAA1, 4COG1, 4DAA1, 4GQ41, 4KRRN, 4OGG1, 4Q041, 4QGG1, 5005B, 500BB, 500KB, 500QB, 50K0B, 50Q0B, 50QKB, 555AJ, 555LJ, 555QJ, 55J5J, 5B00B, 5B0BB, 5J55J, 5J5JJ, 5JJ5J, 5JJJJ, 5K00B, 5QJ5J, 5QK0B, 6006N, 6009T, 600AT, 6066N, 60R0N, 666N7, 6696T, 66OPT, 67767, 6900T, 696PT, 69P0T, 6F6AN, 6O9PT, 6OP0T, 6OP9T, 6P99T, 755QB, 77767, 7CBBB, 7IBIB, 7IIBB, 7IICB, 7QIIB, 8888D, 88E67, 8L887, 8SSE7, 9099T, 90KKT, 90KMT, 90MPT, 9690T, 96P9T, 990KT, 9990T, 9999T, 99K6T, 9FFFJ, 9HKMT, 9HMPT, 9ILLJ, 9KKMT, 9KKPT, 9M00T, 9T8QJ, 9TFIJ, A008J, A00NN, A055J, A0FJJ, A0I0J, A0I9J, A0J0J, A44C1, A555J, A9FFJ, A9QIJ, A9T8J, AFFA1, AFFFJ, AFFJJ, AFFQJ, AJ00J, AP99T, ASA9T, ASFF1, ASP9T, ASSAT, AT3TT, ATFQJ, ATQIJ, ATT9J, ATTQJ, B088D, B08GD, B0GGD, B0SKB, B8GGD, BG00D, BIISB, BISIB, BS0IB, BS0SB, BSSKB, BSSSB, C0041, C0G41, C0H0H, C0PPH, C0S01, C4001, C4AG1, C4OG1, C5BBB, CG00H, CGE0H, CGGA1, CGQ41, COSSB, CP20H, CPGPH, CPP2H, CPPOH, CPPPH, CS001, CS55B, CSSQB, D00GD, D0A4N, D0FAN, D0GDD, D0N0D, DAAA1, DAAC1, DAFG1, DDAA1, DDGGD, DFFAN, DFGC1, DGDGD, DGG31, DGGA1, DH0AN, DPPPH, DQDD1, DQGG1, E0L87, E88E7, EC00H, EC02H, EE867, EE887, EEL87, ELE87, F00IJ, F0441, F0AG1, F0F0J, F0F41, F0FF1, F0GG1, F4041, F44A1, F44C1, F4A41, F64KN, F6K6N, FAAA1, FAFQJ, FCAA1, FF041, FF0F1, FF64N, FF6KN, FFA41, FFA4N, FFF4N, FFFF1, FFFFN, FFKRN, FFQMJ, FIJ0J, FJ00J, FKKKN, FNNFN, FQQ0J, FQQMJ, G00DD, G00DH, G00PD, G02PH, G0DDD, G0PDD, GAAA1, GC2HH, GDDDD, GDGDD, GDPPH, GG0PD, GGCA1, GGCQ1, GGDD1, GH4Q1, GHHG1, GII0D, GQ441, H009H, H00G1, H00H1, H04Q1, H0ANN, H0H01, H0H9H, H0HG1, H0HO1, H0O41, H0OHH, H0QG1, H40G1, H4G41, H4GG1, H60AN, HAN0N, HF0G1, HFF41, HFFMJ, HFFQJ, HGQ41, HH3TT, HH401, HH441, HH4G1, HH55J, HH66T, HH6OT, HH96T, HHA0N, HHANN, HHC0H, HHCHH, HHH0N, HHHCH, HHHHN, HHHNN, HHKMT, HHO41, HHP9T, HHPKT, HHTMT, HHTT1, HK9MT, HKKMT, HLLFJ, HM66T, HM7R7, HMM67, HMM77, HMMM7, HMTST, HO9HT, HOO41, HOOOH, HOT3T, HOTT1, HPO9T, HSO3T, HTGG1, I000J, I009J, I00BD, I00QJ, I00SB, I08QJ, I0I0D, I0IQB, I0JIB, I0Q0B, I0SCB, I0SIB, I0SSB, IB00D, IBBSB, IBISB, ICSSB, II0CB, II0ID, II0SB, IIIBB, IIQ0B, IIQIB, IISIB, IJ0SB, IJJQJ, ILLLJ, IQ00J, IQC0B, IQIQB, IQQIB, ISSCB, J00MB, J08GD, J0IID, J0QQD, J55BB, J55JJ, J5J5J, J5JJJ, J88GD, JB0SB, JBB0B, JBBSB, JDDDD, JG0ID, JGG0D, JIIID, JJ0QJ, JJ5JJ, JQ08D, JQ0QJ, JQQ0D, JQQ5J, JS55B, JSK0B, JSS5B, K000T, K006T, K00TN, K0FAN, K505B, K6T0N, K9KMT, K9KPT, K9P0T, KIQIB, KK00N, KK05B, KK0AN, KK0KN, KKM9T, KS0IB, KS0QB, KSQIB, KTR6N, KTRRN, L0087, L08S7, LE087, LEE87, LL8LJ, LMEE7, LMSE7, LMSS7, M00CB, M00PT, M066T, M0CQB, M0K6T, M0MQB, M0MSB, M0QQB, M0SMB, M0SST, M666T, M900T, MBBSB, MEE77, MEL77, MELE7, MES77, MESE7, MESS7, MI00B, MIICB, MIISB, MIQCB, MK9PT, ML7L7, MLEL7, MLLE7, MLME7, MM677, MMBIB, MMBSB, MMCQB, MME77, MMEE7, MMICB, MMISB, MMK6T, MMKKT, MMM9T, MMMMT, MMMTT, MMQQB, MMSCB, MMSKT, MMSMB, MMSS7, MMTST, MOIIB, MOOIB, MOSIB, MQCQB, MR007, MR667, MRL07, MS7L7, MSEL7, MSK9T, MSL77, MSSL7, MT00T, MTMMT, N0DDD, N4NNN, N7LE7, N7S77, NE2CH, NE9CH, NEC2H, NEE77, NFFNN, NFNFN, NII0D, NL777, NL7L7, NLES7, NLLL7, NLS77, NOG9H, NRR0N, O6P9T, O9H6T, O9HPT, O9P9T, OCBBB, OG441, OGAG1, OGGA1, OHH6T, OHOOH, OKIIB, OKK5B, OKKIB, OO5BB, OOBIB, OOIIB, OSCSB, OT3TT, OT441, OTG41, OTGG1, P00PH, P0D0D, P0G2H, P0OGH, P0PGH, PA99T, PGP0H, POOOH, PP20H, PP88D, PPP0H, Q0001, Q000N, Q001J, Q00ID, Q00PD, Q044N, Q04G1, Q0I0D, Q0PPD, Q40G1, Q444N, Q44RN, Q4AA1, Q8QQJ, QAAS1, QAFF1, QAFG1, QASG1, QDGG1, QFGG1, QI00D, QIICB, QIIQB, QIQCB, QOIIB, QPP4D, QQ08J, QQ0CB, QQC0B, QQI0J, QQJ5J, QSFG1, R00E7, R0E07, R0NE7, R6F6N, R6FFN, REE07, RELE7, RFF6N, RL0E7, RLE07, RLEE7, RLLE7, RQR0N, RR0QN, RRQ0N, S03O1, S0AF1, S0AG1, S0O31, S0QIB, S0SIB, S30F1, S30O1, S7QIB, SA3PT, SAAA1, SAFG1, SASST, SCSQB, SF0G1, SFFF1, SI0SB, SISSB, SKSSB, SSCQB, SSCSB, SSMIB, SSPAT, SSSKT, SSSMB, SSSSB, STAF1, STF01, T0001, T0031, T0AF1, T0AS1, T0G31, T0R6N, T0T31, T0TF1, T3AAT, T40G1, T4CG1, T4G41, T5LLJ, T8LLJ, TA441, TA98J, TAFJJ, TAQ5J, TASST, TATAT, TC401, TCGG1, TFQIJ, TFQJJ, TFQMJ, TG441, TGC41, TI8LJ, TLLMJ, TMMMT, TMTMT, TQ8QJ, TSS3T, TT3AT, TT9IJ, TTAAT, TTQIJ, TTS31, TTS3T, TTT9J, TTTST, 20000H, 200OOH, 3440O1, 3TAAST, 404CQ1, 4KKKKN, 4KKKRN, 4QQQQD, 505BBB, 50BB0B, 6000AN, 6444RN, 66666N, 666O9T, 66999T, 669P9T, 66N777, 6A444N, 6FF66N, 6FFF6N, 6R666N, 766767, 77S677, 7IBBBB, 8888E7, 8LLLLJ, 8SSSL7, 9000MT, 90K90T, 90KP0T, 90M90T, 99000T, 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===Base 36===

11, 15, 17, 1B, 1H, 1N, 1P, 1V, 1Z, 21, 27, 2B, 2H, 2P, 2T, 2V, 2Z, 31, 35, 3J, 3N, 3T, 3V, 45, 47, 4D, 4J, 4N, 4T, 4Z, 51, 5B, 5D, 5H, 5J, 5V, 67, 6B, 6D, 6H, 6N, 6P, 6Z, 75, 7B, 7H, 7J, 7P, 7T, 7V, 85, 8J, 8N, 8P, 8T, 97, 9D, 9N, 9P, 9T, 9Z, A7, AD, AJ, AN, AT, B1, B5, BD, BN, BP, BZ, C1, C7, CB, CH, CP, CT, CV, CZ, DB, DJ, DN, DV, DZ, E5, EH, EJ, F1, F7, FH, FN, FT, FV, G1, GB, GH, GN, GP, GV, H1, H5, H7, HJ, HT, HV, HZ, I5, IB, ID, IP, IT, IZ, J7, JH, JP, JZ, K7, KD, KJ, KN, KV, L1, L5, LD, LH, LV, M5, MH, MJ, MT, MV, MZ, N1, NB, NP, NT, NV, NZ, OD, OH, OJ, ON, P7, PB, PJ, PT, Q1, Q5, QB, QH, QV, QZ, R5, RB, RJ, RP, S1, S5, SB, SD, SN, SP, SV, T5, T7, TH, TJ, TP, U7, UB, UD, UH, UN, UT, V1, V7, VD, VZ, W1, WB, WJ, WT, WZ, X5, XD, XP, XT, XZ, Y5, Y7, YD, YP, YZ, ZH, ZJ, ZN, ZT, ZV, 12D, 16J, 18D, 1CD, 1CJ, 1DD, 1GT, 1JD, 1JJ, 1LT, 1QJ, 1RD, 1RT, 1ST, 1XJ, 1YJ, 1YT, 22D, 22J, 22N, 23D, 255, 2A5, 2CD, 2ED, 2EN, 2F5, 2GD, 2GJ, 2IJ, 2JN, 2LN, 2MN, 2ND, 2O5, 2QD, 2QJ, 2U5, 2UJ, 2WN, 2XN, 30Z, 337, 33B, 33H, 33P, 34H, 34P, 37D, 38Z, 39H, 3AB, 3AP, 3AZ, 3D7, 3DH, 3FD, 3FZ, 3HD, 3HH, 3KZ, 3L7, 3LZ, 3MB, 3O7, 3OZ, 3PD, 3PP, 3Q7, 3RH, 3S7, 3SZ, 3UP, 3UZ, 3XB, 40P, 43B, 43H, 46V, 48B, 48V, 49B, 4AP, 4BB, 4E1, 4FP, 4HB, 4HH, 4HP, 4IH, 4MB, 4OP, 4OV, 4PH, 4RH, 4VB, 4VH, 4WH, 4WP, 4WV, 4X1, 4XH, 55T, 565, 58Z, 5C5, 5E7, 5ET, 5EZ, 5IN, 5KT, 5L7, 5MP, 5NN, 5O5, 5O7, 5OP, 5R7, 5RT, 5RZ, 5ST, 5SZ, 5TN, 5TZ, 5W7, 5XN, 5YN, 61T, 625, 62J, 64V, 661, 66J, 691, 6AV, 6EV, 6IJ, 6J1, 6K5, 6O1, 6OT, 6QJ, 6QT, 6RV, 6SJ, 6T1, 6TT, 6U5, 6UV, 6VV, 6W5, 6Y1, 6YT, 72D, 737, 77D, 791, 7A1, 7AZ, 7D7, 7GD, 7I1, 7IN, 7LN, 7M7, 7MN, 7N7, 7NN, 7RN, 7RZ, 7WN, 7X7, 7Z1, 801, 80V, 82D, 83B, 841, 84H, 877, 881, 887, 88B, 88V, 88Z, 89H, 89V, 8A1, 8AB, 8B7, 8BH, 8D1, 8DH, 8EB, 8EV, 8GD, 8GZ, 8HD, 8IV, 8L7, 8LZ, 8M1, 8MB, 8MD, 8O7, 8OB, 8Q7, 8QD, 8RD, 8S7, 8SH, 8SZ, 8UZ, 8W7, 8WV, 8XV, 8Y1, 90H, 91J, 93B, 93H, 94V, 981, 98H, 99J, 9AH, 9BB, 9C5, 9IH, 9IV, 9JV, 9KH, 9M1, 9OB, 9QJ, 9R1, 9RH, 9SH, 9UJ, 9VB, 9VJ, 9W5, 9X1, 9Y1, 9YB, 9YJ, 9YV, A25, A3P, A3Z, A4H, A61, A81, A8B, AAB, AAH, ABB, AC5, AEZ, AHP, AK1, AKB, AKH, ALZ, AMB, AO5, AOZ, APH, AQP, AR1, ARV, ARZ, AUV, AV5, AVB, AVV, AWV, AX1, AXB, AZ1, B2J, B4B, B4V, B6V, B87, B8H, B9B, BAB, BAH, BBH, BBV, BE7, BEB, BGJ, BHB, BIJ, BJB, BJT, BLJ, BOB, BOT, BQ7, BRV, BS7, BTT, BTV, BVB, BVJ, BVT, BWV, BX7, BXH, BYH, BYV, C25, C2J, C2N, C55, C65, C6J, C95, CCN, CDD, CED, CF5, CFJ, CGD, CIN, CJD, CO5, CRN, CUJ, CXJ, CXN, D37, D3P, D41, D55, D5P, D6T, D77, D81, D9H, DA1, DCD, DD1, DD5, DDH, DDP, DE7, DEP, DF5, DFD, DG7, DHH, DI1, DK1, DK5, DKT, DO1, DOP, DP1, DPD, DQ7, DR7, DRH, DS7, DTT, DU1, DWD, DX7, DYH, E0P, E2D, E3Z, E41, E4P, E71, E81, E87, E8B, EAZ, EDP, EED, EEN, EEV, EFZ, EGT, EI1, EKZ, ELB, EMB, EMN, EN7, EO1, EOT, EPP, EPZ, EQ7, ERN, EST, ETN, ETV, EUP, EUZ, EVT, EWD, EWN, EX1, EYB, EYN, EZD, EZP, F2J, F3B, F3Z, F4P, F65, F8B, F8Z, FCJ, FD5, FEZ, FFB, FFD, FG5, FGD, FGZ, FIJ, FJ5, FJJ, FLZ, FPD, FQD, FSZ, FXB, G07, G0D, G0Z, G3D, G3Z, G55, G6T, G7D, G7Z, G87, G8Z, GA5, GCJ, GD7, GE7, GET, GG5, GG7, GGT, GGZ, GI7, GJD, GKZ, GL7, GLT, GQT, GRT, GS7, GST, GU5, GUZ, GW5, GXJ, GZ7, GZZ, H3D, H3H, H4H, H9B, HAH, HED, HGD, HHP, HIH, HKH, HKP, HLN, HNH, HOB, HOP, HQP, HRD, HRH, HRN, HSH, HWD, HWH, HWP, HYN, I41, I6J, I71, I7N, I87, I8H, I9H, I9J, IA1, IAV, IE1, IFJ, IG7, IHH, II1, IIH, IIV, IJV, IK1, IL7, ILJ, ILN, IM1, INN, IOV, IRH, IUV, IX1, IXH, IXV, IYJ, J2D, J4V, J55, J61, J6J, J8B, J8V, J95, J9J, J9V, JA5, JBB, JD5, JDT, JF5, JFJ, JGJ, JGT, JIV, JJ1, JJD, JJV, JK5, JKT, JLB, JLT, JMN, JN5, JNJ, JQJ, JQN, JQT, JRD, JTB, JVJ, JVN, JVV, JWN, JY1, JYJ, K0B, K25, K3P, K65, K81, K95, K9H, KAH, KC5, KEP, KEZ, KG5, KHP, KK1, KKT, KLB, KLP, KLZ, KM1, KMB, KMP, KOT, KP1, KQP, KR1, KRT, KRZ, KTT, KW5, KX1, KZB, L0N, L0P, L8Z, L9B, LAZ, LBJ, LEN, LET, LFB, LFZ, LG7, LGZ, LIJ, LJJ, LKB, LKP, LLB, LLP, LLT, LMB, LMN, LN7, LO7, LOT, LPZ, LQT, LRN, LTN, LTT, LWP, LX7, LYN, M01, M0P, M2D, M2N, M37, M3B, M41, M61, M77, M87, M8D, M91, ME1, ME7, MEB, MFB, MFP, MGD, MI7, MKB, MM7, MMN, MN7, MNN, MO7, MOB, MOP, MPP, MQP, MS7, MW7, MXN, MYN, N5N, N65, N87, N8D, N8H, N95, NCD, NCJ, NDH, NE7, NFJ, NG5, NG7, NGJ, NJ5, NN7, NND, NO5, NQD, NQJ, NRN, NU5, NWH, NWN, NXH, NXN, NYJ, O0Z, O25, O37, O3B, O3P, O3Z, O41, O4B, O5Z, O61, O71, O7Z, O81, OA5, OAP, OBB, OBV, OC5, OEZ, OF5, OG7, OKP, OKZ, OMB, OO5, OOZ, OP5, OPP, OQT, OR1, OR7, OS7, OST, OTB, OTZ, OU5, OVV, OW5, OX7, OXB, OXV, OYV, OZ5, OZ7, P01, P0D, P0N, P3P, P4H, P4P, P5N, P65, P6V, P8V, PD1, PED, PEZ, PHH, PHP, PI1, PIN, PLN, PLP, PLZ, POP, PP1, PPH, PPV, PQD, PQN, PRV, PV5, PVH, PVV, PWH, PWP, PX1, PXV, PYH, PYN, Q07, Q0P, Q2N, Q37, Q3P, Q6J, Q6T, Q7D, Q8D, Q9J, QCD, QCJ, QD7, QED, QFP, QGT, QI7, QIN, QJN, QLJ, QMD, QMN, QMP, QND, QNJ, QOT, QQJ, QTN, QWN, QYJ, QYT, R0V, R0Z, R37, R3H, R4H, R77, R7D, R7N, R7Z, R81, R8V, R91, RA1, RCD, RCN, RD1, RED, REV, REZ, RGT, RGZ, RHD, RIV, RKH, RKZ, RLN, RMD, RNH, RO7, RQN, RRD, RRT, RRZ, RS7, RSH, RT1, RTV, RU1, RUZ, RVN, RVT, RW7, RWH, RX7, RY1, S0J, S6J, S87, S9H, SAZ, SCJ, SET, SFJ, SG7, SGZ, SI7, SM7, SO7, SOT, SQJ, SQT, SRH, SSH, STT, SW7, SX7, SXH, SYH, T0N, T0Z, T1D, T1T, T6V, T8Z, TBB, TBV, TCN, TD1, TEV, TGT, TKT, TLB, TM1, TO1, TOB, TQN, TR1, TRD, TT1, TTB, TTN, TUZ, TVB, TVN, TVT, TWD, TWV, TXB, TXV, TYV, U2J, U3Z, U61, U8V, U95, UA1, UC5, UEP, UEZ, UFJ, UG5, UJ5, ULZ, UO5, UOP, UOZ, UQP, URV, URZ, UUJ, UW5, UWV, UXJ, UXV, UYJ, V0H, V25, V4V, V55, V6V, V9J, V9V, VBB, VBJ, VCJ, VET, VGJ, VHP, VIH, VIN, VJJ, VJN, VLT, VMP, VNJ, VOB, VP5, VQJ, VQT, VRT, VRV, VSH, VSJ, VST, VTB, VTN, VUP, VW5, VWN, VXH, VXN, VYB, W07, W25, W3D, W3H, W4P, W4V, W57, W6V, W7D, W8H, W95, W9H, WAH, WAV, WCN, WD7, WDD, WDH, WE7, WEN, WF5, WGD, WHH, WK5, WKH, WN7, WNN, WPP, WPV, WQP, WR7, WRD, WRH, WRN, WS7, WU5, WUP, WVN, WWH, WWP, WX7, WXH, WXN, WYN, WYV, X0J, X2J, X2N, X4B, X4H, X4V, X6J, X87, X8B, X91, X9B, XAV, XCN, XEB, XFB, XHB, XHH, XHN, XKB, XLJ, XNH, XO1, XQ7, XS7, XSH, XUJ, XWN, XWV, XX7, XXH, XXV, Y0N, Y1J, Y1T, Y2N, Y3H, Y61, Y8V, Y91, YBV, YCN, YEB, YFJ, YHB, YHN, YIH, YJN, YJT, YLJ, YLN, YMB, YMN, YNH, YOB, YOV, YRH, YTB, YTN, YTT, YTV, YVB, YVH, YWH, YWV, YXB, YY1, YYJ, YYT, YYV, Z01, Z3D, Z3Z, Z71, Z8B, ZB7, ZBB, ZD5, ZDD, ZDP, ZG7, ZGD, ZGZ, ZKB, ZLP, ZM1, ZO5, ZP1, ZPD, ZQD, ZU1, ZX1, ZXB, ZZD, 102J, 106T, 10ET, 10GJ, 10LJ, 10TD, 12FJ, 12LJ, 13ED, 13GD, 13MD, 192J, 1D0T, 1DET, 1E3D, 1EFD, 1F0D, 1FWD, 1G0J, 1GGJ, 1GIJ, 1GUJ, 1I0J, 1ISJ, 1JOT, 1JTT, 1M0D, 1M3D, 1MFD, 1MWD, 1OKT, 1OOT, 1Q3D, 1QDT, 1QKT, 1QTD, 1QWD, 1SLJ, 1TDT, 1TFD, 1TOT, 1TTD, 1TTT, 1UGJ, 1ULJ, 1WFD, 1WWD, 20CJ, 20FJ, 20G5, 20IN, 20JD, 20MD, 20RN, 20WD, 20YN, 2295, 25RN, 260J, 26LJ, 288D, 28DD, 28FD, 296J, 29G5, 29K5, 29LJ, 2C05, 2C0J, 2C0N, 2CJJ, 2CK5, 2CLJ, 2CSJ, 2D25, 2DC5, 2DDD, 2DW5, 2F0J, 2FDD, 2FMD, 2FSJ, 2G65, 2G95, 2GK5, 2I0N, 2JC5, 2JCJ, 2JWD, 2K05, 2L6J, 2L9J, 2N0N, 2NIN, 2NN5, 2NSJ, 2NW5, 2NYN, 2Q0N, 2QNN, 2R0N, 2RFD, 2RWD, 2SJJ, 2SXJ, 2SYJ, 2W05, 2WC5, 2WD5, 2WMD, 2XCJ, 2YCJ, 2YJJ, 2YRN, 2YSJ, 300D, 302D, 304B, 3077, 3087, 308D, 30BH, 30DD, 30FP, 30G7, 30GD, 30MD, 30QP, 30YH, 320D, 333D, 333Z, 33WD, 344B, 34FB, 373Z, 37E7, 37EZ, 37G7, 3807, 38BB, 38E7, 38G7, 38HB, 38I7, 38X7, 390B, 394B, 399B, 39EB, 39FB, 39KB, 3ASH, 3AWH, 3B8B, 3BG7, 3BLB, 3BR7, 3BW7, 3C8D, 3D0P, 3D2D, 3DKP, 3E3D, 3E77, 3EBB, 3EFB, 3EKB, 3EQP, 3ERD, 3ERZ, 3EZZ, 3F4B, 3FEP, 3G2D, 3GCD, 3GED, 3GM7, 3GR7, 3GWD, 3GZD, 3H0B, 3HEP, 3HKB, 3IAH, 3ISH, 3K4B, 3KBH, 3KEB, 3KKB, 3L4B, 3L8B, 3M3D, 3MEP, 3MG7, 3MWP, 3OFP, 3OKB, 3OMP, 3OOB, 3OYB, 3P8H, 3PXH, 3QDP, 3QQD, 3QRD, 3QWD, 3R3D, 3R3Z, 3R8D, 3RG7, 3RM7, 3RQD, 3RR7, 3RZ7, 3SIH, 3W0H, 3WED, 3WM7, 3WQD, 3WW7, 3WYH, 3X8H, 3XE7, 3XG7, 3XKH, 3Y0B, 3Y4B, 3Y8H, 3YAH, 3YSH, 3YYB, 3Z4B, 3ZFP, 404V, 4061, 40EB, 40I1, 40IV, 40KH, 40M1, 40R1, 40XB, 40XV, 43QP, 4441, 444H, 444P, 4481, 448H, 4491, 449H, 44EB, 44EV, 44K1, 44KB, 44KP, 44M1, 44R1, 44RV, 44SH, 44U1, 44VP, 44YB, 46I1, 46K1, 46M1, 480H, 488H, 48AH, 48I1, 48K1, 48U1, 4991, 49EV, 49I1, 49O1, 49UV, 4A0H, 4A41, 4A4B, 4A8H, 4A91, 4ALB, 4ASH, 4BXV, 4E4B, 4EEP, 4EFB, 4ELP, 4EUV, 4EXB, 4FOB, 4I01, 4I0V, 4I4V, 4I61, 4I81, 4I91, 4IEV, 4IY1, 4K0H, 4K91, 4KI1, 4KKH, 4KKP, 4KUP, 4L3P, 4L4P, 4LAB, 4LMP, 4MA1, 4MK1, 4MMP, 4MP1, 4MU1, 4O0B, 4OFB, 4OKB, 4OM1, 4OU1, 4OYB, 4P41, 4P81, 4PO1, 4PYV, 4QLP, 4QQP, 4RAV, 4RK1, 4RRV, 4S8H, 4U3P, 4U91, 4U9V, 4UIV, 4UUP, 4VAV, 4VLP, 4VVV, 4X0B, 4X0V, 4XAB, 4XBV, 4XVV, 4XYV, 4Y0V, 4Y41, 4Y4H, 4Y4V, 4Y81, 4YAV, 4YEV, 4YIV, 4YK1, 4YKB, 4YM1, 4YR1, 4YUV, 4YYB, 5025, 503Z, 5095, 50G5, 50PN, 50QN, 50WP, 50Z7, 5205, 52RN, 53FP, 53M7, 53PZ, 53X7, 53ZZ, 54PP, 550N, 553P, 554P, 5557, 555N, 557Z, 5595, 55EN, 55G5, 55GZ, 55LZ, 55OZ, 55QN, 55Z7, 572N, 577Z, 5787, 57CN, 57FZ, 57QN, 57S7, 57ZZ, 58I7, 58X7, 5955, 5A95, 5AEP, 5CMN, 5CWN, 5E2N, 5EAP, 5ECN, 5EKP, 5EQN, 5F95, 5FLP, 5FQP, 5G05, 5GK5, 5GQ7, 5I37, 5II7, 5IM7, 5L3P, 5LCN, 5LFP, 5LGT, 5LKZ, 5LUP, 5LZZ, 5M07, 5N55, 5NQ7, 5NX7, 5OAZ, 5OFZ, 5OLT, 5OOT, 5P25, 5P95, 5PG5, 5PGZ, 5PPN, 5PQP, 5PW5, 5Q0N, 5Q87, 5QCN, 5QKP, 5QN7, 5QPN, 5QPP, 5QQT, 5QTT, 5QWP, 5QX7, 5S37, 5SS7, 5T6T, 5TQT, 5U4P, 5UGZ, 5W0P, 5W2N, 5W5P, 5WLN, 5WP5, 5WQN, 5XM7, 5Y0T, 5YOT, 5Z25, 5Z4P, 5Z57, 5ZG5, 5ZLZ, 5ZQ7, 5ZWP, 6005, 600V, 601J, 6055, 606V, 60A1, 60C5, 60GT, 60JJ, 60LJ, 60M1, 60R1, 60VT, 60YV, 610J, 61FJ, 6401, 64K1, 6505, 665T, 6665, 66A5, 66F5, 66G5, 66GT, 66KT, 66V5, 66XV, 68OV, 68YV, 690J, 69G5, 69O5, 69XJ, 69XV, 6A55, 6AA1, 6AA5, 6AF5, 6C9J, 6CA5, 6CGJ, 6CYJ, 6EK1, 6ER1, 6FLJ, 6FXJ, 6G0J, 6G65, 6GGJ, 6GJ5, 6GLJ, 6I81, 6I9V, 6J65, 6J6V, 6JET, 6JST, 6JWV, 6K01, 6KET, 6KST, 6L0J, 6L6T, 6LFJ, 6LRT, 6LXJ, 6MA1, 6MM1, 6MX1, 6O8V, 6OV5, 6R0T, 6RET, 6RKT, 6S6T, 6T8V, 6U01, 6U9J, 6UE1, 6UGJ, 6UJJ, 6ULJ, 6UU1, 6V0T, 6VA5, 6VF5, 6VG5, 6VKT, 6VXJ, 6WWV, 6WXV, 6X41, 6X6V, 6XIV, 6XJV, 6XOV, 6Y0V, 6YCJ, 6YXV, 7001, 702N, 7041, 707N, 7081, 70GZ, 70I7, 70KZ, 70ND, 70O7, 70OZ, 70R7, 70U1, 70UZ, 70WD, 70YN, 71QD, 71WD, 720N, 72CN, 72YN, 733Z, 73ED, 73ZD, 7401, 7441, 74M1, 74O1, 74R1, 7641, 76K1, 76M1, 76R1, 76U1, 76X1, 773Z, 7741, 7771, 7781, 77FZ, 77G7, 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8KRH, 8KU1, 8KYH, 8KZ1, 8L4B, 8LBB, 8MG7, 8MR7, 8O4V, 8OI1, 8OK1, 8OOV, 8OX1, 8RAV, 8RHH, 8RUV, 8RX1, 8U4V, 8UK1, 8V4B, 8V9B, 8VHH, 8VRH, 8VVV, 8VYV, 8W0H, 8WFD, 8X07, 8XAH, 8XR1, 8XU1, 8XYB, 8Y6V, 8Y8H, 8YBB, 8YFB, 8YHH, 8YKB, 8YLB, 8YUV, 8YVV, 8YYH, 8Z1D, 8Z4B, 8Z8D, 8Z91, 8ZCD, 8ZEZ, 8ZFD, 8ZFZ, 8ZK1, 8ZO1, 8ZX7, 90A5, 90BJ, 90BV, 90EB, 90EV, 90GJ, 90IJ, 90J5, 90JB, 90LB, 90O1, 90OV, 90XB, 90XV, 9225, 92K5, 9441, 94BH, 94EB, 94KB, 94XB, 9505, 9601, 960V, 96A1, 96J5, 96K1, 96V5, 96WV, 96XV, 984B, 98AV, 98BV, 98FB, 994H, 998B, 998V, 999B, 99A1, 99A5, 99E1, 99G5, 99O1, 99O5, 99WH, 9A05, 9A55, 9A95, 9AA5, 9ABV, 9AE1, 9AEV, 9AI1, 9AO1, 9AOV, 9B0J, 9B0V, 9B8V, 9B9H, 9BCJ, 9BFJ, 9BSJ, 9BVV, 9CCJ, 9CLJ, 9CSJ, 9E01, 9E4B, 9EA1, 9EAB, 9EAV, 9EK1, 9F05, 9F25, 9FA5, 9FBJ, 9FFJ, 9FJB, 9FSJ, 9FXJ, 9G25, 9G2J, 9GIJ, 9GSJ, 9HFB, 9HLB, 9IIJ, 9IJ1, 9J01, 9J0B, 9J0J, 9J9B, 9JCJ, 9JE1, 9K05, 9K41, 9K55, 9K61, 9K8B, 9KA5, 9KI1, 9KK5, 9KU5, 9L2J, 9LCJ, 9O05, 9O0V, 9O95, 9OI1, 9OO1, 9OOV, 9OWV, 9RRV, 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JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJLJ

====Additional known quasi-minimal primes (not necessarily the next)====

P&lt;sub&gt;81993&lt;/sub&gt;SZ

==Unsolved families==

Families for which not even a probable prime is known nor can be ruled out as only contain composites (only count the numbers &gt; base (''b'')) by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them.

{|class=wikitable
|base (''b'')||unsolved family (base-''b'' form)||unsolved family (algebraic ((''a''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+''c'')/''d'') form)||current search limit of length||factorization of numbers in this family
|-
|13||9{5}||(113×13&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/12||136000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28113*13%5En-5%29%2F12&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|13||A{3}A||(41×13&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+27)/4||128000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2841*13%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B27%29%2F4&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||1{7}||(23×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2823*17%5En-7%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||1F{0}7||32×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+7||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=32*17%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B7&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||4{7}A||(71×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+41)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2871*17%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B41%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||51{0}D||86×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+13||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=86*17%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B13&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||70F{0}D||2038×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+13||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=2038*17%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B13&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||8{B}9||(139×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−43)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28139*17%5E%28n%2B1%29-43%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||9{5}9||(149×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+59)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28149*17%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B59%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||95{F}||(2543×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−15)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%282543*17%5En-15%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||A{D}F||(173×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+19)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28173*17%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B19%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||B{0}B3||11×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+190||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=11*17%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B190&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||B{0}DB||11×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+232||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=11*17%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B232&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||{B}2BE||(11×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;−41579)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2811*17%5E%28n%2B3%29-41579%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||{B}2E||(11×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−2411)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2811*17%5E%28n%2B2%29-2411%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||{B}E9||(11×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+773)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2811*17%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B773%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||{B}EE||(11×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+853)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2811*17%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B853%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||E9{B}||(3963×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%283963*17%5En-11%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||F1{9}||(4105×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−9)/16||1000048||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%284105*17%5En-9%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||FD0{D}||(72909×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−13)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2872909*17%5En-13%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||1{0}7717||19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+4&lt;/sup&gt;+50566||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=19%5E%28n%2B4%29%2B50566&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||{2}7||(19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+44)/9||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2819%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B44%29%2F9&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||{2}7A||(19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+926)/9||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2819%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B926%29%2F9&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||333{5}||(20579×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2820579*19%5En-5%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||3{5}||(59×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2859*19%5En-5%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||4{0}HB5||4×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;+6351||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=4*19%5E%28n%2B3%29%2B6351&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||4B5{0}H||1658×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+17||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=1658*19%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B17&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||{5}3||(5×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−41)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%285*19%5E%28n%2B1%29-41%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||5{H}05||(107×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−6047)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28107*19%5E%28n%2B2%29-6047%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||5{H}0H||(107×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−5831)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28107*19%5E%28n%2B2%29-5831%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||5{H}5||(107×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−233)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28107*19%5E%28n%2B1%29-233%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||66{B}||(2171×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%282171*19%5En-11%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||71{0}177||134×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;+501||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=134*19%5E%28n%2B3%29%2B501&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||7AF{0}H||2732×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+17||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=2732*19%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B17&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||97{0}3||178×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+3||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=178*19%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B3&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||{B}FG||(11×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+1447)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2811*19%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B1447%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||C{7}C||(223×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+83)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28223*19%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B83%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||C{H}C||(233×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−107)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28233*19%5E%28n%2B1%29-107%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||D9{0}9||256×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+9||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=256*19%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B9&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||D{B}||(245×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28245*19%5En-11%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||{D}88||(13×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−1813)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2813*19%5E%28n%2B2%29-1813%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||EE1{6}||(15964×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1)/3||707350||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2815964*19%5En-1%29%2F3&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||F{7}5||(277×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−43)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28277*19%5E%28n%2B1%29-43%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||F{B}G||(281×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+79)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28281*19%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B79%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||F{D}F||(283×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+23)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28283*19%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B23%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||FH0{H}||(103301×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−17)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28103301*19%5En-17%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||FHHH0{H}||(37401821×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−17)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2837401821*19%5En-17%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||H0F{0}7A||6152×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+143||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=6152*19%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B143&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||HB{0}5B5||334×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;+2019||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=334*19%5E%28n%2B3%29%2B2019&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||{H}6||(17×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−215)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2817*19%5E%28n%2B1%29-215%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||II{D}||(6493×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−13)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%286493*19%5En-13%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||2{7}9D||(47×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+953)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2847*21%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B953%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||2F{C}A||(288×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−13)/5||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28288*21%5E%28n%2B1%29-13%29%2F5&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||4{3}B||(83×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+157)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2883*21%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B157%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||5{0}DJ||5×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+292||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=5*21%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B292&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||{5}FEK||(21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;+18455)/4||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2821%5E%28n%2B3%29%2B18455%29%2F4&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||{7}ID||(7×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+4733)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%287*21%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B4733%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||99{0}99H||198×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;+4175||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=198*21%5E%28n%2B3%29%2B4175&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||{9}0D||(9×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−3709)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%289*21%5E%28n%2B2%29-3709%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||{9}D||(9×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+71)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%289*21%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B71%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||B3{0}EB||234×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+305||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=234*21%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B305&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||B9{0}E5||240×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+299||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=240*21%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B299&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||B{D}B||(233×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−53)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28233*21%5E%28n%2B1%29-53%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||B{H}6H||(237×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−4637)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28237*21%5E%28n%2B2%29-4637%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||DH{D}||(5813×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−13)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%285813*21%5En-13%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||F{9}D||(309×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+71)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28309*21%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B71%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||{F}35||(3×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−1051)/4||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%283*21%5E%28n%2B2%29-1051%29%2F4&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||G{0}FK||16×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+335||506722||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=16*21%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B335&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||H{0}7771||17×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+4&lt;/sup&gt;+68062||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=17*21%5E%28n%2B4%29%2B68062&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||H{D}||(353×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−13)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28353*21%5En-13%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||{J}6J||(19×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−5479)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2819*21%5E%28n%2B2%29-5479%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|26||6{K}5||(34×26&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−79)/5||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2834*26%5E%28n%2B1%29-79%29%2F5&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|26||{7}OL||(7×26&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+11393)/25||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%287*26%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B11393%29%2F25&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|26||85{M}B||(5347×26&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−297)/25||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%285347*26%5E%28n%2B1%29-297%29%2F25&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|26||{A}6F||(2×26&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−497)/5||486722||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%282*26%5E%28n%2B2%29-497%29%2F5&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|26||{H}MH||(17×26&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+3233)/25||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2817*26%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B3233%29%2F25&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|26||{I}GL||(18×26&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−1243)/25||497679||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2818*26%5E%28n%2B2%29-1243%29%2F25&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|26||J{0}KCB||19×26&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;+13843||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=19*26%5E%28n%2B3%29%2B13843&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|26||LD{0}7||559×26&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+7||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=559*26%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B7&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|26||M{0}2BB||22×26&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;+1649||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=22*26%5E%28n%2B3%29%2B1649&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|28||5O{A}F||(4438×28&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+125)/27||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=(4438*28^(n%2B1)%2B125)/27&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|28||N{6}LR||(209×28&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+3967)/9||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=(209*28^(n%2B2)%2B3967)/9&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|28||O{A}F||(658×28&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+125)/27||543203||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=(658*28^(n%2B1)%2B125)/27&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|36||7{K}Z||(53×36&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+101)/7||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2853*36%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B101%29%2F7&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|36||B{0}EUV||11×36&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;+19255||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=11*36%5E%28n%2B3%29%2B19255&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|36||HM{0}N||634×36&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+23||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=634*36%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B23&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|36||N{0}YYN||23×36&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;+45311||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=23*36%5E%28n%2B3%29%2B45311&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|36||O{L}Z||(123×36&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+67)/5||100000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28123*36%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B67%29%2F5&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|36||S{0}8H||28×36&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+305||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=28*36%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B305&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|}

For base 17, the smallest prime in family {B}2BE may or may not be quasi-minimal prime, since another unsolved family is {B}2E

For base 19, the smallest prime in family {2}7A may or may not be quasi-minimal prime, since another unsolved family is {2}7, and the smallest prime in family 333{5} may or may not be quasi-minimal prime, since another unsolved family is 3{5}, and the smallest prime in family 5{H}05 may or may not be quasi-minimal prime, since another unsolved family is 5{H}5, and the smallest prime in family FHHH0{H} may or may not be quasi-minimal prime, since another unsolved family is FH0{H}

For base 21, the smallest prime in families {9}0D and F{9}D may or may not be quasi-minimal primes, since another unsolved family is {9}D, and the smallest prime in family DH{D} may or may not be quasi-minimal prime, since another unsolved family is H{D}

For base 28, the smallest prime in family 5O{A}F may or may not be quasi-minimal prime, since another unsolved family is O{A}F

==Primality certificates for the proven primes &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt;==

Only list bases 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 30

See also: [[w:Primality certificate|Primality certificate]] and [[w:Elliptic curve primality|Elliptic curve primality]]

{|class=wikitable
|base (''b'')||index of this quasi-minimal prime in base ''b''||quasi-minimal prime (base-''b'' form)||quasi-minimal prime (algebraic ((''a''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+''c'')/''d'') form)||factordb entry of this prime||primality certificate of this prime
|-
|9||149||76&lt;sub&gt;329&lt;/sub&gt;2||(31×9&lt;sup&gt;330&lt;/sup&gt;−19)/4||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002359003642]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002359003642]
|-
|9||150||27&lt;sub&gt;686&lt;/sub&gt;07||(23×9&lt;sup&gt;688&lt;/sup&gt;−511)/8||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002495467486]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002495467486]
|-
|9||151||30&lt;sub&gt;1158&lt;/sub&gt;11||3×9&lt;sup&gt;1160&lt;/sup&gt;+10||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002376318423]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002376318423]
|-
|11||1065||A&lt;sub&gt;713&lt;/sub&gt;58||11&lt;sup&gt;715&lt;/sup&gt;−58||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003576826487]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003576826487]
|-
|11||1066||7&lt;sub&gt;759&lt;/sub&gt;44||(7×11&lt;sup&gt;761&lt;/sup&gt;−367)/10||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002505568840]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002505568840]
|-
|11||1067||557&lt;sub&gt;1011&lt;/sub&gt;||(607×11&lt;sup&gt;1011&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/10||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002361376522]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002361376522]
|-
|13||3165||50&lt;sub&gt;270&lt;/sub&gt;44||5×13&lt;sup&gt;272&lt;/sup&gt;+56||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002632397005]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002632397005]
|-
|13||3166||9&lt;sub&gt;271&lt;/sub&gt;095||(3×13&lt;sup&gt;274&lt;/sup&gt;−6103)/4||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431654]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590431654]
|-
|13||3167||10&lt;sub&gt;286&lt;/sub&gt;7771||13&lt;sup&gt;290&lt;/sup&gt;+16654||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431633]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590431633]
|-
|13||3168||9&lt;sub&gt;308&lt;/sub&gt;1||(3×13&lt;sup&gt;309&lt;/sup&gt;−35)/4||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840126705]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor [http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=13&amp;Exp=308&amp;c0=-&amp;EN= 13&lt;sup&gt;308&lt;/sup&gt;−1]
|-
|13||3169||B&lt;sub&gt;341&lt;/sub&gt;C4||(11×13&lt;sup&gt;343&lt;/sup&gt;+61)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431618]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590431618]
|-
|13||3170||8B&lt;sub&gt;343&lt;/sub&gt;||(107×13&lt;sup&gt;343&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321018736]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002321018736]
|-
|13||3171||710&lt;sub&gt;371&lt;/sub&gt;111||92×13&lt;sup&gt;374&lt;/sup&gt;+183||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431609]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590431609]
|-
|13||3172||75&lt;sub&gt;375&lt;/sub&gt;7||(89×13&lt;sup&gt;376&lt;/sup&gt;+19)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431596]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590431596]
|-
|13||3173||9B0&lt;sub&gt;391&lt;/sub&gt;9||128×13&lt;sup&gt;392&lt;/sup&gt;+9||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002632396790]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002632396790]
|-
|13||3174||7B0B&lt;sub&gt;397&lt;/sub&gt;||(15923×13&lt;sup&gt;397&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431574]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590431574]
|-
|13||3175||10&lt;sub&gt;414&lt;/sub&gt;93||13&lt;sup&gt;416&lt;/sup&gt;+120||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002523249240]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002523249240]
|-
|13||3176||81010&lt;sub&gt;415&lt;/sub&gt;1||17746×13&lt;sup&gt;416&lt;/sup&gt;+1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431555]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|13||3177||8110&lt;sub&gt;435&lt;/sub&gt;1||1366×13&lt;sup&gt;436&lt;/sup&gt;+1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002373259109]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|13||3178||B7&lt;sub&gt;486&lt;/sub&gt;||(139×13&lt;sup&gt;486&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321015892]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002321015892]
|-
|13||3179||B&lt;sub&gt;563&lt;/sub&gt;C||(11×13&lt;sup&gt;564&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000000217927]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor [http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=13&amp;Exp=564&amp;c0=-&amp;EN= 13&lt;sup&gt;564&lt;/sup&gt;−1]
|-
|13||3180||1B&lt;sub&gt;576&lt;/sub&gt;||(23×13&lt;sup&gt;576&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321021456]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor [http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=13&amp;Exp=576&amp;c0=-&amp;EN= 13&lt;sup&gt;576&lt;/sup&gt;−1]
|-
|13||3181||80&lt;sub&gt;693&lt;/sub&gt;87||8×13&lt;sup&gt;695&lt;/sup&gt;+111||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002615636527]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 has a large prime factor, factordb entry of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002615636532], and primality certificate of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002615636532]
|-
|13||3182||CC5&lt;sub&gt;713&lt;/sub&gt;||(2021×13&lt;sup&gt;713&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002615627353]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002615627353]
|-
|13||3183||B&lt;sub&gt;834&lt;/sub&gt;74||(11×13&lt;sup&gt;836&lt;/sup&gt;−719)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430871]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590430871]
|-
|13||3184||9&lt;sub&gt;968&lt;/sub&gt;B||(3×13&lt;sup&gt;969&lt;/sup&gt;+5)/4||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000258566244]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000258566244]
|-
|13||3185||10&lt;sub&gt;1295&lt;/sub&gt;181||13&lt;sup&gt;1298&lt;/sup&gt;+274||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002615445013]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002615445013]
|-
|13||3186||9&lt;sub&gt;1362&lt;/sub&gt;5||(3×13&lt;sup&gt;1363&lt;/sup&gt;−19)/4||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321017776]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002321017776]
|-
|13||3187||7&lt;sub&gt;1504&lt;/sub&gt;1||(7×13&lt;sup&gt;1505&lt;/sup&gt;−79)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002320890755]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002320890755]
|-
|13||3188||930&lt;sub&gt;1551&lt;/sub&gt;1||120×13&lt;sup&gt;1552&lt;/sup&gt;+1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961452]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|13||3189||720&lt;sub&gt;2297&lt;/sub&gt;2||93×13&lt;sup&gt;2298&lt;/sup&gt;+2||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002632396910]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002632396910]
|-
|13||3190||1770&lt;sub&gt;2703&lt;/sub&gt;17||267×13&lt;sup&gt;2705&lt;/sup&gt;+20||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430825]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590430825]
|-
|13||3191||390&lt;sub&gt;6266&lt;/sub&gt;1||48×13&lt;sup&gt;6267&lt;/sup&gt;+1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961441]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|13||3192||B0&lt;sub&gt;6540&lt;/sub&gt;BBA||11×13&lt;sup&gt;6543&lt;/sup&gt;+2012||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002616382906]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002616382906]
|-
|13||3193||C&lt;sub&gt;10631&lt;/sub&gt;92||13&lt;sup&gt;10633&lt;/sup&gt;−50||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590493750]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590493750]
|-
|14||649||34D&lt;sub&gt;708&lt;/sub&gt;||47×14&lt;sup&gt;708&lt;/sup&gt;−1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001540144903]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|14||650||4D&lt;sub&gt;19698&lt;/sub&gt;||5×14&lt;sup&gt;19698&lt;/sup&gt;−1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000884560233]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|16||2328||880&lt;sub&gt;246&lt;/sub&gt;7||136×16&lt;sup&gt;247&lt;/sup&gt;+7||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002468140199]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 has a large prime factor, and this prime factor is &lt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|16||2329||D4&lt;sub&gt;263&lt;/sub&gt;D||(199×16&lt;sup&gt;264&lt;/sup&gt;+131)/15||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002468170238]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002468170238]
|-
|16||2330||E0&lt;sub&gt;261&lt;/sub&gt;4DD||14×16&lt;sup&gt;264&lt;/sup&gt;+1245||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588388352]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588388352]
|-
|16||2331||8C0&lt;sub&gt;290&lt;/sub&gt;ED||140×16&lt;sup&gt;292&lt;/sup&gt;+237||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588388307]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588388307]
|-
|16||2332||DA&lt;sub&gt;305&lt;/sub&gt;5||(41×16&lt;sup&gt;306&lt;/sup&gt;−17)/3||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588388284]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588388284]
|-
|16||2333||CE80&lt;sub&gt;422&lt;/sub&gt;D||3304×16&lt;sup&gt;423&lt;/sup&gt;+13||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588388257]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588388257]
|-
|16||2334||5F&lt;sub&gt;544&lt;/sub&gt;6F||6×16&lt;sup&gt;546&lt;/sup&gt;−145||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002604723967]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002604723967]
|-
|16||2335||88F&lt;sub&gt;545&lt;/sub&gt;||137×16&lt;sup&gt;545&lt;/sup&gt;−1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000413679658]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|16||2336||BE0&lt;sub&gt;792&lt;/sub&gt;BB||190×16&lt;sup&gt;794&lt;/sup&gt;+187||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588387938]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588387938]
|-
|16||2337||D9&lt;sub&gt;1052&lt;/sub&gt;||(68×16&lt;sup&gt;1052&lt;/sup&gt;−3)/5||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321036020]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002321036020]
|-
|16||2338||FAF&lt;sub&gt;1062&lt;/sub&gt;45||251×16&lt;sup&gt;1064&lt;/sup&gt;−187||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588387610]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588387610]
|-
|16||2339||F8&lt;sub&gt;1517&lt;/sub&gt;F||(233×16&lt;sup&gt;1518&lt;/sup&gt;+97)/15||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000633744824]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000633744824]
|-
|16||2340||20&lt;sub&gt;1713&lt;/sub&gt;321||2×16&lt;sup&gt;1716&lt;/sup&gt;+801||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588386735]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588386735]
|-
|16||2341||300F&lt;sub&gt;1960&lt;/sub&gt;AF||769×16&lt;sup&gt;1962&lt;/sup&gt;−81||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588368750]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588368750]
|-
|16||2342||90&lt;sub&gt;3542&lt;/sub&gt;91||9×16&lt;sup&gt;3544&lt;/sup&gt;+145||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000633424191]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000633424191]
|-
|16||2343||5BC&lt;sub&gt;3700&lt;/sub&gt;D||(459×16&lt;sup&gt;3701&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/5||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000993764322]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000993764322]
|-
|16||2344||D0B&lt;sub&gt;17804&lt;/sub&gt;||(3131×16&lt;sup&gt;17804&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/15||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003589278511]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003589278511]
|-
|18||547||80&lt;sub&gt;298&lt;/sub&gt;B||8×18&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt;+11||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002355574745]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 has sum-of-two-cubes algebraic factorization, 6×18&lt;sup&gt;99&lt;/sup&gt;+1 is an algebraic factor of ''N''+1, factordb entry of 6×18&lt;sup&gt;99&lt;/sup&gt;+1 is [http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000900149167]
|-
|18||548||H&lt;sub&gt;766&lt;/sub&gt;FH||18&lt;sup&gt;768&lt;/sup&gt;−37||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430490]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590430490]
|-
|18||549||C0&lt;sub&gt;6268&lt;/sub&gt;C5||12×18&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+221||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590442437]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590442437]
|-
|20||3301||H&lt;sub&gt;247&lt;/sub&gt;A0H||(17×20&lt;sup&gt;250&lt;/sup&gt;−59677)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502619]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590502619]
|-
|20||3302||7&lt;sub&gt;249&lt;/sub&gt;A7||(7×20&lt;sup&gt;251&lt;/sup&gt;+1133)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502602]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590502602]
|-
|20||3303||J7&lt;sub&gt;270&lt;/sub&gt;||(368×20&lt;sup&gt;270&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002325395462]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002325395462]
|-
|20||3304||J&lt;sub&gt;330&lt;/sub&gt;CCC7||20&lt;sup&gt;334&lt;/sup&gt;−58953||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502572]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590502572]
|-
|20||3305||40&lt;sub&gt;387&lt;/sub&gt;404B||4×20&lt;sup&gt;391&lt;/sup&gt;+32091||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502563]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590502563]
|-
|20||3306||EC0&lt;sub&gt;429&lt;/sub&gt;7||292×20&lt;sup&gt;430&lt;/sup&gt;+7||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633348702]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002633348702]
|-
|20||3307||G&lt;sub&gt;447&lt;/sub&gt;99||(16×20&lt;sup&gt;449&lt;/sup&gt;−2809)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840126753]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000840126753]
|-
|20||3308||3A&lt;sub&gt;527&lt;/sub&gt;3||(67×20&lt;sup&gt;528&lt;/sup&gt;−143)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502531]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590502531]
|-
|20||3309||E&lt;sub&gt;566&lt;/sub&gt;C7||(14×20&lt;sup&gt;568&lt;/sup&gt;−907)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502516]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 has a large prime factor, factordb entry of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003810023889], and primality certificate of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003810023889]
|-
|20||3310||JCJ&lt;sub&gt;629&lt;/sub&gt;||393×20&lt;sup&gt;629&lt;/sup&gt;−1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001559454258]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|20||3311||J&lt;sub&gt;655&lt;/sub&gt;05J||20&lt;sup&gt;658&lt;/sup&gt;−7881||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502490]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 has a large prime factor, factordb entry of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591067052], and primality certificate of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591067052]
|-
|20||3312||50&lt;sub&gt;1163&lt;/sub&gt;AJ||5×20&lt;sup&gt;1165&lt;/sup&gt;+219||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502412]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590502412]
|-
|20||3313||CD&lt;sub&gt;2449&lt;/sub&gt;||(241×20&lt;sup&gt;2449&lt;/sup&gt;−13)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002325393915]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002325393915]
|-
|20||3314||G0&lt;sub&gt;6269&lt;/sub&gt;D||16×20&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+13||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590539457]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590539457]
|-
|22||7984||I7G0&lt;sub&gt;254&lt;/sub&gt;H||8882×22&lt;sup&gt;255&lt;/sup&gt;+17||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591372788]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591372788]
|-
|22||7985||D0&lt;sub&gt;255&lt;/sub&gt;5EEF||13×22&lt;sup&gt;259&lt;/sup&gt;+60339||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591371932]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591371932]
|-
|22||7986||IK&lt;sub&gt;322&lt;/sub&gt;F||(398×22&lt;sup&gt;323&lt;/sup&gt;−125)/21||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840384145]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000840384145]
|-
|22||7987||C0&lt;sub&gt;340&lt;/sub&gt;G9||12×22&lt;sup&gt;342&lt;/sup&gt;+361||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840384159]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000840384159]
|-
|22||7988||77E&lt;sub&gt;348&lt;/sub&gt;K7||(485×22&lt;sup&gt;350&lt;/sup&gt;+373)/3||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591369779]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591369779]
|-
|22||7989||J&lt;sub&gt;379&lt;/sub&gt;KJ||(19×22&lt;sup&gt;381&lt;/sup&gt;+443)/21||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591369027]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591369027]
|-
|22||7990||J&lt;sub&gt;388&lt;/sub&gt;EJ||(19×22&lt;sup&gt;390&lt;/sup&gt;−2329)/21||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591367729]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591367729]
|-
|22||7991||DJ&lt;sub&gt;400&lt;/sub&gt;||(292×22&lt;sup&gt;400&lt;/sup&gt;−19)/21||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002325880110]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002325880110]
|-
|22||7992||E&lt;sub&gt;404&lt;/sub&gt;K7||(2×22&lt;sup&gt;406&lt;/sup&gt;+373)/3||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591366298]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591366298]
|-
|22||7993||66F&lt;sub&gt;453&lt;/sub&gt;B3||(971×22&lt;sup&gt;455&lt;/sup&gt;−705)/7||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591365809]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591365809]
|-
|22||7994||L0&lt;sub&gt;454&lt;/sub&gt;B63||21×22&lt;sup&gt;457&lt;/sup&gt;+5459||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591365331]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591365331]
|-
|22||7995||L&lt;sub&gt;483&lt;/sub&gt;G3||22&lt;sup&gt;485&lt;/sup&gt;−129||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591364730]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591364730]
|-
|22||7996||E60&lt;sub&gt;496&lt;/sub&gt;L||314×22&lt;sup&gt;497&lt;/sup&gt;+21||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632703239]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000632703239]
|-
|22||7997||I&lt;sub&gt;626&lt;/sub&gt;AF||(6×22&lt;sup&gt;628&lt;/sup&gt;−1259)/7||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632724334]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000632724334]
|-
|22||7998||K0&lt;sub&gt;760&lt;/sub&gt;EC1||20×22&lt;sup&gt;763&lt;/sup&gt;+7041||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632724415]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000632724415]
|-
|22||7999||J0&lt;sub&gt;767&lt;/sub&gt;IGGJ||19×22&lt;sup&gt;771&lt;/sup&gt;+199779||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591362567]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591362567]
|-
|22||8000||7&lt;sub&gt;959&lt;/sub&gt;K7||(22&lt;sup&gt;961&lt;/sup&gt;+857)/3||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591361817]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591361817]
|-
|22||8001||L&lt;sub&gt;2385&lt;/sub&gt;KE7||22&lt;sup&gt;2388&lt;/sup&gt;−653||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591360774]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591360774]
|-
|22||8002||7&lt;sub&gt;3815&lt;/sub&gt;2L||(22&lt;sup&gt;3817&lt;/sup&gt;−289)/3||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591359839]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591359839]
|-
|24||3400||I0&lt;sub&gt;241&lt;/sub&gt;I5||18×24&lt;sup&gt;243&lt;/sup&gt;+437||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633360037]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002633360037]
|-
|24||3401||D0&lt;sub&gt;259&lt;/sub&gt;KKD||13×24&lt;sup&gt;262&lt;/sup&gt;+12013||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593270725]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593270725]
|-
|24||3402||C7&lt;sub&gt;298&lt;/sub&gt;||(283×24&lt;sup&gt;298&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/23||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002326181235]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002326181235]
|-
|24||3403||20&lt;sub&gt;313&lt;/sub&gt;7||2×24&lt;sup&gt;314&lt;/sup&gt;+7||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002355610241]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002355610241]
|-
|24||3404||BC0&lt;sub&gt;331&lt;/sub&gt;B||276×24&lt;sup&gt;332&lt;/sup&gt;+11||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633359842]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002633359842]
|-
|24||3405||N&lt;sub&gt;2644&lt;/sub&gt;LLN||24&lt;sup&gt;2647&lt;/sup&gt;−1201||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593270089]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593270089]
|-
|24||3406||D&lt;sub&gt;2698&lt;/sub&gt;LD||(13×24&lt;sup&gt;2700&lt;/sup&gt;+4403)/23||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593269876]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593269876]
|-
|24||3407||A0&lt;sub&gt;2951&lt;/sub&gt;8ID||10×24&lt;sup&gt;2954&lt;/sup&gt;+5053||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593269654]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593269654]
|-
|24||3408||88N&lt;sub&gt;5951&lt;/sub&gt;||201×24&lt;sup&gt;5951&lt;/sup&gt;−1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593275880]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|24||3409||N00N&lt;sub&gt;8129&lt;/sub&gt;LN||13249×24&lt;sup&gt;8131&lt;/sup&gt;−49||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593391606]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593391606]
|-
|28||25485||JN&lt;sub&gt;206&lt;/sub&gt;||(536×28&lt;sup&gt;206&lt;/sup&gt;−23)/27||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002611724435]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 has a large prime factor, and this prime factor is &lt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|28||25486||3&lt;sub&gt;211&lt;/sub&gt;M9||(28&lt;sup&gt;213&lt;/sup&gt;+4841)/9||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161936]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161936]
|-
|28||25487||HD0&lt;sub&gt;213&lt;/sub&gt;D||489×28&lt;sup&gt;214&lt;/sup&gt;+13||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161937]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161937]
|-
|28||25488||64O&lt;sub&gt;217&lt;/sub&gt;9||(1556×28&lt;sup&gt;218&lt;/sup&gt;−143)/9||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840840215]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000840840215]
|-
|28||25489||G0&lt;sub&gt;217&lt;/sub&gt;A0N||16×28&lt;sup&gt;220&lt;/sup&gt;+7863||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161938]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161938]
|-
|28||25490||55OA&lt;sub&gt;226&lt;/sub&gt;F||(110278×28&lt;sup&gt;227&lt;/sup&gt;+125)/27||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161939]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161939]
|-
|28||25491||L0&lt;sub&gt;229&lt;/sub&gt;Q3||21×28&lt;sup&gt;231&lt;/sup&gt;+731||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161940]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161940]
|-
|28||25492||B0&lt;sub&gt;231&lt;/sub&gt;7ID||11×28&lt;sup&gt;234&lt;/sup&gt;+6005||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161941]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161941]
|-
|28||25493||PM&lt;sub&gt;233&lt;/sub&gt;B||(697×28&lt;sup&gt;234&lt;/sup&gt;−319)/27||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161942]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161942]
|-
|28||25494||K0&lt;sub&gt;238&lt;/sub&gt;OF||20×28&lt;sup&gt;240&lt;/sup&gt;+687||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840840142]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000840840142]
|-
|28||25495||I&lt;sub&gt;262&lt;/sub&gt;E3||(2×28&lt;sup&gt;264&lt;/sup&gt;−383)/3||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161943]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161943]
|-
|28||25496||C5A&lt;sub&gt;273&lt;/sub&gt;F||(9217×28&lt;sup&gt;274&lt;/sup&gt;+125)/27||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161944]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161944]
|-
|28||25497||J0&lt;sub&gt;276&lt;/sub&gt;IMB||19×28&lt;sup&gt;279&lt;/sup&gt;+14739||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161945]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 has a large prime factor, factordb entry of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850165915], and primality certificate of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850165915]
|-
|28||25498||F0&lt;sub&gt;282&lt;/sub&gt;QAP||15×28&lt;sup&gt;285&lt;/sup&gt;+20689||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840840006]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000840840006]
|-
|28||25499||M0&lt;sub&gt;296&lt;/sub&gt;KKN||22×28&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt;+16263||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161946]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161946]
|-
|28||25500||C&lt;sub&gt;310&lt;/sub&gt;43||(4×28&lt;sup&gt;312&lt;/sup&gt;−2101)/9||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161947]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161947]
|-
|30||2613||AN&lt;sub&gt;206&lt;/sub&gt;||(313×30&lt;sup&gt;206&lt;/sup&gt;−23)/29||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002327651073]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002327651073]
|-
|30||2614||M&lt;sub&gt;241&lt;/sub&gt;QB||(22×30&lt;sup&gt;243&lt;/sup&gt;+3139)/29||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593408295]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593408295]
|-
|30||2615||M0&lt;sub&gt;547&lt;/sub&gt;SS7||22×30&lt;sup&gt;550&lt;/sup&gt;+26047||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593407988]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593407988]
|-
|30||2616||C0&lt;sub&gt;1022&lt;/sub&gt;1||12×30&lt;sup&gt;1023&lt;/sup&gt;+1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000785448736]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|30||2617||5&lt;sub&gt;4882&lt;/sub&gt;J||(5×30&lt;sup&gt;4883&lt;/sup&gt;+401)/29||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002327649423]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002327649423]
|-
|30||2619||OT&lt;sub&gt;34205&lt;/sub&gt;||25×30&lt;sup&gt;34205&lt;/sup&gt;−1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000800812865]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 is trivially 100% factored
|}

==Unproven PRPs==

Only list bases 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 30

{|class=wikitable
|base (''b'')||index of this quasi-minimal prime in base ''b'' (assuming the primality of all PRP in base ''b'')||unproven PRP (base-''b'' form)||unproven PRP (algebraic ((''a''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+''c'')/''d'') form)||factordb entry of this PRP
|-
|11||1068||57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;||(57×11&lt;sup&gt;62668&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/10||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003573679860]
|-
|13||3194||C5&lt;sub&gt;23755&lt;/sub&gt;C||(149×13&lt;sup&gt;23756&lt;/sup&gt;+79)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590647776]
|-
|13||3195||80&lt;sub&gt;32017&lt;/sub&gt;111||8×13&lt;sup&gt;32020&lt;/sup&gt;+183||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000490878060]
|-
|16||2345||DB&lt;sub&gt;32234&lt;/sub&gt;||(206×16&lt;sup&gt;32234&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/15||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002383583629]
|-
|16||2346||4&lt;sub&gt;72785&lt;/sub&gt;DD||(4×16&lt;sup&gt;72787&lt;/sup&gt;+2291)/15||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003615909841]
|-
|16||2347||3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF||(16&lt;sup&gt;116139&lt;/sup&gt;+619)/5||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003851731988]
|-
|22||8003||BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5||(251×22&lt;sup&gt;22002&lt;/sup&gt;−335)/21||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003594696838]
|-
|30||2618||I0&lt;sub&gt;24608&lt;/sub&gt;D||18×30&lt;sup&gt;24609&lt;/sup&gt;+13||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593967511]
|}

All these PRPs pass the [[w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]] to bases 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59 and 61, and pass the [[w:Lucas pseudoprime#Strong Lucas pseudoprimes|strong Lucas primality test]] with parameters (''P'', ''Q'') defined by Selfridge's Method ''A'', and [[w:Trial division|trial factored]] to 10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;. (Thus, they pass the [[w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]])

==Proof==

===Base 2===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1)

* Case (1,1):
** 11 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.

===Base 3===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2)

* Case (1,1):
** Since 12, 21, 111 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0}1 (since any digits 1, 2 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 1{0}1 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (1,2):
** 12 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,1):
** 21 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,2):
** Since 21, 12 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2}2 (since any digits 1 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0,2}2 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.

===Base 4===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,3), (2,1), (2,3), (3,1), (3,3)

* Case (1,1):
** 11 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,3):
** 13 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,1):
** Since 23, 11, 31, 221 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,3):
** 23 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,1):
** 31 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,3):
** Since 31, 13, 23 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3}3 (since any digits 1, 2 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 3{0,3}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.

===Base 5===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4)

* Case (1,1):
** Since 12, 21, 111, 131 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,4}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 1{0,4}1 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (1,2):
** 12 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,3):
** Since 12, 23, 43, 133 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,1}3 (since any digits 2, 3, 4 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 111 is prime, we only need to consider the families 1{0}3 and 1{0}1{0}3 (since any digit combo 11 between (1,3) will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 1{0}3 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 1{0}1{0}3 family, since 10103 is prime, we only need to consider the families 1{0}13 and 11{0}3 (since any digit combo 010 between (1,3) will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 1{0}13 is 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013, which can be written as 1(0^93)13 and equal the prime 5^95+8 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000034686071 factordb])
***** All numbers of the form 11{0}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (1,4):
** Since 12, 34, 104 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{1,4}4 (since any digits 0, 2, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 111, 414 are primes, we only need to consider the families 1{4}4 and 11{4}4 (since any digit combo 11 or 41 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 1{4}4 is 14444.
**** All numbers of the form 11{4}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,1):
** 21 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,2):
** Since 21, 23, 12, 32 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2,4}2 (since any digits 1, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0,2,4}2 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,3):
** 23 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,4):
** Since 21, 23, 34 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2,4}4 (since any digits 1, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0,2,4}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,1):
** Since 32, 34, 21 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,1,3}1 (since any digits 2, 4 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 313, 111, 131, 3101 are primes, we only need to consider the families 3{0,3}1 and 3{0,3}11 (since any digit combo 10, 11, 13 between (3,1) will produce smaller primes)
**** For the 3{0,3}1 family, we can separate this family to four families:
***** For the 30{0,3}01 family, we have the prime 30301, and the remain case is the family 30{0}01.
****** All numbers of the form 30{0}01 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
***** For the 30{0,3}31 family, note that there must be an even number of 3's between (30,31), or the result number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
****** Since 33331 is prime, any digit combo 33 between (30,31) will produce smaller primes.
******* Thus, the only possible prime is the smallest prime in the family 30{0}31, and this prime is 300031.
***** For the 33{0,3}01 family, note that there must be an even number of 3's between (33,01), or the result number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
****** Since 33331 is prime, any digit combo 33 between (33,01) will produce smaller primes.
******* Thus, the only possible prime is the smallest prime in the family 33{0}01, and this prime is 33001.
***** For the 33{0,3}31 family, we have the prime 33331, and the remain case is the family 33{0}31.
****** All numbers of the form 33{0}31 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
**** All numbers of the form 3{0,3}11 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,2):
** 32 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,3):
** Since 32, 34, 23, 43, 313 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 3{0,3}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,4):
** 34 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,1):
** Since 43, 21, 401 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{1,4}1 (since any digits 0, 2, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 414, 111 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{4}1 and 4{4}11 (since any digit combo 14 or 11 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}1 is 44441.
**** All numbers of the form 4{4}11 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,2):
** Since 43, 12, 32 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,2,4}2 (since any digits 1, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 4{0,2,4}2 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,3):
** 43 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,4):
** Since 43, 34, 414 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,2,4}4 (since any digits 1, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 4{0,2,4}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.

===Base 6===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,5), (2,1), (2,5), (3,1), (3,5), (4,1), (4,5), (5,1), (5,5)

* Case (1,1):
** 11 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,5):
** 15 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,1):
** 21 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,5):
** 25 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,1):
** 31 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,5):
** 35 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,1):
** Since 45, 11, 21, 31, 51 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,4}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 4401 and 4441 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{0}1 and 4{0}41 (since any digits combo 40 and 44 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 4{0}1 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{0}41 is 40041
* Case (4,5):
** 45 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,1):
** 51 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,5):
** Since 51, 15, 25, 35, 45 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,5}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 5{0,5}5 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.

===Base 7===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6), (5,1), (5,2), (5,3), (5,4), (5,5), (5,6), (6,1), (6,2), (6,3), (6,4), (6,5), (6,6)

* Case (1,1):
** Since 14, 16, 41, 61, 131 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,1,2,5}1 (since any digits 3, 4, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since the digit sum of primes must be odd (otherwise the number will be divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime), there is an odd total number of 1 and 5 in the {}
**** If there are &gt;=3 number of 1 and 5 in the {}:
***** If there is 111 in the {}, then we have the prime 11111
***** If there is 115 in the {}, then the prime 115 is a subsequence
***** If there is 151 in the {}, then the prime 115 is a subsequence
***** If there is 155 in the {}, then the prime 155 is a subsequence
***** If there is 511 in the {}, then the current number is 15111, which has digit sum = 12, but digit sum divisible by 3 will cause the number divisible by 3 and cannot be prime, and we cannot add more 1 or 5 to this number (to avoid 11111, 155, 515, 551 as subsequence), thus we must add at least one 2 to this number, but then the number has both 2 and 5, and will have either 25 or 52 as subsequence, thus cannot be minimal prime
***** If there is 515 in the {}, then the prime 515 is a subsequence
***** If there is 551 in the {}, then the prime 551 is a subsequence
***** If there is 555 in the {}, then the prime 551 is a subsequence
**** Thus there is only one 1 (and no 5) or only one 5 (and no 1) in the {}, i.e. we only need to consider the families 1{0,2}1{0,2}1 and 1{0,2}5{0,2}1
***** For the 1{0,2}1{0,2}1 family, since 1211 is prime, we only need to consider the family 1{0}1{0,2}1
****** Since all numbers of the form 1{0}1{0}1 are divisible by 3 and cannot be prime, we only need to consider the family 1{0}1{0}2{0}1
******* Since 11201 is prime, we only need to consider the family 1{0}1{0}21
******** The smallest prime of the form 11{0}21 is 1100021
******** All numbers of the form 101{0}21 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime
******** The smallest prime of the form 1001{0}21 is 100121
********* Since this prime has no 0 between 1{0}1 and 21, we do not need to consider more families
***** For the 1{0,2}5{0,2}1 family, since 25 and 52 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0}5{0}1
****** Since 1051 is prime, we only need to consider the family 15{0}1
******* The smallest prime of the form 15{0}1 is 150001
* Case (1,2):
** Since 14, 16, 32, 52 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,1,2}2 (since any digits 3, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 1112 and 1222 are primes, there is at most one 1 and at most one 2 in {}
**** If there are one 1 and one 2 in {}, then the digit sum is 6, and the number will be divisible by 6 and cannot be prime.
**** If there is one 1 but no 2 in {}, then the digit sum is 4, and the number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
**** If there is no 1 but one 2 in {}, then the form is 1{0}2{0}2
***** Since 1022 and 1202 are primes, we only need to consider the number 122
****** 122 is not prime.
**** If there is no 1 and no 2 in {}, then the digit sum is 3, and the number will be divisible by 3 and cannot be prime.
* Case (1,3):
** Since 14, 16, 23, 43, 113, 133 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,5}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 155 is prime, we only need to consider the family 1{0}3 and 1{0}5{0}3
**** All numbers of the form 1{0}3 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
**** All numbers of the form 1{0}5{0}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (1,4):
** 14 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,5):
** Since 14, 16, 25, 65, 115, 155 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,3}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 1{0,3}5 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (1,6):
** 16 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,1):
** Since 23, 25, 41, 61, 221 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,1}1 (since any digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 2111 is prime, we only need to consider the families 2{0}1 and 2{0}1{0}1
**** All numbers of the form 2{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** All numbers of the form 2{0}1{0}1 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,2):
** Since 23, 25, 32, 52, 212 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2,4,6}2 (since any digits 1, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0,2,4,6}2 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,3):
** 23 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,4):
** Since 23, 25, 14 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2,4,6}4 (since any digits 1, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0,2,4,6}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,5):
** 25 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,6):
** Since 23, 25, 16, 56 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2,4,6}6 (since any digits 1, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0,2,4,6}6 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,1):
** Since 32, 41, 61 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,1,3,5}1 (since any digits 2, 4, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 551 is prime, we only need to consider the family 3{0,1,3}1 and 3{0,1,3}5{0,1,3}1 (since any digits combo 55 between (3,1) will produce smaller primes)
**** For the 3{0,1,3}1 family, since 3031 and 131 are primes, we only need to consider the families 3{0,1}1 and 3{3}3{0,1}1 (since any digits combo 03, 13 between (3,1) will produce smaller primes, thus for the digits between (3,1), all 3's must be before all 0's and 1's, and thus we can let the red 3 in 3{3}3{0,1}1 be the rightmost 3 between (3,1), all digits before this 3 must be 3's, and all digits after this 3 must be either 0's or 1's)
***** For the 3{0,1}1 family:
****** If there are &gt;=2 0's and &gt;=1 1's between (3,1), then at least one of 30011, 30101, 31001 will be a subsequence.
****** If there are no 1's between (3,1), then the form will be 3{0}1
******* All numbers of the form 3{0}1 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
****** If there are no 0's between (3,1), then the form will be 3{1}1
******* The smallest prime of the form 3{1}1 is 31111
****** If there are exactly 1 0's between (3,1), then there must be &lt;3 1's between (3,1), or 31111 will be a subsequence.
******* If there are 2 1's between (3,1), then the digit sum is 6, thus the number is divisible by 6 and cannot be prime.
******* If there are 1 1's between (3,1), then the number can only be either 3101 or 3011
******** Neither 3101 nor 3011 is prime.
******* If there are no 1's between (3,1), then the number must be 301
******** 301 is not prime.
***** For the 3{3}3{0,1}1 family:
****** If there are at least one 3 between (3,3{0,1}1) and at least one 1 between (3{3}3,1), then 33311 will be a subsequence.
****** If there are no 3 between (3,3{0,1}1), then the form will be 33{0,1}1
******* If there are at least 3 1's between (33,1), then 31111 will be a subsequence.
******* If there are exactly 2 1's between (33,1), then the digit sum is 12, thus the number is divisible by 3 and cannot be prime.
******* If there are exactly 1 1's between (33,1), then the digit sum is 11, thus the number is divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
******* If there are no 1's between (33,1), then the form will be 33{0}1
******** The smallest prime of the form 33{0}1 is 33001
****** If there are no 1 between (3{3}3,1), then the form will be 3{3}3{0}1
******* If there are at least 2 0's between (3{3}3,1), then 33001 will be a subsequence.
******* If there are exactly 1 0's between (3{3}3,1), then the form is 3{3}301
******** The smallest prime of the form 3{3}301 is 33333301
******* If there are no 0's between (3{3}3,1), then the form is 3{3}31
******** The smallest prime of the form 3{3}31 is 33333333333333331
**** For the 3{0,1,3}5{0,1,3}1 family, since 335 is prime, we only need to consider the family 3{0,1}5{0,1,3}1
***** Numbers containing 3 between (3{0,1}5,1):
****** The form is 3{0,1}5{0,1,3}3{0,1,3}1
******* Since 3031 and 131 are primes, we only need to consider the family 35{3}3{0,1,3}1 (since any digits combo 03, 13 between (3,1) will produce smaller primes)
******** Since 533 is prime, we only need to consider the family 353{0,1}1 (since any digits combo 33 between (35,1) will produce smaller primes)
********* Since 5011 is prime, we only need to consider the family 353{1}{0}1 (since any digits combo 01 between (353,1) will produce smaller primes)
********** If there are at least 3 1's between (353,{0}1), then 31111 will be a subsequence.
********** If there are exactly 2 1's between (353,{0}1), then the digit sum is 20, thus the number is divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
********** If there are exactly 1 1's between (353,{0}1), then the form is 3531{0}1
*********** The smallest prime of the form 3531{0}1 is 3531001, but it is not minimal prime since 31001 is prime.
********** If there are no 1's between (353,{0}1), then the digit sum is 15, thus the number is divisible by 6 and cannot be prime.
***** Numbers not containing 3 between (3{0,1}5,1):
****** The form is 3{0,1}5{0,1}1
******* If there are &gt;=2 0's and &gt;=1 1's between (3,1), then at least one of 30011, 30101, 31001 will be a subsequence.
******* If there are no 1's between (3,1), then the form will be 3{0}5{0}1
******** All numbers of the form 3{0}5{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
******* If there are no 0's between (3,1), then the form will be 3{1}5{1}1
******** If there are &gt;=3 1's between (3,1), then 31111 will be a subsequence.
******** If there are exactly 2 1's between (3,1), then the number can only be 31151, 31511, 35111
********* None of 31151, 31511, 35111 are primes.
******** If there are exactly 1 1's between (3,1), then the digit sum is 13, thus the number is divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
******** If there are no 1's between (3,1), then the number is 351
********* 351 is not prime.
******* If there are exactly 1 0's between (3,1), then the form will be 3{1}0{1}5{1}1 or 3{1}5{1}0{1}1
******** No matter 3{1}0{1}5{1}1 or 3{1}5{1}0{1}1, if there are &gt;=3 1's between (3,1), then 31111 will be a subsequence.
******** If there are exactly 2 1's between (3,1), then the number can only be 311051, 310151, 310511, 301151, 301511, 305111, 311501, 315101, 315011, 351101, 351011, 350111
********* Of these numbers, 311051, 301151, 311501, 351101, 350111 are primes.
********** However, 311051, 301151, 311501 have 115 as subsequence, and 350111 has 5011 as subsequence, thus only 351101 is minimal prime.
******** No matter 3{1}0{1}5{1}1 or 3{1}5{1}0{1}1, if there are exactly 1 1's between (3,1), then the digit sum is 13, thus the number is divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
******** If there are no 1's between (3,1), then the number is 3051 for 3{1}0{1}5{1}1 or 3501 for 3{1}5{1}0{1}1
********* Neither 3051 nor 3501 is prime.
* Case (3,2):
** 32 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,3):
** Since 32, 23, 43, 313 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3,5,6}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are &gt;=2 5's in {}, then 553 will be a subsequence.
*** If there are no 5's in {}, then the family will be 3{0,3,6}3
**** All numbers of the form 3{0,3,6}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there are exactly 1 5's in {}, then the family will be 3{0,3,6}5{0,3,6}3
**** Since 335, 65, 3503, 533, 56 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0}53 (since any digit 3, 6 between (3,5{0,3,6}3) and any digit 0, 3, 6 between (3{0,3,6}5,3) will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 3{0}53 is 300053
* Case (3,4):
** Since 32, 14, 304, 344, 364 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{3,5}4 (since any digits 0, 1, 2, 4, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 3334 and 335 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{5}4 and 3{5}34 (since any digits combo 33, 35 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 3{5}4 is 35555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555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with 9234 5's, which can be written as 3(5^9234)4 and equal the prime (23*7^9235-11)/6 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002766595757 factordb]) ([http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002766595757 primality certificate]) (not minimal prime, since 35555 and 5554 are primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 3{5}34 is 355555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555534 (not minimal prime, since 35555, 553, and 5554 are primes)
* Case (3,5):
** Since 32, 25, 65, 335 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,1,4,5}5 (since any digits 2, 3, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are at least one 1's and at least one 5's in {}, then either 155 or 515 will be a subsequence.
*** If there are at least one 1's and at least one 4's in {}, then either 14 or 41 will be a subsequence.
*** If there are at least two 1's in {}, then 115 will be a subsequence.
*** If there are exactly one 1's and no 4's or 5's in {}, then the family will be 3{0}1{0}5
**** All numbers of the form 3{0}1{0}5 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there is no 1's in {}, then the family will be 3{0,4,5}5
**** If there are at least to 4's in {}, then 344 and 445 will be subsequences.
**** If there is no 4's in {}, then the family will be 3{0,5}5
***** Since 3055 and 3505 are primes, we only need to consider the families 3{0}5 and 3{5}5
****** All numbers of the form 3{0}5 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
****** The smallest prime of the form 3{5}5 is 35555
**** If there is exactly one 4's in {}, then the family will be 3{0,5}4{0,5}5
***** Since 304, 3545 are primes, we only need to consider the families 34{0,5}5 (since any digits 0 or 5 between (3,4{0,5}5) will produce small primes)
****** All numbers of the form 34{0,5}5 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,6):
** Since 32, 16, 56, 346 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3,6}6 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 3{0,3,6}6 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,1):
** 41 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,2):
** Since 41, 43, 32, 52 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,2,4,6}2 (since any digits 1, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 4{0,2,4,6}2 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,3):
** 43 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,4):
** Since 41, 43, 14 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,2,4,5,6}4 (since any digits 1, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there is no 5's in {}, then the family will be 4{0,2,4,6}4
**** All numbers of the form 4{0,2,4,6}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there is at least one 5's in {}, then there cannot be 2 in {} (since if so, then either 25 or 52 will be a subsequence) and there cannot be 6 in {} (since if so, then either 65 or 56 will be a subsequence), thus the family is 4{0,4,5}5{0,4,5}4
**** Since 445, 4504, 544 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,5}5{5}4 (since any digit 4 between (4,5{0,4,5}4) and any digit 0, 4 between (4{0,4,5}5,4) will produce smaller primes)
***** If there are at least two 0's between (4,5{0,4,5}4), then 40054 will be a subsequence.
***** If there is no 0's between (4,5{0,4,5}4), then the family will be 4{5}5{5}4, which is equivalent to 4{5}4
****** The smallest prime of the form 4{5}4 is 45555555555555554 (not minimal prime, since 4555 and 5554 are primes)
***** If there is exactly one 0's between (4,5{0,4,5}4), then the family will be 4{5}0{5}5{5}4
****** Since 4504 is prime, we only need to consider the family 40{5}5{5}4 (since any digit 5 between (4,0{5}5{5}4) will produce small primes), which is equivalent to 40{5}4
******* The smallest prime of the form 40{5}4 is 405555555555555554 (not minimal prime, since 4555 and 5554 are primes)
* Case (4,5):
** Since 41, 43, 25, 65, 445 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,5}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are at least two 5's in {}, then 4555 will be a subsequence.
*** If there is exactly one 5's in {}, then the digit sum is 20, and the number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
*** If there is no 5's in {}, then the family will be 4{0}5
**** All numbers of the form 4{0}5 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,6):
** Since 41, 43, 16, 56 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,2,4,6}6 (since any digits 1, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 4{0,2,4,6}6 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (5,1):
** Since 52, 56, 41, 61, 551 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,1,3}1 (since any digits 2, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are at least two 3's in {}, then 533 will be a subsequence.
*** If there is no 3's in {}, then the family will be 5{0,1}1
**** Since 5011 is prime, we only need to consider the family 5{1}{0}1
***** Since 11111 is prime, we only need to consider the families 5{0}1, 51{0}1, 511{0}1, 5111{0}1 (since any digits combo 1111 between (5,1) will produce small primes)
****** All numbers of the form 5{0}1 are divisible by 6, thus cannot be prime.
****** The smallest prime of the form 51{0}1 is 5100000001
****** All numbers of the form 511{0}1 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
****** All numbers of the form 5111{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there is exactly one 3's in {}, then the family will be 5{0,1}3{0,1}1
**** If there is at least one 1's between (5,3{0,1}1), then 131 will be a subsequence.
***** Thus we only need to consider the family 5{0}3{0,1}1
****** If there are no 1's between (5{0}3,1), then the digit sum is 12, and the number will be divisible by 3 and cannot be prime.
****** If there are exactly one 1's between (5{0}3,1), then the digit sum is 13, and the number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
****** If there are exactly three 1's between (5{0}3,1), then the digit sum is 15, and the number will be divisible by 6 and cannot be prime.
****** If there are at least four 1's between (5{0}3,1), then 11111 will be a subsequence.
****** If there are exactly two 1's between (5{0}3,1), then the family will be 5{0}3{0}1{0}1{0}1
******* Since 5011 is prime, we only need to consider the family 5311{0}1 (since any digit 0 between (5,1{0}1) will produce small primes, this includes the leftmost three {} in 5{0}3{0}1{0}1{0}1, and thus only the rightmost {} can contain 0)
******** The smallest prime of the form 5311{0}1 is 531101
* Case (5,2):
** 52 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,3):
** Since 52, 56, 23, 43, 533, 553 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,1}3 (since any digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are at least two 1's in {}, then 113 will be a subsequence.
*** If there is exactly one 1's in {}, then the digit sum is 12, and the number will be divisible by 3 and cannot be prime.
*** If there is no 1's in {}, then the digit sum is 11, and the number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
* Case (5,4):
** Since 52, 56, 14, 544 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,3,5}4 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are no 5's in {}, then the family will be 5{0,3}4
**** All numbers of the form 5{0,3}4 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there are at least one 5's and at least one 3's in {}, then either 535 or 553 will be a subsequence.
*** If there are exactly one 5's and no 3's in {}, then the digit sum is 20, and the number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
*** If there are at least two 5's in {}, then 5554 will be a subsequence.
* Case (5,5):
** Since 52, 56, 25, 65, 515, 535 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,4,5}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are no 4's in {}, then the family will be 5{0,5}5
**** All numbers of the form 5{0,5}5 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there are no 5's in {}, then the family will be 5{0,4}5
**** All numbers of the form 5{0,4}5 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there are at least one 4's and at least one 5's in {}, then either 5455 or 5545 will be a subsequence.
* Case (5,6):
** 56 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,1):
** 61 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,2):
** Since 61, 65, 32, 52 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,2,4,6}2 (since any digits 1, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 6{0,2,4,6}2 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (6,3):
** Since 61, 65, 23, 43 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,3,6}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 6{0,3,6}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (6,4):
** Since 61, 65, 14 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,2,3,4,6}4 (since any digits 1, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there is no 3's in {}, then the family will be 6{0,2,4,6}4
**** All numbers of the form 6{0,2,4,6}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there are exactly two 3's in {}, then the family will be 6{0,2,4,6}3{0,2,4,6}3{0,2,4,6}4
**** All numbers of the form 6{0,2,4,6}3{0,2,4,6}3{0,2,4,6}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there are at least three 3's in {}, then 3334 will be a subsequence.
*** If there is exactly one 3's in {}, then the family will be 6{0,2,4,6}3{0,2,4,6}4
**** If there is 0 between (6,3{0,2,4,6}4), then 6034 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 2 between (6,3{0,2,4,6}4), then 23 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 4 between (6,3{0,2,4,6}4), then 43 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 6 between (6,3{0,2,4,6}4), then 6634 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 0 between (6{0,2,4,6}3,4), then 304 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 2 between (6{0,2,4,6}3,4), then 32 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 4 between (6{0,2,4,6}3,4), then 344 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 6 between (6{0,2,4,6}3,4), then 364 will be a subsequence.
**** Thus the number can only be 634
***** 634 is not prime.
* Case (6,5):
** 65 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,6):
** Since 61, 65, 16, 56 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,2,3,4,6}6 (since any digits 1, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there is no 3's in {}, then the family will be 6{0,2,4,6}6
**** All numbers of the form 6{0,2,4,6}6 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there is no 2's and no 4's in {}, then the family will be 6{0,3,6}6
**** All numbers of the form 6{0,3,6}6 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there is at least one 3's and at least one 2's in {}, then either 32 or 23 will be a subsequence.
*** If there is at least one 3's and at least one 4's in {}, then either 346 or 43 will be a subsequence.

===Base 8===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,3), (1,5), (1,7), (2,1), (2,3), (2,5), (2,7), (3,1), (3,3), (3,5), (3,7), (4,1), (4,3), (4,5), (4,7), (5,1), (5,3), (5,5), (5,7), (6,1), (6,3), (6,5), (6,7), (7,1), (7,3), (7,5), (7,7)

* Case (1,1):
** Since 13, 15, 21, 51, 111, 141, 161 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,7}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 107, 177, 701 are primes, we only need to consider the number 171 and the family 1{0}1 (since any digits combo 07, 70, 77 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** 171 is not prime.
**** All numbers of the form 1{0}1 factored as 10^n+1 = (2^n+1) * (4^n-2^n+1) (n≥1) (and since if n≥1, 2^n+1 ≥ 2^1+1 = 3 &gt; 1, 4^n-2^n+1 ≥ 4^1-2^1+1 = 3 &gt; 1, this factorization is nontrivial), thus cannot be prime.
* Case (1,3):
** 13 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,5):
** 15 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,7):
** Since 13, 15, 27, 37, 57, 107, 117, 147, 177 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{6}7 (since any digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** The smallest prime of the form 1{6}7 is 16667 (not minimal prime, since 667 is prime)
* Case (2,1):
** 21 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,3):
** 23 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,5):
** Since 21, 23, 27, 15, 35, 45, 65, 75, 225, 255 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0}5 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,7):
** 27 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,1):
** Since 35, 37, 21, 51, 301, 361 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{1,3,4}1 (since any digits 0, 2, 5, 6, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 13, 343, 111, 131, 141, 431, 3331, 3411 are primes, we only need to consider the families 3{3}11, 33{1,4}1, 3{3,4}4{4}1 (since any digits combo 11, 13, 14, 33, 41, 43 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 3{3}11 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 33{1,4}1 family, since 111 and 141 are primes, we only need to consider the families 33{4}1 and 33{4}11 (since any digits combo 11, 14 between them will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 33{4}1 is 3344441
***** All numbers of the form 33{4}11 are divisible by 301, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 3{3,4}4{4}1 family, since 3331 and 3344441 are primes, we only need to consider the families 3{4}1, 3{4}31, 3{4}341, 3{4}3441, 3{4}34441 (since any digits combo 33 or 34444 between (3,1) will produce smaller primes)
***** All numbers of the form 3{4}1 are divisible by 31, thus cannot be prime.
***** Since 4443 is prime, we only need to consider the numbers 3431, 34431, 34341, 344341, 343441, 3443441, 3434441, 34434441 (since any digit combo 444 between (3,3{4}1) will produce smaller primes)
****** None of 3431, 34431, 34341, 344341, 343441, 3443441, 3434441, 34434441 are primes.
* Case (3,3):
** Since 35, 37, 13, 23, 53, 73, 343 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3,6}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 3{0,3,6}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,5):
** 35 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,7):
** 37 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,1):
** Since 45, 21, 51, 401, 431, 471 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{1,4,6}1 (since any digits 0, 2, 3, 5, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 111, 141, 161, 661, 4611 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{4}11, 4{4,6}4{1,4,6}1, 4{4}6{4}1 (since any digits combo 11, 14, 16, 61, 66 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}11 is 44444444444444411 (not minimal prime, since 444444441 is prime)
**** For the 4{4,6}4{1,4,6}1 family, we can separate this family to 4{4,6}41, 4{4,6}411, 4{4,6}461
***** For the 4{4,6}41 family, since 661 and 6441 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{4}41 and 4{4}641 (since any digits combo 64 or 66 between (4,41) will produce smaller primes)
****** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}41 is 444444441
****** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}641 is 444641
***** For the 4{4,6}411 family, since 661 and 6441 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{4}411 and 4{4}6411 (since any digits combo 64 or 66 between (4,411) will produce smaller primes)
****** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}411 is 444444441
****** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}6411 is 4444444444444446411 (not minimal prime, since 444444441 and 444641 are primes)
***** For the 4{4,6}461 family, since 661 is prime, we only need to consider the family 4{4}461
****** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}461 is 4444444461 (not minimal prime, since 444444441 is prime)
**** For the 4{4}6{4}1 family, since 6441 is prime, we only need to consider the families 4{4}61 and 4{4}641 (since any digits combo 44 between (4{4}6,1) will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}61 is 4444444461 (not minimal prime, since 444444441 is prime)
***** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}641 is 444641
* Case (4,3):
** Since 45, 13, 23, 53, 73, 433, 463 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,4}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 4043 and 4443 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{0}3 and 44{0}3 (since any digits combo 04, 44 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 4{0}3 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
**** All numbers of the form 44{0}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,5):
** 45 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,7):
** Since 45, 27, 37, 57, 407, 417, 467 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{4,7}7 (since any digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 747 is prime, we only need to consider the families 4{4}7, 4{4}77, 4{7}7, 44{7}7 (since any digits combo 74 between (4,7) will produce smaller primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}7 is 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447, with 220 4's, which can be written as (4^220)7 and equal the prime (4*8^221+17)/7 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000416605822 factordb])
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}77 is 4444477
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{7}7 is 47777
**** The smallest prime of the form 44{7}7 is 4477777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777, with 851 7's, which can be written as 44(7^851) and equal the prime 37*8^851-1 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000413677646 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since 47777 is prime)
* Case (5,1):
** 51 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,3):
** 53 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,5):
** Since 51, 53, 57, 15, 35, 45, 65, 75 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,2,5}5 (since any digits 1, 3, 4, 6, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 225, 255, 5205 are primes, we only need to consider the families 5{0,5}5 and 5{0,5}25 (since any digits combo 20, 22, 25 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 5{0,5}5 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 5{0,5}25 family, since 500025 and 505525 are primes, we only need to consider the number 500525 the families 5{5}25, 5{5}025, 5{5}0025, 5{5}0525, 5{5}00525, 5{5}05025 (since any digits combo 000, 055 between (5,25) will produce smaller primes)
***** 500525 is not prime.
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}25 is 555555555555525
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}025 is 55555025
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}0025 is 5555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555550025, with 184 5's, which can be written as (5^183)0025 and equal the prime (5*8^187-20333)/7 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002350205912 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since 55555025 and 555555555555525 are primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}0525 is 5550525
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}00525 is 5500525
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}05025 is 5555555555555555555555505025 (not minimal prime, since 5550525, 55555025, and 555555555555525 are primes)
* Case (5,7):
** 57 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,1):
** Since 65, 21, 51, 631, 661 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,1,4,7}1 (since any digits 2, 3, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Numbers containing 4: (note that the number cannot contain two or more 4's, or 6441 will be a subsequence)
**** The form is 6{0,1,7}4{0,1,7}1
***** Since 141, 401, 471 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,7}4{1}1
****** Since 111 is prime, we only need to consider the families 6{0,7}41 and 6{0,7}411
******* For the 6{0,7}41 family, since 60741 is prime, we only need to consider the family 6{7}{0}41
******** Since 6777 is prime, we only need to consider the families 6{0}41, 67{0}41, 677{0}41
********* All numbers of the form 6{0}41 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
********* All numbers of the form 67{0}41 are divisible by 13, thus cannot be prime.
********* All numbers of the form 677{0}41 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
******* For the 6{0,7}411 family, since 60411 is prime, we only need to consider the family 6{7}411
******** The smallest prime of the form 6{7}411 is 67777411 (not minimal prime, since 6777 is prime)
*** Numbers not containing 4:
**** The form is 6{0,1,7}1
***** Since 111 is prime, we only need to consider the families 6{0,7}1 and 6{0,7}1{0,7}1
****** All numbers of the form 6{0,7}1 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
****** For the 6{0,7}1{0,7}1 family, since 711 and 6101 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0}1{7}1
******* Since 60171 is prime, we only need to consider the families 6{0}11 and 61{7}1
******** All numbers of the form 6{0}11 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
******** The smallest prime of the form 61{7}1 is 617771 (not minimal prime, since 6777 is prime)
* Case (6,3):
** Since 65, 13, 23, 53, 73, 643 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,3,6}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 6{0,3,6}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (6,5):
** 65 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,7):
** Since 65, 27, 37, 57, 667 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,1,4,7}7 (since any digits 2, 3, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 107, 117, 147, 177, 407, 417, 717, 747, 6007, 6477, 6707, 6777 are primes, there cannot be digits combo 00, 10, 11, 14, 17, 40, 41, 47, 70, 71, 74, 77 between them
**** If there is 1 between them, then there cannot be 1, 4, 7 before it and cannot be 0, 1, 4, 7 after it, thus the form will be 6{0}17
***** All numbers of the form 6{0}17 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** If there is 7 between them, then there cannot be 1, 4, 7 before it and cannot be 0, 1, 4, 7 after it, thus the form will be 6{0}77
***** All numbers of the form 6{0}77 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** If there is neither 1 nor 7 between them, then the form is 6{0,4}7
***** Since 6007, 407 at primes, we only need to consider the families 6{4}7 and 60{4}7 (since any digits combo 00, 40 between them will produce smaller primes)
****** All numbers of the form 6{4}7 are divisible by 3, 5, or 15, thus cannot be prime.
****** All numbers of the form 60{4}7 are divisible by 21, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (7,1):
** Since 73, 75, 21, 51, 701, 711 are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{4,6,7}1 (since any digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 747, 767, 471, 661, 7461, 7641 are primes, we only need to consider the families 7{4,7}4{4}1, 7{7}61, 7{7}7{4,6,7}1 (since any digits combo 46, 47, 64, 66, 67 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** For the 7{4,7}4{4}1 family, since 747, 471 are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{7}{4}1 (since any digits combo 47 between (7,4{4}1) will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 7{7}1 is 7777777777771
***** The smallest prime of the form 7{7}41 is 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777741, with 79 7's, which can be written as (7^79)41 and equal the prime 8^81-31 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000294462449 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since 7777777777771 is prime)
***** The smallest prime of the form 7{7}441 is 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777441, with 84 7's, which can be written as (7^84)441 and equal the prime 8^87-223 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000294462776 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since 7777777777771 is prime)
***** The smallest prime of the form 7{7}4441 is 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777774441, with 233 7's, which can be written as (7^233)4441 and equal the prime 8^237-1759 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002352073382 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since 7777777777771 is prime)
***** The smallest prime of the form 7{7}44441 is 7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777744441, with 56 7's, which can be written as (7^56)44441 and equal the prime 8^61-14047 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002350250002 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since 7777777777771 is prime)
***** All numbers of the form 7{7}444441 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
***** The smallest prime of the form 7{7}4444441 is 77774444441
****** Since this prime has just 4 7's, we only need to consider the families with &lt;=3 7's
******* The smallest prime of the form 7{4}1 is 744444441
******* All numbers of the form 77{4}1 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
******* The smallest prime of the form 777{4}1 is 777444444444441 (not minimal prime, since 444444441 and 744444441 are primes)
* Case (7,3):
** 73 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (7,5):
** 75 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (7,7):
** Since 73, 75, 27, 37, 57, 717, 747, 767 are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{0,7}7 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 7{0,7}7 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.

===Base 10===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,3), (1,7), (1,9), (2,1), (2,3), (2,7), (2,9), (3,1), (3,3), (3,7), (3,9), (4,1), (4,3), (4,7), (4,9), (5,1), (5,3), (5,7), (5,9), (6,1), (6,3), (6,7), (6,9), (7,1), (7,3), (7,7), (7,9), (8,1), (8,3), (8,7), (8,9), (9,1), (9,3), (9,7), (9,9)

* Case (1,1):
** 11 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,3):
** 13 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,7):
** 17 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,9):
** 19 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,1):
** Since 23, 29, 11, 31, 41, 61, 71, 251, 281 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2}1 (since any digits 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 2221 and 20201 are primes, we only need to consider the families 2{0}1, 2{0}21, 22{0}1 (since any digits combo 22 or 020 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 2{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form 2{0}21 is 20021
**** The smallest prime of the form 22{0}1 is 22000001
* Case (2,3):
** 23 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,7):
** Since 23, 29, 17, 37, 47, 67, 97, 227, 257, 277 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,8}7 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 887 and 2087 are primes, we only need to consider the families 2{0}7 and 28{0}7 (since any digit combo 08 or 88 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 2{0}7 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** All numbers of the form 28{0}7 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,9):
** 29 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,1):
** 31 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,3):
** Since 31, 37, 13, 23, 43, 53, 73, 83 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3,6,9}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 3{0,3,6,9}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,7):
** 37 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,9):
** Since 31, 37, 19, 29, 59, 79, 89, 349 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3,6,9}9 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 3{0,3,6,9}9 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,1):
** 41 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,3):
** 43 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,7):
** 47 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,9):
** Since 41, 43, 47, 19, 29, 59, 79, 89, 409, 449, 499 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{6}9 (since any digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 4{6}9 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (5,1):
** Since 53, 59, 11, 31, 41, 61, 71, 521 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,5,8}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 881 is prime, we only need to consider the families 5{0,5}1 and 5{0,5}8{0,5}1 (since any digit combo 88 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** For the 5{0,5}1 family, since 5051 and 5501 are primes, we only need to consider the families 5{0}1 and 5{5}1 (since any digit combo 05 or 50 between them will produce smaller primes)
***** All numbers of the form 5{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}1 is 555555555551
**** For the 5{0,5}8{0,5}1 family, since 5081, 5581, 5801, 5851 are primes, we only need to consider the number 581
***** 581 is not prime.
* Case (5,3):
** 53 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,7):
** Since 53, 59, 17, 37, 47, 67, 97, 557, 577, 587 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,2}7 (since any digits 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 227 and 50207 are primes, we only need to consider the families 5{0}7, 5{0}27, 52{0}7 (since any digits combo 22 or 020 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 5{0}7 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form 5{0}27 is 5000000000000000000000000000027
**** The smallest prime of the form 52{0}7 is 5200007
* Case (5,9):
** 59 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,1):
** 61 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,3):
** Since 61, 67, 13, 23, 43, 53, 73, 83 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,3,6,9}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 6{0,3,6,9}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (6,7):
** 67 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,9):
** Since 61, 67, 19, 29, 59, 79, 89 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,3,4,6,9}9 (since any digits 1, 2, 5, 7, 8 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 449 is prime, we only need to consider the families 6{0,3,6,9}9 and 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9 (since any digit combo 44 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 6{0,3,6,9}9 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9 family, since 409, 43, 6469, 499 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,3,6,9}49
***** Since 349, 6949 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,6}49
****** Since 60649 is prime, we only need to consider the family 6{6}{0}49 (since any digits combo 06 between {6,49} will produce smaller primes)
******* The smallest prime of the form 6{6}49 is 666649
******** Since this prime has just 4 6's, we only need to consider the families with &lt;=3 6's
********* The smallest prime of the form 6{0}49 is 60000049
********* The smallest prime of the form 66{0}49 is 66000049
********* The smallest prime of the form 666{0}49 is 66600049
* Case (7,1):
** 71 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (7,3):
** 73 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (7,7):
** Since 71, 73, 79, 17, 37, 47, 67, 97, 727, 757, 787 are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{0,7}7 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 7{0,7}7 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (7,9):
** 79 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (8,1):
** Since 83, 89, 11, 31, 41, 61, 71, 821, 881 are primes, we only need to consider the family 8{0,5}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 8501 is prime, we only need to consider the family 8{0}{5}1 (since any digits combo 50 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** Since 80051 is prime, we only need to consider the families 8{0}1, 8{5}1, 80{5}1 (since any digits combo 005 between them will produce smaller primes)
***** All numbers of the form 8{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
***** The smallest prime of the form 8{5}1 is 8555555555555555555551 (not minimal prime, since 555555555551 is prime)
***** The smallest prime of the form 80{5}1 is 80555551
* Case (8,3):
** 83 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (8,7):
** Since 83, 89, 17, 37, 47, 67, 97, 827, 857, 877, 887 are primes, we only need to consider the family 8{0}7 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 8{0}7 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (8,9):
** 89 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (9,1):
** Since 97, 11, 31, 41, 61, 71, 991 are primes, we only need to consider the family 9{0,2,5,8}1 (since any digits 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 251, 281, 521, 821, 881, 9001, 9221, 9551, 9851 are primes, we only need to consider the families 9{2,5,8}0{2,5,8}1, 9{0}2{0}1, 9{0}5{0,8}1, 9{0,5}8{0}1 (since any digits combo 00, 22, 25, 28, 52, 55, 82, 85, 88 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** For the 9{2,5,8}0{2,5,8}1 family, since any digits combo 22, 25, 28, 52, 55, 82, 85, 88 between (9,1) will produce smaller primes, we only need to consider the numbers 901, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801
***** 95801 is the only prime among 901, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801, but it is not minimal prime since 5801 is prime.
**** For the 9{0}2{0}1 family, since 9001 is prime, we only need to consider the numbers 921, 9201, 9021
***** None of 921, 9201, 9021 are primes.
**** For the 9{0}5{0,8}1 family, since 9001 and 881 are primes, we only need to consider the numbers 951, 9051, 9501, 9581, 90581, 95081, 95801
***** 95801 is the only prime among 951, 9051, 9501, 9581, 90581, 95081, 95801, but it is not minimal prime since 5801 is prime.
**** For the 9{0,5}8{0}1 family, since 9001 and 5581 are primes, we only need to consider the numbers 981, 9081, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801
***** 95801 is the only prime among 981, 9081, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801, but it is not minimal prime since 5801 is prime.
* Case (9,3):
** Since 97, 13, 23, 43, 53, 73, 83 are primes, we only need to consider the family 9{0,3,6,9}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 9{0,3,6,9}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (9,7):
** 97 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (9,9):
** Since 97, 19, 29, 59, 79, 89 are primes, we only need to consider the family 9{0,3,4,6,9}9 (since any digits 1, 2, 5, 7, 8 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 449 is prime, we only need to consider the families 9{0,3,6,9}9 and 9{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9 (since any digit combo 44 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 9{0,3,6,9}9 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 9{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9 family, since 9049, 349, 9649, 9949 are primes, we only need to consider the family 94{0,3,6,9}9
***** Since 409, 43, 499 are primes, we only need to consider the family 94{6}9 (since any digits 0, 3, 9 between (94,9) will produce smaller primes)
****** The smallest prime of the form 94{6}9 is 946669

===Base 12===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,5), (1,7), (1,B), (2,1), (2,5), (2,7), (2,B), (3,1), (3,5), (3,7), (3,B), (4,1), (4,5), (4,7), (4,B), (5,1), (5,5), (5,7), (5,B), (6,1), (6,5), (6,7), (6,B), (7,1), (7,5), (7,7), (7,B), (8,1), (8,5), (8,7), (8,B), (9,1), (9,5), (9,7), (9,B), (A,1), (A,5), (A,7), (A,B), (B,1), (B,5), (B,7), (B,B)

* Case (1,1):
** 11 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,5):
** 15 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,7):
** 17 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,B):
** 1B is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,1):
** Since 25, 27, 11, 31, 51, 61, 81, 91, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** The smallest prime of the form 2{0}1 is 2001
* Case (2,5):
** 25 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,7):
** 27 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,B):
** Since 25, 27, 1B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 8B, AB, 2BB are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2,9}B (since any digits 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 90B, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B are primes, we only need to consider the numbers 20B, 22B, 29B, 209B, 220B (since any digits combo 00, 02, 22, 29, 90, 92, 99 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** None of 20B, 22B, 29B, 209B, 220B are primes.
* Case (3,1):
** 31 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,5):
** 35 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,7):
** 37 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,B):
** 3B is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,1):
** Since 45, 4B, 11, 31, 51, 61, 81, 91, 401, 421, 471 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{4,A}1 (since any digit 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since A41 and 4441 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{A}1 and 44{A}1 (since any digit combo 44, A4 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 4{A}1 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form 44{A}1 is 44AAA1
* Case (4,5):
** 45 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,7):
** Since 45, 4B, 17, 27, 37, 57, 67, 87, A7, B7, 447, 497 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,7}7 (since any digit 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 4707 and 4777 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{0}7 and 4{0}77 (since any digit combo 70, 77 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 4{0}7 are divisible by B, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{0}77 is 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077
* Case (4,B):
** 4B is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,1):
** 51 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,5):
** Since 51, 57, 5B, 15, 25, 35, 45, 75, 85, 95, B5, 565 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,5,A}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 5{0,5,A}5 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (5,7):
** 57 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,B):
** 5B is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,1):
** 61 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,5):
** Since 61, 67, 6B, 15, 25, 35, 45, 75, 85, 95, B5, 655, 665 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,A}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 6A05 and 6AA5 are primes, we only need to consider the families 6{0}5 and 6{0}A5 (since any digit combo A0, AA between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 6{0}5 are divisible by B, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form 6{0}A5 is 600A5
* Case (6,7):
** 67 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,B):
** 6B is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (7,1):
** Since 75, 11, 31, 51, 61, 81, 91, 701, 721, 771, 7A1 are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{4,B}1 (since any digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 7BB, 7441 and 7B41 are primes, we only need to consider the numbers 741, 7B1, 74B1
**** None of 741, 7B1, 74B1 are primes.
* Case (7,5):
** 75 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (7,7):
** Since 75, 17, 27, 37, 57, 67, 87, A7, B7, 747, 797 are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{0,7}7 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 7{0,7}7 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (7,B):
** Since 75, 1B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 8B, AB, 70B, 77B, 7BB are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{2,9}B (since any digits 0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 222B, 729B is prime, we only need to consider the families 7{9}B, 7{9}2B, 7{9}22B (since any digits combo 222, 29 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 7{9}B is 7999B
**** The smallest prime of the form 7{9}2B is 79992B (not minimal prime, since 992B and 7999B are primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 7{9}22B is 79922B (not minimal prime, since 992B is prime)
* Case (8,1):
** 81 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (8,5):
** 85 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (8,7):
** 87 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (8,B):
** 8B is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (9,1):
** 91 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (9,5):
** 95 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (9,7):
** Since 91, 95, 17, 27, 37, 57, 67, 87, A7, B7, 907 are primes, we only need to consider the family 9{4,7,9}7 (since any digit 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 447, 497, 747, 797, 9777, 9947, 9997 are primes, we only need to consider the numbers 947, 977, 997, 9477, 9977 (since any digits combo 44, 49, 74, 77, 79, 94, 99 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** None of 947, 977, 997, 9477, 9977 are primes.
* Case (9,B):
** Since 91, 95, 1B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 8B, AB, 90B, 9BB are primes, we only need to consider the family 9{2,7,9}B (since any digit 0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 27, 77B, 929B, 992B, 997B are primes, we only need to consider the families 9{2,7}2{2}B, 97{2,9}B, 9{7,9}9{9}B (since any digits combo 27, 29, 77, 92, 97 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** For the 9{2,7}2{2}B family, since 27 and 77B are primes, we only need to consider the families 9{2}2{2}B and 97{2}2{2}B (since any digits combo 27, 77 between (9,2{2}B) will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 9{2}2{2}B is 9222B (not minimal prime, since 222B is prime)
***** The smallest prime of the form 97{2}2{2}B is 9722222222222B (not minimal prime, since 222B is prime)
**** For the 97{2,9}B family, since 729B and 929B are primes, we only need to consider the family 97{9}{2}B (since any digits combo 29 between (97,B) will produce smaller primes)
***** Since 222B is prime, we only need to consider the families 97{9}B, 97{9}2B, 97{9}22B (since any digit combo 222 between (97,B) will produce smaller primes)
****** All numbers of the form 97{9}B are divisible by 11, thus cannot be prime.
****** The smallest prime of the form 97{9}2B is 979999992B (not minimal prime, since 9999B is prime)
****** All numbers of the form 97{9}22B are divisible by 11, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 9{7,9}9{9}B family, since 77B and 9999B are primes, we only need to consider the numbers 99B, 999B, 979B, 9799B, 9979B
***** None of 99B, 999B, 979B, 9799B, 9979B are primes.
* Case (A,1):
** Since A7, AB, 11, 31, 51, 61, 81, 91, A41 are primes, we only need to consider the family A{0,2,A}1 (since any digits 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 221, 2A1, A0A1, A201 are primes, we only need to consider the families A{A}{0}1 and A{A}{0}21 (since any digits combo 0A, 20, 22, 2A between them will produce smaller primes)
**** For the A{A}{0}1 family:
***** All numbers of the form A{0}1 are divisible by B, thus cannot be prime.
***** The smallest prime of the form AA{0}1 is AA000001
***** The smallest prime of the form AAA{0}1 is AAA0001
***** The smallest prime of the form AAAA{0}1 is AAAA1
****** Since this prime has no 0's, we do not need to consider the families {A}1, {A}01, {A}001, etc.
**** All numbers of the form A{A}{0}21 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (A,5):
** Since A7, AB, 15, 25, 35, 45, 75, 85, 95, B5 are primes, we only need to consider the family A{0,5,6,A}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 565, 655, 665, A605, A6A5, AA65 are primes, we only need to consider the families A{0,5,A}5 and A{0}65 (since any digits combo 56, 60, 65, 66, 6A, A6 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form A{0,5,A}5 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form A{0}65 is A00065
* Case (A,7):
** A7 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (A,B):
** AB is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (B,1):
** Since B5, B7, 11, 31, 51, 61, 81, 91, B21 are primes, we only need to consider the family B{0,4,A,B}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 4B, AB, 401, A41, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41 are primes, we only need to consider the families B{A}0{4,A}1, B{0,4}4{4,A}1, B{0,4,A,B}A{0,A}1, B{B}B{A,B}1 (since any digits combo 00, 0B, 40, 4B, A4, AB, B0, B4 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** For the B{A}0{4,A}1 family, since A41 is prime, we only need consider the families B0{4}{A}1 and B{A}0{A}1
***** For the B0{4}{A}1 family, since B04A1 is prime, we only need to consider the families B0{4}1 and B0{A}1
****** The smallest prime of the form B0{4}1 is B04441 (not minimal prime, since 4441 is prime)
****** The smallest prime of the form B0{A}1 is B0AAAAA1 (not minimal prime, since AAAA1 is prime)
***** For the B{A}0{A}1 family, since A0A1 is prime, we only need to consider the families B{A}01 and B0{A}1
****** The smallest prime of the form B{A}01 is BAA01
****** The smallest prime of the form B0{A}1 is B0AAAAA1 (not minimal prime, since AAAA1 is prime)
**** For the B{0,4}4{4,A}1 family, since 4441 is prime, we only need to consider the families B{0}4{4,A}1 and B{0,4}4{A}1
***** For the B{0}4{4,A}1 family, since B001 is prime, we only need to consider the families B4{4,A}1 and B04{4,A}1
****** For the B4{4,A}1 family, since A41 is prime, we only need to consider the family B4{4}{A}1
******* Since 4441 and BAAA1 are primes, we only need to consider the numbers B41, B441, B4A1, B44A1, B4AA1, B44AA1
******** None of B41, B441, B4A1, B44A1, B4AA1, B44AA1 are primes.
****** For the B04{4,A}1 family, since B04A1 is prime, we only need to consider the family B04{4}1
******* The smallest prime of the form B04{4}1 is B04441 (not minimal prime, since 4441 is prime)
***** For the B{0,4}4{A}1 family, since 401, 4441, B001 are primes, we only need to consider the families B4{A}1, B04{A}1, B44{A}1, B044{A}1 (since any digits combo 00, 40, 44 between (B,4{A}1) will produce smaller primes)
****** The smallest prime of the form B4{A}1 is B4AAA1 (not minimal prime, since BAAA1 is prime)
****** The smallest prime of the form B04{A}1 is B04A1
****** The smallest prime of the form B44{A}1 is B44AAAAAAA1 (not minimal prime, since BAAA1 is prime)
****** The smallest prime of the form B044{A}1 is B044A1 (not minimal prime, since B04A1 is prime)
**** For the B{0,4,A,B}A{0,A}1 family, since all numbers in this family with 0 between (B,1) are in the B{A}0{4,A}1 family, and all numbers in this family with 4 between (B,1) are in the B{0,4}4{4,A}1 family, we only need to consider the family B{A,B}A{A}1
***** Since BAAA1 is prime, we only need to consider the families B{A,B}A1 and B{A,B}AA1
****** For the B{A,B}A1 family, since AB and BAAA1 are primes, we only need to consider the families B{B}A1 and B{B}AA1
******* All numbers of the form B{B}A1 are divisible by B, thus cannot be prime.
******* The smallest prime of the form B{B}AA1 is BBBAA1
****** For the B{A,B}AA1 family, since BAAA1 is prime, we only need to consider the families B{B}AA1
******* The smallest prime of the form B{B}AA1 is BBBAA1
**** For the B{B}B{A,B}1 family, since AB and BAAA1 are primes, we only need to consider the families B{B}B1, B{B}BA1, B{B}BAA1 (since any digits combo AB or AAA between (B{B}B,1) will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form B{B}B1 is BBBB1
***** All numbers of the form B{B}BA1 are divisible by B, thus cannot be prime.
***** The smallest prime of the form B{B}BAA1 is BBBAA1
* Case (B,5):
** B5 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (B,7):
** B7 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (B,B):
** Since B5, B7, 1B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 8B, AB, B2B are primes, we only need to consider the family B{0,9,B}B (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, A between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 90B and 9BB are primes, we only need to consider the families B{0,B}{9}B
**** Since 9999B is prime, we only need to consider the families B{0,B}B, B{0,B}9B, B{0,B}99B, B{0,B}999B
***** All numbers of the form B{0,B}B are divisible by B, thus cannot be prime.
***** For the B{0,B}9B family:
****** Since B0B9B and BB09B are primes, we only need to consider the families B{0}9B and B{B}9B (since any digits combo 0B, B0 between (B,9B) will produce smaller primes)
******* The smallest prime of the form B{0}9B is B0000000000000000000000000009B
******* All numbers of the from B{B}9B is either divisible by 11 (if totally number of B's is even) or factored as 10^(2*n)-21 = (10^n-5) * (10^n+5) (if totally number of B's is odd number 2*n-1 (n≥1)) (and since if n≥1, 10^n-5 ≥ 10^1-5 = 7 &gt; 1, 10^n+5 ≥ 10^1+5 = 15 &gt; 1, this factorization is nontrivial), thus cannot be prime.
***** For the B{0,B}99B family:
****** Since B0B9B and BB09B are primes, we only need to consider the families B{0}99B and B{B}99B (since any digits combo 0B, B0 between (B,99B) will produce smaller primes)
******* The smallest prime of the form B{0}99B is B00099B
******* The smallest prime of the form B{B}99B is BBBBBB99B
***** For the B{0,B}999B family:
****** Since B0B9B and BB09B are primes, we only need to consider the families B{0}999B and B{B}999B (since any digits combo 0B, B0 between (B,999B) will produce smaller primes)
******* The smallest prime of the form B{0}999B is B0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000999B, with 1765 0's, which can be written as B(0^1765)999B and equal the prime 11*12^1769+16967 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002378273165 factordb]) ([http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002378273165 primality certificate]) (not minimal prime, since B00099B and B0000000000000000000000000009B are primes)
******* The smallest prime of the form B{B}999B is BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB999B, with 245 B's, which can be written as (B^244)999B and equal the prime 12^248-3769 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002378270237 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since BBBBBB99B is prime)

== Examples of families which can be ruled out as contain no primes &gt; ''b'' ==

It is not known if this problem is solvable:

Problem: Given strings ''x'', ''y'', ''z'', and a base ''b'', does there exist a prime number whose base-''b'' expansion is of the form ''x''{''y''}''z''?

It will be necessary for our algorithm to determine if families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' contain a prime &gt; ''b'' or not. We use two different heuristic strategies to show that such families contain no primes &gt; ''b''.

In the first strategy, we mimic the well-known technique of “covering congruences”, by finding some finite set ''S'' of primes ''p'' such that every number in a given family is divisible by some element of ''S''. In the second strategy, we attempt to find an algebraic factorization, such as difference-of-squares factorization, difference-of-cubes factorization, and Aurifeuillian factorization for numbers of the form ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;.

Examples of first strategy: (we can show that the corresponding numbers are &gt; all elements in ''S'', if ''n'' makes corresponding numbers &gt; ''b'' (i.e. ''n''≥1 for 5{1} in base 9 and 2{5} in base 11 and {4}D in base 16 and {8}F in base 16, ''n''≥0 for other examples), thus these factorizations are nontrivial)

* In base 10, all numbers of the form 4{6}9 are divisible by 7
* In base 6, all numbers of the form 4{0}1 are divisible by 5
* In base 15, all numbers of the form 9{6}8 are divisible by 11
* In base 9, all numbers of the form 5{1} are divisible by some element of {2, 5}
* In base 11, all numbers of the form 2{5} are divisible by some element of {2, 3}
* In base 14, all numbers of the form B{0}1 are divisible by some element of {3, 5}
* In base 8, all numbers of the form 6{4}7 are divisible by some element of {3, 5, 13}
* In base 13, all numbers of the form 3{0}95 are divisible by some element of {5, 7, 17}
* In base 16, all numbers of the form {4}D are divisible by some element of {3, 7, 13}
* In base 16, all numbers of the form {8}F are divisible by some element of {3, 7, 13}

Examples of second strategy: (we can show that both factors are &gt; 1, if ''n'' makes corresponding numbers &gt; ''b'' (i.e. ''n''≥2 for {1} in base 9, ''n''≥0 for 1{0}1 in base 8 and B{4}1 in base 16, ''n''≥1 for other examples), thus these factorizations are nontrivial)

* In base 9, all numbers of the form {1} factored as difference of squares
* In base 8, all numbers of the form 1{0}1 factored as sum of cubes
* In base 9, all numbers of the form 3{8} factored as difference of squares
* In base 16, all numbers of the form 8{F} factored as difference of squares
* In base 16, all numbers of the form {F}7 factored as difference of squares
* In base 9, all numbers of the form 3{1} factored as difference of squares
* In base 16, all numbers of the form {4}1 factored as difference of squares
* In base 16, all numbers of the form 1{5} factored as difference of squares
* In base 16, all numbers of the from {C}D factored as ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;
* In base 16, all numbers of the form B{4}1 factored as difference of squares

Examples of combine of the two strategies: (we can show that for the part of the first strategy, the corresponding numbers are &gt; all elements in S, and for the part of the second strategy, both factors are &gt; 1, if n makes corresponding numbers &gt; b, thus these factorizations are nontrivial)

* In base 14, numbers of the form 8{D} are divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and factored as difference of squares if ''n'' is even
* In base 12, numbers of the form {B}9B are divisible by 13 if ''n'' is odd and factored as difference of squares if ''n'' is even
* In base 14, numbers of the form {D}5 are divisible by 5 if ''n'' is even and factored as difference of squares if ''n'' is odd
* In base 17, numbers of the form 1{9} are divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and factored as difference of squares if ''n'' is even
* In base 19, numbers of the form 1{6} are divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and factored as difference of squares if ''n'' is even

== Bases 2≤''b''≤1024 such that these families can be ruled out as contain no primes &gt; ''b'' ==

(using A−Z to represent digit values 10 to 35, z−a to represent digit values ''b''−1 to ''b''−26 (e.g. &quot;z&quot; means 1 in base 2, 2 in base 3, 3 in base 4, ..., 8 in base 9, 9 in base 10, A in base 11, B in base 12, ..., Y in base 35, Z in base 36, ...), only consider bases which these families are interpretable, e.g. digit &quot;7&quot; is only interpretable for bases ≥8, and digit &quot;u&quot; (means ''b''−6) is only interpretable for bases ≥7)

=== 1{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;''r''&lt;/sup&gt; with odd ''r''&gt;1: Sum-of-''r''th-powers factorization

=== 1{0}2 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== 1{0}3 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== 1{0}4 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}
* ''b'' == 14 mod 15: Finite covering set {3, 5}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;: Aurifeuillian factorization of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;

=== 1{0}5 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}

=== 1{0}6 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}

=== 1{0}7 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}

=== 1{0}z ===

(none)

=== 1{0}11 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{0}1) ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== 10{z} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{z}) ===

(none)

=== 11{0}1 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{0}1) ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== {1}0z (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1} or {1}z) ===

* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 2''b''−1 are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 25, 841)

=== {1} ===

* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;''r''&lt;/sup&gt; with ''r''&gt;1: Difference-of-''r''th-powers factorization (some bases still have primes, since for the corresponding length this factorization is trivial, but they only have this prime, they are 4 (length 2), 8 (length 3), 16 (length 2), 27 (length 3), 36 (length 2), 100 (length 2), 128 (length 7), 196 (length 2), 256 (length 2), 400 (length 2), 512 (length 3), 576 (length 2), 676 (length 2))

=== {1}2 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1}) ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}

=== 1{2} ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 2(''b''+1) are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 49)

=== 1{3} ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 3(''b''+2) are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 25, 361)
* ''b'' == 1 mod 2 such that 3(''b''+2) is square: Combine of finite covering set {2} (when length is even) and difference-of-squares factorization (when length is odd) (such bases are 25, 73, 145, 241, 361, 505, 673, 865)

=== 1{4} ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 4(''b''+3) are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization

=== 1{z} ===

(none)

=== 2{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== 2{0}3 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}

=== 2{1} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1}) ===

* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 2''b''−1 are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 25, 841)

=== {2}1 ===

* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 2(''b''+1) are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 49)

=== 2{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}

=== 3{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}

=== 3{0}2 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}

=== 3{0}4 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}

=== {3}1 ===

* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 3(2''b''+1) are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 121)

=== 3{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 14 mod 15: Finite covering set {3, 5}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;: Difference-of-squares factorization
* ''b'' == 4 mod 5: Combine of finite covering set {5} (when length is even) and difference-of-squares factorization (when length is odd)

=== 4{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}
* ''b'' == 14 mod 15: Finite covering set {3, 5}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;: Aurifeuillian factorization of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;

=== 4{0}3 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}

=== {4}1 ===

* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 4(3''b''+1) are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 16, 225)

=== 4{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}

=== 5{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== 5{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}
* ''b'' == 34 mod 35: Finite covering set {5, 7}
* ''b'' = 6''m''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; with ''m'' == 2 or 3 mod 5: Combine of finite covering set {5} (when length is odd) and difference-of-squares factorization (when length is even) (such bases are 24, 54, 294, 384, 864, 1014)

=== 6{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}
* ''b'' == 34 mod 35: Finite covering set {5, 7}

=== 6{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== 7{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}

=== 7{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}
* ''b'' == 20 mod 21: Finite covering set {3, 7}
* ''b'' == 83, 307 mod 455: Finite covering set {5, 7, 13} (such bases are 83, 307, 538, 762, 993)
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;: Difference-of-cubes factorization

=== 8{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 20 mod 21: Finite covering set {3, 7}
* ''b'' == 47, 83 mod 195: Finite covering set {3, 5, 13} (such bases are 47, 83, 242, 278, 437, 473, 632, 668, 827, 863, 1022)
* ''b'' = 467: Finite covering set {3, 5, 7, 19, 37}
* ''b'' = 722: Finite covering set {3, 5, 13, 73, 109}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;: Sum-of-cubes factorization
* ''b'' = 128: Cannot have primes since 7''n''+3 cannot be power of 2

=== 8{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;: Difference-of-squares factorization
* ''b'' == 4 mod 5: Combine of finite covering set {5} (when length is even) and difference-of-squares factorization (when length is odd)

=== 9{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}

=== 9{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 32 mod 33: Finite covering set {3, 11}

=== A{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 11: Finite covering set {11}
* ''b'' == 32 mod 33: Finite covering set {3, 11}

=== A{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}
* ''b'' == 14 mod 15: Finite covering set {3, 5}

=== B{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 14 mod 15: Finite covering set {3, 5}

=== B{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 11: Finite covering set {11}
* ''b'' == 142 mod 143: Finite covering set {11, 13}
* ''b'' = 307: Finite covering set {5, 11, 29}
* ''b'' = 901: Finite covering set {7, 11, 13, 19}

=== C{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 13: Finite covering set {13}
* ''b'' == 142 mod 143: Finite covering set {11, 13}
* ''b'' = 296, 901: Finite covering set {7, 11, 13, 19}
* ''b'' = 562, 828, 900: Finite covering set {7, 13, 19}
* ''b'' = 563: Finite covering set {5, 7, 13, 19, 29}
* ''b'' = 597: Finite covering set {5, 13, 29}

=== {#}$ (for bases ''b'' == 1 mod 3, # = (''b''−1)/3, $ = (''b''+2)/3) ===

(none)

=== {#}$ (for odd bases ''b'', # = (''b''−1)/2, $ = (''b''+1)/2) ===

* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;''r''&lt;/sup&gt; with odd ''r''&gt;1: Sum-of-''r''th-power factorization

=== #{z} (for even bases b, # = b/2−1) ===

(none)

=== y{z} ===

(none)

=== {y}z ===

(none)

=== z{0}1 ===

(none)

=== {z0}z1 (almost cannot be quasi-minimal prime, since this is not simple family) ===

* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;''r''&lt;/sup&gt; with odd ''r''&gt;1: Sum-of-''r''th-power factorization (some bases still have primes, since for the corresponding length this factorization is trivial, but they only have this prime, they are 128 (length 7), 216 (length 3), 343 (length 3), 729 (length 3))
* ''b'' = 4''m''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;: Aurifeuillian factorization of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; (base 4 still have primes, since for the corresponding length this factorization is trivial, but it only have this prime, at length 2)

=== {z}yz (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {z}y) ===

(none)

=== {z}1 ===

(none)

=== {z}t ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}

=== {z}u ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}
* ''b'' == 34 mod 35: Finite covering set {5, 7}

=== {z}v ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}

=== {z}w ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 14 mod 15: Finite covering set {3, 5}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;: Difference-of-squares factorization
* ''b'' == 4 mod 5: Combine of finite covering set {5} (when length is even) and difference-of-squares factorization (when length is odd)

=== {z}x ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== {z}y ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}

== Large known (probable) primes (length ≥10000) in these families (for bases 2≤''b''≤1024) ==

Format: base (length)

(using A−Z to represent digit values 10 to 35, z−a to represent digit values ''b''−1 to ''b''−26 (e.g. &quot;z&quot; means 1 in base 2, 2 in base 3, 3 in base 4, ..., 8 in base 9, 9 in base 10, A in base 11, B in base 12, ..., Y in base 35, Z in base 36, ...), only consider bases which these families are interpretable, e.g. digit &quot;7&quot; is only interpretable for bases ≥8, and digit &quot;u&quot; (means ''b''−6) is only interpretable for bases ≥7)

=== 1{0}1 ===

(none)

=== 1{0}2 ===

(none)

=== 1{0}3 ===

(none)

=== 1{0}4 ===

53 (13403)

113 (10647)

=== 1{0}z ===

113 (20089)

123 (64371)

=== 1{0}11 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{0}1) ===

(none)

=== 10{z} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{z}) ===

208 (26682)

607 (11032)

828 (19659)

=== 11{0}1 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{0}1) ===

201 (31276)

222 (52727)

227 (36323)

327 (135983)

425 (11231)

710 (24112)

717 (37508)

719 (13420)

=== {1} ===

152 (270217)

184 (16703)

200 (17807)

311 (36497)

326 (26713)

331 (25033)

371 (15527)

485 (99523)

629 (32233)

649 (43987)

670 (18617)

684 (22573)

691 (62903)

693 (41189)

731 (15427)

752 (32833)

872 (10093)

932 (20431)

=== {1}2 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1}) ===

(none)

=== 1{z} ===

107 (21911)

170 (166429)

278 (43909)

303 (40175)

383 (20957)

515 (58467)

522 (62289)

578 (129469)

590 (15527)

647 (21577)

662 (16591)

698 (127559)

704 (62035)

845 (39407)

938 (40423)

969 (24097)

989 (26869)

=== 2{0}1 ===

101 (192276)

206 (46206)

218 (333926)

236 (161230)

257 (12184)

305 (16808)

467 (126776)

578 (44166)

626 (174204)

695 (94626)

752 (26164)

788 (72918)

869 (49150)

887 (27772)

899 (15732)

932 (13644)

=== 2{z} ===

432 (16003)

=== 3{0}1 ===

912 (132174)

=== 3{z} ===

72 (1119850)

212 (34414)

218 (23050)

270 (89662)

303 (198358)

312 (51566)

422 (21738)

480 (93610)

513 (38032)

527 (46074)

566 (23874)

650 (498102)

686 (16584)

758 (15574)

783 (12508)

800 (33838)

921 (98668)

947 (10056)

=== 4{0}1 ===

107 (32587)

227 (13347)

257 (160423)

355 (10990)

410 (144079)

440 (56087)

452 (14155)

482 (30691)

542 (15983)

579 (67776)

608 (20707)

635 (11723)

650 (96223)

679 (69450)

737 (269303)

740 (58043)

789 (149140)

797 (468703)

920 (103687)

934 (101404)

962 (84235)

=== 4{z} ===

14 (19699)

68 (13575)

254 (15451)

800 (20509)

=== 5{0}1 ===

326 (400786)

350 (20392)

554 (10630)

662 (13390)

926 (40036)

=== 5{z} ===

258 (212135)

272 (148427)

299 (64898)

307 (26263)

354 (25566)

433 (283919)

635 (36163)

678 (40859)

692 (45447)

719 (20552)

768 (70214)

857 (23083)

867 (61411)

972 (36703)

=== 6{0}1 ===

108 (16318)

129 (16797)

409 (369833)

522 (52604)

587 (24120)

643 (164916)

762 (11152)

789 (27297)

986 (21634)

=== 6{z} ===

68 (25396)

332 (15222)

338 (42868)

362 (146342)

488 (33164)

566 (164828)

980 (50878)

986 (12506)

1016 (23336)

=== 7{0}1 ===

398 (17473)

1004 (54849)

=== 7{z} ===

97 (192336)

170 (15423)

194 (38361)

202 (155772)

282 (21413)

283 (164769)

332 (13205)

412 (29792)

560 (19905)

639 (10668)

655 (53009)

811 (31784)

814 (17366)

866 (108591)

908 (61797)

962 (31841)

992 (10605)

997 (15815)

=== 8{0}1 ===

23 (119216)

53 (227184)

158 (123476)

254 (67716)

320 (52004)

410 (279992)

425 (94662)

513 (19076)

518 (11768)

596 (148446)

641 (87702)

684 (23387)

695 (39626)

785 (900326)

788 (11408)

893 (86772)

908 (243440)

920 (107822)

962 (47222)

998 (81240)

1013 (43872)

=== 8{z} ===

138 (35686)

412 (12154)

788 (11326)

990 (23032)

=== 9{0}1 ===

248 (39511)

592 (96870)

=== 9{z} ===

431 (43574)

446 (152028)

458 (126262)

599 (11776)

846 (12781)

=== A{0}1 ===

173 (264235)

198 (47665)

311 (314807)

341 (106009)

449 (18507)

492 (42843)

605 (12395)

708 (17563)

710 (31039)

743 (285479)

744 (137056)

786 (68169)

800 (15105)

802 (149320)

879 (25004)

929 (13065)

977 (125873)

986 (48279)

1004 (10645)

=== A{z} ===

368 (10867)

488 (10231)

534 (80328)

662 (13307)

978 (14066)

=== B{0}1 ===

710 (15272)

740 (33520)

878 (227482)

=== B{z} ===

153 (21660)

186 (112718)

439 (18752)

593 (16064)

602 (36518)

707 (10573)

717 (67707)

=== C{0}1 ===

68 (656922)

219 (29231)

230 (94751)

312 (21163)

334 (83334)

353 (20262)

359 (61295)

457 (10024)

481 (45941)

501 (20140)

593 (42779)

600 (11242)

604 (17371)

641 (26422)

700 (91953)

887 (13961)

919 (45359)

923 (64365)

992 (10300)

=== {#}$ (for bases ''b'' == 1 mod 3, # = (''b''−1)/3, $ = (''b''+2)/3) ===

(none)

=== {#}$ (for odd bases ''b'', # = (''b''−1)/2, $ = (''b''+1)/2) ===

(none)

=== #{z} (for even bases b, # = b/2−1) ===

(none)

=== y{z} ===

38 (136212)

83 (21496)

113 (286644)

188 (13508)

401 (103670)

417 (21003)

458 (46900)

494 (21580)

518 (129372)

527 (65822)

602 (17644)

608 (36228)

638 (74528)

663 (47557)

723 (24536)

758 (50564)

833 (12220)

904 (13430)

938 (50008)

950 (16248)

=== z{0}1 ===

202 (46774)

251 (102979)

272 (16681)

297 (14314)

298 (60671)

326 (64757)

347 (69661)

363 (142877)

452 (71941)

543 (10042)

564 (38065)

634 (84823)

788 (13541)

869 (12289)

890 (37377)

953 (60995)

1004 (29685)

=== {z0}z1 (almost cannot be quasi-minimal prime, since this is not simple family) ===

53 (21942)

124 (16426)

175 (31626)

188 (22036)

316 (48538)

365 (25578)

373 (24006)

434 (10090)

530 (11086)

545 (12346)

560 (15072)

596 (12762)

701 (12576)

706 (10656)

821 (13536)

833 (17116)

966 (14820)

983 (11272)

=== {z}yz (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {z}y) ===

(none)

=== {z}1 ===

(none)

=== {z}y ===

317 (13896)

== Bases 2≤''b''≤1024 which have these families as unsolved families ==

Unsolved families are families which are neither primes (&gt;''b'') found nor can be ruled out as contain no primes &gt; ''b''

(using A−Z to represent digit values 10 to 35, z−a to represent digit values ''b''−1 to ''b''−26 (e.g. &quot;z&quot; means 1 in base 2, 2 in base 3, 3 in base 4, ..., 8 in base 9, 9 in base 10, A in base 11, B in base 12, ..., Y in base 35, Z in base 36, ...), only consider bases which these families are interpretable, e.g. digit &quot;7&quot; is only interpretable for bases ≥8, and digit &quot;u&quot; (means ''b''−6) is only interpretable for bases ≥7)

1{0}1: 38, 50, 62, 68, 86, 92, 98, 104, 122, 144, 168, 182, 186, 200, 202, 212, 214, 218, 244, 246, 252, 258, 286, 294, 298, 302, 304, 308, 322, 324, 338, 344, 354, 356, 362, 368, 380, 390, 394, 398, 402, 404, 410, 416, 422, 424, 446, 450, 454, 458, 468, 480, 482, 484, 500, 514, 518, 524, 528, 530, 534, 538, 552, 558, 564, 572, 574, 578, 580, 590, 602, 604, 608, 620, 622, 626, 632, 638, 648, 650, 662, 666, 668, 670, 678, 684, 692, 694, 698, 706, 712, 720, 722, 724, 734, 744, 746, 752, 754, 762, 766, 770, 792, 794, 802, 806, 812, 814, 818, 836, 840, 842, 844, 848, 854, 868, 870, 872, 878, 888, 896, 902, 904, 908, 922, 924, 926, 932, 938, 942, 944, 948, 954, 958, 964, 968, 974, 978, 980, 988, 994, 998, 1002, 1006, 1014, 1016 (length limit: ≥8388608)

1{0}2: 167, 257, 323, 353, 383, 527, 557, 563, 623, 635, 647, 677, 713, 719, 803, 815, 947, 971, 1013 (length limit: 2000)

1{0}3: 646, 718, 998 (length limit: 2000)

1{0}4: 139, 227, 263, 315, 335, 365, 485, 515, 647, 653, 683, 773, 789, 797, 815, 857, 875, 893, 939, 995, 1007 (length limit: 2000)

1{0}5

1{0}6

1{0}7

1{0}8

1{0}9

1{0}A

1{0}B

1{0}C

1{0}D

1{0}E

1{0}F

1{0}G

1{0}z: 173, 179, 257, 277, 302, 333, 362, 392, 422, 452, 467, 488, 512, 527, 545, 570, 575, 614, 622, 650, 677, 680, 704, 707, 734, 740, 827, 830, 851, 872, 886, 887, 902, 904, 908, 929, 932, 942, 947, 949, 962, 973, 1022 (length limit: 2000)

1{0}11 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{0}1): 198, 213, 318, 327, 353, 375, 513, 591, 647, 732, 734, 738, 759, 948, 951, 957, 1013, 1014 (length limit: 2000)

10{z} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{z}): 575 (length limit: 247000)

11{0}1 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{0}1): 813, 863, 962, 1017 (length limit: ≥100000)

{1}0z (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1} or {1}z): 137, 161, 167, 217, 229, 232, 253, 261, 317, 325, 337, 347, 355, 375, 403, 411, 421, 427, 457, 479, 483, 505, 507, 537, 547, 577, 597, 599, 601, 613, 627, 631, 632, 641, 643, 649, 657, 679, 688, 697, 707, 711, 729, 733, 737, 742, 762, 773, 787, 793, 797, 817, 819, 841, 843, 853, 859, 861, 874, 877, 895, 899, 907, 913, 916, 917, 927, 957, 959, 997, 1003, 1009, 1015, 1017 (length limit: 2000)

{1}: 185, 269, 281, 380, 384, 385, 394, 452, 465, 511, 574, 601, 631, 632, 636, 711, 713, 759, 771, 795, 861, 866, 881, 938, 948, 951, 956, 963, 1005, 1015 (length limit: ≥100000)

11{z} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{z})

{1}2 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1}): 31, 61, 91, 93, 143, 247, 253, 293, 313, 329, 371, 383, 391, 393, 403, 415, 435, 443, 451, 491, 493, 513, 523, 527, 537, 541, 553, 565, 581, 587, 601, 613, 615, 623, 627, 635, 663, 729, 735, 757, 763, 775, 783, 823, 843, 865, 873, 877, 883, 897, 931, 941, 943, 955, 983, 1013, 1015, 1021, 1023 (length limit: 2000)

{1}z

1{2}: 265, 355, 379, 391, 481, 649, 661, 709, 745, 811, 877, 977 (length limit: 2000)

1{3}: 107, 133, 179, 281, 305, 365, 473, 485, 487, 491, 535, 541, 601, 617, 665, 737, 775, 787, 802, 827, 905, 911, 928, 953, 955, 995

1{4}: 83, 143, 185, 239, 269, 293, 299, 305, 319, 325, 373, 383, 395, 431, 471, 503, 551, 577, 581, 593, 605, 617, 631, 659, 743, 761, 773, 781, 803, 821, 857, 869, 897, 911, 917, 923, 935, 983, 1019 (length limit: 2000)

1{z}: 581, 992, 1019 (length limit: ≥100000)

2{0}1: 365, 383, 461, 512, 542, 647, 773, 801, 836, 878, 908, 914, 917, 947, 1004 (length limit: ≥100000)

2{0}3: 79, 149, 179, 254, 359, 394, 424, 434, 449, 488, 499, 532, 554, 578, 664, 683, 694, 749, 794, 839, 908, 944, 982 (length limit: 2000)

2{1} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1}): 109, 117, 137, 147, 157, 175, 177, 201, 227, 235, 256, 269, 271, 297, 310, 331, 335, 397, 417, 427, 430, 437, 442, 451, 465, 467, 481, 502, 517, 547, 557, 567, 572, 577, 591, 597, 607, 627, 649, 654, 655, 667, 679, 687, 691, 697, 715, 727, 739, 759, 766, 782, 787, 796, 797, 808, 817, 821, 829, 841, 852, 877, 881, 899, 903, 907, 937, 947, 955, 1007, 1011, 1021 (length limit: 2000)

{2}1: 106, 238, 262, 295, 364, 382, 391, 397, 421, 458, 463, 478, 517, 523, 556, 601, 647, 687, 754, 790, 793, 832, 872, 898, 962, 1002, 1021 (length limit: 2000)

2{z}: 588, 972 (length limit: ≥100000)

3{0}1: 718 (length limit: ≥100000)

3{0}2: 223, 283, 359, 489, 515, 529, 579, 619, 669, 879, 915, 997 (length limit: 2000)

3{0}4: 167, 391, 447, 487, 529, 653, 657, 797, 853, 913, 937 (length limit: 2000)

{3}1: 79, 101, 189, 215, 217, 235, 243, 253, 255, 265, 313, 338, 341, 378, 379, 401, 402, 413, 489, 498, 499, 508, 525, 535, 589, 591, 599, 611, 621, 635, 667, 668, 681, 691, 711, 717, 719, 721, 737, 785, 804, 805, 813, 831, 835, 837, 849, 873, 911, 915, 929, 933, 941, 948, 959, 999, 1013, 1019 (length limit: 2000)

3{z}: 275, 438, 647, 653, 812, 927, 968 (length limit: ≥100000)

4{0}1: 32, 53, 155, 174, 204, 212, 230, 332, 334, 335, 395, 467, 512, 593, 767, 803, 848, 875, 1024 (length limit: ≥100000)

4{0}3: 83, 88, 97, 167, 188, 268, 289, 293, 412, 419, 425, 433, 503, 517, 529, 548, 613, 620, 622, 650, 668, 692, 706, 727, 763, 818, 902, 913, 937, 947, 958 (length limit: 2000)

{4}1: 46, 77, 103, 107, 119, 152, 198, 203, 211, 217, 229, 257, 263, 291, 296, 305, 332, 371, 374, 407, 413, 416, 440, 445, 446, 464, 467, 500, 542, 545, 548, 557, 566, 586, 587, 605, 611, 614, 632, 638, 641, 653, 659, 698, 701, 731, 733, 736, 755, 786, 812, 820, 821, 827, 830, 887, 896, 899, 901, 922, 923, 935, 941, 953, 977, 983, 991, 1004 (length limit: 2000)

4{z}: 338, 998 (length limit: ≥100000)

5{0}1: 308, 512, 824 (length limit: ≥100000)

5{z}: 234, 412, 549, 553, 573, 619, 750, 878, 894, 954 (length limit: ≥100000)

6{0}1: 212, 509, 579, 625, 774, 794, 993, 999 (length limit: ≥100000)

6{z}: 308, 392, 398, 518, 548, 638, 662, 878 (length limit: ≥100000)

7{0}1: (none)

7{z}: 321, 328, 374, 432, 665, 697, 710, 721, 727, 728, 752, 800, 815, 836, 867, 957, 958, 972 (length limit: ≥100000)

8{0}1: 86, 140, 182, 263, 353, 368, 389, 395, 422, 426, 428, 434, 443, 488, 497, 558, 572, 575, 593, 606, 698, 710, 746, 758, 770, 773, 824, 828, 866, 911, 930, 953, 957, 983, 993, 1014 (length limit: ≥100000)

8{z}: 378, 438, 536, 566, 570, 592, 636, 688, 718, 830, 852, 926, 1010 (length limit: ≥100000)

9{0}1: 724, 884 (length limit: ≥100000)

9{z}: 80, 233, 530, 551, 611, 899, 912, 980 (length limit: ≥100000)

A{0}1: 185, 338, 417, 432, 614, 668, 773, 863, 935, 1000 (length limit: ≥100000)

A{z}: 214, 422, 444, 452, 458, 542, 638, 668, 804, 872, 950, 962 (length limit: ≥100000)

B{0}1: 560, 770, 968 (length limit: ≥100000)

B{z}: 263, 615, 912, 978 (length limit: ≥100000)

C{0}1: 163, 207, 354, 362, 368, 480, 620, 692, 697, 736, 753, 792, 978, 998, 1019, 1022 (length limit: ≥100000)

C{z}

D{0}1

D{z}

E{0}1

E{z}

F{0}1

F{z}

G{0}1

{&amp;#35;}$ (for bases ''b'' == 1 mod 3, # = (''b''−1)/3, $ = (''b''+2)/3): 808, 829, 859, 1006 (length limit: 2000)

{&amp;#35;}$ (for odd bases ''b'', # = (''b''−1)/2, $ = (''b''+1)/2): 31, 37, 55, 63, 67, 77, 83, 89, 91, 93, 97, 99, 107, 109, 117, 123, 127, 133, 135, 137, 143, 147, 149, 151, 155, 161, 177, 179, 183, 189, 193, 197, 207, 211, 213, 215, 217, 223, 225, 227, 233, 235, 241, 247, 249, 255, 257, 263, 265, 269, 273, 277, 281, 283, 285, 287, 291, 293, 297, 303, 307, 311, 319, 327, 347, 351, 355, 357, 359, 361, 367, 369, 377, 381, 383, 385, 387, 389, 393, 397, 401, 407, 411, 413, 417, 421, 423, 437, 439, 443, 447, 457, 465, 467, 469, 473, 475, 481, 483, 489, 493, 495, 497, 509, 511, 515, 533, 541, 547, 549, 555, 563, 591, 593, 597, 601, 603, 611, 615, 619, 621, 625, 627, 629, 633, 635, 637, 645, 647, 651, 653, 655, 659, 663, 667, 671, 673, 675, 679, 683, 687, 691, 693, 697, 707, 709, 717, 731, 733, 735, 737, 741, 743, 749, 753, 755, 757, 759, 765, 767, 771, 773, 775, 777, 783, 785, 787, 793, 797, 801, 807, 809, 813, 817, 823, 825, 849, 851, 853, 865, 867, 873, 877, 887, 889, 893, 897, 899, 903, 907, 911, 915, 923, 927, 933, 937, 939, 941, 943, 945, 947, 953, 957, 961, 967, 975, 977, 983, 987, 993, 999, 1003, 1005, 1009, 1017 (length limit: ≥262143)

&amp;#35;{z} (for even bases ''b'', # = ''b''/2−1): 108, 278, 296, 338, 386, 494, 626, 920 (length limit: 2000)

${&amp;#35;} (for odd bases ''b'', # = (''b''−1)/2, $ = (''b''+1)/2)

x{z}

y{z}: 128, 233, 268, 383, 478, 488, 533, 554, 665, 698, 779, 863, 878, 932, 941, 1010 (length limit: ≥200000)

z{0}1: 123, 342, 362, 422, 438, 479, 487, 512, 542, 602, 757, 767, 817, 830, 872, 893, 932, 992, 997, 1005, 1007 (length limit: ≥100000)

{y}z: 143, 173, 176, 213, 235, 248, 253, 279, 327, 343, 353, 358, 373, 383, 401, 413, 416, 427, 439, 448, 453, 463, 481, 513, 522, 527, 535, 547, 559, 565, 583, 591, 598, 603, 621, 623, 653, 659, 663, 679, 691, 698, 711, 743, 745, 757, 768, 785, 793, 796, 801, 808, 811, 821, 835, 845, 847, 853, 856, 883, 898, 903, 927, 955, 961, 971, 973, 993, 1005, 1013, 1019, 1021 (length limit: 2000)

{z0}z1 (almost cannot be quasi-minimal prime, since this is not simple family): 97, 103, 113, 186, 187, 220, 304, 306, 309, 335, 414, 416, 428, 433, 445, 459, 486, 498, 539, 550, 557, 587, 592, 597, 598, 617, 624, 637, 659, 665, 671, 677, 696, 717, 726, 730, 740, 754, 766, 790, 851, 873, 890, 914, 923, 929, 943, 944, 965, 984, 985, 996, 1004, 1005 (length limit: ≥17326)

zy{z} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form y{z})

{z}yz (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {z}y): 215, 353, 517, 743, 852, 899, 913 (length limit: 2000)

{z}01 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {z}1)

{z}1: 93, 113, 152, 158, 188, 217, 218, 226, 227, 228, 233, 240, 275, 278, 293, 312, 338, 350, 353, 383, 404, 438, 464, 471, 500, 533, 576, 614, 641, 653, 704, 723, 728, 730, 758, 779, 788, 791, 830, 878, 881, 899, 908, 918, 929, 944, 953, 965, 968, 978, 983, 986, 1013 (length limit: 2000)

{z}k

{z}l

{z}m

{z}n

{z}o

{z}p

{z}q

{z}r

{z}s

{z}t

{z}u

{z}v

{z}w: 207, 221, 293, 375, 387, 533, 633, 647, 653, 687, 701, 747, 761, 785, 863, 897, 905, 965, 1017 (length limit: 2000)

{z}x: (none)

{z}y: 305, 353, 397, 485, 487, 535, 539, 597, 641, 679, 731, 739, 755 (length limit: 2000)

== List of lengths for quasi-minimal primes in some simple families ==

[https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/e/2PACX-1vTKkSNKGVQkUINlp1B3cXe90FWPwiegdA07EE7-U7sqXntKAEQrynoI1sbFvvKriieda3LfkqRwmKME/pubhtml list of lengths for quasi-minimal primes in some simple families for bases 2≤''b''≤1024]

NB: this family is not interpretable in this base (e.g. family 7{0}1 and 7{z} in bases &lt;=7, family {z}x in bases &lt;=3) (including the case which this family has either leading zeros (leading zeros do not count) or ending zeros (numbers ending in zero cannot be prime &gt; base) in this base)

RC: this family can be proven to only contain composite numbers (only count numbers &gt; base)

unknown: this family has no primes or PRPs found, nor can this family be proven to only contain composite numbers (only count numbers &gt; base)

Background color: red for title (bases or families), green for length &gt; 10000, orange for 2500 &lt; length ≤ 10000, white for length ≤ 2500, cyan for &quot;RC&quot;, pink for &quot;NB&quot;, yellow for &quot;unknown&quot;.

Search limit for lengths: ≥8388608 for 1{0}1, ≥200000 for y{z}, ≥100000 for ''d''{0}1 (''d'' = one of digits in {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C}) and ''d''{z} (''d'' = one of digits in {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B}) and z{0}1 and {1}, ≥5000 for 1{0}2, {z}y, 1{0}z, {z}1, {y}z, ≥2500 for other families.

== References ==

* [https://mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=24972 mersenneforum thread of this problem]

* [https://docs.google.com/document/d/e/2PACX-1vQct6Hx-IkJd5-iIuDuOKkKdw2teGmmHW-P75MPaxqBXB37u0odFBml5rx0PoLa0odTyuW67N_vn96J/pub Minimal elements for the base ''b'' representations of the primes which are &gt; ''b'' for bases ''b''≤16]

* [https://primes.utm.edu/glossary/xpage/MinimalPrime.html article “minimal prime” in The Prime Glossary]

* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimal_prime_(recreational_mathematics article “minimal prime” in Wikipedia]

* [https://www.primepuzzles.net/puzzles/puzz_178.htm the puzzle of minimal primes (when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required) in The Prime Puzzles &amp; Problems Connection]

* [https://www.primepuzzles.net/problems/prob_083.htm the problem of minimal primes in The Prime Puzzles &amp; Problems Connection]

* [https://github.com/xayahrainie4793/non-single-digit-primes my data for these M(Lb) sets for 2 ≤ b ≤ 16]

* [http://www.cs.uwaterloo.ca/~shallit/Papers/minimal5.pdf Shallit’s proof of base 10 minimal primes, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://scholar.colorado.edu/downloads/hh63sw661 proofs of minimal primes in bases b≤10, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/~cbright/reports/mepn.pdf the article for this minimal prime problem in bases b≤30, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/~cbright/talks/minimal-slides.pdf the article for this minimal prime problem in bases b≤30, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://doi.org/10.1080/10586458.2015.1064048 the article for this minimal prime problem in bases b≤30, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://github.com/curtisbright/mepn-data data for these M(Lb) sets and unsolved families for 2 ≤ b ≤ 30, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required, search limits of lengths: 1000000 for b=17, 707000 for b=19, 506000 for b=21, 292000 for b=25, 486000 for b=26, 543000 for b=28, 233000 for b=29]

* [https://github.com/RaymondDevillers/primes data for these M(Lb) sets and unsolved families for 2 ≤ b ≤ 50, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required, search limits of lengths: 10000 for all b]

* [http://www.bitman.name/math/article/730 article for minimal primes, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [http://www.bitman.name/math/table/497 data for minimal primes in bases 2 ≤ b ≤ 16, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [http://www.prothsearch.com/sierp.html the Sierpinski problem]

* [http://www.prothsearch.com/rieselprob.html the Riesel problem]

* [https://oeis.org/A076336/a076336c.html the dual Sierpinski problem]

* [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjectures.htm generalized Sierpinski conjectures in bases b≤1030, some primes found in these conjectures are minimal primes in base b, especially, all primes for k&amp;lt;b (if exist for a (k,b) combo) are always minimal primes in the base b) (also some examples for simple families contain no primes &amp;gt; b]

* [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjectures.htm generalized Riesel conjectures in bases b≤1030, some primes found in these conjectures are minimal primes in base b, especially, all primes for k&amp;lt;b (if exist for a (k,b) combo) are always minimal primes in the base b) (also some examples for simple families contain no primes &amp;gt; b]

* [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/tab/CRUS_tab.htm list for the status of the generalized Sierpinski conjectures and the generalized Riesel conjectures in bases b≤1030]

* [https://www.utm.edu/staff/caldwell/preprints/2to100.pdf article for generalized Sierpinski conjectures in bases b≤100]

* [http://www.kurims.kyoto-u.ac.jp/EMIS/journals/INTEGERS/papers/i61/i61.pdf article for the mixed (original+dual) Sierpinski problem]

* [http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenRepu.txt generalized repunit primes (primes of the form (bn−1)/(b−1)) in bases b≤160, the smallest such prime for base b (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20021111141203/http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~aads/primes.html generalized repunit primes (primes of the form (bn−1)/(b−1)) in bases b≤1000, the smallest such prime for base b (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [http://jeppesn.dk/generalized-fermat.html generalized Fermat primes (primes of the form b2^n+1) in even bases b≤1000, the smallest such prime for base b (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/GFN-primes.htm generalized Fermat primes (primes of the form b2^n+1) in even bases b≤1030, the smallest such prime for base b (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenFermOdd.txt list of generalized half Fermat primes (primes of the form (b2^n+1)/2) sorted by n, the smallest such prime for base b (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [https://harvey563.tripod.com/wills.txt primes of the form (b−1)*bn−1 for bases b≤2049, the smallest such prime for base b (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [https://www.rieselprime.de/ziki/Williams_prime_MM_least the smallest primes of the form (b−1)*bn−1 for bases b≤2049, these primes (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [https://www.rieselprime.de/ziki/Williams_prime_MP_least the smallest primes of the form (b−1)*bn+1 for bases b≤1024, these primes (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [https://www.rieselprime.de/ziki/Riesel_prime_small_bases_least_n the smallest primes of the form k*bn−1 for k≤12 and bases b≤1024, these primes (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b if b&gt;k]

* [https://www.rieselprime.de/ziki/Proth_prime_small_bases_least_n the smallest primes of the form k*bn+1 for k≤12 and bases b≤1024, these primes (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b if b&gt;k]

* [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/e/2PACX-1vTKkSNKGVQkUINlp1B3cXe90FWPwiegdA07EE7-U7sqXntKAEQrynoI1sbFvvKriieda3LfkqRwmKME/pubhtml list for the smallest primes in given simple family in bases b≤1024]

* [https://www.rose-hulman.edu/~rickert/Compositeseq/ a problem related to this project]

* [http://www.worldofnumbers.com/Appending%201s%20to%20n.txt a problem related to this project]

* [https://stdkmd.net/nrr/prime/primecount.txt near- and quasi- repdigit (probable) primes sorted by count]

* [https://stdkmd.net/nrr/prime/primedifficulty.txt near- and quasi- repdigit (probable) primes sorted by difficulty]

* [http://www.prothsearch.com/fermat.html factoring status of Fermat numbers]

* [http://www.rieselprime.de/dl/CRUS_pack.zip srsieve, sr1sieve, sr2sieve, pfgw, and llr softwares]

* [https://www.bc-team.org/app.php/dlext/?cat=3 srsieve, sr1sieve, sr2sieve, sr5sieve software]

* [https://sourceforge.net/projects/openpfgw/ pfgw software]

* [http://jpenne.free.fr/index2.html llr software]

* [http://www.ellipsa.eu/public/primo/primo.html PRIMO software]

* [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/index.html website for primality proving]

* [https://primes.utm.edu/curios/page.php?number_id=22380 the largest base 10 minimal prime in Prime Curios!]

* [https://oeis.org/A071062 OEIS sequence for base 10 minimal primes, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://oeis.org/A326609 OEIS sequence for the largest base b minimal prime, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://primes.utm.edu/primes/lists/all.txt top proven primes]

* [http://www.primenumbers.net/prptop/prptop.php top PRPs]

* [http://factordb.com online factor database, including many primes which are minimal primes in a small base]</text>
      <sha1>8la4gaw2ciwontj80yoj7lbw8p6d13x</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417873</id>
      <parentid>2417872</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T12:08:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>2402:7500:918:429F:30FC:297D:C6FD:FA83</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Condensed table */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2046262" xml:space="preserve">A '''quasi-minimal prime''' is a [[w:Prime number|prime number]] for which there is no shorter [[w:Subsequence|subsequence]] of its [[w:Numerical digit|digit]]s in a given [[w:Radix|base]] ''b'' that form a prime &gt; ''b''. For example, 857 is a quasi-minimal prime in [[w:Decimal|decimal]] because there is no prime &gt; 10 among the shorter subsequences of the digits: 8, 5, 7, 85, 87, 57. The subsequence does not have to consist of consecutive digits, so 149 is not a quasi-minimal prime in decimal (because 19 is prime and 19 &gt; 10). But it does have to be in the same order; so, for example, 991 is still a quasi-minimal prime in decimal even though a subset of the digits can form the shorter prime 19 &gt; 10 by changing the order.

(using A−Z to represent digit values 10 to 35)

For the quasi-minimal primes in bases up to 36, I have only solved (found all quasi-minimal primes and proved that these are all such primes) bases 2~12, 14~16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 30 (bases 11, 16, 22, 30 need primality proving of the probable primes). For the remain bases 13, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25~29, 31~36, there are some ''x''{''d''}''y'' (with ''x'', ''y'' strings (may be [[w:Empty string|empty]]) with digits in base ''b'', ''d'' digit in base ''b'') families which are not solved (not even a probable prime is known nor can be ruled out as only contain composites (only count the numbers &gt; base (''b'')).

I left as a challenge to readers the task of solving (finding all quasi-minimal primes and proving that these are all such primes) bases 13, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25~29, 31~36 (this will be a hard problem, e.g. base 23 has a quasi-minimal prime 9E&lt;sub&gt;800873&lt;/sub&gt;, and base 36 has quasi-minimal prime P&lt;sub&gt;81993&lt;/sub&gt;SZ).

Proving the set of the quasi-minimal primes in base ''b'' is ''S'', is equivalent to:

* Prove that all elements in ''S'', when read as base ''b'' representation, are primes &gt; ''b''.

* Prove that all [[w:Proper subset|proper]] subsequence of all elements in ''S'', when read as base ''b'' representation, which are &gt; ''b'', are composite.

* Prove that all primes &gt; ''b'', when written in base ''b'', contain at least one element in ''S'' as subsequence (equivalently, prove that all strings not containing any element in ''S'' as subsequence, when read as base ''b'' representation, which are &gt; ''b'', are composite).

e.g. proving the set of the quasi-minimal primes in base ''b'' = 10 is {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}, is equivalent to:

* Prove that all of 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027 are primes &gt; 10.

* Prove that all proper subsequence of all elements in {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027} which are &gt; 10 are composite.

* Prove that all primes &gt; 10 contain at least one element in {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027} as subsequence (equivalently, prove that all numbers &gt; 10 not containing any element in {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027} as subsequence are composite).

==Condensed table==

{|class=wikitable
|''b''||number of quasi-minimal primes base ''b''||base-''b'' form of largest known quasi-minimal prime base ''b''||length of largest known quasi-minimal prime base ''b''||algebraic ((''a''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+''c'')/''d'') form of largest known quasi-minimal prime base ''b''||number of unsolved families in base ''b''||searching limit of length for the unsolved families in base ''b'' (if there are different searching limits for the unsolved families in base ''b'', choose the lowest searching limit)
|-
|2||1||11||2||3||0||–
|-
|3||3||111||3||13||0||–
|-
|4||5||221||3||41||0||–
|-
|5||22||10&lt;sub&gt;93&lt;/sub&gt;13||96||5&lt;sup&gt;95&lt;/sup&gt;+8||0||–
|-
|6||11||40041||5||5209||0||–
|-
|7||71||3&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;1||17||(7&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/2||0||–
|-
|8||75||4&lt;sub&gt;220&lt;/sub&gt;7||221||(4×8&lt;sup&gt;221&lt;/sup&gt;+17)/7||0||–
|-
|9||151||30&lt;sub&gt;1158&lt;/sub&gt;11||1161||3×9&lt;sup&gt;1160&lt;/sup&gt;+10||0||–
|-
|10||77||50&lt;sub&gt;28&lt;/sub&gt;27||31||5×10&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt;+27||0||–
|-
|11&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||1068||57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;||62669||(57×11&lt;sup&gt;62668&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/10||0||–
|-
|12||106||40&lt;sub&gt;39&lt;/sub&gt;77||42||4×12&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;+91||0||–
|-
|13&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||3195~3197||80&lt;sub&gt;32017&lt;/sub&gt;111||32021||8×13&lt;sup&gt;32020&lt;/sup&gt;+183||2||128000
|-
|14||650||4D&lt;sub&gt;19698&lt;/sub&gt;||19699||5×14&lt;sup&gt;19698&lt;/sup&gt;−1||0||–
|-
|15||1284||7&lt;sub&gt;155&lt;/sub&gt;97||157||(15&lt;sup&gt;157&lt;/sup&gt;+59)/2||0||–
|-
|16&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||2347||3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF||116139||(16&lt;sup&gt;116139&lt;/sup&gt;+619)/5||0||–
|-
|17&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||10410~10428||F70&lt;sub&gt;186767&lt;/sub&gt;1||186770||262×17&lt;sup&gt;186768&lt;/sup&gt;+1||18||39000
|-
|18||549||C0&lt;sub&gt;6268&lt;/sub&gt;C5||6271||12×18&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+221||0||–
|-
|19&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||31404~31435||1E70&lt;sub&gt;122896&lt;/sub&gt;1||122900||634×19&lt;sup&gt;122897&lt;/sup&gt;+1||31||20000
|-
|20||3314||G0&lt;sub&gt;6269&lt;/sub&gt;D||6271||16×20&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+13||0||–
|-
|21&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||13375~13395||CF&lt;sub&gt;479147&lt;/sub&gt;0K||479150||(51×21&lt;sup&gt;479149&lt;/sup&gt;−1243)/4||20||20000
|-
|22&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||8003||BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5||22003||(251×22&lt;sup&gt;22002&lt;/sup&gt;−335)/21||0||–
|-
|24||3409||N00N&lt;sub&gt;8129&lt;/sub&gt;LN||8134||13249×24&lt;sup&gt;8131&lt;/sup&gt;−49||0||–
|-
|26&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||25250~25259||5&lt;sub&gt;19391&lt;/sub&gt;6F||19393||(26&lt;sup&gt;19393&lt;/sup&gt;+179)/5||9||20000
|-
|28&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||25526~25529||O4O&lt;sub&gt;94535&lt;/sub&gt;9||94538||(6092×28&lt;sup&gt;94536&lt;/sup&gt;−143)/9||4||20000
|-
|30&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||2619||OT&lt;sub&gt;34205&lt;/sub&gt;||34206||25×30&lt;sup&gt;34205&lt;/sup&gt;−1||0||–
|-
|36&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||35257~35263||P&lt;sub&gt;81993&lt;/sub&gt;SZ||81995||(5×36&lt;sup&gt;81995&lt;/sup&gt;+821)/7||6||20000
|}

&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; Data assumes the primality of the [[w:probable prime|probable prime]]s.

Except bases ''b'' = 13, 17, 19, 21, 26, 28, 36, all bases in this table are completely solved (if we allow strong probable primes &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;25000&lt;/sup&gt;), also, except bases ''b'' = 11, 13, 16, 17, 19, 21, 22, 26, 28, 30, 36, all bases in this table are completely solved even if we only allow definitely primes (thus, we can complete the classification of the quasi-minimal primes in these bases, i.e. the “quasi-minimal problems” in these bases are now theorems), for the quasi-minimal primes see the data below.

==Data for quasi-minimal primes==

===Base 2===

11

===Base 3===

12, 21, 111

===Base 4===

11, 13, 23, 31, 221

===Base 5===

12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 104, 111, 131, 133, 313, 401, 414, 3101, 10103, 14444, 30301, 33001, 33331, 44441, 300031, 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013

===Base 6===

11, 15, 21, 25, 31, 35, 45, 51, 4401, 4441, 40041

===Base 7===

14, 16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 43, 52, 56, 61, 65, 113, 115, 131, 133, 155, 212, 221, 304, 313, 335, 344, 346, 364, 445, 515, 533, 535, 544, 551, 553, 1022, 1051, 1112, 1202, 1211, 1222, 2111, 3031, 3055, 3334, 3503, 3505, 3545, 4504, 4555, 5011, 5455, 5545, 5554, 6034, 6634, 11111, 11201, 30011, 30101, 31001, 31111, 33001, 33311, 35555, 40054, 100121, 150001, 300053, 351101, 531101, 1100021, 33333301, 5100000001, 33333333333333331

===Base 8===

13, 15, 21, 23, 27, 35, 37, 45, 51, 53, 57, 65, 73, 75, 107, 111, 117, 141, 147, 161, 177, 225, 255, 301, 343, 361, 401, 407, 417, 431, 433, 463, 467, 471, 631, 643, 661, 667, 701, 711, 717, 747, 767, 3331, 3411, 4043, 4443, 4611, 5205, 6007, 6101, 6441, 6477, 6707, 6777, 7461, 7641, 47777, 60171, 60411, 60741, 444641, 500025, 505525, 3344441, 4444477, 5500525, 5550525, 55555025, 444444441, 744444441, 77774444441, 7777777777771, 555555555555525, 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447

===Base 9===

12, 14, 18, 21, 25, 32, 34, 41, 45, 47, 52, 58, 65, 67, 74, 78, 81, 87, 117, 131, 135, 151, 155, 175, 177, 238, 272, 308, 315, 331, 337, 355, 371, 375, 377, 438, 504, 515, 517, 531, 537, 557, 564, 601, 638, 661, 702, 711, 722, 735, 737, 751, 755, 757, 771, 805, 838, 1011, 1015, 1101, 1701, 2027, 2207, 3017, 3057, 3101, 3501, 3561, 3611, 3688, 3868, 5035, 5051, 5071, 5101, 5501, 5554, 5705, 5707, 7017, 7075, 7105, 7301, 8535, 8544, 8555, 8854, 20777, 22227, 22777, 30161, 33388, 50161, 50611, 53335, 55111, 55535, 55551, 57061, 57775, 70631, 71007, 77207, 100037, 100071, 100761, 105007, 270707, 301111, 305111, 333035, 333385, 333835, 338885, 350007, 500075, 530005, 555611, 631111, 720707, 2770007, 3030335, 7776662, 30300005, 30333335, 38333335, 51116111, 70000361, 300030005, 300033305, 351111111, 1300000007, 5161111111, 8333333335, 300000000035, 311111111161, 544444444444, 2000000000007, 5700000000001, 7270000000007, 88888888833335, 100000000000507, 5111111111111161, 7277777777777777707, 8888888888888888888335, 30000000000000000000051, 1000000000000000000000000057, 56111111111111111111111111111111111111, 7666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666662, 27777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777707, 300000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011

===Base 10===

11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027

===Base 11===

12, 16, 18, 21, 27, 29, 34, 38, 3A, 43, 49, 54, 56, 61, 65, 67, 72, 76, 81, 89, 92, 94, 98, 9A, A3, 10A, 115, 117, 133, 139, 153, 155, 171, 193, 197, 199, 1AA, 225, 232, 236, 25A, 263, 315, 319, 331, 335, 351, 353, 362, 373, 379, 391, 395, 407, 414, 452, 458, 478, 47A, 485, 4A5, 4A7, 502, 508, 511, 513, 533, 535, 539, 551, 571, 579, 588, 595, 623, 632, 70A, 711, 715, 731, 733, 737, 755, 759, 775, 791, 797, 7AA, 803, 847, 858, 85A, 874, 885, 887, 913, 919, 931, 937, 957, 959, 975, 995, A07, A1A, A25, A45, A74, A7A, A85, AA1, AA7, 1101, 11A9, 1305, 1451, 1457, 15A7, 175A, 17A5, 17A9, 2023, 2045, 2052, 2083, 20A5, 2333, 2A05, 2A52, 3013, 3026, 3059, 3097, 3206, 3222, 3233, 3307, 3332, 3505, 4025, 4151, 4157, 4175, 4405, 4445, 4487, 450A, 4575, 5017, 5031, 5059, 5075, 5097, 5099, 5105, 515A, 517A, 520A, 5301, 5583, 5705, 577A, 5853, 5873, 5909, 5A17, 5A57, 5A77, 5A8A, 6683, 66A9, 7019, 7073, 7079, 7088, 7093, 7095, 7309, 7451, 7501, 7507, 7578, 757A, 75A7, 7787, 7804, 7844, 7848, 7853, 7877, 78A4, 7A04, 7A57, 7A79, 7A95, 8078, 8245, 8333, 8355, 8366, 8375, 8425, 8553, 8663, 8708, 8777, 878A, 8A05, 9053, 9101, 9107, 9305, 9505, 9703, A052, A119, A151, A175, A515, A517, A575, A577, A5A8, A719, A779, A911, AAA9, 10011, 10075, 10091, 10109, 10411, 10444, 10705, 10709, 10774, 10901, 11104, 11131, 11144, 11191, 1141A, 114A1, 13757, 1411A, 14477, 144A4, 14A04, 14A11, 17045, 17704, 1774A, 17777, 177A4, 17A47, 1A091, 1A109, 1A114, 1A404, 1A411, 1A709, 20005, 20555, 22203, 25228, 25282, 25552, 25822, 28522, 30037, 30701, 30707, 31113, 33777, 35009, 35757, 39997, 40045, 4041A, 40441, 4045A, 404A1, 4111A, 411A1, 42005, 44401, 44474, 444A1, 44555, 44577, 445AA, 44744, 44A01, 47471, 47477, 47701, 5057A, 50903, 5228A, 52A22, 52A55, 52A82, 55007, 550A9, 55205, 55522, 55557, 55593, 55805, 57007, 57573, 57773, 57807, 5822A, 58307, 58505, 58A22, 59773, 59917, 59973, 59977, 59999, 5A015, 5A2A2, 5AA99, 60836, 60863, 68636, 6A609, 6A669, 6A696, 6A906, 6A966, 70048, 70103, 70471, 70583, 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===Base 12===

11, 15, 17, 1B, 25, 27, 31, 35, 37, 3B, 45, 4B, 51, 57, 5B, 61, 67, 6B, 75, 81, 85, 87, 8B, 91, 95, A7, AB, B5, B7, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1, 2BB, 401, 421, 447, 471, 497, 565, 655, 665, 701, 70B, 721, 747, 771, 77B, 797, 7A1, 7BB, 907, 90B, 9BB, A41, B21, B2B, 2001, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B, 4441, 4707, 4777, 6A05, 6AA5, 729B, 7441, 7B41, 929B, 9777, 992B, 9947, 997B, 9997, A0A1, A201, A605, A6A5, AA65, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41, 600A5, 7999B, 9999B, AAAA1, B04A1, B0B9B, BAA01, BAAA1, BB09B, BBBB1, 44AAA1, A00065, BBBAA1, AAA0001, B00099B, AA000001, BBBBBB99B, B0000000000000000000000000009B, 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077

===Base 13===

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===Base 14===

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===Base 15===

12, 14, 18, 1E, 21, 27, 2B, 2D, 32, 38, 3E, 41, 47, 4B, 4D, 54, 58, 5E, 67, 6B, 6D, 72, 74, 78, 87, 8B, 92, 94, 9E, A1, A7, AD, B2, B8, BE, C1, CB, CD, D2, D4, E1, ED, 111, 11B, 131, 137, 13B, 13D, 157, 15B, 15D, 171, 177, 197, 19D, 1B7, 1BB, 1D1, 1DB, 1DD, 234, 298, 311, 31B, 337, 33D, 344, 351, 357, 35B, 364, 377, 391, 39B, 39D, 3A4, 3BD, 3C4, 3D7, 3DB, 3DD, 452, 51B, 51D, 531, 53B, 551, 55D, 562, 571, 577, 5A2, 5B1, 5B7, 5BB, 5BD, 5C2, 5D1, 5D7, 634, 652, 681, 698, 717, 71B, 731, 737, 757, 75D, 77D, 79B, 79D, 7B1, 7B7, 7BD, 7D7, 7DD, 801, 852, 88D, 8D8, 91D, 93B, 93D, 95B, 95D, 971, 977, 97B, 97D, 988, 991, 9BD, 9C8, 9D1, A98, AAB, B1D, B31, B3B, B44, B51, B57, B7B, B7D, B97, B9B, BB7, BC4, BD1, BD7, BDD, C07, C34, C52, C7E, C98, CC7, CE7, D0E, D1D, D31, D51, D5B, D68, D77, D7B, D91, D97, DA8, DAE, DCE, DD1, EB4, EEB, 107B, 1091, 10B1, 1107, 110D, 1561, 1651, 1691, 1B01, 2052, 2502, 2522, 303B, 307D, 3097, 30BB, 30D1, 3107, 3361, 3701, 3907, 3B01, 3B0B, 3C97, 4434, 4498, 4834, 4898, 49A8, 4E34, 5037, 507D, 5091, 509B, 5107, 5161, 5202, 53C7, 5552, 570B, 590B, 590D, 59C7, 5A5B, 5C97, 5D0D, 5DAB, 6061, 6151, 6191, 6511, 6601, 6911, 707B, 7091, 7097, 70AE, 70BB, 70CE, 70DB, 7561, 760E, 7691, 76CE, 7907, 7961, 7A0E, 7A3B, 7AEE, 7B0B, 7BAB, 7C0E, 7C77, 7CAE, 7D0B, 7D61, 7DAB, 7E5B, 7E6E, 7E7B, 7EBB, 8098, 811D, 8191, 835D, 853D, 8881, 8908, 8951, 8968, 899D, 8D3D, 8D5D, 8D6E, 8DDD, 8E98, 9011, 9037, 9097, 90D7, 9301, 93C7, 95C7, 9611, 9631, 96A8, 9811, 9851, 989D, 990B, 990D, 998D, 99AB, 99C7, 99D8, 9A08, 9A9B, 9AA8, 9ABB, 9B61, 9BC7, 9D0B, 9DAB, 9DC7, 9DD8, A052, A304, A502, A55B, A9BB, AB04, AB64, B09D, B107, B10B, B161, B1AB, B1C7, B30D, B3C7, B50B, B664, B691, B6A4, B707, B761, B90D, B961, BA5B, BABB, BBAB, BBB4, BC37, BC77, C777, C937, C997, D011, D03D, D05D, D09B, D0B1, D0BD, D101, D10B, D30D, D3AB, D507, D50D, D66E, D761, D7DE, D811, D85D, D86E, D89D, D8C8, D8E8, D9AB, D9D8, DA3B, DA9B, DABB, DB01, DB61, DBAB, DC88, DD07, DD0B, DD7E, DD8D, DDE7, DE6E, E252, E33B, E522, E57B, E7AE, E7CE, E898, E997, E9A8, E9BB, EA34, EB5B, EE98, EEC7, 10017, 10B0D, 170AB, 17A0B, 19001, 19601, 1A09B, 1D0C7, 22E52, 2EA52, 30017, 3001D, 300B1, 301C7, 30334, 30631, 307AB, 3300B, 3333B, 36031, 36301, 37A0B, 37BBB, 39997, 3A30B, 3B0C7, 3D001, 3D601, 40034, 40968, 43334, 49668, 49998, 50022, 5009D, 501C7, 50222, 50507, 505C7, 50611, 50C57, 53007, 53997, 55537, 5555B, 5557B, 5599B, 56101, 56691, 56961, 5700D, 5755B, 59001, 59557, 59997, 5999D, 599DB, 59DDD, 5D99B, 5DD3D, 5DD9D, 60931, 63031, 65691, 66951, 69031, 69361, 69561, 70011, 70051, 7005B, 7006E, 7030D, 703AB, 70501, 70701, 707C7, 71601, 71951, 7300D, 7333B, 75001, 7555B, 75911, 76011, 76051, 766EE, 76EEE, 7700B, 77191, 77661, 7776E, 77771, 777BB, 77911, 77BBB, 79001, 7A05B, 7A66E, 7AA6E, 7AAAE, 7ACCE, 7C6EE, 7CCEE, 7CECE, 7CEEE, 7D3BB, 7E7C7, 7EECE, 80034, 80304, 80434, 809DD, 80A34, 84A34, 850DD, 85961, 86661, 88151, 88331, 88511, 88591, 88898, 890DD, 89998, 89D0D, 8D90D, 8E434, 90017, 90051, 900A8, 900DB, 901C7, 90C57, 90D8D, 91007, 91061, 9199B, 95997, 96068, 96561, 99397, 99537, 9999B, 999B7, 999D7, 999DB, 999DD, 99BBB, 99DBB, 99DD7, 99DDD, 9B007, 9B00B, 9B0AB, 9BB11, 9BBBB, 9D007, 9D08D, 9D537, 9D9BB, 9D9DB, 9DD57, 9DDB7, 9DDDB, 9DDDD, A0A34, A0B5B, A0BBB, A0E34, A2E52, A330B, A8434, A8834, A8E34, A909B, AAA34, AAE52, AB0BB, AB334, ABB34, AE034, AE834, AE99B, AEA52, AEE52, B0011, B0071, B0077, B00B1, B0611, B0A64, B500D, B599D, B6101, B7771, B7911, BA064, BAAA4, BAB34, BB061, BB304, BB53D, BB601, BBB91, BBB9D, BBBBD, BDA0B, BDBBB, D0088, D00D7, D0307, D05C7, D070D, D0888, D0B07, D0BC7, D0C08, D0DC7, D0DD8, D1661, D59DD, D5D3D, D5DDD, D6611, D700D, D8D0D, D900B, D9908, D999D, D9BBB, D9D9D, D9DDB, DB007, DB00D, DB1B1, DB53D, DB59D, DB99D, DBBB1, DD0D8, DD33B, DD3B7, DD3BB, DD57D, DD898, DD9DD, DDB37, DDBDB, DDD08, DDD3D, DDD5D, DDD7D, DDD88, DDD9D, DDDB7, DDDC8, DDDD7, DDE98, DE037, DE998, DEB07, E0098, E00C7, E0537, E0557, E077B, E0834, E0968, E3334, E37AB, E39C7, E4034, E5307, E55AB, E705B, E750B, E766E, E76EE, E8304, E8434, E9608, E9C37, EAE52, EBB0B, EC557, EC597, EC957, 1000BD, 1009AB, 10A90B, 1900AB, 190661, 19099B, 190A0B, 1A900B, 222A52, 2AAA52, 31000D, 330331, 333334, 3733AB, 373ABB, 3BBB61, 430004, 490068, 490608, 5000DB, 500D0B, 505557, 505A0B, 50D00B, 50DDDB, 50DDDD, 522222, 5500AB, 5500C7, 550957, 550A0B, 555A9B, 559057, 560011, 590661, 633331, 666331, 666591, 666661, 7050AB, 705A0B, 706101, 70A50B, 7300AB, 761661, 76666E, 777011, 777101, 77750B, 777A5B, 777CEE, 779051, 791501, 7E7797, 7ECCCE, 7EEE97, 800D9D, 808834, 836631, 83D661, 843004, 856611, 884034, 884304, 888E34, 88A434, 88AE34, 8A4034, 8AEE34, 8E8034, 8E8E34, 8EEE34, 9000BB, 9001AB, 900B07, 900D98, 903661, 905661, 906651, 9080DD, 9099A8, 909D9B, 90A668, 90DD9B, 90DDBB, 910001, 9100AB, 91A00B, 930007, 950001, 956661, 9909A8, 995907, 999068, 999507, 999907, 9B0B1B, 9B0BB1, 9BB01B, 9C5597, 9C5957, 9D09DD, 9D0D9D, 9D800D, 9DB307, 9DD09D, A00034, A0033B, A033B4, A2A252, AAAA52, ABBBBB, B00004, B0001B, B0003D, B00A04, B0555B, B07191, B07711, B07777, B0B911, B0BDBB, B77011, B777C7, BB0001, BB0034, BB035D, BB055B, BB0BDB, BB9101, BBB0DB, BBB50D, BBBB01, BBD0BB, C55397, C55557, C55597, D0003B, D00057, D0007D, D000B7, D000C8, D008DD, D00DAB, D0333B, D05537, D099DD, D09DDD, D0DDBB, D555C7, D5C537, D88008, D88088, D888EE, D909DD, D9D0DD, D9DD0D, DB0BBB, DBBB0B, DBBB0D, DC0008, DC5537, DDDDD8, DDDEBB, DDE99B, DE0808, DE0C57, DE300B, DE5537, DE8888, DEE088, DEE307, DEE888, DEEE37, DEEE57, DEEEC8, E0000B, E007BB, E00A52, E03BC7, E07ABB, E09B07, E0A99B, E0C397, E0E76E, E50057, E55007, E55597, E55937, E730AB, E73A0B, E80E34, E88834, E8E034, E90008, E95557, EA099B, EE4304, EE5057, EE5507, EE8E34, EE9307, EEE434, 100001D, 1000A9B, 1000DC7, 22AA252, 3000BC7, 3033301, 3076661, 333B304, 33B3034, 3B33304, 3D66661, 50007AB, 5005957, 5500597, 5550057, 5559007, 5559597, 5595007, 5966661, 5DDDDDB, 6366631, 7010001, 7066651, 7100061, 733BBBB, 766A6AE, 77505AB, 7776501, 777775B, 777AACE, 777ECCE, 777EEAE, 7CCCCCE, 7E30A0B, 7EEEEAE, 8300004, 8363331, 8693331, 880E834, 8833304, 8888034, 8888434, 888A034, 88A3334, 88E8834, 88EE034, 88EE304, 8AA3334, 8D0009D, 8EE8834, 9000361, 9000668, 9003331, 9005557, 9006008, 9008D0D, 9083331, 9090968, 90BBB01, 90D0908, 9500661, 9555597, 9555957, 9660008, 9900968, 9995597, 9996008, 9999557, 9999597, 9999908, 9A66668, A003B34, A003BB4, AA22252, B00B034, B00B35D, B033334, B0B6661, B0BB01B, B100001, B333304, B777777, B99999D, BA60004, BAA0334, BBB001B, BBB6611, BBBBB11, BBBD00B, BD000AB, D0000DB, D009098, D00CCC8, D00D908, D00D99D, D03000B, D0BB0BB, D0D9008, D0D9998, D1000C7, D800008, D8DDEEE, D90080D, DBBBBBB, DD09998, DDD5557, DDDDBBB, DDDDDBD, DDDE8EE, DECC008, DECCCC8, DEE0CC8, DEEC0C8, E000397, E0003BB, E000434, E00076E, E000937, E007A5B, E00909B, E0090B7, E009307, E00B077, E00E434, E00E797, E00E937, E05999B, E09009B, E0900B7, E0E0937, E0E7E97, E0EAA52, E0EEA52, E555057, E5555C7, E7777C7, E77E797, E88EE34, E999998, EA5999B, EB000BB, EB0BBBB, EE00434, EE0E797, EEE076E, EEE706E, EEE8834, EEEE557, EEEE797, 30333331, 30B66661, 33000034, 33030004, 33B33004, 500575AB, 55000007, 5500075B, 55500907, 55555057, 55555907, 55559507, 60003301, 60033001, 60330001, 7000003D, 70106661, 70666611, 77000001, 7777770B, 777777C7, 77777ACE, 77777EAE, 777E30AB, 777E3A0B, 7CCCC66E, 800005DD, 88AA0834, 90000008, 900008DD, 90099668, 90500557, 90555007, 90666668, 90909998, 90990998, 90996668, 9099999D, 90D00098, 90D90998, 95500057, 99099098, 99555057, 99900998, 99966608, 99966668, 99999668, 99999998, 9D009008, 9D090998, A0803334, A2222252, AAA52222, B00005AB, B000B55B, B0BBBB5B, B3330034, BB0BBB1B, BBAA3334, BBB0BB1B, BBB0BB5B, BBDB000B, D000BBBB, D00100C7, D8888888, D900008D, D9000098, DBB000BB, DC0CCCC8, DCC0CCC8, DCCCC008, DD000908, DD09009D, DDDDDDAB, DDDDDEEE, DDDEEE8E, DDDEEEE8, DEE80008, E0777E97, E0E0E397, E0E77797, E0EE0397, E7777797, E9066668, EE00E397, EE077797, EE0E0397, EEE00797, EEE07E97, EEE0AA52, EEE55397, EEE55557, EEEAAA52, EEEEE834, EEEEEA52, 300003331, 300007661, 300330031, 333000004, 333300001, 333B00034, 3700000AB, 3B3300034, 500000057, 555555007, 555555557, 5DDDDDDDD, 600000331, 7500000AB, 75000A00B, 75A00000B, 761000001, 77000E0C7, 777700EC7, 7777730AB, 7777777AE, 77777EE97, 7777E7E97, 777999997, 7A500000B, 7BBBBBB5B, 88888A834, 900000031, 900666608, 909990098, 90D009998, 950000557, 966666008, 990000007, 990555507, 999999997, A000000B4, A0005999B, AAEEEEE34, B000AA334, BBBBB005B, BBBBBBB5B, D09999998, D0D90009D, D800000DD, D90009998, DCCCC0CC8, DE88EEEEE, DEEEEEE88, E000B7777, E000BBBBB, E003ABBBB, EE0000797, EE0EEE397, EE5555557, EE777EE97, EEEEEE537, EEEEEE937, 2222222252, 3000000071, 3330030001, 3333303001, 3333330001, 500000007B, 5555555097, 7000000071, 77000000C7, 8333333331, 8888883334, 8888888834, 888888AA34, 900000009B, 900000009D, 900000DD9D, 9000099998, 9955555507, 9D0000099D, 9D05555557, AB0000005B, B000000DAB, B00000BBDB, BB00BB0B5B, BB0BB00B5B, D000099998, D00090008D, D0D000909D, D0DDDDDDDB, D300000007, D88EEEEEEE, D900999998, DD00900008, DDD6EEEEEE, DDDDDDD6EE, DDDDDDDDDE, DDDEEEEEEE, DEEEEE8008, E000000797, 7777777CCCE, 88888830004, 90000009D9D, 99955555557, 9999999999D, B00000D00AB, BB000BBB05B, BBBB0000B5B, D000009080D, D000090800D, D090800000D, DDDDDDD999B, DDDDDDDDD9B, EEEEEE00397, EEEEEEE0397, 333000000301, 5000000000DD, 73A00000000B, 9000000000B7, 903333333331, ABB00000000B, D000000001C7, DCCCCCCCCCC8, E0EEEEEEE397, 19A000000000B, 3333333333331, 3BBBBBBBBBBBB, 9333333333331, A00000000099B, B00000000050D, EEEEEEEEEE76E, 1000000000999B, 71000000000001, 908D000000000D, BBBBBBBBBB6661, 77777777777777B, BB00000000BBB5B, DEEEEEEEEEEEEEE, 7777777777777E97, B0BBBBBBBBBBBB1B, BB0000000000DB0B, D000000000000998, D908000000000000D, DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDB, E9666666666666668, 3330000000000000031, D00000000000000908D, E0BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB, 2EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE52, 77777777777777777ECE, 5000000000000000005AB, 777777777777777777997, 7BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB, BB0000000000000000DBB, DD000000000000000909D, D900000000000000000DDD, DD0000000000000000099D, BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB1, B00000000000000000000005B, B0700000000000000000000001, B70000000000000000000000001, 705000000000000000000000000B, 633000000000000000000000000001, EBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB, 500000000000000000000000000000000017, 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777CCE, 7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777CE, 96666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666608, EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE397, 7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777797

===Base 16===

11, 13, 17, 1D, 1F, 25, 29, 2B, 2F, 35, 3B, 3D, 43, 47, 49, 4F, 53, 59, 61, 65, 67, 6B, 6D, 71, 7F, 83, 89, 8B, 95, 97, 9D, A3, A7, AD, B3, B5, BF, C1, C5, C7, D3, DF, E3, E5, E9, EF, F1, FB, 14B, 15B, 185, 199, 1A5, 1BB, 1C9, 1EB, 223, 22D, 233, 241, 277, 281, 287, 28D, 2A1, 2D7, 2DD, 2E7, 301, 337, 373, 377, 38F, 3A1, 3A9, 41B, 42D, 445, 455, 45D, 481, 4B1, 4BD, 4CD, 4D5, 4E1, 4EB, 50B, 515, 51B, 527, 551, 557, 55D, 577, 581, 58F, 5AB, 5CB, 5CF, 5D1, 5D5, 5DB, 5E7, 623, 709, 727, 737, 745, 74B, 755, 757, 773, 779, 78D, 7BB, 7C3, 7C9, 7CD, 7DB, 7EB, 7ED, 805, 80F, 815, 821, 827, 841, 851, 85D, 85F, 8A5, 8DD, 8E1, 8F5, 923, 98F, 99B, 9A9, 9EB, A21, A6F, A81, A85, A99, A9F, AA9, AAB, ACF, B1B, B2D, B7B, B8D, B99, B9B, BB7, BB9, BCB, BDD, BE1, C0B, CB9, CBB, CEB, D01, D21, D2D, D55, D69, D79, D81, D85, D87, D8D, DAB, DB7, DBD, DC9, DCD, DD5, DDB, DE7, E21, E27, E4B, E7D, E87, EB1, EB7, ED1, EDB, EED, F07, F0D, F4D, FD9, FFD, 1069, 1505, 1609, 1669, 16A9, 19AB, 1A69, 1AB9, 2027, 204D, 2063, 207D, 20C3, 20ED, 2221, 22E1, 2327, 244D, 26C3, 274D, 2E01, 2E0D, 2ECD, 3023, 3079, 3109, 3263, 3341, 36AF, 3941, 3991, 39AF, 3E41, 3E81, 3EE1, 3EE7, 3F79, 4021, 40DB, 440B, 444B, 44A1, 44AB, 44DB, 4541, 45BB, 4A41, 4B0B, 4BBB, 4C4B, 4D41, 4DED, 5045, 50A1, 50ED, 540D, 5441, 555B, 556F, 5585, 560F, 56FF, 5705, 574D, 580D, 582D, 5855, 588D, 5A01, 5AA1, 5B01, 5B4B, 5B87, 5BB1, 5BEB, 5C4D, 5CDD, 5CED, 5DD7, 5DDD, 5E0D, 5E2D, 5EBB, 68FF, 6A69, 6AC9, 6C8F, 6CA9, 6CAF, 6F8F, 6FAF, 7033, 7063, 7075, 7087, 70A5, 70AB, 7303, 7393, 74DD, 754D, 7603, 7633, 7663, 7669, 7705, 772D, 775D, 77D5, 7807, 7877, 7885, 7939, 7969, 7993, 79AB, 7A05, 7A69, 7A9B, 7AA5, 7B77, 7BA9, 7D4D, 7D75, 7D77, 8077, 808D, 80D7, 80E7, 8587, 86CF, 8777, 8785, 8885, 88CF, 88ED, 88FD, 8C6F, 8C8F, 8E8D, 8EE7, 8F2D, 8F8D, 9031, 9041, 90AF, 90B9, 9221, 9319, 9401, 944B, 9881, 9931, 9941, 9991, 99AF, 9A0F, 9A1B, 9A4B, 9AFF, 9BA1, 9BB1, 9CAF, 9E81, 9EA1, 9FAF, A001, A05B, A0C9, A105, A10B, A4CB, A55B, A6C9, A88F, A91B, A9B1, A9BB, AA15, AB01, AB0B, AB19, ABBB, AC09, AF09, B041, B04B, B069, B07D, B087, B0B1, B0ED, B1A9, B201, B40B, B40D, B609, B70D, B7A9, B807, B9A1, BA41, BAA1, BB4B, BBB1, BBDB, BBED, BD19, BD41, BDBB, BDEB, BE07, BEE7, C0D9, C203, C24D, C6A9, C88D, C88F, C8CF, C8ED, C9AF, C9CB, CA09, CA4B, CA69, CAC9, CC0D, CC23, CC4D, CC9B, CD09, CDD9, CE4D, CEDD, CFA9, CFCD, D04B, D099, D405, D415, D44B, D4A5, D4DD, D50D, D70B, D74D, D77B, D7CB, D91B, D991, DA05, DA09, DA15, DA51, DB91, DBEB, DD7D, DDA1, DDED, DE0B, DE41, DE4D, DEA1, E02D, E07B, E0D7, E1CB, E2CD, E401, E801, EABB, EACB, EAEB, EBAB, EC4D, ECDD, ED07, EDD7, EE7B, EE81, EEAB, EEE1, F08F, F0A9, F227, F2ED, F3AF, F485, F58D, F72D, F763, F769, F787, F7A5, F7E7, F82D, F86F, F877, F88D, F8D7, F8E7, F8FF, FCCD, FED7, FF85, FF8F, FFA9, 100AB, 10BA9, 1A0CB, 1BA09, 200E1, 2C603, 2CC03, 30227, 303AF, 30AAF, 32003, 32207, 32CC3, 330AF, 33169, 33221, 33391, 33881, 33AFF, 38807, 38887, 3AFFF, 3F203, 3F887, 3FAFF, 400BB, 4084D, 40A4B, 42001, 44221, 44401, 444D1, 4480D, 4488D, 44CCB, 44D4D, 44E8D, 4804D, 4840D, 4A0CB, 4A54B, 4CACB, 4D0DD, 4D40D, 4D44D, 5004D, 50075, 502CD, 5044D, 50887, 50EE1, 5448D, 548ED, 55A45, 55F45, 5844D, 5A4A5, 5AE41, 5B0CD, 5B44D, 5BBCD, 5D4ED, 5E0E1, 5EB4D, 5EC8D, 5ECCD, 5EE41, 5F06F, 5F7DD, 5F885, 5F8CD, 5FC8D, 5FF75, 6088F, 60AFF, 630AF, 633AF, 660A9, 668CF, 669AF, 66A09, 66A0F, 66FA9, 6886F, 6A00F, 6A0FF, 6A8AF, 6AFFF, 7002D, 7024D, 70B0D, 70B7D, 7200D, 73363, 73999, 7444D, 770B7, 777D7, 77B07, 77D7D, 77DD7, 79003, 79999, 7B00D, 7D05D, 7D7DD, 8007D, 800D1, 8074D, 82CCD, 82E4D, 8448D, 8484D, 8704D, 8724D, 87887, 88001, 8800D, 880CD, 88507, 88555, 8866F, 8872D, 8877D, 888D1, 888D7, 88AA1, 88C2D, 88D57, 88D75, 88D77, 8AFAF, 8C2CD, 8C40D, 8C8CD, 8CCED, 8CE2D, 8CFED, 8E007, 8E20D, 8E24D, 8F6FF, 8FAAF, 900CB, 901AB, 90901, 909A1, 90AB1, 90AE1, 90EE1, 910AB, 93331, 940AB, 963AF, 966AF, 99019, 99109, 99A01, 9AAE1, 9B00B, 9B0AB, 9B441, 9BABB, 9BBBB, 9E441, A00BB, A0405, A044B, A08AF, A0A51, A0B91, A0C4B, 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4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444DD

===Base 17===

12, 16, 1C, 1E, 23, 27, 29, 2D, 32, 38, 3A, 3G, 43, 45, 4B, 4F, 54, 5C, 5G, 61, 65, 67, 6B, 78, 7C, 81, 83, 8D, 8F, 94, 9A, 9E, A3, A9, AB, B4, B6, BA, BC, C7, D2, D6, D8, DC, E1, E3, ED, F2, F8, FE, FG, G5, G9, GB, 104, 111, 115, 117, 11B, 137, 139, 13D, 14A, 14G, 155, 159, 15F, 171, 17B, 17D, 188, 191, 197, 19F, 1A4, 1A8, 1B3, 1BB, 1BF, 1DB, 1DD, 1F3, 1FD, 1G8, 1GA, 1GG, 20F, 214, 221, 225, 241, 25A, 25E, 285, 2B8, 2C5, 2CF, 2E5, 2EB, 2F6, 30E, 313, 331, 33B, 346, 34C, 351, 35F, 36E, 375, 37B, 391, 39B, 39D, 3B7, 3B9, 3BF, 3D3, 3D5, 3D9, 3DF, 3E4, 3EC, 3F1, 3F7, 407, 418, 447, 44D, 472, 474, 47E, 47G, 489, 49C, 4A1, 4C1, 4CD, 4D4, 4G1, 502, 506, 508, 50E, 519, 522, 528, 52A, 52E, 533, 53F, 551, 55D, 562, 566, 573, 577, 57F, 582, 593, 599, 59B, 59F, 5A6, 5B5, 5D1, 5D3, 5EA, 5EE, 5F9, 60D, 62F, 634, 649, 689, 692, 6CD, 6EF, 6F4, 6FA, 704, 706, 70G, 71D, 726, 737, 739, 73D, 73F, 753, 755, 764, 766, 76G, 771, 77B, 793, 7AA, 7AE, 7B3, 7BB, 7D7, 7E6, 7F3, 7F9, 7FF, 7G2, 7GE, 7GG, 825, 82B, 849, 852, 85E, 869, 876, 87A, 87G, 88B, 892, 898, 89C, 8C5, 8E7, 8G7, 908, 90G, 913, 91F, 92C, 935, 937, 93B, 951, 953, 957, 95D, 968, 96G, 979, 97B, 98C, 98G, 99D, 9B1, 9B3, 9B9, 9BD, 9BF, 9DB, 9DF, 9F1, 9F5, 9G6, A07, A0D, A1A, A2F, A4D, A72, A7A, A7E, AA1, AA7, ACF, ADA, AG1, AG7, B02, B08, B17, B1D, B28, B2G, B57, B71, B73, B79, B7F, B88, B8E, B8G, B9B, B9F, BB5, BB7, BD7, BDD, BEG, BFF, BGG, C01, C2F, C3E, C56, C6D, C89, C92, C9G, CA5, CBG, CC1, CC5, CF4, CFA, D04, D0A, D15, D3D, D3F, D55, D59, D5B, D71, D75, D7D, D91, D97, D99, D9D, DA4, DAG, DB3, DDB, DF1, DF7, DF9, DFF, E05, E0B, E2B, E52, E58, E69, E92, E9C, EAF, EB8, EC9, ECB, EE5, F04, F15, F1B, F35, F3B, F46, F51, F53, F64, F6A, F73, F79, F95, FAC, FB1, FCA, FD5, FDB, FF1, FF7, FFD, G0D, G0F, G18, G1A, G1G, G2F, G34, G63, G7G, GA7, GC3, GDG, GEF, GFA, GG7, GGD, 1013, 101D, 1033, 1035, 1051, 105B, 105D, 1077, 108A, 109B, 10AG, 10B1, 10B7, 10BD, 10FB, 1149, 1189, 11AF, 11G3, 1303, 130B, 1314, 1341, 1479, 14D9, 1501, 1503, 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DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD

====Additional known quasi-minimal primes (not necessarily the next)====

570&lt;sub&gt;51310&lt;/sub&gt;1, 49&lt;sub&gt;111333&lt;/sub&gt;, 970&lt;sub&gt;166047&lt;/sub&gt;1, F70&lt;sub&gt;186767&lt;/sub&gt;1

===Base 18===

11, 15, 1B, 1D, 21, 25, 27, 2B, 2H, 35, 37, 3D, 3H, 41, 47, 4B, 4H, 57, 5B, 5D, 5H, 61, 65, 71, 75, 7B, 7D, 85, 87, 8D, 91, 95, 9B, 9H, A1, AB, AD, AH, B1, BD, C7, CB, CD, CH, D5, D7, DH, E5, EB, EH, F1, F7, FB, FD, G5, H1, H5, H7, HB, 107, 167, 16H, 177, 17H, 1G7, 1HH, 20D, 24D, 26D, 29D, 30B, 36B, 381, 3BB, 405, 445, 44D, 49D, 4A5, 4DD, 4F5, 4GD, 501, 545, 5E1, 607, 62D, 64D, 66B, 66H, 67H, 68B, 697, 6A7, 6BB, 6E7, 6G7, 6GB, 6HH, 767, 76H, 77H, 797, 7HH, 801, 80H, 831, 83B, 86B, 88H, 8BB, 8FH, 8GH, 94D, 96D, 977, 9DD, 9ED, 9GD, A77, AC5, AE7, B07, B0H, B55, B77, B8B, B97, BB5, BB7, BBH, BE7, BFH, BGB, C01, C31, CA5, CG1, D2D, D4D, D81, DBB, DD1, DDB, DGD, E0D, E17, E31, E4D, E67, E6D, EA7, EDD, EE1, EED, EG7, F0H, F45, F8H, FC5, FFH, G0D, G17, G2D, G6B, G6H, GBB, GBH, GD1, GDD, GE1, GE7, GED, GFH, GG7, GGB, GHD, GHH, H0D, H2D, H8H, H9D, HGH, HHD, 100H, 19E7, 1A97, 1EE7, 1G8H, 1GGH, 22ED, 22GD, 2DED, 2E2D, 3001, 3031, 30C1, 30E1, 3331, 33G1, 3CC1, 40ED, 45C5, 46ED, 4CC5, 5331, 5551, 55G1, 5C05, 608H, 60ED, 60FH, 60HD, 666D, 66ED, 699D, 6B67, 6BGH, 6D0D, 6DDD, 6E9D, 6EGD, 6G0H, 6G9D, 6HGD, 700H, 70A7, 7A07, 7FGH, 7G77, 808B, 8881, 88G1, 88GB, 8BHH, 8EG1, 8GC1, 8H6H, 900D, 90E7, 90G7, 9667, 9907, 999D, 99E7, 9A67, 9A97, 9E97, 9EE7, 9G07, 9G67, 9GA7, AA45, AA97, AGA7, B005, B03B, B06B, B0C5, B60B, B63B, BAA5, BAA7, BCC5, BFA5, BG8H, C045, C055, C555, C5C1, C5F5, CC05, CC81, CCC5, D06D, D09D, D0ED, D38B, D3E1, D60D, D6DD, D8GB, DD6D, DE9D, DG01, E001, E097, E0G1, E8C1, EDC1, EE97, EGC1, EGG1, EGGD, FH6H, G007, G00B, G00H, G03B, G067, G097, G0C1, G0G1, G1GH, G33B, G38B, G3G1, G70H, G777, G88B, GA67, GAA7, GG81, GGC1, GGGH, H0FH, H66D, HEGD, HFHH, 1AAA7, 222DD, 30GG1, 3388B, 33E01, 38G8B, 3G3C1, 3GGG1, 4002D, 500C5, 50C55, 50CF5, 53GG1, 558C1, 55CC5, 55CF5, 58GG1, 5C8C1, 5CFF5, 5G881, 5GG31, 6000H, 6003B, 6006D, 600DB, 6033B, 606GD, 60D0B, 66GGD, 6D03B, 6D33B, 6H6DD, 6HD6D, 6HDED, 70G07, 70GGH, 777A7, 7AAG7, 7G0GH, 80G0B, 8888B, 8CCE1, 90067, 90097, 9022D, 99967, 99997, 9A007, 9A0A7, 9AA07, 9AAA7, 9E007, A0045, A0455, A0667, A09G7, A0A07, A0G07, A0G97, A9997, AA0A7, AAG67, B0AF5, B6GGH, B7GGH, B8HHH, BA045, BAF05, BG667, C0F05, C5005, C5581, C88C1, C8CC1, C8CE1, CCF55, D03C1, D060B, D080B, D0CC1, D0G0B, D0G8B, D3G3B, D600B, DDDED, DG331, DG80B, E8G81, E9007, F6GGH, G018H, G0301, G0331, G466D, G6667, G66GD, GD08B, GG18H, GG6GD, GGG4D, H060H, HGGGD, HHH6H, 199AA7, 40006D, 40600D, 46600D, 5055C5, 5505C5, 55CCC1, 588CC1, 58CCC1, 60000D, 60009D, 7077G7, 7707G7, 777G07, 88000B, 9099A7, A000A7, A009A7, A09067, A099A7, A0AAA7, A90AA7, A99AA7, AA0007, AA6667, AAAG07, BFFF05, BFFFF5, C0FFF5, CCECC1, CECCC1, CF0FF5, CFF005, D0008B, D0033B, D0088B, D0333B, D033GB, D03G31, D0633B, DD990D, DGGG31, FHHHHH, G00081, G6GGGD, G8GGG1, GGG001, GGG331, GGGGG1, GGGGGD, H0006H, H00H6H, HH600H, 222222D, 22DDDDD, 333333B, 5CCCCC1, 70007G7, 88CCCC1, 9000007, 9000A07, A000G67, AAAA667, BBBB33B, C000CF5, C000FF5, CCCCCE1, CCCCEC1, D00063B, D00GG31, D63333B, DCCCCC1, DDDDD9D, DGCCCC1, GCCCCC1, GG00031, 4022222D, 6000GGGD, 66666667, 770000G7, AAAAA007, B6666667, BBBBBB3B, CFFFFF55, D00000C1, D0000EC1, 455555555, 5555550C5, 667777777, A00000967, A00009097, A00009967, A45555555, AAAAAAA07, BHHHHHHHH, CCCCCCCC1, CF0000005, CFFFFFF05, D00000G3B, E0CCCCCC1, G00000031, 70000000G7, A000000097, D000003301, 777777700G7, A0000900007, D0000000001, D000000GGG1, 677777777777, 8HHHHHHHHHHH, 2DDDDDDDDDDDD, 55555555555C5, 77AAAAAAAAAA7, D00000000006B, D0000000003GB, AAAAAAAAAAAAAA7, D0000000000000B, 77777777777777G7, CCFFFFFFFFFFFFFF5, BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB6B, CFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF5, GG0000000000000000000000000000001, HDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD, C00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000F5, 80000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000B, HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHFH, C0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000C5

===Base 19===

====Additional known quasi-minimal primes (not necessarily the next)====

90&lt;sub&gt;42994&lt;/sub&gt;G, 4F0&lt;sub&gt;49847&lt;/sub&gt;6, FG6&lt;sub&gt;110984&lt;/sub&gt;, 1E70&lt;sub&gt;122896&lt;/sub&gt;1

===Base 20===

13, 19, 1B, 1H, 21, 23, 27, 2D, 2J, 31, 37, 3B, 3D, 3J, 43, 49, 4H, 51, 53, 57, 59, 5D, 67, 6B, 6H, 6J, 79, 7B, 7H, 83, 87, 8D, 8J, 91, 9B, 9D, 9H, 9J, AB, B3, B7, B9, BD, BJ, C1, CB, CH, D3, D9, DB, DH, E1, E3, ED, F7, FB, FD, FH, GB, GH, H7, H9, HD, HJ, I7, ID, IJ, J3, J9, JH, 101, 10J, 111, 11D, 11J, 147, 14J, 161, 171, 177, 1A1, 1A7, 1AD, 1AJ, 1C7, 1CD, 1CJ, 1D1, 1DD, 1F1, 1FJ, 1G7, 1GD, 1GJ, 1I1, 1J7, 209, 20B, 22H, 25B, 269, 28B, 28H, 2A9, 2BB, 2C9, 2EB, 2EH, 2F9, 2G9, 2HB, 2IB, 30H, 329, 33H, 3A9, 3E9, 3G3, 3H3, 401, 407, 40D, 40J, 411, 417, 44D, 44J, 461, 46D, 471, 477, 47D, 47J, 4A1, 4BB, 4C7, 4D1, 4D7, 4DD, 4DJ, 4F1, 4GD, 4J7, 4JD, 4JJ, 50B, 50H, 54J, 55B, 5BH, 5EH, 5GJ, 5HB, 5HH, 5IB, 5IH, 5JJ, 661, 6A9, 6E9, 6G9, 701, 703, 70J, 71D, 747, 77D, 7A1, 7AJ, 7D1, 7D7, 7DJ, 7FJ, 7G1, 7I3, 7J1, 7J7, 809, 80H, 811, 82B, 82H, 869, 881, 88B, 899, 8C9, 8EB, 8G9, 8H1, 8HH, 8IB, 907, 989, 9A3, 9C7, 9E9, 9G3, 9G9, A01, A03, A07, A0D, A0J, A11, A17, A29, A2H, A4D, A4J, A69, A6D, A7D, A7J, A8H, AA1, AAH, AAJ, AC3, ACD, ACJ, AD1, ADD, AE9, AEH, AG7, AGJ, AHH, AI3, B11, B2B, B2H, B41, B5H, B81, BB1, BBH, BEB, BG1, BHB, C0D, C5J, C6D, C73, C89, C97, CA3, CA9, CCJ, CE7, CEJ, CFJ, D17, D1D, D41, D6D, D77, DA7, DAD, DAJ, DDJ, DF1, DFJ, DG1, DG7, DJ1, E2B, E2H, E5B, E5H, EA7, EC9, EEH, EG7, EGJ, EJ7, F61, FA3, FEJ, FF1, FG3, FG9, FI1, G11, G17, G29, G39, G41, G61, G69, G77, G7D, G89, GA7, GAJ, GCD, GCJ, GD1, GDD, GDJ, GE9, GF1, GF3, GF9, GFJ, GGD, GI1, GI3, GJ1, GJD, H03, H2H, H33, H5B, H5H, H81, H8B, H8H, HA1, HC3, HF3, HG1, HHB, HIH, I0B, I61, I89, IAH, IE9, IG3, IG9, IH1, II1, IIH, J07, J11, J1J, J41, J47, J4B, J4J, J71, J7D, J7J, JCD, JD7, JDD, JDJ, JF1, JFJ, JG7, JGD, JJD, 104D, 10E7, 1DE7, 1DEJ, 1E7J, 1EJJ, 1G81, 1J6D, 1J81, 20AH, 25AH, 2829, 28E9, 2A5H, 2E29, 2H0H, 2HAH, 2IHH, 3089, 30A3, 30G9, 325H, 358H, 38F9, 3A63, 3CG9, 3F89, 3GC9, 402B, 40IB, 44I1, 458B, 45CJ, 45FJ, 4841, 484B, 485B, 48G1, 4AEJ, 4AFJ, 4BI1, 4CAD, 4CAJ, 4CGJ, 4E4B, 4EJB, 4F5J, 4FAJ, 4G81, 4GEJ, 4I2B, 4I8B, 4IG1, 4J81, 4JB1, 4JIB, 52AH, 542B, 548B, 550J, 55EJ, 584B, 5A5J, 5B4B, 5C0J, 5E4B, 5FAJ, 6029, 610D, 6141, 616D, 6299, 62I9, 6389, 641D, 6441, 64CD, 64G1, 66G3, 68G1, 6A41, 6AF1, 6AG1, 6AI1, 6D01, 6DA1, 6DCD, 6F01, 6F29, 6G01, 6G03, 6G0D, 6G4D, 6GA1, 6GG1, 6I01, 6I29, 6IF1, 704D, 70A7, 70GD, 715J, 71E7, 73F3, 745J, 74CD, 74CJ, 74EJ, 7641, 76A3, 76AD, 76GD, 7761, 7773, 77G3, 7841, 78I1, 7C4J, 7C63, 7CA7, 7CC3, 7F41, 7FF3, 7G6D, 7GA3, 7GE7, 7GG3, 7I41, 7I81, 7J5J, 8041, 804B, 80BB, 80F1, 8229, 8289, 82E9, 84G1, 86A1, 86F1, 86G1, 8889, 88A9, 88E9, 88IH, 8AA9, 8B4B, 8B61, 8BIH, 8EA9, 8F01, 8FA1, 8FE9, 8FF9, 8FG1, 8H4B, 8I29, 8I5H, 8II9, 9629, 9763, 9973, 9997, 9A77, 9AA7, 9AC9, 9AI9, 9E47, 9E77, 9F29, 9G47, A0A9, A0F9, A0G9, A0I9, A3F9, A3I9, A481, A633, A681, A6G1, A6G3, A7A3, A7C7, A7F1, A8I1, A909, A933, A9F3, A9I9, AA73, AAC7, AC09, AC77, ACC9, ACF9, ADC7, ADE7, AEC7, AEJJ, AF39, AF81, AF93, AFA9, AFC9, AFI9, AFJ1, AFJJ, AG81, AGG9, AH63, AI41, AI5H, AIF9, AJ5J, AJ61, AJE7, AJI1, B001, B08H, B0F1, B40B, B601, B84B, B8IH, BAIH, BFA1, BHF1, BI5B, BIA1, C0E9, C0G3, C0G9, C299, C2I9, C447, C4AD, C4G7, C707, C74D, C74J, C777, C7AD, C7CD, C7GD, C7GJ, CAA7, CAAD, CAD7, CADJ, CAGD, CAJD, CCE9, CD07, CD47, CD4D, CD7J, CDD7, CDGD, CDJJ, CE99, CEG9, CG07, CG09, CG4J, CG63, CG7J, CGC3, CGC7, CGD7, CGI9, CJ0J, CJAD, D011, D047, D05J, D081, D0E7, D0JD, D0JJ, D181, D4EJ, D50J, D761, D781, D7CD, D7EJ, D801, DA81, DC47, DC4D, DC7J, DCDD, DCGD, DCGJ, DCJJ, DD01, DD61, DDCD, DE0J, DEC7, DECJ, DG0J, DJC7, E00J, E047, E069, E0BH, E0C7, E0E9, E0EB, E2E9, E45J, E4AJ, E4EB, E4EJ, E5CJ, E5EJ, E5FJ, E6I9, E7EJ, E80B, E829, EA09, EA99, EAG9, EB0B, EB4B, EC0J, EC7J, EE0J, EE97, EEA9, EEE9, EEEJ, EEJB, EF89, EF99, EFAJ, EFCJ, EFI9, EFJJ, EG09, EG99, EH4B, EI4B, EI99, EIHB, EIHH, EII9, EJ0B, EJ8B, EJBB, EJEB, EJIB, F029, F0A9, F0FJ, F1G1, F2I9, F389, F4G1, F5AJ, F629, F8A1, FAC9, FAF9, FC0J, FE99, FF0J, FG4J, FGA1, FGGJ, FI29, FJ01, FJAJ, FJCJ, FJG1, G01D, G04J, G05J, G07J, G099, G0A1, G0A3, G0AD, G0E7, G0G1, G0G7, G0GJ, G0JJ, G10D, G15J, G333, G3A3, G3C3, G45J, G4E7, G663, G6C3, G947, G973, G993, G9C9, G9G7, G9I9, GAG9, GC33, GC47, GC99, GCI9, GDC7, GEJJ, GG01, GG97, GGA9, GGEJ, GI09, GI99, GIA9, GIC9, GJ5J, GJE7, GJEJ, H0AH, H0BH, H0I1, H141, H601, H6I3, HA63, HB01, HB0B, HB0H, HB61, HBAH, HBH1, HBI1, HEIB, HHH1, HI41, HI4B, HIF1, I081, I0A3, I141, I20H, I25H, I2BH, I441, I48B, I52B, I52H, I55H, I5EB, I629, I6A3, I85B, I88H, I8A1, I8HB, IA33, IA63, IAC9, IAF1, IAF3, IE8B, IEBH, IEIB, IF01, IFA9, IG01, IGG1, IHEB, IHHH, IHI3, IHIB, J04D, J05B, J0AD, J0AJ, J0BB, J0J1, J16D, J22B, J5EB, J64D, J6AD, J7C7, J7E7, J801, J8G1, JA5J, JAI1, JB5B, JB61, JBA1, JBBB, JCA7, JCAJ, JD61, JDI1, JE77, JE8B, JEBB, JEJB, JEJJ, JG0J, JG5J, JGEJ, JI5B, JI81, JIB1, JIBB, JIEB, JIG1, JIIB, JJ61, JJEJ, 1060D, 1666D, 1706D, 17E5J, 17JJJ, 1D007, 1D7JJ, 1J5EJ, 1JJJ1, 200IH, 20I5H, 22299, 2242B, 2244B, 22929, 29229, 29I99, 2E8I9, 2HHHH, 2I2I9, 2II99, 33389, 33G99, 366A3, 368I9, 38A5H, 38EAH, 38EIH, 3E8IH, 3G0I9, 3GGG9, 3HHAH, 404EB, 40E0B, 41EEJ, 4224B, 444EB, 444G1, 44E47, 44EEB, 44GG1, 455AJ, 45EAJ, 4A447, 4A55J, 4AE47, 4CCCD, 4EEAJ, 4EIEB, 4EIIB, 4G447, 4G4G7, 4GG1J, 4II4B, 4II5B, 4J80B, 4JE0B, 5005J, 50CAJ, 50ECJ, 5588H, 55A5H, 55FCJ, 5AEFJ, 5E5AJ, 5EAFJ, 5EB8B, 5EE8B, 5EEBB, 5EF0J, 5EFFJ, 6014D, 604AD, 6060D, 60689, 606A3, 606CD, 60AAD, 60AF3, 60AGD, 60DGD, 60G33, 60GAD, 60I81, 62229, 62889, 633A3, 6600D, 668F9, 66929, 66AAD, 66CCD, 66DGD, 66IA3, 68FI9, 68I41, 69929, 6A663, 6A6F3, 6D0GD, 6DDI1, 6G6AD, 6GGA3, 7066D, 707G7, 70C07, 70CAD, 70CCD, 70CG7, 70DDD, 71JJJ, 73363, 74441, 7606D, 76363, 76663, 76C4D, 76F11, 76G33, 77107, 77441, 7777J, 777C7, 777G7, 77AC7, 77AF3, 77C07, 77E4J, 77E7J, 77GGJ, 77JGJ, 7A733, 7AAA7, 7ACC7, 7C077, 7CC4D, 7CF33, 7CG4D, 7CJ4D, 7CJGJ, 7DD0D, 7ECJJ, 7EJEJ, 7F333, 7F6C3, 7FC33, 7G007, 7G4GJ, 7G733, 7G763, 7G7C3, 7GCC7, 7GGC7, 7GGGJ, 7GJGJ, 7J06D, 7JAAD, 7JGJJ, 800B1, 80BA1, 80IA1, 84I41, 8555H, 8558H, 85A5H, 8855H, 8888H, 88F29, 8A6I1, 8AGG1, 8AIF1, 8AIG1, 8BB0B, 8BE8H, 8EEF9, 8EF29, 8F829, 8F8I9, 8FIA9, 8GAG1, 8H00B, 8HBBB, 8IE8H, 900A9, 90AF9, 90IA9, 92II9, 97333, 97F33, 990A9, 994A7, 994G7, 999A9, 99A47, 99A99, 9A009, 9A999, 9C029, 9C929, 9CC29, 9FFA9, 9FIA9, 9I9A9, 9IA99, 9IAF9, A3009, A3309, A3333, A3393, A3939, A3963, A3993, A39C9, A3A33, A3AA3, A3C99, A3FF3, A4E47, A4EE7, A555H, A66F3, A6F63, A7771, A77F3, A7AA7, A7EE7, A8641, A88F9, A9399, A94A7, A9663, A9777, A97A7, A97E7, A9977, A9999, A9EE7, AA3A3, AA4A7, AA7A7, AA9E7, AAA33, AAA89, AAA97, AAAF3, AAF89, AAG09, AAG93, ACA47, ACCC7, AEE47, AEE77, AF099, AF363, AF5FJ, AF889, AFF09, AFF99, AFFF3, AGAI9, AGG33, AGGG1, AHGG3, AI009, AIA09, AIA99, AIII9, AJAA7, AJAAD, AJJC7, AJJG1, AJJJ7, B00IB, B044B, B06A1, B08BB, B0EAH, B0EHH, B44IB, B544B, B5BBB, B8E8H, BAH61, BB44B, BB45B, BBB5B, BBBIB, BE0AH, BH00H, BH0H1, BH6I1, BI0EH, BI44B, BI8BB, BIBBB, BIE8H, C0029, C04AJ, C07G7, C0A77, C0C29, C0CC7, C0G47, C0GGJ, C0I29, C2EE9, C6C29, C7AC7, C9029, C9929, C9C29, CC0C7, CC3G9, CC7C7, CCA77, CCAC7, CCCCD, CCF29, CCG03, CCG47, CCG93, CCGAD, CCGC9, CD0GJ, CE0I9, CE629, CE6F9, CEIF9, CFC29, CFE09, CFEF9, CFF29, CG003, CG033, CGGG9, D0061, D00A1, D00D1, D00GJ, D01EJ, D074D, D07DD, D07GJ, D0C4J, D0CCD, D0D7D, D0EEJ, D0G4D, D0GGJ, D155J, D4CCD, D4EE7, D55CJ, D6001, D60A1, D6IA1, D7D0D, D7DGD, D7G4J, D7GGJ, D7JCJ, DC0J7, DCC07, DD7I1, DDC07, DDD07, DDD11, DDD47, DDDD1, DDDGD, DDG0D, DE4E7, DEE7J, DEJ5J, DG4GJ, DGE4J, DGJJJ, DJ55J, DJEEJ, DJGJJ, DJJJ7, E00HB, E00I9, E00IH, E044B, E04FJ, E08BB, E08HB, E0999, E09A9, E09E7, E09F9, E0AIH, E0BBB, E0C4J, E0E7J, E0F4J, E0GA9, E0I09, E0IA9, E0JEJ, E0JJB, E22I9, E2I29, E448B, E6009, E6229, E6889, E69F9, E6F09, E6FF9, E755J, E7CJJ, E7EC7, E7JJJ, E844B, E888H, E8A89, E8EI9, E8IA9, E90A9, E90I9, E9699, E96F9, E9IA9, E9IF9, EA55J, EA889, EAEFJ, EAFF9, EAFFJ, EB0AH, EB0IH, EB88H, EBI0H, ECC47, EE00B, EE299, EE4FJ, EE74J, EE7C7, EEBIB, EEF29, EF229, EFF4J, EFFA9, EGAI9, EH0IB, EHBIB, EHEEB, EHH0H, EHIIB, EI00H, EI229, EI8BB, EIEBB, EIF09, EIFF9, EIIEB, EJAJJ, EJE5J, F0001, F000J, F0081, F0089, F00CJ, F0141, F041J, F04GJ, F0841, F08F9, F08G1, F0AJJ, F0CE9, F0E69, F0F89, F0FE9, F0GG1, F0GJJ, F1J5J, F2229, F2289, F22E9, F4FGJ, F500J, F50CJ, F5FFJ, F8EE9, F9A09, F9A99, F9IA9, FA099, FA8G1, FC4GJ, FCJJJ, FE0I9, FE669, FEAA9, FEAI9, FEF69, FEFE9, FEFF9, FEI69, FEIF9, FF089, FF4FJ, FF55J, FF8I9, FFA09, FFAI9, FFE69, FFF29, FFF5J, FFF89, FFFE9, FFIA9, FFJGJ, FG081, FGG81, FJ05J, FJA81, FJJ0J, G001J, G0047, G004D, G0063, G00C7, G0363, G0603, G0633, G066D, G0963, G0AC9, G0AI9, G0CC7, G0CC9, G0II9, G4AAD, G4EEJ, G600D, G64AD, G666D, G66AD, G6G33, G7E4J, G7GJJ, G7JGJ, G9009, G9303, G9603, G9A09, G9CC3, GA6A3, GAA33, GAA93, GAG33, GC009, GC093, GC0C3, GCC03, GCC09, GD447, GDE47, GEE07, GEEC7, GG00J, GG073, GG1JJ, GG763, GG7C3, GG8A1, GGG07, GGG4J, GGG71, GGGC7, GGGGJ, GGGJ7, GGJ0J, GGJJJ, GJ00J, GJGJJ, GJJJ7, H00EH, H024B, H04B1, H0E4B, H0F41, H0H11, H0HEH, H4E0B, H6I11, HAAA3, HAAG3, HAGA3, HB44B, HBBBB, HBHHH, HGGA3, 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CDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD, G0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000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===Base 21===

12, 18, 1A, 1G, 1K, 21, 25, 2B, 2H, 2J, 34, 38, 3A, 3G, 3K, 45, 4D, 4H, 4J, 52, 54, 58, 61, 65, 6B, 6D, 72, 74, 7A, 7G, 7K, 85, 8B, 8D, 92, 94, 98, 9A, A1, AD, AH, AJ, B2, B8, BA, BK, C5, CB, CH, CJ, D4, D8, DA, DK, ED, EH, EJ, F2, FG, G1, GB, GD, GH, H2, HA, HG, I1, I5, IB, IJ, J2, JA, JK, K1, KB, KD, KJ, 111, 115, 11H, 135, 13H, 13J, 151, 15B, 15H, 164, 175, 17B, 17D, 17J, 191, 19B, 19D, 19H, 1B1, 1B5, 1BB, 1BJ, 1D5, 1DD, 1DJ, 1E4, 1F1, 1F5, 1FD, 1FH, 1HB, 1HD, 1I4, 1JD, 1JH, 1JJ, 22D, 232, 29G, 29K, 2DG, 2F4, 2FK, 31H, 322, 33D, 351, 355, 35B, 35J, 362, 371, 37B, 37D, 37H, 37J, 39B, 39J, 3B5, 3BD, 3BH, 3D1, 3D5, 3DB, 3DD, 3DH, 3E2, 3FJ, 3HD, 3HH, 3HJ, 3J1, 3JB, 3JJ, 414, 481, 49K, 4B4, 4BG, 4C1, 4EB, 4F4, 4F8, 4FA, 4FK, 50G, 51B, 51D, 51H, 531, 535, 53D, 53J, 551, 56A, 56G, 56K, 575, 57J, 595, 59H, 5B1, 5B5, 5BB, 5CA, 5CG, 5CK, 5F1, 5FB, 5FJ, 5GA, 5GG, 5HH, 5IA, 5J5, 5JD, 5JH, 60H, 632, 66H, 66J, 678, 68J, 69G, 6F8, 6FA, 6GJ, 6H8, 6HK, 6IH, 6J4, 6JG, 6KH, 711, 71B, 71D, 73D, 73H, 73J, 75B, 75H, 768, 77H, 77J, 7B1, 7B5, 7BB, 7BD, 7C8, 7D1, 7DB, 7DD, 7E8, 7F5, 7FB, 7H5, 7HD, 7HH, 7HJ, 7J5, 7JD, 801, 80J, 832, 841, 86H, 86J, 881, 89G, 8E1, 8F4, 8F8, 8FA, 8FK, 8H4, 8IH, 8J4, 8JG, 90K, 91B, 91D, 91H, 93H, 93J, 955, 95H, 95J, 96G, 97B, 97D, 97H, 991, 99J, 9B1, 9BB, 9BH, 9BJ, 9CK, 9D1, 9DB, 9DH, 9DJ, 9EK, 9F5, 9FD, 9H1, 9HB, 9HD, 9IG, 9J5, 9KK, A0B, ABG, AF4, AF8, AG5, B15, B1H, B35, B3H, B3J, B4G, B51, B5B, B5D, B5H, B6G, B71, B75, B7B, B7D, B9B, B9J, BB5, BBH, BBJ, BC4, BCG, BF1, BF5, BFD, BH1, BHJ, BI4, BJB, C2D, C9K, CCD, CDG, CID, D0G, D2G, D35, D3B, D3H, D51, D55, D5B, D5D, D5J, D62, D71, D7H, D91, D95, D9H, DBH, DC2, DD1, DD5, DE2, DEG, DF5, DFJ, DH1, DHB, DI2, DJ1, DJB, DJJ, E14, E4B, E5K, E78, E81, E9G, EA5, EBG, EC1, EE1, EE5, EK5, F04, F11, F1H, F31, F3B, F3D, F44, F4A, F4K, F5D, F5H, F6K, F71, F7H, F7J, F88, F8A, F8K, F9J, FA4, FA8, FBB, FBH, FC4, FDB, FDJ, FE8, FFH, FFJ, FH5, FHB, FHJ, FI4, FI8, FIK, FJ5, FJD, FK4, FK8, G32, G5G, G78, G8J, GGJ, GJ4, GK5, H0K, H15, H1B, H1J, H31, H3D, H3H, H48, H51, H55, H5J, H6K, H75, H84, H88, H91, H95, H9D, H9H, HBD, HC4, HC8, HDJ, HF5, HFB, HFH, HHD, HHJ, HI4, HI8, HJ5, HJB, HKK, I0D, I2D, I6H, I78, I8H, I9K, IFA, IFK, IID, J08, J1J, J31, J35, J3J, J44, J5H, J68, J6G, J71, J7B, J7D, J7H, J8G, J95, J9D, JBD, JBH, JBJ, JCG, JDB, JDH, JE4, JE8, JEG, JF5, JFD, JFJ, JG4, JGG, JH1, JH5, JHB, JHH, JI4, JJ1, JJ5, K0H, K5G, K6H, K9K, KG5, KH4, KKH, 101B, 103D, 1044, 1055, 10DH, 10FB, 10H1, 10H5, 10J1, 110J, 11CD, 11EB, 11ID, 130D, 13C1, 13EB, 141B, 1444, 1471, 14FB, 1505, 15CD, 167H, 16FJ, 16HH, 176H, 17C1, 17IH, 190J, 1BF4, 1BID, 1C04, 1C3D, 1CD1, 1D6H, 1DE1, 1DEB, 1E1B, 1E71, 1E95, 1EFB, 1F0B, 1F4B, 1FB4, 1H01, 1H05, 1H41, 1H6H, 1H6J, 1HC1, 1HE1, 1HF4, 1IDH, 1IHH, 1JE5, 1JF4, 20CD, 20D2, 20ID, 2278, 22F8, 239D, 23FD, 2478, 2708, 27FD, 293D, 29DD, 2A78, 2C0D, 2CF8, 2F0A, 2F9D, 2FAA, 2FDD, 2GFA, 2IF8, 3015, 301D, 301J, 3031, 3035, 305D, 30F1, 30FB, 30FD, 30HB, 30I2, 3105, 31C1, 329D, 330H, 336J, 33E1, 33EB, 33IH, 35CD, 363H, 390H, 39E5, 39ID, 3B0J, 3B6J, 3BC1, 3BEB, 3CC2, 3CF1, 3CFD, 3D32, 3E3B, 3E91, 3EF1, 3EFB, 3F05, 3FC1, 3FE1, 3FEB, 3H01, 3H0B, 3HC1, 3I3H, 3I9D, 404B, 4078, 40E1, 411B, 4131, 4171, 41FB, 4331, 4391, 43BB, 43FB, 43I2, 4432, 444B, 44E1, 477B, 4931, 4971, 499B, 49CG, 4A32, 4A4B, 4A78, 4A9G, 4B1B, 4B31, 4B3B, 4BFB, 4C78, 4E32, 4F1B, 4FB1, 5011, 509D, 50BD, 50DB, 50DD, 50EK, 50FD, 50H1, 50HJ, 50IK, 50JJ, 5101, 5105, 51E1, 530B, 53EB, 53IH, 550D, 550H, 55AB, 55BG, 55DG, 55E5, 55KH, 563H, 56JJ, 5701, 570H, 57EB, 57ID, 57IH, 590D, 59C1, 59CD, 5A3B, 5A7B, 5AGK, 5AIG, 5AKG, 5B0D, 5B9G, 5BCD, 5BGJ, 5BIH, 5C91, 5CD1, 5D0D, 5D0J, 5D6H, 5D6J, 5DC1, 5DG5, 5DIH, 5DJG, 5E0A, 5E11, 5E3B, 5E71, 5EAK, 5EEA, 5EKK, 5F0H, 5F9K, 5G0K, 5G9J, 5GF5, 5GIK, 5H0B, 5H5K, 5H9K, 5HE5, 5HID, 5I3H, 5I7D, 5IKG, 5J6J, 5JE1, 5KAG, 5KEK, 5KFH, 5KH5, 60FK, 63FH, 67JH, 69JH, 6E9K, 6F0K, 6F64, 6FJH, 6H04, 6HE4, 6HFJ, 6IF4, 6J9H, 6J9J, 7015, 7031, 703B, 7055, 705J, 7088, 709B, 709D, 709H, 70DJ, 70I8, 710J, 716J, 730B, 73C1, 73E5, 7501, 769H, 76FJ, 76JJ, 770D, 77E1, 77E5, 77EB, 7888, 78FH, 78H1, 78JH, 790H, 79CD, 79IH, 7B0J, 7B6H, 7C31, 7C91, 7C9D, 7E35, 7E75, 7E91, 7EF1, 7F01, 7F78, 7FCD, 7FH8, 7FIH, 7FJ8, 7H81, 7HC1, 7HF8, 7J6J, 7J78, 7JC1, 7JF8, 7JH8, 7JJ8, 809K, 80H8, 81H1, 81HH, 81J1, 839H, 83FH, 869K, 871H, 8731, 8771, 8788, 879J, 87F1, 87FJ, 87JH, 888H, 8911, 8931, 896K, 8A78, 8A9K, 8CC1, 8E9K, 8F3H, 8F9H, 8FF1, 8FHH, 8FJH, 8G9K, 8GJ8, 8H3J, 8H7H, 8H8K, 8HEK, 8HF1, 8HFJ, 8HH1, 8HJJ, 8HK8, 8J7J, 8J91, 8JC8, 8JFH, 8JJH, 8K78, 8K8H, 8KH8, 901J, 9035, 903B, 9071, 90CG, 90GG, 90JD, 9101, 91E5, 9301, 93E1, 93EB, 95CD, 95DG, 95FK, 967J, 969H, 96HH, 96HJ, 96JJ, 9705, 97C1, 9905, 995K, 999G, 99CD, 99EB, 99K5, 9B5G, 9BE5, 9BID, 9C0G, 9C11, 9C71, 9C9D, 9CEG, 9CGG, 9D05, 9D5G, 9DDG, 9DE5, 9E35, 9E3B, 9E71, 9EB5, 9EEG, 9EF1, 9EFB, 9F0J, 9F6H, 9F9K, 9FC1, 9FIH, 9FKH, 9G35, 9G95, 9GIK, 9GJJ, 9GKG, 9H0H, 9H5K, 9H6H, 9HKH, 9I6K, 9I9H, 9IDD, 9J6J, 9JEB, 9JGJ, 9JID, 9JJG, 9K35, 9K95, 9KEG, A33B, A3F5, A432, A478, A53B, A5IK, A788, A795, A878, A975, A99B, A9CG, A9GG, AAAB, AB44, AB55, ABFB, AC32, AC78, ACFA, AE32, AE5A, AE9K, AEEB, AEFA, AEFK, AF75, AFCA, AFCK, AFEA, AFFB, AG9G, AGFA, AI32, B064, B091, B09H, B0B1, B0D5, B0DH, B0EG, B0FB, B0FH, B0H5, B0HD, B114, B141, B14B, B1B4, B1E1, B411, B431, B444, B4B1, B59G, B5G5, B5JG, B67H, B67J, B69H, B6FH, B6FJ, B6HH, B6JH, B96H, B9DG, B9G5, BB14, BBB4, BC1D, BC31, BCDD, BD05, BD0H, BD6H, BDC1, BDE5, BDIH, BE0G, BE31, BEBB, BEE4, BEIG, BF0B, BF0H, BF6J, BFEB, BFIH, BG0G, BG55, BG95, BGG4, BGGG, BGIG, BGJ5, BH0B, BHEB, BIEG, BIGG, BIHH, BJ01, BJ0J, BJC1, BJF4, BJID, C041, C081, C09G, C0E1, C0FK, C104, C131, C171, C1C4, C1D1, C2F8, C2FA, C39D, C3F1, C478, C6FK, C7FD, C8C1, C90G, C911, C971, C99D, CAFK, CC78, CC81, CCE1, CCF8, CD02, CD31, CDFD, CE01, CE32, CF0A, CF48, CF64, CF68, CF6A, CF91, CFAK, CFDD, CFEA, CFEK, CIF4, CK32, CK9G, CKFA, D01D, D01H, D07B, D0DB, D0F1, D0FD, D0HD, D0HH, D10D, D10H, D16H, D1EB, D1IH, D23D, D3E1, D56H, D63J, D6CG, D6IG, D70B, D70D, D70J, D99G, D9GJ, D9ID, D9JG, DBC1, DBCD, DBE1, DBJG, DC11, DC9D, DCF1, DCFD, DCGG, DCIG, DD0H, DD6J, DDGJ, DDID, DDJG, DE31, DE75, DFC1, DFID, DFIH, DG22, DG6G, DG75, DG9J, DGCG, DGIG, DH6H, DHE5, DI6G, DICG, DIDH, DIFD, DIFH, DIGG, DJCD, DJDG, DJG5, E032, E05A, E0EB, E11B, E2F8, E31B, E331, E375, E395, E3C2, E3F1, E3F5, E3FB, E3I2, E53B, E555, E591, E59B, E5EG, E6F4, E755, E775, E89K, E915, E935, E93B, E96K, E9FB, EA32, EAEB, EAFK, EB44, EB95, ECFA, ECFK, EE32, EEEB, EEFK, EF08, EF35, EF48, EF55, EF64, EF68, EF75, EF95, EFB1, EFCA, EFCK, EFEA, EFIA, EFKK, EGF4, EIF4, EKF4, EKF8, EKFA, F008, F051, F075, F095, F09H, F0CA, F0CK, F0DD, F0FB, F0H1, F0IA, F0JJ, F105, F10B, F10D, F16J, F1B4, F1EB, F1ID, F1J4, F36H, F468, F47B, F491, F4C8, F501, F50B, F648, F66A, F69H, F705, F778, F864, F8F1, F90D, F99K, F9C1, F9HK, FA6A, FA75, FA7B, FA95, FAEA, FAFB, FB0D, FB14, FBCD, FBE1, FBJ4, FC1D, FC68, FC9D, FCAA, FCCK, FCD1, FCEA, FD6H, FDIH, FE0K, FE1B, FE64, FE95, 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====Additional known quasi-minimal primes (not necessarily the next)====

40&lt;sub&gt;47333&lt;/sub&gt;9G, CF&lt;sub&gt;479147&lt;/sub&gt;0K

===Base 22===

11, 17, 19, 1F, 1J, 1L, 23, 29, 2F, 2H, 31, 35, 37, 3D, 3H, 41, 49, 4D, 4F, 4J, 4L, 53, 5H, 5L, 65, 67, 6H, 6J, 73, 79, 7D, 7J, 83, 85, 8F, 8H, 8L, 91, 9D, A3, A7, A9, AD, AJ, AL, B9, BF, BL, C5, C7, CD, CH, CJ, D7, DL, E3, E5, E9, F1, F7, FH, FJ, G1, G7, GF, GL, H5, H9, HF, I1, I5, ID, J1, J3, JD, JF, JL, K3, K9, KH, KL, L1, L5, LH, 103, 12D, 145, 155, 15D, 163, 18D, 1A5, 1BD, 1BH, 1C3, 1D3, 1DH, 1EH, 1G3, 1GH, 1I3, 1K5, 1KD, 221, 227, 22J, 22L, 245, 247, 25D, 25J, 271, 277, 287, 28J, 2A5, 2B7, 2BD, 2BJ, 2D5, 2E1, 2E7, 2ED, 2EL, 2K1, 2KJ, 2LL, 30J, 343, 389, 39J, 3B3, 3GJ, 3IJ, 3J9, 3JJ, 3KF, 3LJ, 427, 443, 445, 457, 4A5, 4C3, 4E7, 4G5, 4I7, 4K5, 4K7, 515, 52D, 551, 559, 55D, 55J, 575, 58D, 59F, 5B1, 5C9, 5CF, 5D1, 5D5, 5DD, 5E1, 5ED, 5G5, 5GJ, 5J5, 5JJ, 5K1, 5KJ, 60D, 61D, 62L, 661, 66D, 689, 6C1, 6D1, 6DD, 6G3, 6KF, 701, 721, 751, 76L, 775, 77F, 77H, 787, 7A5, 7AF, 7B1, 7B7, 7CL, 7E1, 7FF, 7FL, 7H7, 7HH, 7K5, 809, 81D, 821, 827, 82D, 847, 869, 871, 881, 889, 899, 8A1, 8BD, 8BJ, 8D1, 8DJ, 8GJ, 8J7, 907, 90H, 92L, 93J, 943, 947, 95F, 977, 997, 9AF, 9B5, 9EF, 9F5, 9H3, 9HL, 9I7, 9J9, 9JJ, 9K5, A25, A45, A51, A61, A6F, AAH, AB5, ABH, ACF, AG5, AGH, AHH, AK1, B15, B2D, B2J, B33, B45, B47, B57, B71, B75, B81, B87, B8J, BB3, BB7, BC3, BDD, BE7, BEJ, BGD, BGH, BH3, BHD, BHJ, BIH, BJ7, BKJ, CA1, CAF, CB3, CC1, CEF, CG3, CKF, D09, D0J, D13, D21, D33, D39, D3F, D4H, D5J, D63, D81, D8D, DAH, DBD, DBH, DBJ, DCF, DD3, DEJ, DFF, DG9, DGH, DHD, DI3, DIF, DJ9, DK1, DK5, E0F, E0H, E27, E2D, E2L, E47, E7H, E87, E8J, EA1, EAH, EB1, EDH, EEJ, EFF, EFL, EH1, EIF, EIL, EJH, EJJ, EKD, ELF, F25, F43, FB5, FD3, FDD, FDF, FEF, FEL, FFD, FG9, G09, G0D, G25, G3J, G5D, G5J, G63, G8D, G99, GC3, GC9, GD9, GEH, GG5, GJ5, GJ9, GJH, H03, H1D, H21, H2J, H2L, H33, H63, H77, H8J, HCL, HDD, HE1, HE7, HGH, HGJ, HH7, HHL, HI3, HIH, HJH, HK1, HKD, HL3, I07, I0J, I43, I47, I7L, I9J, IBH, IEL, IG3, IHH, IIJ, IJ7, IL7, J07, J55, J69, J8J, J99, J9J, JA5, JAH, JE7, JEH, JHH, JI9, JJ5, JJ9, JJH, JK7, K2J, K51, K5D, K75, K81, KA1, KB1, KB7, KBJ, KD1, KEJ, KG5, KIF, KJ5, KKD, KKJ, L0D, L47, L7F, L97, LAF, LD3, LD9, LDD, LEF, LGD, LI7, LJ7, LJJ, LLD, 104H, 10D5, 1205, 12B5, 140H, 1433, 144H, 14AH, 14B3, 16ED, 1AIH, 1B43, 1DD5, 1DDD, 1E6D, 1EGD, 1G05, 1GDD, 1GED, 1GGD, 1HB3, 1HHH, 1IAH, 200L, 2015, 2051, 20A1, 20DJ, 20GD, 20IL, 21B5, 21DD, 220D, 226D, 228D, 22B5, 22G5, 22K5, 22KD, 2555, 2557, 2581, 25C1, 26A1, 26B1, 2725, 2755, 2801, 2861, 288D, 28B1, 28KD, 2AA1, 2B25, 2B51, 2BB1, 2C81, 2D6D, 2DA1, 2DDJ, 2DGD, 2G0J, 2GB5, 2GDD, 2GGJ, 2I0L, 2I6L, 2ICL, 2J05, 2JK5, 2K07, 2K2D, 2K55, 2K6D, 2KB5, 2KI7, 2L2D, 2L8D, 2LK7, 302L, 30G3, 320L, 32IL, 332L, 33G3, 33G9, 36AF, 36EF, 382J, 388J, 39EL, 3AAF, 3BBJ, 3CG9, 3E2J, 3E6F, 3E6L, 3EEF, 3FAF, 3G69, 3GI3, 3GI9, 3IG9, 3LEL, 3LG3, 4025, 404H, 4063, 4075, 40AH, 40B5, 40B7, 40GH, 4225, 4363, 4447, 444H, 447H, 4487, 44B7, 44H7, 4525, 4555, 45B5, 4663, 4777, 47GH, 4807, 4B0H, 4BB5, 4BG3, 4EBH, 4G4H, 4GB3, 4HH3, 4I03, 4I63, 4IGH, 5069, 5077, 50KD, 5255, 52IJ, 5455, 5477, 5507, 5527, 556F, 557F, 5587, 56EF, 56FF, 56GD, 56KD, 5771, 57C1, 57EF, 5807, 580J, 589J, 58E7, 58IJ, 58K7, 5905, 5945, 5957, 5969, 5989, 598J, 5999, 59EJ, 59K7, 5AEF, 5B25, 5B55, 5BA5, 5BI7, 5BIJ, 5BK5, 5BK7, 5C21, 5EAF, 5EE7, 5F09, 5F6F, 5F95, 5FKD, 5G6D, 5G89, 5I09, 5I0F, 5I27, 5I6F, 5I89, 5IB7, 5IBJ, 5IFF, 5J77, 5K07, 5K25, 5K27, 5K6F, 5K87, 5KK7, 6013, 60A1, 60AF, 60EL, 6281, 62B1, 62KD, 63G9, 6403, 6643, 66EL, 66G9, 68KD, 69B3, 6A01, 6A0F, 6AAF, 6AFF, 6B21, 6B8D, 6BBD, 6BK1, 6D03, 6D43, 6D69, 6D6F, 6D93, 6D9F, 6E21, 6E81, 6E8D, 6EBD, 6ECL, 6ELL, 6FD9, 6GBD, 6GG9, 6IEF, 6K21, 6K8D, 6KBD, 6KE1, 6L43, 6LB3, 6LDF, 6LEL, 6LG9, 700F, 7027, 7057, 70EH, 70LF, 710H, 71G5, 7207, 7225, 7255, 727L, 7505, 7507, 755F, 75EF, 75F5, 75I7, 766F, 7681, 76CF, 7771, 7781, 77IL, 7861, 7A0H, 7A4H, 7BB5, 7C6F, 7EEH, 7EHL, 7FG5, 7G45, 7HEL, 7I0L, 7I27, 7IE7, 7IGH, 7K07, 7K61, 7K77, 7KC1, 7L27, 7LCF, 7LK7, 802J, 80B1, 80GD, 80JJ, 80KJ, 820J, 86E1, 880D, 882J, 88E7, 88I7, 892J, 89EJ, 8B61, 8BI7, 8CI9, 8CK1, 8D6D, 8DD9, 8DGD, 8E01, 8E07, 8EE1, 8EI7, 8EK1, 8EKJ, 8I77, 8I87, 8IC9, 8IK7, 8J0J, 8K6D, 8KI7, 8KIJ, 8KK7, 9025, 9055, 9089, 9275, 92EJ, 92G5, 92GJ, 93EL, 9455, 9505, 9557, 9599, 96B3, 970L, 976F, 97G5, 982J, 98E7, 98I9, 98K7, 9905, 990J, 9925, 9995, 999H, 99BH, 99EL, 99G9, 99GJ, 99LJ, 9A55, 9B03, 9B27, 9BGJ, 9BH7, 9BK7, 9CG9, 9E6L, 9EHJ, 9EKJ, 9ELL, 9G39, 9G45, 9G4H, 9GA5, 9GAH, 9GBJ, 9GEJ, 9GHH, 9GHJ, 9GI9, 9GIJ, 9H7H, 9H87, 9HAH, 9HB7, 9I89, 9I9H, 9IB3, 9IEH, 9IKF, 9J7H, 9J87, 9JB7, 9JGH, 9K0F, 9K27, 9KGJ, 9KKF, 9L89, 9L9J, 9LG9, 9LGJ, 9LIJ, 9LKF, A081, A14H, A1IH, A201, A2C1, AA15, AA81, AAIF, ABC1, AC01, AHC1, AIIF, AKEF, B005, B01D, B01H, B051, B05D, B0A5, B0B1, B0BJ, B0DH, B0E1, B0GJ, B0H1, B0JH, B143, B16D, B255, B2B5, B2C1, B2G5, B2K7, B4EH, B4G3, B501, B5A5, B5BJ, B5C1, B5IJ, B5K5, B621, B663, B6I3, B6K1, B777, B7I7, B80D, B88D, B8ED, B8KD, BB01, BB0J, BB21, BB25, BB4H, BB6D, BBD5, BBE1, BBEH, BBH1, BBIJ, BBJH, BCK1, BD61, BDB5, BDGJ, BEE1, BG55, BGB5, BGGJ, BGIJ, BH27, BH7H, BHC1, BHH1, BHK7, BI77, BIGJ, BJ0H, BJBH, BJIJ, BJJJ, BK25, BK27, BK55, BKA5, BKK1, C043, C143, C2B1, C32L, C3G9, C601, C6EL, C6G9, C8B1, CBK1, CC2L, CC89, CE21, CECL, CF2L, CF89, CG69, CIG9, D003, D015, D045, D05D, D06D, D06F, D0DH, D0H1, D1D5, D1GD, D205, D26D, D2DJ, D32J, D38J, D403, D525, D561, D56D, D5AF, D5F5, D5GD, D6C9, D6D9, D6DF, D6E1, D6ED, D6F9, D6FD, D8IJ, D8JJ, D945, D993, D99F, D9C9, D9F3, D9G5, D9KJ, DA15, DAA5, DAE1, DAKF, DB25, DB61, DBC1, DBG3, DC43, DC99, DCE1, DD0F, DD1D, DD2D, DD2J, DD5D, DD9H, DDA5, DDD5, DDDJ, DDED, DDH1, DDHJ, DDI9, DDJ5, DE0D, DED1, DEDF, DEFD, DF03, DF45, DF55, DF5D, DF6D, DG05, DGGJ, DH0H, DH43, DHC1, DHEH, DHH3, DHJJ, DI8J, DIC9, DII9, DIJH, DJG5, DJHJ, DJKJ, DK6D, DKAF, DKDD, DKGD, E081, E0BJ, E0DD, E0DJ, E0E1, E0ED, E0J7, E0K7, E0KJ, E1GD, E1IH, E201, E281, E66F, E6BD, E6ED, E6K1, E6LL, E7EF, E861, E86D, E88D, EB0D, EB4H, EBHH, EBI7, EC6F, ECEL, ED0D, ED1D, ED6D, EDAF, EDDD, EDFD, EE01, EE0D, EE1H, EE21, EECF, EEE1, EEGH, EEH7, EF8D, EGGD, EGHH, EGIH, EGIJ, EH07, EH0L, EH8D, EHBH, EHBJ, EHK7, EHL7, EI4H, EIK7, EIKJ, EJ77, EK07, EK0J, EKC1, EKIJ, EKK1, EKK7, EL6L, ELBD, ELCL, ELDJ, ELK7, F059, F20L, F26L, F28D, F2GD, F2KD, F32L, F3AF, F3G3, F455, F56F, F595, F5KD, F6AF, F6GD, F88D, F8I9, F955, F995, F9B3, F9G3, F9KF, FB03, FB8D, FBI3, FC89, FD99, FDA5, FDI9, FEGD, FF59, FG2D, FGI3, FGKD, FI89, FIB3, FIKF, FK2D, FK45, FKD5, FL6D, FLG3, G003, G04H, G055, G0BH, G0HH, G0HJ, G0I3, G0K5, G0KJ, G26D, G2DJ, G2GJ, G303, G333, G393, G3G9, G3I3, G403, G40H, G433, G4AH, G4GH, G4H3, G4IH, G589, G5G9, G80J, G89J, G94H, G9G3, GAA5, GAIH, GB0H, GB43, GB6D, GBB5, GBG3, GBGJ, GBJJ, GD0H, GD45, GDD5, GDKD, GG2D, GG39, GG8J, GG9H, GGAH, GGDJ, GGEJ, GGGH, GGH3, GGKJ, GH0H, GHG3, GHH3, GHHH, GHJJ, GI03, GI2J, GI93, GIAH, GIEJ, GIG9, GII3, GJJJ, GJKJ, GK05, GKDD, GKGD, GKGJ, GKIJ, H081, H087, H0AH, H0BJ, H0D1, H0HJ, H0LL, H1HH, H20D, H22D, H26D, H2I7, H2K7, H30L, H3KJ, H40H, H447, H4G3, H4H3, H4HH, H66L, H6ED, 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5IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIF, D555555555555555555555550555, EEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAF, HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHEEBH, K66666666666666666666666666F, LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLEEB7, D5555555555555555555555555A55, GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG3, GIG0000000000000000000000000H, HH00000000000000000000000001H, K0000000000000000000000005KEF, 5BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBD, HB0000000000000000000000000001, K000000000000000000000000505EF, L7777777777777777777777777772L, 2000000000000000000000000000CB1, C8CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC9, IKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKFF, JE0000000000000000000000000000J, K000000000000000000000000000261, A0000000000000000000000000004I4H, HD000000000000000000000000000001, K000000000000000000000000000EC01, K0FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFCF, D0002222222222222222222222222222D, FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFL2L, I700000000000000000000000000000GH, K00000000000000000000000000000E61, 20000000000000000000000000000000JJ, DD5KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKF, 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LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL0KE7, 44HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH, F0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000L89, J000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000JJIJ, K222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222DD, KCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCF, LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLKCF, D55KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKF, K000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000077, 22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222D, K000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000008IJ, DFA00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000005, CC4IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII3, JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJE0J, 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777EK7, 6000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000043, KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKB5, HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHEEH, 4HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHEH, 50000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000002C1, K0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000055EF, H700000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000H, 80000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000K1, EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE0I7, HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHEH, 5000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000BB5, J000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000BIJ, C4IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII3, F0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000066B3, G0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000A5, D5KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKF, HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHBH, L0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000IKF, 4IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII3, A400000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000H, DKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKF, 4HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH, E0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000071, 7LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLIL, LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLK77, EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEI7, LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLIB3, I7G00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000H, 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77EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEK7, JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJKJ, 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LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLKE7, 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777772L, BKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK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KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK5

===Base 24===

15, 17, 1D, 1H, 1J, 1N, 25, 2B, 2D, 2J, 2N, 31, 37, 3B, 3H, 41, 45, 47, 4B, 4D, 4H, 57, 5B, 5H, 5J, 65, 67, 6D, 6J, 6N, 75, 7B, 7D, 7N, 81, 85, 87, 8J, 97, 9B, 9D, 9H, 9N, A1, AB, AH, AN, B5, B7, BD, BH, BJ, C5, CJ, CN, D1, D5, DJ, E1, EB, ED, EH, EN, F7, FD, FJ, FN, G5, GD, GH, H1, HB, HD, HN, I1, I7, IB, IH, J1, J5, J7, JB, JN, K7, KB, KJ, KN, L5, LH, LJ, MD, MJ, N5, NB, NH, NJ, 101, 10B, 111, 1F1, 1FB, 1GB, 1LB, 201, 221, 22H, 261, 271, 277, 28H, 2A7, 2C7, 2G7, 2H7, 2L1, 2L7, 2MH, 305, 30D, 30J, 33N, 34N, 35D, 35N, 38D, 395, 3A5, 3AJ, 3CD, 3DD, 3DN, 3E5, 3EJ, 3GJ, 3IJ, 3JJ, 3K5, 3KD, 3ND, 43N, 44N, 49J, 4EJ, 4GJ, 4GN, 4NN, 50N, 535, 54N, 551, 55N, 5C1, 5CD, 5E5, 5K1, 5KD, 5LN, 5M5, 5N1, 601, 60B, 61B, 66H, 68B, 691, 6CH, 6FH, 6GB, 6HH, 6MH, 70H, 70J, 711, 761, 771, 77H, 77J, 78H, 7C7, 7CH, 7FH, 7G7, 7H7, 7HH, 7IJ, 7JJ, 7K1, 7M1, 7M7, 80D, 82H, 83N, 88D, 88H, 8AD, 8CD, 8DB, 8DD, 8DH, 8DN, 8GB, 8KD, 8MB, 8MH, 905, 911, 921, 935, 955, 99J, 9AJ, 9G1, 9JJ, 9K5, 9L1, 9M5, A0J, A3J, A95, AA7, AD7, AE5, AG7, AGJ, AI5, AIJ, AJD, AL7, ALD, B01, B0N, B11, B61, B6B, B8N, B91, BIN, BL1, BLN, BNN, C1B, C21, C27, C2H, C3D, C61, C8H, C91, CA7, CB1, CBB, CC7, CCB, CCD, CDD, CFB, CG1, CGB, CK1, CL1, CMB, CMH, D0B, D3D, D3N, D4N, D6B, D6H, D7H, D8B, D8N, DAD, DCD, DCH, DDH, DDN, DG7, DGB, DID, DMN, DND, E05, E4J, EA7, EEJ, EF5, EGJ, EI5, EJJ, EM5, EM7, F01, F21, F51, F8H, F95, FC1, FF1, FFB, FKH, FM5, G0B, G0N, G11, G3N, G6B, G77, G7J, G8B, G8N, G91, GA7, GBB, GC7, GFB, GG1, GGJ, GGN, GK1, GL1, GLN, GMN, GN1, GNN, H0J, H2H, H3J, H4J, H77, HA5, HA7, HE5, HFH, HIJ, HJJ, HKH, HL7, HMH, I0N, I3D, I3J, I3N, I4N, I5D, I95, IA5, IAJ, IE5, IEJ, IF5, IGJ, IJD, IK5, IKD, J0D, J4J, J8D, JAD, JDH, JEJ, JFH, JHH, JKD, JMH, K35, K6H, KCD, KFH, KH5, KLD, KM1, L01, L0B, L0D, L0N, L61, L6B, L8D, LA7, LC7, LDD, LF1, LG7, LGB, LGN, LID, LK1, LKD, LL1, LLB, LLD, LMN, LNN, M0H, M11, M21, M4N, M71, M91, M95, MA5, MA7, MBN, MC7, MF1, MF5, MFB, MFH, MG7, MI5, MIN, ML1, ML7, MLB, MMH, N01, N21, N4N, N71, N8N, NC1, ND7, NE7, NG1, NID, NK1, NL7, NMN, NN7, 11CB, 11MB, 1291, 12G1, 16C1, 16CB, 16K1, 186B, 18CB, 19K1, 1BK1, 1C8B, 1K91, 1KC1, 1KL1, 1L21, 1LC1, 1LM1, 1M61, 1M8B, 1MG1, 206H, 20CH, 20M7, 21C1, 21M1, 2207, 260H, 26KH, 2991, 2C6H, 2CC1, 2CM1, 2F11, 2FHH, 2MC1, 2MK1, 2MM1, 308N, 30GN, 30IN, 30LN, 30MN, 333J, 33JD, 33LD, 343J, 344J, 35I5, 380N, 393J, 394J, 3A3D, 3FI5, 3IMN, 3J3D, 3JID, 3L3D, 3L8N, 3M0N, 3M55, 3NGN, 404J, 408N, 40LN, 434J, 44AJ, 4ILN, 4JAJ, 4L8N, 5091, 5095, 50F1, 50I5, 51L1, 5211, 5291, 52G1, 53ID, 53MN, 5595, 55AD, 56F1, 588N, 58MN, 58ND, 5961, 5991, 5A5D, 5AAD, 5F91, 5GF1, 5GIN, 5I05, 5I55, 5I8D, 5IDD, 5IDN, 5IIN, 5IMN, 5KI5, 5M61, 5M8N, 5N3N, 602H, 6211, 62F1, 62G1, 66C1, 66FB, 66M1, 66MB, 6B21, 6BM1, 6BMB, 6C6B, 6CF1, 6CLB, 6FG1, 6K21, 6K2H, 6KG1, 6KKH, 6L21, 6LCB, 6LM1, 6MB1, 6MBB, 6MG1, 6MK1, 7001, 7027, 7207, 726H, 739J, 793J, 79C1, 7A4J, 7A9J, 7AE7, 7C01, 7CC1, 7FL1, 7G21, 7G9J, 7GAJ, 7GC1, 7HGJ, 7J2H, 7J6H, 7MKH, 800B, 800H, 804N, 806H, 808N, 80BN, 80FH, 80LN, 80MN, 840N, 848N, 866B, 86FB, 880B, 880N, 884N, 88CB, 88FB, 88LN, 88MN, 8BBB, 8BLB, 8C6B, 8CCH, 8CFH, 8F0B, 8FHH, 8FLB, 8H0H, 8HCH, 8IGN, 8ILN, 8KKH, 8L8B, 8LBB, 8LFB, 8LIN, 8M8N, 8MLN, 8N0N, 8NGN, 8NLN, 9061, 9091, 90EJ, 90F1, 90GJ, 90K1, 940J, 9501, 95F1, 9CC1, 9E0J, 9E95, 9F61, 9FI5, 9G3J, 9II5, 9K01, 9KK1, 9M01, A007, A05D, A0AD, A33D, A3AD, A3F5, A44J, A727, A9EJ, AA0D, AAAD, AAAJ, ACM7, AD8D, ADKD, AE27, AE9J, AEAJ, AEE7, AIAD, AIDD, AIID, AJ9J, AK5D, AM07, AM27, AM35, AMK5, B08B, B0CB, B0GB, B18B, B1CB, B80B, B8CB, BB21, BB4N, BBCB, BBF1, BBFB, BBK1, BC8B, BCF1, BCLB, BF1B, BF8B, BFB1, BFM1, BGC1, BGF1, BK21, BL8B, BLFB, BM1B, BM3N, BMB1, BMMN, BNF1, C00D, C06B, C077, C0D7, C0H7, C0L7, C0LB, C0M1, C60H, C6LB, C76H, C7E7, CAID, CC01, CCFH, CCKH, CDLB, CGE7, CH07, CHE7, CI8D, CIAD, CK0D, CL8B, CLDB, CLE7, CM01, CM07, CME7, CMM1, D007, D08D, D0C7, D0HH, D0LN, D0M7, D0NN, D207, D2KH, D2M7, D777, D7E7, D80H, D8LD, DA27, DAC7, DAM7, DBFB, DBMB, DC77, DCLB, DDL7, DE77, DF0H, DF2H, DFFH, DFMB, DH27, DH8H, DHC7, DHHH, DILN, DK0H, DK2H, DK8H, DKHH, DLIN, DLL7, DLM7, DLMB, DM07, DMH7, DMMB, DNGN, E07J, E09J, E335, E355, E555, E5A5, E5K5, E79J, E93J, E995, EA35, EE95, EKE5, F00B, F00H, F06H, F08B, F0I5, F11B, F18B, F1L1, F20H, F26H, F2FH, F355, F661, F6K1, F80B, F86B, F8BB, FBGB, FBK1, FBLB, FC0B, FC6H, FCLB, FEK5, FGB1, FH05, FH0H, FH35, FH6H, FHCH, FHF5, FHHH, FI05, FK91, FKK1, FL1B, FLB1, FLBB, FM61, FMBB, FMK1, G00J, G021, G027, G0EJ, G0JJ, G0M1, G0M7, G1CB, G2E7, G40J, G4AJ, G4IJ, G4JJ, G6C1, G701, G94J, G9IJ, GAEJ, GAJJ, GB21, GBM1, GC01, GCF1, GCLB, GE0J, GEAJ, GEE7, GEG7, GEIJ, GEL7, GFM1, GGE7, GGMB, GI0J, GIIJ, GIIN, GJ9J, GM27, GMB1, GNM7, H005, H0K5, H0M5, H207, H2E7, H335, H3I5, H595, H5K5, H60H, H68H, H76H, H80H, H8HH, HAAJ, HE7J, HEC7, HGE7, HGM7, HH35, HI55, HIM5, I00J, I035, I08D, I0CD, I4JJ, IC0D, ICID, II0D, II0J, II35, IIAD, IILD, IIM5, IIMN, IJ9J, ILCD, IM05, IM35, IMNN, INLD, J03J, J0HJ, J0JH, J2CH, J39J, J3ID, J60H, J62H, J8CH, J9IJ, JGAJ, JGJJ, JH9J, JI0J, JIDD, JJ0H, JJCD, JJJD, JJLD, JL3D, JLCD, K0E5, K0I5, K0K1, K0KH, K191, K211, K2F1, K2G1, K591, K5AD, K6F1, K6G1, K9I5, KA0D, KAAD, KAM5, KCCH, KCHH, KD8D, KDDD, KFI5, KG01, KG61, KH0H, KHHH, KI55, KIDD, KK21, KK8H, KKF1, KKK1, KKKD, KM8H, KMHH, KMK5, L027, L0M7, L1C1, L1MB, L211, L727, L8BB, L8BN, L8FB, L8LN, L9C1, L9M1, LB8B, LBC1, LBM1, LCAD, LD77, LDIN, LDL7, LDM7, LF8B, LG21, LIIN, LLLN, LLN7, LM07, LM1B, LM77, LMG1, LN77, LNM1, M00N, M01B, M03N, M055, M077, M08B, M0B1, M0C1, M0GB, M0K1, M0M7, M0N7, M18B, M1BB, M1MB, M26H, M335, M3GN, M3M5, M3MN, M3NN, M501, M53N, M5M1, M5NN, M6BB, M6C1, M6G1, M6KH, M88B, M88N, M8BB, M8NN, MBB1, MC01, MCC1, MCKH, MCM1, ME07, ME35, MEK5, MGGB, MGMB, MH35, MH8H, MHE7, MHM5, MK8H, MKC1, MKG1, MKHH, MKK5, ML8N, MM01, MM8B, MMC1, MMLN, MMM5, MMMN, MMN1, MN0N, MN27, MNGN, MNLN, N007, N027, N077, N0C7, N0DN, N0IN, N1M1, N227, N2M7, N661, N707, N727, N8LD, NA27, NA3D, NC07, ND0D, ND0N, NDLD, NF11, NF61, NGG7, NILN, NK3D, NK8D, 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5N03D, 5N3LD, 5NA8D, 5NADD, 5NDGN, 5NNGN, 600KH, 61661, 616L1, 61MM1, 66161, 66611, 666B1, 666L1, 666LB, 66BB1, 66BG1, 66BLB, 66G61, 66KF1, 66LBB, 66LG1, 6BBBB, 6BFCB, 6CC11, 6F1M1, 6F66B, 6F6B1, 6F6L1, 6FBCB, 6FLMB, 6FMCB, 6FMM1, 6FMMB, 6GCM1, 6GM61, 6GMC1, 6K1C1, 6K1K1, 6KK11, 6KKL1, 6KL11, 6L1G1, 6LBFB, 6LCC1, 6LFMB, 6MM61, 6MM6B, 70291, 702C1, 702G1, 72CF1, 72EE7, 7433J, 7443J, 77A07, 79901, 799F1, 7AAEJ, 7EE27, 7H9EJ, 7K2KH, 7KK2H, 7KKKH, 7KKMH, 7L2C1, 800NN, 806BB, 808BB, 808LB, 80F8B, 80IIN, 833ID, 860KH, 8886B, 888NN, 8BG4N, 8CH6H, 8CKHH, 8FC0H, 8FFCH, 8HHHH, 8IIIN, 8K0HH, 8LL4N, 8M0NN, 8MNNN, 8NNND, 9000J, 900M1, 9034J, 90IIJ, 94IIJ, 96CM1, 96KF1, 96MM1, 990C1, 990M1, 99591, 99961, 999C1, 99F91, 99FM1, 99KF1, 99M61, 99MK1, 9AAA5, 9FEE5, 9FFA5, 9FFF5, 9II4J, 9K6C1, 9K9C1, 9K9F1, 9KF91, 9M6M1, 9MK61, A02M7, A0A35, A0AM5, A0C77, A0D0D, A0DDD, A0EC7, A0M55, A0MM7, A2ME7, A3335, A33M5, A3555, A3MM5, A550D, A58ID, A5D0D, A5DDD, A74AJ, A7E07, AA0M5, AA3ID, AA3M5, AA83D, AA8ID, AAAM5, 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EGG07, EGG27, EGL07, EI9IJ, F02HH, F06LB, F0C6B, F0CCH, F0CHH, F0E55, F0EA5, F0FH5, F0GGB, F0M2H, F0MGB, F0MMB, F1BMB, F3FF5, F3I35, F3II5, F6BCB, FA035, FB1MB, FBBM1, FBBMB, FBM8B, FC0HH, FC88B, FCFHH, FFC0H, FFCFH, FFCHH, FFF0H, FFF6H, FFFH5, FFHI5, FFI55, FG1MB, FGGCB, FGM1B, FHK55, FI5I5, FKEA5, FKKI5, FKL11, FM16B, FM1CB, FM62H, FM6CB, FMBG1, FMM0B, G0001, G00E7, G039J, G06F1, G07C1, G07F1, G0A9J, G0G07, G0GG7, G0I4J, G0I9J, G0LL7, G22M7, G2M07, G339J, G433J, G62M1, G6M61, G6MM1, G903J, G933J, GAA9J, GBCC1, GE007, GGGGB, GGGL7, GJ0IJ, GL007, GL2M7, GLL07, GLLM7, GMGCB, GMM07, GMM1B, H007H, H05I5, H0CCH, H0CM7, H0GG7, H0H27, H0H8H, H0HC7, H0HH5, H0I35, H0MM7, H3555, H35F5, H3F55, H3FF5, H5055, H50F5, H7HEJ, H9995, H9GEJ, HCC0H, HCC6H, HCGG7, HCHM7, HE027, HE0G7, HEE07, HEEG7, HEG27, HF0F5, HF505, HF555, HFF05, HFKF5, HG0G7, HH06H, HH08H, HH0H5, HH5I5, HH7HJ, HH9EJ, HH9I5, HHCHH, HHE07, HHGG7, HHH05, HHH7H, HHH9J, HHKI5, HHM05, HHM07, HHM27, HI0I5, HJ86H, HJC0H, HK055, HK9F5, HKF05, HKFF5, HKFK5, HKII5, HKK95, HM2M7, HME27, HMKM5, HMM05, HMM27, HMM55, HMMM7, I00DD, I00M5, I044J, I0505, I09IJ, I0AAD, I0D0D, I0DDD, I0I05, I0IDD, I0II5, I0IJJ, I0JIJ, I33M5, I4I4J, I5INN, I888N, I8NND, I8NNN, I904J, I94IJ, IA8ID, IAADD, IAI8D, IDDDD, IDINN, II88N, II8NN, IID8D, IIDIN, III8N, IIIDD, IIIID, IIIIN, IIIND, IIN8D, IINDD, IJJ0J, IJJJJ, ILILN, ILLIN, IMM8N, INA0D, INDNN, INGIN, INNDN, INNND, J000H, J002H, J00AJ, J00GJ, J00KH, J02KH, J068H, J080H, J090J, J0A9J, J0AAJ, J0C0H, J0G0J, J0IIJ, J0JGJ, J0JIJ, J0K8H, J2K0H, J2KKH, J6K8H, J86KH, JC00H, JC0KH, JCCCH, JCK0H, JCKCH, JDDLD, JG93J, JIIJJ, JJ0IJ, JJ2KH, JJ9GJ, JJCCH, JJG9J, JJGIJ, JJJ9J, JJJJH, JJK8H, JK08H, JK0CH, JK8KH, JKC0H, JKKKH, K0001, K0091, K020H, K02C1, K03ID, K0611, K06L1, K083D, K08HH, K0961, K09C1, K0CF1, K0F91, K0KM5, K0LG1, K1G21, K20HH, K29K1, K2KHH, K5001, K500D, K58ID, K5D0D, K5L11, K6621, K6C11, K6LC1, K8CKH, K8KCH, K96C1, K99E5, K9F91, K9FA5, K9FE5, K9K91, KA55D, KC011, KCF11, KD02H, KD0MH, KD20H, KDM2H, KEA55, KEAA5, KEK95, KEKK5, KF1G1, KF1K1, KF611, KF6L1, KFEA5, KH8CH, KI005, KIMM5, KK05D, KK0AD, KK0DH, KK2CH, KK2KH, KK33D, KK961, KK9C1, KKA5D, KKD0D, KKE55, KKI0D, KKIID, KKIM5, KKK0H, KKKM5, KLGC1, KMK2H, L188B, L1991, L2007, L22M7, L2EE7, L2MM7, L333D, L3LIN, L7291, L72G1, L88IN, L8C8B, L9991, LBB1B, LBBBB, LBBBN, LD0E7, LDBBN, LE207, LFMCB, LGCC1, LL227, LL3IN, LL48N, LLM27, LLMM7, LMBCB, LME27, LMMBB, LMMM7, LN33D, LN3AD, LNAAD, LNACD, M0007, M0061, M00K5, M0207, M066B, M0BCB, M0EE5, M0G01, M0GM1, M0M8N, M27KH, M2E27, M2M07, M2M27, M5005, M5555, M66CB, M66K1, M6K61, M6MCB, M7007, M7EE7, M8C0B, M8KCH, M8MGN, MBBGB, MBGM1, MCCCH, MCHCH, MEE55, MGBC1, MGMM1, MH227, MH2M7, MHH7H, MKM55, ML3LN, MM0CB, MM16B, MM227, MM661, MM6K1, MME55, MMEE7, MMKE5, MMM07, MMM6B, MMMB1, MMMGB, MMMM7, MNM61, MNN3N, N00CD, N00KD, N03LN, N0A8D, N0AM7, N0D8D, N0KKD, N0L3N, N0LAD, N0NDD, N16L1, N3GIN, N3LAD, N3LIN, N3NNN, N61L1, N96M1, N9M61, NA0CD, NAK0D, NAKKD, NCA8D, NCM77, NDGIN, NDIIN, NDLLN, NF991, NGM07, NIIIN, NINNN, NKKDD, NLNAD, NN0LN, NN191, NN3NN, NN6L1, NN83D, NNAAD, NNDIN, NNGIN, NNL3N, NNLND, NNM61, NNNIN, 166G21, 16G621, 19MMM1, 1BBBMB, 1BBGM1, 1GCCC1, 1GCCM1, 1MMM1B, 200E27, 2E0027, 2HH0HH, 2HHC0H, 2KK0HH, 2M0E27, 2M22E7, 30NNNN, 3333M5, 333AID, 333I35, 33I555, 3F5FF5, 3I3MM5, 3I88GN, 3II8LN, 3IIII5, 400IJJ, 40J00J, 40JJ3J, 40JJJJ, 44403J, 444I0J, 44IJJJ, 44J0JJ, 44JJIJ, 48I8IN, 4I440J, 4II8IN, 4IJ0IJ, 4JIIIJ, 4JJ0JJ, 4JJJ0J, 50033D, 5003AD, 5008ID, 500D8D, 500G01, 500L11, 500LAD, 500MG1, 503LAD, 508ILD, 50DDLD, 50ILAD, 50M001, 516G61, 519MM1, 538NNN, 53NNNN, 55005D, 5508ID, 550D8D, 558ILD, 55F5I5, 56G661, 58333D, 58NNNN, 5999F5, 59AAF5, 5DNNNN, 5F55I5, 5FMMM1, 5G6661, 5K9AA5, 5KK9F5, 5KKK95, 5M0001, 5NDD8D, 5NDINN, 5NN33D, 5NNLAD, 5NNNAD, 5NNNDN, 608K0H, 61CCM1, 61G621, 661G21, 666621, 6666CB, 6666F1, 66K661, 6BCCC1, 6BKKC1, 6F6BBB, 6G6621, 6GCCC1, 6GMMM1, 6K6K61, 6M666B, 70A077, 70L991, 7722E7, 772E27, 7772E7, 777A27, 777L27, 77A777, 77EL27, 7A7077, 7A7777, 7E7227, 7L2E27, 7LEL27, 7LL2E7, 7LLE27, 7LLL27, 800GIN, 80NINN, 80NNNN, 8BBMGN, 8C888B, 8C88LB, 8MM0GN, 900001, 90043J, 959MM1, 96K661, 9999F1, 9999K1, 999AF5, 999FF5, 99EEE5, 99K991, 99MMM1, 9AAFF5, 9EIIIJ, 9F9991, 9F9MM1, 9FEAA5, 9G444J, 9K9991, 9M6661, A000CD, A000KD, A000M5, A0083D, A00I0D, A00M05, A022E7, A07E77, A0FF35, A0K3ID, A0K83D, A4AJJJ, A77777, AA0035, AA0355, AAA035, ADDD0D, ADDDDD, AF0035, AFFF35, AKK8ID, AM0M05, AM7777, B0F0MB, BBBBM1, BBLBMB, BFBBBB, BFM0MB, BFMMMB, BLBBMB, BLMBBB, C00071, C000E7, C007C1, C00G07, C07KKH, C0CC6H, C0CH6H, C0EEE7, C0HHHH, C777L7, C77L77, C7L777, C7LL07, C8088B, CAAK8D, CAKKAD, CC000H, CC0CHH, CD000H, CD0KKH, CE0007, CEE0E7, CELL77, CG0007, CGGL07, CH0CHH, CHCH0H, CHHH6H, CK0C0H, CKAK8D, CKKA8D, CL7707, D002FH, D0D0KD, D0DA77, D0DKKD, D0IIIN, D0K0DD, D0KDKD, D0KKDD, D0KKKH, DC0EE7, DCEEE7, DD0227, DD0D27, DD0DKD, DD0KKD, DD2E27, DDD0D7, DDD0LD, DDD227, DDDA77, DDDBCB, DDDCE7, DDDDFB, DDDMM7, DDEEE7, DDMBCB, DEEC07, DH000H, DHMEE7, DIIIGN, DK0KDD, DKMKKH, DMBBBB, DMEEE7, DMMM27, E00G27, E07727, E0C707, E0CE77, E0E027, E0EEG7, E0EGE7, E0EL27, E0GE27, E0L207, E0LE27, E0LL27, E2E2E7, E7L2E7, E900IJ, E9EEE5, EAAKK5, EC00E7, EC0G07, EC7007, ECEG07, EE0G07, EE0GE7, EE72E7, EE7L27, EECE07, EECEG7, EEEEE5, EEEK55, EEEKA5, EEEL27, EEGLL7, EELE27, EGLLL7, EKK595, EKKA55, EKKAK5, EKKKK5, F000E5, F0AA35, F0F035, F0FFFH, F0HKK5, F0KKE5, F16BB1, F16MM1, F1BBBB, F1MC6B, F666BB, F66BBB, F6GMM1, FB0BBB, FB1BBB, FBBB0B, FBMMG1, FC0FFH, FCFCCH, FEEE55, FEEEA5, FF03F5, FF0FFH, FF3F35, FFEE35, FFF2CH, FFFCCH, FFFFE5, FFI335, FFKFE5, FGLMMB, FK55I5, FKFE55, FLM8CB, FMC66B, FMMC6B, G0AA4J, G0CCC1, G0LE07, G666F1, GG0007, GG00G7, GG0L07, GGLLL7, GGLMM7, GI444J, GJJ33J, GLLE27, GLMMCB, GM0661, GMMM61, H00G07, H05555, H09FF5, H0C0E7, H0CE07, H0CEE7, H0E227, H0H007, H0H5F5, H0H995, H0HHE7, H0HHH7, H55505, H55II5, H5FII5, H99FF5, HEG007, HFFK55, HH0007, HH02M7, HH0C0H, HH7AEJ, HHC0E7, HHE227, HHH0C7, HHH0M7, HHH995, HHHC0H, HHHE27, HHHEAJ, HHHH07, HHHH8H, HHHHE7, HHHHI5, HHHHJH, HHHJ8H, HHHJCH, HHJ00H, HHK095, HHKKM5, HKK0F5, HKK5F5, HKKK55, HKKKK5, HKM555, HMEEE7, I00555, I05555, I0I94J, I333I5, I33555, I444IJ, I55055, I55505, I55555, IAAC8D, ID000D, IDD0LD, II9I4J, III4IJ, III505, IIIC8D, IIJIJJ, IJIIIJ, IM8LLN, IN00AD, INAACD, INCAAD, ININGN, J00CCH, J0IJJJ, J0J09J, J3333D, JIJIIJ, JJ68KH, JJIJIJ, JJJAJJ, JJJHGJ, JJJJAJ, JJJJGJ, JJJJIJ, K0008H, K00161, K001G1, K001L1, K002CH, K002HH, K00521, K00AKD, K00C0H, K00GF1, K00I0D, K00K95, K00M05, K01621, K05021, K0505D, K051G1, K059F5, K05K95, K0C0C1, K0L291, K0M005, K0M505, K1K661, K2CK0H, K33IAD, K3IIID, K5550D, K56121, K59AA5, K612K1, K61CC1, K66661, K6K611, K900C1, K99661, K9AFF5, K9C001, KAKI8D, KC00C1, KDK00D, KF9991, KI0IID, KK000D, KK01L1, KK0661, KK0I8D, KK0L11, KK0M2H, KK5661, KK59F5, KK61C1, KK9995, KK9EE5, KKA3ID, KKA83D, KKAI8D, KKC001, KKC0C1, KKC1C1, KKCCC1, KKD2HH, KKK595, KKK9A5, KKKK95, KKKKKH, KKKMCH, KKM505, KKMEE5, KKMKCH, KM0005, L222E7, L33AAD, L38I8N, LCCC11, LDFBCB, LEL2E7, LELE27, LELL27, LGMMM1, LLE2E7, LM2ME7, M000M5, M006MB, M00E27, M00MM1, M02227, M06M61, M06MM1, M0E227, M0EE27, M0KME5, M0M5GN, M0MM61, M0MMCB, M0MNNN, M0NNM1, M38LLN, M5K505, M77707, M7E227, M7E727, M8CHHH, MBMMCB, MBMMM1, MEEE77, MHH027, MHH505, MHHC6H, MHHH6H, MHHK05, MKK001, MM2ME7, MM7707, MM7E77, MMBMK1, MMM2E7, MMMC0B, MMMK61, N0003D, N0008D, N0030N, N030NN, N0C0AD, N0CKAD, N0DKDD, N0N3GN, N0NN3N, N333AD, N777A7, N77A77, NAACKD, NAAKDD, NACAKD, NACKAD, NC0AKD, NC0KAD, NCA0KD, NCKAKD, NDNNLN, NNNLAD, NNNNLD, 1BBBBBB, 1BBBBG1, 1M6MMMB, 1MMBBBB, 1MMMMK1, 2000227, 2000EE7, 20EEEE7, 2C0FFFH, 2E2EEE7, 2KKKHCH, 2MEE227, 2MEEE27, 333333D, 3333355, 3335555, 333FFF5, 333IIID, 388NNNN, 38INNNN, 3INNNNN, 4000IMN, 4000JJJ, 400IIIN, 444444J, 44JJJJJ, 488888N, 4IIJIIJ, 4JJJ33J, 50002M1, 5001G21, 5006621, 500LGM1, 555083D, 55555I5, 5616G21, 59MMMM1, 5K999A5, 61CCCC1, 66666K1, 6K0000H, 6K0080H, 70000A7, 70077A7, 70700A7, 7070A77, 77700A7, 77770A7, 7777227, 7777E27, 77L2227, 7LE22E7, 888888B, 888888N, 8888BBN, 8888IIN, 888B88B, 888I8IN, 88IINNN, 88NIINN, 88NNIIN, 8INNNNN, 90444IJ, 904I44J, 9666661, 9666FK1, 9666K61, 9966FK1, A00KK0D, A0K000D, AAAAA35, AAKKI8D, BB8888B, BBB0BLB, BBBB1BB, BBBBBB1, BBBBBGB, BBBBBLB, BBBLMBB, C0007KH, C000F11, C00FFFH, C00HH0H, C00K00H, C0C0HHH, C0CCHHH, C0CHH0H, C0CHHCH, C0FFFFH, C0H0H0H, C0KKC0H, CC0HH0H, CCCCC11, CCCCCC1, CCHHHHH, CDKKKKH, CEL7777, CGGG0G7, CGGGGG7, CH00HHH, CHGGGG7, CHHHH0H, CHHHHCH, CHHHHHH, CK0000H, CKDKKKH, D00DDKD, DD0DDD7, DDBBBLB, DDD2EE7, DDDBBLB, DDDDD27, DDDDDBB, DDDDDC7, DDDDDKD, DDDDDMB, DDDDEE7, DDDDKKD, DDDDLDB, DDDFBBB, DDDLFCB, DDDMEE7, DDM2227, DHHEEE7, DK000KD, DK00D0D, DK0D00D, DNN000N, E000CL7, E000EG7, E000GE7, E00C0G7, E00CE07, E00EE27, E0C00G7, E0C0EG7, E0CE007, E0EC0G7, E0EE207, E0G0007, E20EE27, E22EEE7, E2EE227, E2EEE27, E772227, E77LL27, E7L2227, E9IIIIJ, EAKKKA5, EC000G7, ECG00G7, EE00L27, EE0E0G7, EE20EE7, EEE0EG7, EEE22E7, EEEE727, EEEEE27, EEEEG07, EEEEGE7, EEEKKK5, EELLL27, EI0IIIJ, EKKKAA5, ELLLE27, F00FA35, F0333F5, F0F0FE5, F333335, FAAFF35, FCF0FCH, FEEEE35, FF03335, FF0FA35, FF0FE35, FF0FMCH, FFF0A35, FFF0F35, FFFAF35, FFFF5I5, FFFFM2H, FFFI3I5, FFFIII5, FFH5555, FH55555, FL1MMM1, G0000G7, G0000L7, GGGG007, GLE2227, GLLLLE7, GLLLLL7, H000007, H0000C7, H000HCH, H000HM7, H000M27, H000ME7, H00G227, H00HHM7, H02M227, H0C0HHH, H0CH00H, H0E0007, H0FFF35, H0FFFF5, H0H0ME7, H0HFII5, H0HHHCH, H0M0227, H555555, H5F5FF5, HC000G7, HC00H0H, HCCHHCH, HCHHHCH, HCHHHHH, HEEEE27, HFF5FF5, HFF5FI5, HFKKK05, HG00007, HH00E27, HH0G227, HHH2MM7, HHH55F5, HHH9FF5, HHHFFK5, HHHFK55, HHHH7EJ, HHHHCM7, HHHHHAJ, HHHHHF5, HHHHHHJ, HKK5505, I000055, I00A0ID, I0I4IIJ, I0IIIIJ, I88NIIN, III0055, III0I55, III444J, IINNLIN, J000IJJ, K0000DH, K0000KD, K00033D, K000A5D, K000K5D, K00555D, K009995, K00K00D, K00K8ID, K00KI8D, K00KIAD, K01GCC1, K05033D, K0999F5, K2KKKCH, K53333D, K956661, K999991, KCCC1C1, KFFFE55, KFFKKE5, KFKFKE5, KK009A5, KK00C11, KK01GC1, KK99001, KKIII05, KKK09F5, KKKE9E5, KKKEAK5, KKKKI05, KKKKKE5, KMMEEE5, L1BBBG1, LBMMMCB, LBMMMMB, LDEEE07, LEE22E7, LEE2E27, LEEE2E7, LLLLE27, M0000CB, M000C6B, M02EEE7, M0K0005, M0M0005, M2CHHHH, M2HHHHH, M6MMMM1, MC0000B, MCHHHHH, ME7E777, MEE7777, MEEE2E7, MG06661, MHHHCCH, MHHHH27, MHHHHH7, MHM0027, MM6666B, MM77777, MMC000B, MMM7727, MMNM777, N000NLN, N00333D, N003AAD, N0A00DD, N0NN33D, N0NNLLN, N30000N, N777777, NDNNNNN, NN0N0GN, NN0N30N, NNN300N, NNN333D, NNN3LLN, NNNDDDD, NNNNN3N, NNNNNND, 33333F35, 33FFFF35, 3555FFF5, 3FFFFF55, 3NNNNNLN, 40000I0J, 40I0IIIJ, 444440IJ, 4J0000IJ, 500006G1, 5D00DDDD, 5L1MMMM1, 5MMMMMG1, 5NNDDDDD, 5NNNNDDD, 5NNNNN8D, 6000080H, 777777A7, 77777A77, 7944444J, 800000IN, 996666K1, 999999I5, 9999FEA5, A00003ID, AAAAFF35, BBBGMMMB, C0000011, C000007H, C0CC0H0H, C666666B, CCCH0HHH, CCHH0HCH, CE777777, CEEEEE07, CHH0H00H, D00000GN, D000D0LD, D000IIGN, D0DDDDD7, DDD0E2E7, DDDDDDDB, DDDDDME7, DEEEELE7, DEEELEE7, DEELEEE7, DELEE0E7, E00000C7, E00000G7, E0000CG7, E000C0E7, E000G007, E00CG007, E00E0CG7, E0C00007, E0CGGGG7, E0GGGGG7, E20000E7, EAAKAAA5, EAKKAAA5, EE00E727, EE020007, EEEE2027, ELEE2227, F00003F5, F0000A35, F0003335, F0FFFA35, F1999991, F1999MM1, FAAAAF35, FBBBBBG1, FEAAAAA5, FF000A35, FF00FF35, FF0KEEE5, FFAAAF35, FFF555I5, FFFF33I5, FFFFF035, FFFFF3F5, FFFFFKI5, FFFFFMHH, FKFKEEE5, FKKFEEE5, FMMMMMCB, FMMMMMM1, G2000007, GGGGGMM7, GJJJJJ0J, GJJJJJ3J, H0000E27, H0000G27, H000C0G7, H000CEG7, H000CHH7, H000E0E7, H000EE27, H00CHHG7, H00EEE27, H00M0EE7, H05FF5F5, H0E00EE7, H55FF5F5, HCHH0H0H, HE000EE7, HFFIIII5, HGGG2227, HH00CEG7, HH00H0CH, HH0EEEE7, HH0FFFI5, HHEEEEE7, HHH000CH, HHH00EG7, HHHC00G7, HHHFFFF5, HHHHHKK5, HHHK5F55, HK5555F5, I4IIIIIJ, IA0000ID, II0005I5, III000I5, III055I5, III5NNNN, IIIII9IJ, IIIIIII5, IIINNNGN, JAJJJJJJ, JJAJJJJJ, K000005D, K00009A5, K0000M55, K000M555, K008IIID, K00D0K0D, K00III8D, K00K550D, K00LCC11, K0999951, K0D0000H, K0K00595, K0K9AAF5, K0KK0095, K0KK9FF5, K3333IID, KFKFEEE5, KFKKEEE5, KK00000H, KK0000M5, KK099991, KK55583D, KKKEEEA5, KKKKKKI5, LEEEE227, LLLEEE27, LLLL2E07, M000006B, M000M6CB, M0MMMMM1, M222EEE7, M777E777, M7E77777, ME222EE7, ME2EEEE7, MEE222E7, MM0NNNNN, MME77727, MMM6MMM1, N00003GN, N0000ADD, N000N0GN, N000NNND, N033333D, N0NN0NGN, NDDDDKDD, NN000N3N, NN00N03N, NN03000N, NNN003GN, NNNNDNLN, NNNNNADD, 199999MM1, 200FFFFFH, 222MEEEE7, 2FFFFFFCH, 30000000N, 30N00000N, 400000J3J, 500000M01, 5000166G1, 5000666G1, 50DDDDDDD, 8NN33333D, 999999991, C000000FH, C00000K0H, C000H00HH, C77777707, CH00H000H, CHH0000HH, D00000DKD, D00000DLD, D0000200H, D0000KK0D, D000KK00D, D00D0DDLD, D0D00DDLD, D0LEEEEE7, DDBBBBBBB, DDD000KDD, DDDDDDDE7, DK00000DD, DNNNNNNNN, E00000E27, E00007L27, E0000E727, E0E000C07, E20000027, EAAAAKAA5, EAKAAAAK5, EE0000C07, EEE000E27, EEEEEEGL7, F00FFFF35, F0FFFFF35, FF0000035, FF0FFFF35, FF5555FI5, FFFFFFA35, FFFFFFF35, FFFFFFFI5, FKKKKEEE5, FMMMMMMMB, GGGGG2227, GGGGGG207, GJJJJJJJJ, GLMMMMMMB, H000022M7, H000222M7, H000EEEE7, H0EEEEEE7, H0H0000CH, H0IIIIII5, HCH00000H, HE0EEEEE7, HFFFFFI35, HFFFFKKK5, HHHHHHG27, HHHHHHH55, HHHHHHHH7, HHHHHHM55, HHHKK5555, HHIIIII05, HIIIIII05, HKK5555I5, I000000AD, I000000ID, I000A000D, I00A0000D, IIIII0555, IIIIIII9J, K000000AD, K00000595, K000009F5, K0000550D, K099999A5, K0C00000H, K0I00000D, KK0000595, KK0000HCH, KKK000095, KKKFKFFE5, KKKIIIII5, M77777777, MEEEE2227, MMMMMMMM1, N0000000D, N0000003N, N000003NN, N00000N3N, N00000NGN, N00N000GN, N00NNNN8D, N0NNN00GN, N0NNNN3AD, N0NNNNNGN, N999999M1, NN0NNNNGN, NNN000NGN, NNNNNDD8D, NNNNNN0GN, 16MMMMMMMB, 1MMMMMMBCB, 3333333335, 33333333I5, 400000000N, 40IIIIIIJJ, 4IIIIIIIJJ, 4IIIIIIJIJ, 50000000M1, 70F9999991, 777E777727, 9999995MM1, ADD000000D, C00000088B, C000000CF1, C00000F0HH, CH00000H0H, D00KD0000D, D0D0DDDDLD, D0E2EEEEE7, D2EEEEEEE7, DBBBBBBBBB, DD000000KD, DD0000DDLD, DLE0EEEEE7, EEE0000727, EEEAAAAAA5, EEEEEE00G7, EEEEEEE0G7, F000000F35, F00FFKEEE5, F00KFFEEE5, F0M666666B, FCFFFFFFFH, FFFFFFF2HH, FFFKKKEEE5, GGGGGGG227, H00000C06H, H0000HHH6H, H555FFFFF5, H55FFFFF55, H5FFFFFF55, HF5FFFFFF5, HHHH0H0HCH, HHHHH0HHCH, HHHHHH0HCH, HHHHHHHHM5, HHHIIIIII5, IIDNNNNNLN, IIIIIJJIIJ, IIINNNNNLN, IINNNNNNGN, INNNNNNNLN, J0000000IJ, K0000II8ID, K099999995, K0I0000AID, K0K0009FF5, K9999999F5, KK00000095, KKFFFKEEE5, LLLLLLLME7, LLLMEEEEE7, LMEEEEEEE7, M000000005, MHHHHHHHH5, MK00000005, MMMMMMMBCB, NN000000GN, NN0000NNGN, NN99999991, 2HHHHHHHHHH, 38NNNNNNNNN, 3MNNNNNNNNN, 40IIIIIIIIJ, 4AJJJJJJJJJ, 4J000000J0J, 4JJJJJJJJJJ, 506666666G1, 5DDDDDDDDLD, 999999999F5, 99999999EA5, 99999999FE5, A0000000035, C0000000007, C00000000G7, C00000000KH, CEEEEEEEEL7, D0000000FMH, D000DDDDDLD, D0KD000000D, DDDD00000KD, DEEE0EEEEE7, DEL0EEEEEE7, DELEEEEEE07, E0000E20007, E7777777727, EE000000207, EEE20000007, FFFFFFFFMCH, FM66666666B, GGGGGGGG2M7, HFFFFFFFF55, HHHHHHHHH6H, HHHHHHHHHCH, HHHHHK55555, I9IIIIIIIIJ, IIIIIIII44J, IIIIIIIJJIJ, IINNNNNNNNN, JDDDDDDDDDD, JJIIIIIIIIJ, K00000I8IID, LLLLLLLLL27, 9999999EEAA5, AI000000000D, C77700000007, CH0HH000000H, D00D000000LD, DEEEEEEE0EE7, DN000000000N, EAKAAAAAAAA5, EKAAAAAAAAK5, F6666666666B, H000HHHHHH6H, H55FFFFFFFF5, HFFFFFFFFKK5, K00000000I8D, K999999999A5, 3555555555FF5, 5000000000001, 6G66666666661, 99999999999A5, C00000000000H, CFFFFFFFFFFCH, CHHH00000000H, D00000000K0KD, D0000000K00KD, D0D00000000LD, DEEEEEEEEEL07, E000E20000007, E00E200000007, EEE0000000027, GGGGGGGGGGGM7, GGGGGGGGGGM07, H00000000CHHH, H00HC0000000H, HFFFFFFFFFFK5, I0A000000000D, J000000000J9J, K000000000095, K000000000M2H, M0000000000M1, M0EEEEEEEEEE7, MHHHHHHHHHHHH, MMNNNNNNNNNNN, MNNNNNNNNNNNN, N000000DDDDDD, N000DDDDDDDDD, NNDDDDDDDDDDD, 22EEEEEEEEEEE7, 35FFFFFFFFFFF5, 400000000000JJ, 800000000000GN, DDDDDDDDDDD077, DDDDDDDDDDDDD7, E0000000000L27, EAAAAAAAAAAKA5, EEG00000000007, H0000000000C6H, I5500000000005, II0000000000I5, M0666666666661, M6MMMMMMMMMMMB, 4JJ00000000000J, 506666666666661, BGMMMMMMMMMMMCB, CFFFFFFFFFFFFFH, D0000000000KD0D, D0HEEEEEEEEEEE7, F0BBBBBBBBBBBBB, HGGGGGGGGGGGGG7, K0000000000000D, K00000000000MCH, M0M6MMMMMMMMMMB, 5DDDDDDDDDDDDDDD, C00000000000008B, D00000000000000H, DEEEEEEEEEEEE0L7, DEEEEEEEEEEEEEL7, EEE2EEEEEEEEEEE7, GM66666666666661, H5FFFFFFFFFFFFF5, IIIIIIIIIIIIIJJJ, BGMMMMMMMMMMMMMMB, DLEEEEEEEEEEEEEE7, H0000000000000CHH, H000000000C0000HH, I000000000000000D, IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIJJ, INNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN, J000000000000009J, M666666666666666B, N0000000000000LLN, N00DDDDDDDDDDDDDD, 355555555555555555, 60000000000000008H, 6M6666666666666661, C000000000000000F1, N0DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD, 666666666666666666B, 800000000000000000N, AD000000000000000DD, DEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE7, I500000000000000005, 20000000000000000027, 4000000000000000003J, 400000000000000000IJ, 99999999999999999995, DD00DDDDDDDDDDDDDDLD, E2EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE7, N00000000000000000LN, 500000000066666666661, EE0000000000000000727, GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG07, H0000000000000000006H, 40000000000000IIIIIIIJ, AD0000000000000000000D, K0000000000000000000M5, CL777777777777777777777, D000000000000000000000N, D0000000000000000000IIN, HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHK5, NDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD, 1MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMBB, D00DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDLD, FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFH, 4J0000000000000000000000J, 566666666666666666666666G1, EKKAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA5, 6666666666666666666666666G1, AJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ, H00000000000000000000000008H, N0000000000000000000000000GN, DD0000000000000000000000000LD, IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIJ, G0666666666666666666666666666661, GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG7, K000000000000000000000000000000000H, EAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA5, LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLM7, M2EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE7, C000000000000000000000000000000000000000001, MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMCB, E00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000727, 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777727, EG000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000007, D000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000LD, EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEG7, 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===Base 26===

====Additional known quasi-minimal primes (not necessarily the next)====

===Base 28===

====Additional known quasi-minimal primes (not necessarily the next)====

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===Base 30===

11, 17, 1B, 1D, 1H, 1N, 1T, 21, 27, 2B, 2D, 2J, 2N, 2T, 37, 3B, 3D, 3H, 3J, 3N, 47, 4B, 4H, 4J, 4T, 51, 57, 5D, 5H, 5N, 5T, 61, 6B, 6D, 6H, 6J, 71, 7D, 7H, 7J, 7N, 7T, 81, 8B, 8H, 8N, 8T, 91, 97, 9B, 9D, 9N, A7, AB, AD, AH, B1, B7, BH, BJ, BN, BT, C7, CD, CJ, CN, CT, D7, DB, DJ, DT, E1, EB, ED, EJ, EN, ET, F7, FB, FD, FH, FT, G7, GB, GJ, GN, GT, HB, HD, I1, I7, IH, IN, IT, J1, J7, JH, JN, JT, K1, K7, KD, KH, KJ, L1, LB, LD, LH, LN, LT, M1, MD, MH, MN, N1, NB, NJ, NT, O7, OD, OJ, ON, P1, P7, PB, PJ, PN, Q7, QH, QT, R1, RB, RD, RH, RJ, RT, SD, SH, SJ, SN, T7, TB, TD, TH, 10J, 15J, 1IJ, 1JJ, 1LJ, 1MJ, 1QJ, 22H, 29H, 2EH, 2GH, 30T, 331, 33T, 36T, 39T, 3A1, 3C1, 3G1, 3KT, 3MT, 3OT, 3S1, 3T1, 40D, 40N, 431, 44D, 46N, 48D, 4AN, 4DD, 4DN, 4F1, 4FN, 4GD, 4ID, 4PD, 4S1, 50J, 58J, 59J, 5CB, 5FJ, 5IB, 5IJ, 5JB, 5MB, 5MJ, 5OB, 5SB, 607, 63T, 687, 6E7, 6KT, 6L7, 6M7, 6MT, 6NN, 6QN, 6R7, 6S7, 6ST, 6TT, 70B, 77B, 787, 7KB, 7M7, 7MB, 7SB, 807, 80D, 80J, 84D, 85J, 877, 88J, 89J, 8DD, 8FJ, 8ID, 8IJ, 8JJ, 8M7, 8MJ, 8PD, 8QD, 8R7, 90H, 93T, 95J, 99H, 99J, 9AJ, 9AT, 9EH, 9GH, 9HH, 9HJ, 9JJ, 9MJ, 9OH, 9OT, 9PH, 9ST, 9TT, A01, A0T, A1J, A31, A6N, A6T, AAJ, AAN, AFN, AKN, AKT, ALJ, AMJ, AMT, AO1, AOT, AQ1, AQN, ARN, AT1, B5B, BBD, BCB, BDD, BID, BOB, BPD, BQB, C31, C9H, CC1, CCB, CCH, CF1, CH1, CIB, CKB, CMB, D01, D0H, D2H, D41, D4D, D6N, D8D, D9H, DDH, DDN, DGH, DH1, DHH, DID, DKN, DNN, DO1, DOH, DQN, DS1, EEH, EHH, EM7, EOH, EPH, ER7, F0N, F31, F5J, F8J, F9J, FLJ, FO1, FQ1, FQN, FS1, G01, G4D, G8D, GF1, GGH, GO1, GOH, GQD, GS1, H07, H0J, H0T, H1J, H2H, H31, H4N, H8J, HA1, HAJ, HAT, HC1, HE7, HEH, HFN, HGH, HH7, HIJ, HJJ, HKN, HL7, HNH, HPH, HQN, HS1, HTJ, HTN, I4D, I5B, I5J, I8D, IAJ, IDD, IGD, IIJ, IKB, IMB, IMJ, IOB, IPD, IQD, J8J, J9J, JAJ, JBD, JCB, JFJ, JIJ, JJB, JJD, JLJ, JPD, JQB, K3T, K4N, KAT, KBB, KCB, KMB, KNN, KOB, KOT, KQN, KST, KTT, L0J, L5J, L67, LAJ, LJJ, LQJ, LR7, M0J, M3T, M5B, M7B, M87, M9J, MAT, MFJ, MIJ, MJJ, MKB, MMJ, MOT, MQJ, N07, N0H, N67, N6N, N87, NAN, NDH, NGD, NHH, NKN, NN7, NNH, NPH, NQD, NQN, NR7, O01, O0B, O0H, OAT, OC1, OCH, OEH, OF1, OH1, OKT, OMB, OOT, OPH, OQ1, OQB, OS1, OST, P3T, P6T, P9H, PCH, PDH, PEH, PGD, PHH, PHT, PID, PMT, PPT, PQD, PST, PTT, Q5B, Q6N, Q9J, QAJ, QBB, QBD, QC1, QDN, QFJ, QFN, QGD, QJB, QKN, QLJ, QMB, QND, QNN, QO1, QQ1, QQN, QSB, R4N, R77, R87, RAN, RKN, RM7, RNN, RR7, RS7, S0T, S41, S6T, S87, SBB, SC1, SM7, SMT, SOB, SQ1, SR7, SS1, STT, T0J, T6T, T9T, TAN, TFN, TKN, TKT, TNN, TO1, TOT, TPT, TQ1, TQN, TTN, 18AJ, 19FJ, 1AFJ, 1FAJ, 20CH, 20PH, 2C0H, 2CHH, 2COH, 2H0H, 2HCH, 2HHH, 2POH, 2PPH, 3001, 34Q1, 3F41, 3FF1, 3QF1, 3SPT, 3SST, 3TTT, 40A1, 4441, 44KN, 44QN, 4AC1, 4C01, 4CA1, 4DG1, 4GA1, 4GC1, 4NND, 4NRN, 4OA1, 4Q4N, 4QA1, 4QRN, 4RQN, 550B, 555B, 55KB, 5A5J, 5AJJ, 5BKB, 5JQJ, 5KKB, 5QQB, 5QQJ, 604N, 606T, 60FN, 60KN, 60OT, 60PT, 660N, 660T, 664N, 66AT, 66FN, 66KN, 66TN, 6A0N, 6A9T, 6AAT, 6FKN, 6FRN, 6K0N, 6KFN, 6KKN, 6O6T, 6PAT, 6RFN, 6RRN, 6T6N, 6TRN, 7067, 70R7, 75BB, 77R7, 7C5B, 7CQB, 7E67, 7IQB, 7O5B, 7OIB, 7QOB, 7R07, 7RE7, 8667, 88L7, 88S7, 8E87, 8EE7, 8EL7, 8J8D, 8LL7, 8LS7, 906T, 908J, 90FJ, 90QJ, 90TJ, 92CH, 966T, 99MT, 99PT, 9I0J, 9I8J, 9LFJ, 9LIJ, 9M6T, 9MKT, 9MMT, 9PKT, 9QQJ, 9TLJ, A04N, A0QJ, A3AT, A3ST, A4A1, A4G1, A5QJ, A8QJ, A90J, A9PT, AA3T, AA41, AAAT, AAF1, AAG1, AAPT, AC41, ACS1, AF0J, AFC1, AFIJ, AG41, AGA1, AGG1, AI8J, AIJJ, AIQJ, AJ5J, AJJJ, AQ8J, AQJJ, AQQJ, AS3T, AT4N, AT5J, ATST, B04D, B0QD, BBIB, BBKB, BI0B, BK0B, BKIB, BKSB, BMIB, BMSB, BQ4D, BQQD, BSMB, C00B, C05B, C0A1, C0BB, C0EH, C0GH, C0Q1, C0QB, C2OH, C2PH, C441, C4Q1, C50B, CB0B, CBSB, CEGH, CG2H, CGHH, CHHH, CHOH, COGH, COO1, COOB, COOH, CQ01, CQ0B, CQQB, CQS1, CS0B, D00N, D0PD, D44N, DA0N, DCEH, DCG1, DCQ1, DDC1, DDF1, DDPD, DDQ1, DECH, DF4N, DFA1, DFRN, DG0D, DGD1, DGQ1, DNEH, DPDD, DQA1, DQPD, DRFN, DRRN, E20H, E667, E767, E8L7, E8S7, ECGH, EG2H, EH67, EH77, ES67, F001, F01J, F0MJ, F0QJ, F44N, F4G1, F4RN, F6RN, FA0J, FAC1, FAF1, FAIJ, FC01, FCG1, FFAJ, FFC1, FFG1, FFIJ, FGA1, FJJJ, FJQJ, FKAN, FR6N, FRFN, G09H, G0EH, G0HH, G20H, G341, G3Q1, G4G1, G92H, GA41, GAC1, GC0H, GCEH, GCG1, GCPH, GD31, GDA1, GDG1, GDPD, GE2H, GE9H, GGG1, GGGD, GHCH, GHHH, GP0D, GP2H, GPPD, GQ31, GQA1, GQG1, H00N, H0CH, H3ST, H4O1, H667, H66N, H677, H69T, H99T, H9CH, H9KT, H9LJ, H9PT, H9QJ, HH6N, HHF1, HHFJ, HHH1, HHHT, HHLJ, HHOH, HHQ1, HHST, HK6T, HL9J, HLMJ, HMKT, HMMT, HNM7, HNRN, HOPT, HQ01, HQ5J, HR0N, HR6N, HS77, HSKT, HT01, I0BB, I0JD, I0JJ, I98J, I9LJ, I9QJ, ICBB, IF0J, IFFJ, IFQJ, IIBD, IJBB, IJID, IL8J, ILFJ, IQ8J, IQJJ, IQQJ, IS0B, ISQB, J00D, J05J, J0BB, J0MJ, J0OB, J4QD, J50B, J5QJ, JBKB, JBMB, JDGD, JDQD, JGDD, JI0D, JIIB, JISB, JKIB, JKKB, JM0B, JOIB, JQ4D, JQDD, JQID, JQJJ, JQMJ, JSIB, JSMB, K06N, K0KB, K0KT, K0MT, K0PT, K0SB, K5QB, K60T, K66T, K6AN, K6FN, K6PT, K6RN, K96T, K99T, KA0N, KF6N, KFKN, KI0B, KK0T, KK6N, KK6T, KKFN, KKKB, KKKT, KKQB, KKTN, KMMT, KQ0B, KQQB, KR0N, KS5B, L0M7, L8E7, L98J, LFFJ, LI8J, LIFJ, LL87, LL9J, LLIJ, LLM7, LM77, LML7, LMM7, M09T, M0E7, M0IB, M0L7, M0M7, M0TT, M55J, M5LJ, M60T, M69T, M707, M767, M777, M7E7, M7S7, M8LJ, M96T, M9KT, MC0B, MCOB, ME07, MIBB, MJ0B, MJBB, MJSB, MLLJ, MLS7, MM07, MM0T, MML7, MMOB, MMR7, MOBB, MOCB, MP0T, MP9T, MPKT, MQ0B, MQIB, MQOB, MS07, MSPT, MSSB, MT8J, MTTT, N00D, N04D, N04N, N0FN, N0ND, N0RN, N2OH, N92H, NCGH, ND0D, ND4N, NDPD, NEGH, NEL7, NF4N, NFRN, NGCH, NGEH, NHM7, NME7, NML7, NMM7, NN0D, NN4D, NN4N, NNDN, NNID, NNND, NNRN, NP4D, NSL7, NSS7, O00T, O03T, O0MT, O0PT, O2HH, O2OH, O341, O4A1, O4G1, O4O1, O5KB, O90T, OA41, OBSB, OC5B, OCOB, OG2H, OG31, OH9H, OH9T, OHHH, OHTT, OICB, OISB, OM0T, OM6T, OMPT, OMTT, OO2H, OO9H, OOA1, OOCB, OOGH, OOKB, OOO1, OSKB, OTMT, P00T, P04D, P08D, P09T, P0KT, P90T, PAAT, PKKT, PO0T, PP0D, PPPD, Q00B, Q0AN, Q0D1, Q0F1, Q0IB, Q0JJ, Q0MJ, Q0OB, Q55J, Q5QJ, Q88D, QA0N, QA41, QA4N, QDF1, QDPD, QF41, QFA1, QG31, QIQJ, QJ0J, QJ8D, QJDD, QJJJ, QJMJ, QJQD, QKKB, QKQB, QOKB, QOOB, QP0D, QPDD, QQ8D, QQID, QQJD, QQPD, QQQB, QS01, QSA1, R00N, R067, R06N, R0FN, R0L7, R60N, RE67, RFRN, RRFN, RRRN, S00B, S3AT, S3ST, S50B, S5QB, S99T, SAAT, SC0B, SE67, SGG1, SICB, SIQB, SK5B, SKIB, SKKT, SKPT, SKQB, SM0B, SMMB, SMSB, SOA1, SOG1, SPOT, SQCB, SQQB, SS0B, SS67, ST31, STG1, T00N, T03T, T041, T04N, T0AT, T0C1, T0MT, T0ST, T1AJ, T3F1, T4A1, T4RN, T5JJ, T66N, T8AJ, T9FJ, T9QJ, TA3T, TAA1, TAG1, TAIJ, TCS1, TFA1, TFAJ, TFF1, TFFJ, TFG1, TGA1, TI9J, TIJJ, TIQJ, TL8J, TL9J, TM0T, TM5J, TM8J, TMAJ, TMLJ, TMST, TSF1, TSG1, TT01, TT5J, TT8J, TTA1, TTC1, TTFJ, TTG1, TTLJ, TTMJ, 30441, 30O41, 30OO1, 34O41, 3AATT, 3ASAT, 3O441, 3Q041, 40G41, 40GQ1, 40O41, 40OG1, 40OO1, 44001, 440C1, 440G1, 4444N, 44CG1, 44GQ1, 4AAA1, 4COG1, 4DAA1, 4GQ41, 4KRRN, 4OGG1, 4Q041, 4QGG1, 5005B, 500BB, 500KB, 500QB, 50K0B, 50Q0B, 50QKB, 555AJ, 555LJ, 555QJ, 55J5J, 5B00B, 5B0BB, 5J55J, 5J5JJ, 5JJ5J, 5JJJJ, 5K00B, 5QJ5J, 5QK0B, 6006N, 6009T, 600AT, 6066N, 60R0N, 666N7, 6696T, 66OPT, 67767, 6900T, 696PT, 69P0T, 6F6AN, 6O9PT, 6OP0T, 6OP9T, 6P99T, 755QB, 77767, 7CBBB, 7IBIB, 7IIBB, 7IICB, 7QIIB, 8888D, 88E67, 8L887, 8SSE7, 9099T, 90KKT, 90KMT, 90MPT, 9690T, 96P9T, 990KT, 9990T, 9999T, 99K6T, 9FFFJ, 9HKMT, 9HMPT, 9ILLJ, 9KKMT, 9KKPT, 9M00T, 9T8QJ, 9TFIJ, A008J, A00NN, A055J, A0FJJ, A0I0J, A0I9J, A0J0J, A44C1, A555J, A9FFJ, A9QIJ, A9T8J, AFFA1, AFFFJ, AFFJJ, AFFQJ, AJ00J, AP99T, ASA9T, ASFF1, ASP9T, ASSAT, AT3TT, ATFQJ, ATQIJ, ATT9J, ATTQJ, B088D, B08GD, B0GGD, B0SKB, B8GGD, BG00D, BIISB, BISIB, BS0IB, BS0SB, BSSKB, BSSSB, C0041, C0G41, C0H0H, C0PPH, C0S01, C4001, C4AG1, C4OG1, C5BBB, CG00H, CGE0H, CGGA1, CGQ41, COSSB, CP20H, CPGPH, CPP2H, CPPOH, CPPPH, CS001, CS55B, CSSQB, D00GD, D0A4N, D0FAN, D0GDD, D0N0D, DAAA1, DAAC1, DAFG1, DDAA1, DDGGD, DFFAN, DFGC1, DGDGD, DGG31, DGGA1, DH0AN, DPPPH, DQDD1, DQGG1, E0L87, E88E7, EC00H, EC02H, EE867, EE887, EEL87, ELE87, F00IJ, F0441, F0AG1, F0F0J, F0F41, F0FF1, F0GG1, F4041, F44A1, F44C1, F4A41, F64KN, F6K6N, FAAA1, FAFQJ, FCAA1, FF041, FF0F1, FF64N, FF6KN, FFA41, FFA4N, FFF4N, FFFF1, FFFFN, FFKRN, FFQMJ, FIJ0J, FJ00J, FKKKN, FNNFN, FQQ0J, FQQMJ, G00DD, G00DH, G00PD, G02PH, G0DDD, G0PDD, GAAA1, GC2HH, GDDDD, GDGDD, GDPPH, GG0PD, GGCA1, GGCQ1, GGDD1, GH4Q1, GHHG1, GII0D, GQ441, H009H, H00G1, H00H1, H04Q1, H0ANN, H0H01, H0H9H, H0HG1, H0HO1, H0O41, H0OHH, H0QG1, H40G1, H4G41, H4GG1, H60AN, HAN0N, HF0G1, HFF41, HFFMJ, HFFQJ, HGQ41, HH3TT, HH401, HH441, HH4G1, HH55J, HH66T, HH6OT, HH96T, HHA0N, HHANN, HHC0H, HHCHH, HHH0N, HHHCH, HHHHN, HHHNN, HHKMT, HHO41, HHP9T, HHPKT, HHTMT, HHTT1, HK9MT, HKKMT, HLLFJ, HM66T, HM7R7, HMM67, HMM77, HMMM7, HMTST, HO9HT, HOO41, HOOOH, HOT3T, HOTT1, HPO9T, HSO3T, HTGG1, I000J, I009J, I00BD, I00QJ, I00SB, I08QJ, I0I0D, I0IQB, I0JIB, I0Q0B, I0SCB, I0SIB, I0SSB, IB00D, IBBSB, IBISB, ICSSB, II0CB, II0ID, II0SB, IIIBB, IIQ0B, IIQIB, IISIB, IJ0SB, IJJQJ, ILLLJ, IQ00J, IQC0B, IQIQB, IQQIB, ISSCB, J00MB, J08GD, J0IID, J0QQD, J55BB, J55JJ, J5J5J, J5JJJ, J88GD, JB0SB, JBB0B, JBBSB, JDDDD, JG0ID, JGG0D, JIIID, JJ0QJ, JJ5JJ, JQ08D, JQ0QJ, JQQ0D, JQQ5J, JS55B, JSK0B, JSS5B, K000T, K006T, K00TN, K0FAN, K505B, K6T0N, K9KMT, K9KPT, K9P0T, KIQIB, KK00N, KK05B, KK0AN, KK0KN, KKM9T, KS0IB, KS0QB, KSQIB, KTR6N, KTRRN, L0087, L08S7, LE087, LEE87, LL8LJ, LMEE7, LMSE7, LMSS7, M00CB, M00PT, M066T, M0CQB, M0K6T, M0MQB, M0MSB, M0QQB, M0SMB, M0SST, M666T, M900T, MBBSB, MEE77, MEL77, MELE7, MES77, MESE7, MESS7, MI00B, MIICB, MIISB, MIQCB, MK9PT, ML7L7, MLEL7, MLLE7, MLME7, MM677, MMBIB, MMBSB, MMCQB, MME77, MMEE7, MMICB, MMISB, MMK6T, MMKKT, MMM9T, MMMMT, MMMTT, MMQQB, MMSCB, MMSKT, MMSMB, MMSS7, MMTST, MOIIB, MOOIB, MOSIB, MQCQB, MR007, MR667, MRL07, MS7L7, MSEL7, MSK9T, MSL77, MSSL7, MT00T, MTMMT, N0DDD, N4NNN, N7LE7, N7S77, NE2CH, NE9CH, NEC2H, NEE77, NFFNN, NFNFN, NII0D, NL777, NL7L7, NLES7, NLLL7, NLS77, NOG9H, NRR0N, O6P9T, O9H6T, O9HPT, O9P9T, OCBBB, OG441, OGAG1, OGGA1, OHH6T, OHOOH, OKIIB, OKK5B, OKKIB, OO5BB, OOBIB, OOIIB, OSCSB, OT3TT, OT441, OTG41, OTGG1, P00PH, P0D0D, P0G2H, P0OGH, P0PGH, PA99T, PGP0H, POOOH, PP20H, PP88D, PPP0H, Q0001, Q000N, Q001J, Q00ID, Q00PD, Q044N, Q04G1, Q0I0D, Q0PPD, Q40G1, Q444N, Q44RN, Q4AA1, Q8QQJ, QAAS1, QAFF1, QAFG1, QASG1, QDGG1, QFGG1, QI00D, QIICB, QIIQB, QIQCB, QOIIB, QPP4D, QQ08J, QQ0CB, QQC0B, QQI0J, QQJ5J, QSFG1, R00E7, R0E07, R0NE7, R6F6N, R6FFN, REE07, RELE7, RFF6N, RL0E7, RLE07, RLEE7, RLLE7, RQR0N, RR0QN, RRQ0N, S03O1, S0AF1, S0AG1, S0O31, S0QIB, S0SIB, S30F1, S30O1, S7QIB, SA3PT, SAAA1, SAFG1, SASST, SCSQB, SF0G1, SFFF1, SI0SB, SISSB, SKSSB, SSCQB, SSCSB, SSMIB, SSPAT, SSSKT, SSSMB, SSSSB, STAF1, STF01, T0001, T0031, T0AF1, T0AS1, T0G31, T0R6N, T0T31, T0TF1, T3AAT, T40G1, T4CG1, T4G41, T5LLJ, T8LLJ, TA441, TA98J, TAFJJ, TAQ5J, TASST, TATAT, TC401, TCGG1, TFQIJ, TFQJJ, TFQMJ, TG441, TGC41, TI8LJ, TLLMJ, TMMMT, TMTMT, TQ8QJ, TSS3T, TT3AT, TT9IJ, TTAAT, TTQIJ, TTS31, TTS3T, TTT9J, TTTST, 20000H, 200OOH, 3440O1, 3TAAST, 404CQ1, 4KKKKN, 4KKKRN, 4QQQQD, 505BBB, 50BB0B, 6000AN, 6444RN, 66666N, 666O9T, 66999T, 669P9T, 66N777, 6A444N, 6FF66N, 6FFF6N, 6R666N, 766767, 77S677, 7IBBBB, 8888E7, 8LLLLJ, 8SSSL7, 9000MT, 90K90T, 90KP0T, 90M90T, 99000T, 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===Base 36===

11, 15, 17, 1B, 1H, 1N, 1P, 1V, 1Z, 21, 27, 2B, 2H, 2P, 2T, 2V, 2Z, 31, 35, 3J, 3N, 3T, 3V, 45, 47, 4D, 4J, 4N, 4T, 4Z, 51, 5B, 5D, 5H, 5J, 5V, 67, 6B, 6D, 6H, 6N, 6P, 6Z, 75, 7B, 7H, 7J, 7P, 7T, 7V, 85, 8J, 8N, 8P, 8T, 97, 9D, 9N, 9P, 9T, 9Z, A7, AD, AJ, AN, AT, B1, B5, BD, BN, BP, BZ, C1, C7, CB, CH, CP, CT, CV, CZ, DB, DJ, DN, DV, DZ, E5, EH, EJ, F1, F7, FH, FN, FT, FV, G1, GB, GH, GN, GP, GV, H1, H5, H7, HJ, HT, HV, HZ, I5, IB, ID, IP, IT, IZ, J7, JH, JP, JZ, K7, KD, KJ, KN, KV, L1, L5, LD, LH, LV, M5, MH, MJ, MT, MV, MZ, N1, NB, NP, NT, NV, NZ, OD, OH, OJ, ON, P7, PB, PJ, PT, Q1, Q5, QB, QH, QV, QZ, R5, RB, RJ, RP, S1, S5, SB, SD, SN, SP, SV, T5, T7, TH, TJ, TP, U7, UB, UD, UH, UN, UT, V1, V7, VD, VZ, W1, WB, WJ, WT, WZ, X5, XD, XP, XT, XZ, Y5, Y7, YD, YP, YZ, ZH, ZJ, ZN, ZT, ZV, 12D, 16J, 18D, 1CD, 1CJ, 1DD, 1GT, 1JD, 1JJ, 1LT, 1QJ, 1RD, 1RT, 1ST, 1XJ, 1YJ, 1YT, 22D, 22J, 22N, 23D, 255, 2A5, 2CD, 2ED, 2EN, 2F5, 2GD, 2GJ, 2IJ, 2JN, 2LN, 2MN, 2ND, 2O5, 2QD, 2QJ, 2U5, 2UJ, 2WN, 2XN, 30Z, 337, 33B, 33H, 33P, 34H, 34P, 37D, 38Z, 39H, 3AB, 3AP, 3AZ, 3D7, 3DH, 3FD, 3FZ, 3HD, 3HH, 3KZ, 3L7, 3LZ, 3MB, 3O7, 3OZ, 3PD, 3PP, 3Q7, 3RH, 3S7, 3SZ, 3UP, 3UZ, 3XB, 40P, 43B, 43H, 46V, 48B, 48V, 49B, 4AP, 4BB, 4E1, 4FP, 4HB, 4HH, 4HP, 4IH, 4MB, 4OP, 4OV, 4PH, 4RH, 4VB, 4VH, 4WH, 4WP, 4WV, 4X1, 4XH, 55T, 565, 58Z, 5C5, 5E7, 5ET, 5EZ, 5IN, 5KT, 5L7, 5MP, 5NN, 5O5, 5O7, 5OP, 5R7, 5RT, 5RZ, 5ST, 5SZ, 5TN, 5TZ, 5W7, 5XN, 5YN, 61T, 625, 62J, 64V, 661, 66J, 691, 6AV, 6EV, 6IJ, 6J1, 6K5, 6O1, 6OT, 6QJ, 6QT, 6RV, 6SJ, 6T1, 6TT, 6U5, 6UV, 6VV, 6W5, 6Y1, 6YT, 72D, 737, 77D, 791, 7A1, 7AZ, 7D7, 7GD, 7I1, 7IN, 7LN, 7M7, 7MN, 7N7, 7NN, 7RN, 7RZ, 7WN, 7X7, 7Z1, 801, 80V, 82D, 83B, 841, 84H, 877, 881, 887, 88B, 88V, 88Z, 89H, 89V, 8A1, 8AB, 8B7, 8BH, 8D1, 8DH, 8EB, 8EV, 8GD, 8GZ, 8HD, 8IV, 8L7, 8LZ, 8M1, 8MB, 8MD, 8O7, 8OB, 8Q7, 8QD, 8RD, 8S7, 8SH, 8SZ, 8UZ, 8W7, 8WV, 8XV, 8Y1, 90H, 91J, 93B, 93H, 94V, 981, 98H, 99J, 9AH, 9BB, 9C5, 9IH, 9IV, 9JV, 9KH, 9M1, 9OB, 9QJ, 9R1, 9RH, 9SH, 9UJ, 9VB, 9VJ, 9W5, 9X1, 9Y1, 9YB, 9YJ, 9YV, A25, A3P, A3Z, A4H, A61, A81, A8B, AAB, AAH, ABB, AC5, AEZ, AHP, AK1, AKB, AKH, ALZ, AMB, AO5, AOZ, APH, AQP, AR1, ARV, ARZ, AUV, AV5, AVB, AVV, AWV, AX1, AXB, AZ1, B2J, B4B, B4V, B6V, B87, B8H, B9B, BAB, BAH, BBH, BBV, BE7, BEB, BGJ, BHB, BIJ, BJB, BJT, BLJ, BOB, BOT, BQ7, BRV, BS7, BTT, BTV, BVB, BVJ, BVT, BWV, BX7, BXH, BYH, BYV, C25, C2J, C2N, C55, C65, C6J, C95, CCN, CDD, CED, CF5, CFJ, CGD, CIN, CJD, CO5, CRN, CUJ, CXJ, CXN, D37, D3P, D41, D55, D5P, D6T, D77, D81, D9H, DA1, DCD, DD1, DD5, DDH, DDP, DE7, DEP, DF5, DFD, DG7, DHH, DI1, DK1, DK5, DKT, DO1, DOP, DP1, DPD, DQ7, DR7, DRH, DS7, DTT, DU1, DWD, DX7, DYH, E0P, E2D, E3Z, E41, E4P, E71, E81, E87, E8B, EAZ, EDP, EED, EEN, EEV, EFZ, EGT, EI1, EKZ, ELB, EMB, EMN, EN7, EO1, EOT, EPP, EPZ, EQ7, ERN, EST, ETN, ETV, EUP, EUZ, EVT, EWD, EWN, EX1, EYB, EYN, EZD, EZP, F2J, F3B, F3Z, F4P, F65, F8B, F8Z, FCJ, FD5, FEZ, FFB, FFD, FG5, FGD, FGZ, FIJ, FJ5, FJJ, FLZ, FPD, FQD, FSZ, FXB, G07, G0D, G0Z, G3D, G3Z, G55, G6T, G7D, G7Z, G87, G8Z, GA5, GCJ, GD7, GE7, GET, GG5, GG7, GGT, GGZ, GI7, GJD, GKZ, GL7, GLT, GQT, GRT, GS7, GST, GU5, GUZ, GW5, GXJ, GZ7, GZZ, H3D, H3H, H4H, H9B, HAH, HED, HGD, HHP, HIH, HKH, HKP, HLN, HNH, HOB, HOP, HQP, HRD, HRH, HRN, HSH, HWD, HWH, HWP, HYN, I41, I6J, I71, I7N, I87, I8H, I9H, I9J, IA1, IAV, IE1, IFJ, IG7, IHH, II1, IIH, IIV, IJV, IK1, IL7, ILJ, ILN, IM1, INN, IOV, IRH, IUV, IX1, IXH, IXV, IYJ, J2D, J4V, J55, J61, J6J, J8B, J8V, J95, J9J, J9V, JA5, JBB, JD5, JDT, JF5, JFJ, JGJ, JGT, JIV, JJ1, JJD, JJV, JK5, JKT, JLB, JLT, JMN, JN5, JNJ, JQJ, JQN, JQT, JRD, JTB, JVJ, JVN, JVV, JWN, JY1, JYJ, K0B, K25, K3P, K65, K81, K95, K9H, KAH, KC5, KEP, KEZ, KG5, KHP, KK1, KKT, KLB, KLP, KLZ, KM1, KMB, KMP, KOT, KP1, KQP, KR1, KRT, KRZ, KTT, KW5, KX1, KZB, L0N, L0P, L8Z, L9B, LAZ, LBJ, LEN, LET, LFB, LFZ, LG7, LGZ, LIJ, LJJ, LKB, LKP, LLB, LLP, LLT, LMB, LMN, LN7, LO7, LOT, LPZ, LQT, LRN, LTN, LTT, LWP, LX7, LYN, M01, M0P, M2D, M2N, M37, M3B, M41, M61, M77, M87, M8D, M91, ME1, ME7, MEB, MFB, MFP, MGD, MI7, MKB, MM7, MMN, MN7, MNN, MO7, MOB, MOP, MPP, MQP, MS7, MW7, MXN, MYN, N5N, N65, N87, N8D, N8H, N95, NCD, NCJ, NDH, NE7, NFJ, NG5, NG7, NGJ, NJ5, NN7, NND, NO5, NQD, NQJ, NRN, NU5, NWH, NWN, NXH, NXN, NYJ, O0Z, O25, O37, O3B, O3P, O3Z, O41, O4B, O5Z, O61, O71, O7Z, O81, OA5, OAP, OBB, OBV, OC5, OEZ, OF5, OG7, OKP, OKZ, OMB, OO5, OOZ, OP5, OPP, OQT, OR1, OR7, OS7, OST, OTB, OTZ, OU5, OVV, OW5, OX7, OXB, OXV, OYV, OZ5, OZ7, P01, P0D, P0N, P3P, P4H, P4P, P5N, P65, P6V, P8V, PD1, PED, PEZ, PHH, PHP, PI1, PIN, PLN, PLP, PLZ, POP, PP1, PPH, PPV, PQD, PQN, PRV, PV5, PVH, PVV, PWH, PWP, PX1, PXV, PYH, PYN, Q07, Q0P, Q2N, Q37, Q3P, Q6J, Q6T, Q7D, Q8D, Q9J, QCD, QCJ, QD7, QED, QFP, QGT, QI7, QIN, QJN, QLJ, QMD, QMN, QMP, QND, QNJ, QOT, QQJ, QTN, QWN, QYJ, QYT, R0V, R0Z, R37, R3H, R4H, R77, R7D, R7N, R7Z, R81, R8V, R91, RA1, RCD, RCN, RD1, RED, REV, REZ, RGT, RGZ, RHD, RIV, RKH, RKZ, RLN, RMD, RNH, RO7, RQN, RRD, RRT, RRZ, RS7, RSH, RT1, RTV, RU1, RUZ, RVN, RVT, RW7, RWH, RX7, RY1, S0J, S6J, S87, S9H, SAZ, SCJ, SET, SFJ, SG7, SGZ, SI7, SM7, SO7, SOT, SQJ, SQT, SRH, SSH, STT, SW7, SX7, SXH, SYH, T0N, T0Z, T1D, T1T, T6V, T8Z, TBB, TBV, TCN, TD1, TEV, TGT, TKT, TLB, TM1, TO1, TOB, TQN, TR1, TRD, TT1, TTB, TTN, TUZ, TVB, TVN, TVT, TWD, TWV, TXB, TXV, TYV, U2J, U3Z, U61, U8V, U95, UA1, UC5, UEP, UEZ, UFJ, UG5, UJ5, ULZ, UO5, UOP, UOZ, UQP, URV, URZ, UUJ, UW5, UWV, UXJ, UXV, UYJ, V0H, V25, V4V, V55, V6V, V9J, V9V, VBB, VBJ, VCJ, VET, VGJ, VHP, VIH, VIN, VJJ, VJN, VLT, VMP, VNJ, VOB, VP5, VQJ, VQT, VRT, VRV, VSH, VSJ, VST, VTB, VTN, VUP, VW5, VWN, VXH, VXN, VYB, W07, W25, W3D, W3H, W4P, W4V, W57, W6V, W7D, W8H, W95, W9H, WAH, WAV, WCN, WD7, WDD, WDH, WE7, WEN, WF5, WGD, WHH, WK5, WKH, WN7, WNN, WPP, WPV, WQP, WR7, WRD, WRH, WRN, WS7, WU5, WUP, WVN, WWH, WWP, WX7, WXH, WXN, WYN, WYV, X0J, X2J, X2N, X4B, X4H, X4V, X6J, X87, X8B, X91, X9B, XAV, XCN, XEB, XFB, XHB, XHH, XHN, XKB, XLJ, XNH, XO1, XQ7, XS7, XSH, XUJ, XWN, XWV, XX7, XXH, XXV, Y0N, Y1J, Y1T, Y2N, Y3H, Y61, Y8V, Y91, YBV, YCN, YEB, YFJ, YHB, YHN, YIH, YJN, YJT, YLJ, YLN, YMB, YMN, YNH, YOB, YOV, YRH, YTB, YTN, YTT, YTV, YVB, YVH, YWH, YWV, YXB, YY1, YYJ, YYT, YYV, Z01, Z3D, Z3Z, Z71, Z8B, ZB7, ZBB, ZD5, ZDD, ZDP, ZG7, ZGD, ZGZ, ZKB, ZLP, ZM1, ZO5, ZP1, ZPD, ZQD, ZU1, ZX1, ZXB, ZZD, 102J, 106T, 10ET, 10GJ, 10LJ, 10TD, 12FJ, 12LJ, 13ED, 13GD, 13MD, 192J, 1D0T, 1DET, 1E3D, 1EFD, 1F0D, 1FWD, 1G0J, 1GGJ, 1GIJ, 1GUJ, 1I0J, 1ISJ, 1JOT, 1JTT, 1M0D, 1M3D, 1MFD, 1MWD, 1OKT, 1OOT, 1Q3D, 1QDT, 1QKT, 1QTD, 1QWD, 1SLJ, 1TDT, 1TFD, 1TOT, 1TTD, 1TTT, 1UGJ, 1ULJ, 1WFD, 1WWD, 20CJ, 20FJ, 20G5, 20IN, 20JD, 20MD, 20RN, 20WD, 20YN, 2295, 25RN, 260J, 26LJ, 288D, 28DD, 28FD, 296J, 29G5, 29K5, 29LJ, 2C05, 2C0J, 2C0N, 2CJJ, 2CK5, 2CLJ, 2CSJ, 2D25, 2DC5, 2DDD, 2DW5, 2F0J, 2FDD, 2FMD, 2FSJ, 2G65, 2G95, 2GK5, 2I0N, 2JC5, 2JCJ, 2JWD, 2K05, 2L6J, 2L9J, 2N0N, 2NIN, 2NN5, 2NSJ, 2NW5, 2NYN, 2Q0N, 2QNN, 2R0N, 2RFD, 2RWD, 2SJJ, 2SXJ, 2SYJ, 2W05, 2WC5, 2WD5, 2WMD, 2XCJ, 2YCJ, 2YJJ, 2YRN, 2YSJ, 300D, 302D, 304B, 3077, 3087, 308D, 30BH, 30DD, 30FP, 30G7, 30GD, 30MD, 30QP, 30YH, 320D, 333D, 333Z, 33WD, 344B, 34FB, 373Z, 37E7, 37EZ, 37G7, 3807, 38BB, 38E7, 38G7, 38HB, 38I7, 38X7, 390B, 394B, 399B, 39EB, 39FB, 39KB, 3ASH, 3AWH, 3B8B, 3BG7, 3BLB, 3BR7, 3BW7, 3C8D, 3D0P, 3D2D, 3DKP, 3E3D, 3E77, 3EBB, 3EFB, 3EKB, 3EQP, 3ERD, 3ERZ, 3EZZ, 3F4B, 3FEP, 3G2D, 3GCD, 3GED, 3GM7, 3GR7, 3GWD, 3GZD, 3H0B, 3HEP, 3HKB, 3IAH, 3ISH, 3K4B, 3KBH, 3KEB, 3KKB, 3L4B, 3L8B, 3M3D, 3MEP, 3MG7, 3MWP, 3OFP, 3OKB, 3OMP, 3OOB, 3OYB, 3P8H, 3PXH, 3QDP, 3QQD, 3QRD, 3QWD, 3R3D, 3R3Z, 3R8D, 3RG7, 3RM7, 3RQD, 3RR7, 3RZ7, 3SIH, 3W0H, 3WED, 3WM7, 3WQD, 3WW7, 3WYH, 3X8H, 3XE7, 3XG7, 3XKH, 3Y0B, 3Y4B, 3Y8H, 3YAH, 3YSH, 3YYB, 3Z4B, 3ZFP, 404V, 4061, 40EB, 40I1, 40IV, 40KH, 40M1, 40R1, 40XB, 40XV, 43QP, 4441, 444H, 444P, 4481, 448H, 4491, 449H, 44EB, 44EV, 44K1, 44KB, 44KP, 44M1, 44R1, 44RV, 44SH, 44U1, 44VP, 44YB, 46I1, 46K1, 46M1, 480H, 488H, 48AH, 48I1, 48K1, 48U1, 4991, 49EV, 49I1, 49O1, 49UV, 4A0H, 4A41, 4A4B, 4A8H, 4A91, 4ALB, 4ASH, 4BXV, 4E4B, 4EEP, 4EFB, 4ELP, 4EUV, 4EXB, 4FOB, 4I01, 4I0V, 4I4V, 4I61, 4I81, 4I91, 4IEV, 4IY1, 4K0H, 4K91, 4KI1, 4KKH, 4KKP, 4KUP, 4L3P, 4L4P, 4LAB, 4LMP, 4MA1, 4MK1, 4MMP, 4MP1, 4MU1, 4O0B, 4OFB, 4OKB, 4OM1, 4OU1, 4OYB, 4P41, 4P81, 4PO1, 4PYV, 4QLP, 4QQP, 4RAV, 4RK1, 4RRV, 4S8H, 4U3P, 4U91, 4U9V, 4UIV, 4UUP, 4VAV, 4VLP, 4VVV, 4X0B, 4X0V, 4XAB, 4XBV, 4XVV, 4XYV, 4Y0V, 4Y41, 4Y4H, 4Y4V, 4Y81, 4YAV, 4YEV, 4YIV, 4YK1, 4YKB, 4YM1, 4YR1, 4YUV, 4YYB, 5025, 503Z, 5095, 50G5, 50PN, 50QN, 50WP, 50Z7, 5205, 52RN, 53FP, 53M7, 53PZ, 53X7, 53ZZ, 54PP, 550N, 553P, 554P, 5557, 555N, 557Z, 5595, 55EN, 55G5, 55GZ, 55LZ, 55OZ, 55QN, 55Z7, 572N, 577Z, 5787, 57CN, 57FZ, 57QN, 57S7, 57ZZ, 58I7, 58X7, 5955, 5A95, 5AEP, 5CMN, 5CWN, 5E2N, 5EAP, 5ECN, 5EKP, 5EQN, 5F95, 5FLP, 5FQP, 5G05, 5GK5, 5GQ7, 5I37, 5II7, 5IM7, 5L3P, 5LCN, 5LFP, 5LGT, 5LKZ, 5LUP, 5LZZ, 5M07, 5N55, 5NQ7, 5NX7, 5OAZ, 5OFZ, 5OLT, 5OOT, 5P25, 5P95, 5PG5, 5PGZ, 5PPN, 5PQP, 5PW5, 5Q0N, 5Q87, 5QCN, 5QKP, 5QN7, 5QPN, 5QPP, 5QQT, 5QTT, 5QWP, 5QX7, 5S37, 5SS7, 5T6T, 5TQT, 5U4P, 5UGZ, 5W0P, 5W2N, 5W5P, 5WLN, 5WP5, 5WQN, 5XM7, 5Y0T, 5YOT, 5Z25, 5Z4P, 5Z57, 5ZG5, 5ZLZ, 5ZQ7, 5ZWP, 6005, 600V, 601J, 6055, 606V, 60A1, 60C5, 60GT, 60JJ, 60LJ, 60M1, 60R1, 60VT, 60YV, 610J, 61FJ, 6401, 64K1, 6505, 665T, 6665, 66A5, 66F5, 66G5, 66GT, 66KT, 66V5, 66XV, 68OV, 68YV, 690J, 69G5, 69O5, 69XJ, 69XV, 6A55, 6AA1, 6AA5, 6AF5, 6C9J, 6CA5, 6CGJ, 6CYJ, 6EK1, 6ER1, 6FLJ, 6FXJ, 6G0J, 6G65, 6GGJ, 6GJ5, 6GLJ, 6I81, 6I9V, 6J65, 6J6V, 6JET, 6JST, 6JWV, 6K01, 6KET, 6KST, 6L0J, 6L6T, 6LFJ, 6LRT, 6LXJ, 6MA1, 6MM1, 6MX1, 6O8V, 6OV5, 6R0T, 6RET, 6RKT, 6S6T, 6T8V, 6U01, 6U9J, 6UE1, 6UGJ, 6UJJ, 6ULJ, 6UU1, 6V0T, 6VA5, 6VF5, 6VG5, 6VKT, 6VXJ, 6WWV, 6WXV, 6X41, 6X6V, 6XIV, 6XJV, 6XOV, 6Y0V, 6YCJ, 6YXV, 7001, 702N, 7041, 707N, 7081, 70GZ, 70I7, 70KZ, 70ND, 70O7, 70OZ, 70R7, 70U1, 70UZ, 70WD, 70YN, 71QD, 71WD, 720N, 72CN, 72YN, 733Z, 73ED, 73ZD, 7401, 7441, 74M1, 74O1, 74R1, 7641, 76K1, 76M1, 76R1, 76U1, 76X1, 773Z, 7741, 7771, 7781, 77FZ, 77G7, 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8KRH, 8KU1, 8KYH, 8KZ1, 8L4B, 8LBB, 8MG7, 8MR7, 8O4V, 8OI1, 8OK1, 8OOV, 8OX1, 8RAV, 8RHH, 8RUV, 8RX1, 8U4V, 8UK1, 8V4B, 8V9B, 8VHH, 8VRH, 8VVV, 8VYV, 8W0H, 8WFD, 8X07, 8XAH, 8XR1, 8XU1, 8XYB, 8Y6V, 8Y8H, 8YBB, 8YFB, 8YHH, 8YKB, 8YLB, 8YUV, 8YVV, 8YYH, 8Z1D, 8Z4B, 8Z8D, 8Z91, 8ZCD, 8ZEZ, 8ZFD, 8ZFZ, 8ZK1, 8ZO1, 8ZX7, 90A5, 90BJ, 90BV, 90EB, 90EV, 90GJ, 90IJ, 90J5, 90JB, 90LB, 90O1, 90OV, 90XB, 90XV, 9225, 92K5, 9441, 94BH, 94EB, 94KB, 94XB, 9505, 9601, 960V, 96A1, 96J5, 96K1, 96V5, 96WV, 96XV, 984B, 98AV, 98BV, 98FB, 994H, 998B, 998V, 999B, 99A1, 99A5, 99E1, 99G5, 99O1, 99O5, 99WH, 9A05, 9A55, 9A95, 9AA5, 9ABV, 9AE1, 9AEV, 9AI1, 9AO1, 9AOV, 9B0J, 9B0V, 9B8V, 9B9H, 9BCJ, 9BFJ, 9BSJ, 9BVV, 9CCJ, 9CLJ, 9CSJ, 9E01, 9E4B, 9EA1, 9EAB, 9EAV, 9EK1, 9F05, 9F25, 9FA5, 9FBJ, 9FFJ, 9FJB, 9FSJ, 9FXJ, 9G25, 9G2J, 9GIJ, 9GSJ, 9HFB, 9HLB, 9IIJ, 9IJ1, 9J01, 9J0B, 9J0J, 9J9B, 9JCJ, 9JE1, 9K05, 9K41, 9K55, 9K61, 9K8B, 9KA5, 9KI1, 9KK5, 9KU5, 9L2J, 9LCJ, 9O05, 9O0V, 9O95, 9OI1, 9OO1, 9OOV, 9OWV, 9RRV, 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JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJLJ

====Additional known quasi-minimal primes (not necessarily the next)====

P&lt;sub&gt;81993&lt;/sub&gt;SZ

==Unsolved families==

Families for which not even a probable prime is known nor can be ruled out as only contain composites (only count the numbers &gt; base (''b'')) by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them.

{|class=wikitable
|base (''b'')||unsolved family (base-''b'' form)||unsolved family (algebraic ((''a''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+''c'')/''d'') form)||current search limit of length||factorization of numbers in this family
|-
|13||9{5}||(113×13&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/12||136000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28113*13%5En-5%29%2F12&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|13||A{3}A||(41×13&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+27)/4||128000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2841*13%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B27%29%2F4&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||1{7}||(23×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2823*17%5En-7%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||1F{0}7||32×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+7||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=32*17%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B7&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||4{7}A||(71×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+41)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2871*17%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B41%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||51{0}D||86×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+13||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=86*17%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B13&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||70F{0}D||2038×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+13||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=2038*17%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B13&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||8{B}9||(139×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−43)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28139*17%5E%28n%2B1%29-43%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||9{5}9||(149×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+59)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28149*17%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B59%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||95{F}||(2543×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−15)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%282543*17%5En-15%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||A{D}F||(173×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+19)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28173*17%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B19%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||B{0}B3||11×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+190||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=11*17%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B190&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||B{0}DB||11×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+232||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=11*17%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B232&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||{B}2BE||(11×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;−41579)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2811*17%5E%28n%2B3%29-41579%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||{B}2E||(11×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−2411)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2811*17%5E%28n%2B2%29-2411%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||{B}E9||(11×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+773)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2811*17%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B773%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||{B}EE||(11×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+853)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2811*17%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B853%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||E9{B}||(3963×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%283963*17%5En-11%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||F1{9}||(4105×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−9)/16||1000048||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%284105*17%5En-9%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|17||FD0{D}||(72909×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−13)/16||39000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2872909*17%5En-13%29%2F16&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||1{0}7717||19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+4&lt;/sup&gt;+50566||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=19%5E%28n%2B4%29%2B50566&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||{2}7||(19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+44)/9||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2819%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B44%29%2F9&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||{2}7A||(19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+926)/9||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2819%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B926%29%2F9&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||333{5}||(20579×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2820579*19%5En-5%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||3{5}||(59×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2859*19%5En-5%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||4{0}HB5||4×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;+6351||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=4*19%5E%28n%2B3%29%2B6351&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||4B5{0}H||1658×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+17||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=1658*19%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B17&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||{5}3||(5×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−41)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%285*19%5E%28n%2B1%29-41%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||5{H}05||(107×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−6047)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28107*19%5E%28n%2B2%29-6047%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||5{H}0H||(107×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−5831)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28107*19%5E%28n%2B2%29-5831%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||5{H}5||(107×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−233)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28107*19%5E%28n%2B1%29-233%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||66{B}||(2171×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%282171*19%5En-11%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||71{0}177||134×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;+501||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=134*19%5E%28n%2B3%29%2B501&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||7AF{0}H||2732×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+17||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=2732*19%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B17&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||97{0}3||178×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+3||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=178*19%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B3&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||{B}FG||(11×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+1447)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2811*19%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B1447%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||C{7}C||(223×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+83)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28223*19%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B83%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||C{H}C||(233×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−107)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28233*19%5E%28n%2B1%29-107%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||D9{0}9||256×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+9||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=256*19%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B9&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||D{B}||(245×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28245*19%5En-11%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||{D}88||(13×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−1813)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2813*19%5E%28n%2B2%29-1813%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||EE1{6}||(15964×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1)/3||707350||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2815964*19%5En-1%29%2F3&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||F{7}5||(277×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−43)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28277*19%5E%28n%2B1%29-43%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||F{B}G||(281×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+79)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28281*19%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B79%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||F{D}F||(283×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+23)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28283*19%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B23%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||FH0{H}||(103301×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−17)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28103301*19%5En-17%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||FHHH0{H}||(37401821×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−17)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2837401821*19%5En-17%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||H0F{0}7A||6152×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+143||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=6152*19%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B143&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||HB{0}5B5||334×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;+2019||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=334*19%5E%28n%2B3%29%2B2019&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||{H}6||(17×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−215)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2817*19%5E%28n%2B1%29-215%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|19||II{D}||(6493×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−13)/18||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%286493*19%5En-13%29%2F18&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||2{7}9D||(47×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+953)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2847*21%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B953%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||2F{C}A||(288×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−13)/5||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28288*21%5E%28n%2B1%29-13%29%2F5&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||4{3}B||(83×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+157)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2883*21%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B157%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||5{0}DJ||5×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+292||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=5*21%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B292&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||{5}FEK||(21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;+18455)/4||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2821%5E%28n%2B3%29%2B18455%29%2F4&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||{7}ID||(7×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+4733)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%287*21%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B4733%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||99{0}99H||198×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;+4175||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=198*21%5E%28n%2B3%29%2B4175&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||{9}0D||(9×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−3709)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%289*21%5E%28n%2B2%29-3709%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||{9}D||(9×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+71)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%289*21%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B71%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||B3{0}EB||234×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+305||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=234*21%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B305&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||B9{0}E5||240×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+299||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=240*21%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B299&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||B{D}B||(233×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−53)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28233*21%5E%28n%2B1%29-53%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||B{H}6H||(237×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−4637)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28237*21%5E%28n%2B2%29-4637%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||DH{D}||(5813×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−13)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%285813*21%5En-13%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||F{9}D||(309×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+71)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28309*21%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B71%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||{F}35||(3×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−1051)/4||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%283*21%5E%28n%2B2%29-1051%29%2F4&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||G{0}FK||16×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+335||506722||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=16*21%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B335&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||H{0}7771||17×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+4&lt;/sup&gt;+68062||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=17*21%5E%28n%2B4%29%2B68062&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||H{D}||(353×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−13)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28353*21%5En-13%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|21||{J}6J||(19×21&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−5479)/20||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2819*21%5E%28n%2B2%29-5479%29%2F20&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|26||6{K}5||(34×26&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−79)/5||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2834*26%5E%28n%2B1%29-79%29%2F5&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|26||{7}OL||(7×26&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+11393)/25||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%287*26%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B11393%29%2F25&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|26||85{M}B||(5347×26&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;−297)/25||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%285347*26%5E%28n%2B1%29-297%29%2F25&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|26||{A}6F||(2×26&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−497)/5||486722||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%282*26%5E%28n%2B2%29-497%29%2F5&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|26||{H}MH||(17×26&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+3233)/25||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2817*26%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B3233%29%2F25&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|26||{I}GL||(18×26&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;−1243)/25||497679||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2818*26%5E%28n%2B2%29-1243%29%2F25&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|26||J{0}KCB||19×26&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;+13843||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=19*26%5E%28n%2B3%29%2B13843&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|26||LD{0}7||559×26&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+7||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=559*26%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B7&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|26||M{0}2BB||22×26&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;+1649||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=22*26%5E%28n%2B3%29%2B1649&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|28||5O{A}F||(4438×28&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+125)/27||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=(4438*28^(n%2B1)%2B125)/27&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|28||N{6}LR||(209×28&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+3967)/9||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=(209*28^(n%2B2)%2B3967)/9&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|28||O{A}F||(658×28&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+125)/27||543203||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=(658*28^(n%2B1)%2B125)/27&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|36||7{K}Z||(53×36&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+101)/7||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2853*36%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B101%29%2F7&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|36||B{0}EUV||11×36&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;+19255||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=11*36%5E%28n%2B3%29%2B19255&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|36||HM{0}N||634×36&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+23||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=634*36%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B23&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|36||N{0}YYN||23×36&lt;sup&gt;''n''+3&lt;/sup&gt;+45311||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=23*36%5E%28n%2B3%29%2B45311&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|36||O{L}Z||(123×36&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+67)/5||100000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28123*36%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B67%29%2F5&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|36||S{0}8H||28×36&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+305||20000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=28*36%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B305&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|}

For base 17, the smallest prime in family {B}2BE may or may not be quasi-minimal prime, since another unsolved family is {B}2E

For base 19, the smallest prime in family {2}7A may or may not be quasi-minimal prime, since another unsolved family is {2}7, and the smallest prime in family 333{5} may or may not be quasi-minimal prime, since another unsolved family is 3{5}, and the smallest prime in family 5{H}05 may or may not be quasi-minimal prime, since another unsolved family is 5{H}5, and the smallest prime in family FHHH0{H} may or may not be quasi-minimal prime, since another unsolved family is FH0{H}

For base 21, the smallest prime in families {9}0D and F{9}D may or may not be quasi-minimal primes, since another unsolved family is {9}D, and the smallest prime in family DH{D} may or may not be quasi-minimal prime, since another unsolved family is H{D}

For base 28, the smallest prime in family 5O{A}F may or may not be quasi-minimal prime, since another unsolved family is O{A}F

==Primality certificates for the proven primes &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt;==

Only list bases 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 30

See also: [[w:Primality certificate|Primality certificate]] and [[w:Elliptic curve primality|Elliptic curve primality]]

{|class=wikitable
|base (''b'')||index of this quasi-minimal prime in base ''b''||quasi-minimal prime (base-''b'' form)||quasi-minimal prime (algebraic ((''a''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+''c'')/''d'') form)||factordb entry of this prime||primality certificate of this prime
|-
|9||149||76&lt;sub&gt;329&lt;/sub&gt;2||(31×9&lt;sup&gt;330&lt;/sup&gt;−19)/4||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002359003642]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002359003642]
|-
|9||150||27&lt;sub&gt;686&lt;/sub&gt;07||(23×9&lt;sup&gt;688&lt;/sup&gt;−511)/8||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002495467486]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002495467486]
|-
|9||151||30&lt;sub&gt;1158&lt;/sub&gt;11||3×9&lt;sup&gt;1160&lt;/sup&gt;+10||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002376318423]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002376318423]
|-
|11||1065||A&lt;sub&gt;713&lt;/sub&gt;58||11&lt;sup&gt;715&lt;/sup&gt;−58||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003576826487]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003576826487]
|-
|11||1066||7&lt;sub&gt;759&lt;/sub&gt;44||(7×11&lt;sup&gt;761&lt;/sup&gt;−367)/10||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002505568840]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002505568840]
|-
|11||1067||557&lt;sub&gt;1011&lt;/sub&gt;||(607×11&lt;sup&gt;1011&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/10||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002361376522]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002361376522]
|-
|13||3165||50&lt;sub&gt;270&lt;/sub&gt;44||5×13&lt;sup&gt;272&lt;/sup&gt;+56||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002632397005]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002632397005]
|-
|13||3166||9&lt;sub&gt;271&lt;/sub&gt;095||(3×13&lt;sup&gt;274&lt;/sup&gt;−6103)/4||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431654]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590431654]
|-
|13||3167||10&lt;sub&gt;286&lt;/sub&gt;7771||13&lt;sup&gt;290&lt;/sup&gt;+16654||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431633]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590431633]
|-
|13||3168||9&lt;sub&gt;308&lt;/sub&gt;1||(3×13&lt;sup&gt;309&lt;/sup&gt;−35)/4||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840126705]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor [http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=13&amp;Exp=308&amp;c0=-&amp;EN= 13&lt;sup&gt;308&lt;/sup&gt;−1]
|-
|13||3169||B&lt;sub&gt;341&lt;/sub&gt;C4||(11×13&lt;sup&gt;343&lt;/sup&gt;+61)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431618]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590431618]
|-
|13||3170||8B&lt;sub&gt;343&lt;/sub&gt;||(107×13&lt;sup&gt;343&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321018736]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002321018736]
|-
|13||3171||710&lt;sub&gt;371&lt;/sub&gt;111||92×13&lt;sup&gt;374&lt;/sup&gt;+183||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431609]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590431609]
|-
|13||3172||75&lt;sub&gt;375&lt;/sub&gt;7||(89×13&lt;sup&gt;376&lt;/sup&gt;+19)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431596]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590431596]
|-
|13||3173||9B0&lt;sub&gt;391&lt;/sub&gt;9||128×13&lt;sup&gt;392&lt;/sup&gt;+9||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002632396790]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002632396790]
|-
|13||3174||7B0B&lt;sub&gt;397&lt;/sub&gt;||(15923×13&lt;sup&gt;397&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431574]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590431574]
|-
|13||3175||10&lt;sub&gt;414&lt;/sub&gt;93||13&lt;sup&gt;416&lt;/sup&gt;+120||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002523249240]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002523249240]
|-
|13||3176||81010&lt;sub&gt;415&lt;/sub&gt;1||17746×13&lt;sup&gt;416&lt;/sup&gt;+1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431555]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|13||3177||8110&lt;sub&gt;435&lt;/sub&gt;1||1366×13&lt;sup&gt;436&lt;/sup&gt;+1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002373259109]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|13||3178||B7&lt;sub&gt;486&lt;/sub&gt;||(139×13&lt;sup&gt;486&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321015892]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002321015892]
|-
|13||3179||B&lt;sub&gt;563&lt;/sub&gt;C||(11×13&lt;sup&gt;564&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000000217927]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor [http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=13&amp;Exp=564&amp;c0=-&amp;EN= 13&lt;sup&gt;564&lt;/sup&gt;−1]
|-
|13||3180||1B&lt;sub&gt;576&lt;/sub&gt;||(23×13&lt;sup&gt;576&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321021456]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor [http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=13&amp;Exp=576&amp;c0=-&amp;EN= 13&lt;sup&gt;576&lt;/sup&gt;−1]
|-
|13||3181||80&lt;sub&gt;693&lt;/sub&gt;87||8×13&lt;sup&gt;695&lt;/sup&gt;+111||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002615636527]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 has a large prime factor, factordb entry of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002615636532], and primality certificate of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002615636532]
|-
|13||3182||CC5&lt;sub&gt;713&lt;/sub&gt;||(2021×13&lt;sup&gt;713&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002615627353]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002615627353]
|-
|13||3183||B&lt;sub&gt;834&lt;/sub&gt;74||(11×13&lt;sup&gt;836&lt;/sup&gt;−719)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430871]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590430871]
|-
|13||3184||9&lt;sub&gt;968&lt;/sub&gt;B||(3×13&lt;sup&gt;969&lt;/sup&gt;+5)/4||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000258566244]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000258566244]
|-
|13||3185||10&lt;sub&gt;1295&lt;/sub&gt;181||13&lt;sup&gt;1298&lt;/sup&gt;+274||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002615445013]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002615445013]
|-
|13||3186||9&lt;sub&gt;1362&lt;/sub&gt;5||(3×13&lt;sup&gt;1363&lt;/sup&gt;−19)/4||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321017776]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002321017776]
|-
|13||3187||7&lt;sub&gt;1504&lt;/sub&gt;1||(7×13&lt;sup&gt;1505&lt;/sup&gt;−79)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002320890755]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002320890755]
|-
|13||3188||930&lt;sub&gt;1551&lt;/sub&gt;1||120×13&lt;sup&gt;1552&lt;/sup&gt;+1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961452]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|13||3189||720&lt;sub&gt;2297&lt;/sub&gt;2||93×13&lt;sup&gt;2298&lt;/sup&gt;+2||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002632396910]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002632396910]
|-
|13||3190||1770&lt;sub&gt;2703&lt;/sub&gt;17||267×13&lt;sup&gt;2705&lt;/sup&gt;+20||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430825]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590430825]
|-
|13||3191||390&lt;sub&gt;6266&lt;/sub&gt;1||48×13&lt;sup&gt;6267&lt;/sup&gt;+1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961441]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|13||3192||B0&lt;sub&gt;6540&lt;/sub&gt;BBA||11×13&lt;sup&gt;6543&lt;/sup&gt;+2012||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002616382906]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002616382906]
|-
|13||3193||C&lt;sub&gt;10631&lt;/sub&gt;92||13&lt;sup&gt;10633&lt;/sup&gt;−50||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590493750]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590493750]
|-
|14||649||34D&lt;sub&gt;708&lt;/sub&gt;||47×14&lt;sup&gt;708&lt;/sup&gt;−1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001540144903]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|14||650||4D&lt;sub&gt;19698&lt;/sub&gt;||5×14&lt;sup&gt;19698&lt;/sup&gt;−1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000884560233]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|16||2328||880&lt;sub&gt;246&lt;/sub&gt;7||136×16&lt;sup&gt;247&lt;/sup&gt;+7||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002468140199]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 has a large prime factor, and this prime factor is &lt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|16||2329||D4&lt;sub&gt;263&lt;/sub&gt;D||(199×16&lt;sup&gt;264&lt;/sup&gt;+131)/15||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002468170238]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002468170238]
|-
|16||2330||E0&lt;sub&gt;261&lt;/sub&gt;4DD||14×16&lt;sup&gt;264&lt;/sup&gt;+1245||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588388352]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588388352]
|-
|16||2331||8C0&lt;sub&gt;290&lt;/sub&gt;ED||140×16&lt;sup&gt;292&lt;/sup&gt;+237||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588388307]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588388307]
|-
|16||2332||DA&lt;sub&gt;305&lt;/sub&gt;5||(41×16&lt;sup&gt;306&lt;/sup&gt;−17)/3||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588388284]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588388284]
|-
|16||2333||CE80&lt;sub&gt;422&lt;/sub&gt;D||3304×16&lt;sup&gt;423&lt;/sup&gt;+13||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588388257]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588388257]
|-
|16||2334||5F&lt;sub&gt;544&lt;/sub&gt;6F||6×16&lt;sup&gt;546&lt;/sup&gt;−145||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002604723967]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002604723967]
|-
|16||2335||88F&lt;sub&gt;545&lt;/sub&gt;||137×16&lt;sup&gt;545&lt;/sup&gt;−1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000413679658]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|16||2336||BE0&lt;sub&gt;792&lt;/sub&gt;BB||190×16&lt;sup&gt;794&lt;/sup&gt;+187||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588387938]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588387938]
|-
|16||2337||D9&lt;sub&gt;1052&lt;/sub&gt;||(68×16&lt;sup&gt;1052&lt;/sup&gt;−3)/5||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321036020]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002321036020]
|-
|16||2338||FAF&lt;sub&gt;1062&lt;/sub&gt;45||251×16&lt;sup&gt;1064&lt;/sup&gt;−187||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588387610]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588387610]
|-
|16||2339||F8&lt;sub&gt;1517&lt;/sub&gt;F||(233×16&lt;sup&gt;1518&lt;/sup&gt;+97)/15||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000633744824]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000633744824]
|-
|16||2340||20&lt;sub&gt;1713&lt;/sub&gt;321||2×16&lt;sup&gt;1716&lt;/sup&gt;+801||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588386735]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588386735]
|-
|16||2341||300F&lt;sub&gt;1960&lt;/sub&gt;AF||769×16&lt;sup&gt;1962&lt;/sup&gt;−81||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588368750]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588368750]
|-
|16||2342||90&lt;sub&gt;3542&lt;/sub&gt;91||9×16&lt;sup&gt;3544&lt;/sup&gt;+145||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000633424191]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000633424191]
|-
|16||2343||5BC&lt;sub&gt;3700&lt;/sub&gt;D||(459×16&lt;sup&gt;3701&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/5||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000993764322]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000993764322]
|-
|16||2344||D0B&lt;sub&gt;17804&lt;/sub&gt;||(3131×16&lt;sup&gt;17804&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/15||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003589278511]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003589278511]
|-
|18||547||80&lt;sub&gt;298&lt;/sub&gt;B||8×18&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt;+11||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002355574745]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 has sum-of-two-cubes algebraic factorization, 6×18&lt;sup&gt;99&lt;/sup&gt;+1 is an algebraic factor of ''N''+1, factordb entry of 6×18&lt;sup&gt;99&lt;/sup&gt;+1 is [http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000900149167]
|-
|18||548||H&lt;sub&gt;766&lt;/sub&gt;FH||18&lt;sup&gt;768&lt;/sup&gt;−37||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430490]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590430490]
|-
|18||549||C0&lt;sub&gt;6268&lt;/sub&gt;C5||12×18&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+221||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590442437]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590442437]
|-
|20||3301||H&lt;sub&gt;247&lt;/sub&gt;A0H||(17×20&lt;sup&gt;250&lt;/sup&gt;−59677)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502619]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590502619]
|-
|20||3302||7&lt;sub&gt;249&lt;/sub&gt;A7||(7×20&lt;sup&gt;251&lt;/sup&gt;+1133)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502602]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590502602]
|-
|20||3303||J7&lt;sub&gt;270&lt;/sub&gt;||(368×20&lt;sup&gt;270&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002325395462]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002325395462]
|-
|20||3304||J&lt;sub&gt;330&lt;/sub&gt;CCC7||20&lt;sup&gt;334&lt;/sup&gt;−58953||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502572]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590502572]
|-
|20||3305||40&lt;sub&gt;387&lt;/sub&gt;404B||4×20&lt;sup&gt;391&lt;/sup&gt;+32091||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502563]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590502563]
|-
|20||3306||EC0&lt;sub&gt;429&lt;/sub&gt;7||292×20&lt;sup&gt;430&lt;/sup&gt;+7||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633348702]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002633348702]
|-
|20||3307||G&lt;sub&gt;447&lt;/sub&gt;99||(16×20&lt;sup&gt;449&lt;/sup&gt;−2809)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840126753]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000840126753]
|-
|20||3308||3A&lt;sub&gt;527&lt;/sub&gt;3||(67×20&lt;sup&gt;528&lt;/sup&gt;−143)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502531]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590502531]
|-
|20||3309||E&lt;sub&gt;566&lt;/sub&gt;C7||(14×20&lt;sup&gt;568&lt;/sup&gt;−907)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502516]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 has a large prime factor, factordb entry of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003810023889], and primality certificate of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003810023889]
|-
|20||3310||JCJ&lt;sub&gt;629&lt;/sub&gt;||393×20&lt;sup&gt;629&lt;/sup&gt;−1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001559454258]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|20||3311||J&lt;sub&gt;655&lt;/sub&gt;05J||20&lt;sup&gt;658&lt;/sup&gt;−7881||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502490]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 has a large prime factor, factordb entry of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591067052], and primality certificate of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591067052]
|-
|20||3312||50&lt;sub&gt;1163&lt;/sub&gt;AJ||5×20&lt;sup&gt;1165&lt;/sup&gt;+219||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502412]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590502412]
|-
|20||3313||CD&lt;sub&gt;2449&lt;/sub&gt;||(241×20&lt;sup&gt;2449&lt;/sup&gt;−13)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002325393915]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002325393915]
|-
|20||3314||G0&lt;sub&gt;6269&lt;/sub&gt;D||16×20&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+13||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590539457]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590539457]
|-
|22||7984||I7G0&lt;sub&gt;254&lt;/sub&gt;H||8882×22&lt;sup&gt;255&lt;/sup&gt;+17||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591372788]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591372788]
|-
|22||7985||D0&lt;sub&gt;255&lt;/sub&gt;5EEF||13×22&lt;sup&gt;259&lt;/sup&gt;+60339||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591371932]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591371932]
|-
|22||7986||IK&lt;sub&gt;322&lt;/sub&gt;F||(398×22&lt;sup&gt;323&lt;/sup&gt;−125)/21||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840384145]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000840384145]
|-
|22||7987||C0&lt;sub&gt;340&lt;/sub&gt;G9||12×22&lt;sup&gt;342&lt;/sup&gt;+361||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840384159]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000840384159]
|-
|22||7988||77E&lt;sub&gt;348&lt;/sub&gt;K7||(485×22&lt;sup&gt;350&lt;/sup&gt;+373)/3||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591369779]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591369779]
|-
|22||7989||J&lt;sub&gt;379&lt;/sub&gt;KJ||(19×22&lt;sup&gt;381&lt;/sup&gt;+443)/21||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591369027]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591369027]
|-
|22||7990||J&lt;sub&gt;388&lt;/sub&gt;EJ||(19×22&lt;sup&gt;390&lt;/sup&gt;−2329)/21||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591367729]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591367729]
|-
|22||7991||DJ&lt;sub&gt;400&lt;/sub&gt;||(292×22&lt;sup&gt;400&lt;/sup&gt;−19)/21||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002325880110]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002325880110]
|-
|22||7992||E&lt;sub&gt;404&lt;/sub&gt;K7||(2×22&lt;sup&gt;406&lt;/sup&gt;+373)/3||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591366298]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591366298]
|-
|22||7993||66F&lt;sub&gt;453&lt;/sub&gt;B3||(971×22&lt;sup&gt;455&lt;/sup&gt;−705)/7||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591365809]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591365809]
|-
|22||7994||L0&lt;sub&gt;454&lt;/sub&gt;B63||21×22&lt;sup&gt;457&lt;/sup&gt;+5459||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591365331]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591365331]
|-
|22||7995||L&lt;sub&gt;483&lt;/sub&gt;G3||22&lt;sup&gt;485&lt;/sup&gt;−129||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591364730]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591364730]
|-
|22||7996||E60&lt;sub&gt;496&lt;/sub&gt;L||314×22&lt;sup&gt;497&lt;/sup&gt;+21||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632703239]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000632703239]
|-
|22||7997||I&lt;sub&gt;626&lt;/sub&gt;AF||(6×22&lt;sup&gt;628&lt;/sup&gt;−1259)/7||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632724334]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000632724334]
|-
|22||7998||K0&lt;sub&gt;760&lt;/sub&gt;EC1||20×22&lt;sup&gt;763&lt;/sup&gt;+7041||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632724415]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000632724415]
|-
|22||7999||J0&lt;sub&gt;767&lt;/sub&gt;IGGJ||19×22&lt;sup&gt;771&lt;/sup&gt;+199779||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591362567]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591362567]
|-
|22||8000||7&lt;sub&gt;959&lt;/sub&gt;K7||(22&lt;sup&gt;961&lt;/sup&gt;+857)/3||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591361817]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591361817]
|-
|22||8001||L&lt;sub&gt;2385&lt;/sub&gt;KE7||22&lt;sup&gt;2388&lt;/sup&gt;−653||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591360774]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591360774]
|-
|22||8002||7&lt;sub&gt;3815&lt;/sub&gt;2L||(22&lt;sup&gt;3817&lt;/sup&gt;−289)/3||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591359839]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591359839]
|-
|24||3400||I0&lt;sub&gt;241&lt;/sub&gt;I5||18×24&lt;sup&gt;243&lt;/sup&gt;+437||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633360037]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002633360037]
|-
|24||3401||D0&lt;sub&gt;259&lt;/sub&gt;KKD||13×24&lt;sup&gt;262&lt;/sup&gt;+12013||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593270725]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593270725]
|-
|24||3402||C7&lt;sub&gt;298&lt;/sub&gt;||(283×24&lt;sup&gt;298&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/23||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002326181235]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002326181235]
|-
|24||3403||20&lt;sub&gt;313&lt;/sub&gt;7||2×24&lt;sup&gt;314&lt;/sup&gt;+7||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002355610241]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002355610241]
|-
|24||3404||BC0&lt;sub&gt;331&lt;/sub&gt;B||276×24&lt;sup&gt;332&lt;/sup&gt;+11||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633359842]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002633359842]
|-
|24||3405||N&lt;sub&gt;2644&lt;/sub&gt;LLN||24&lt;sup&gt;2647&lt;/sup&gt;−1201||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593270089]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593270089]
|-
|24||3406||D&lt;sub&gt;2698&lt;/sub&gt;LD||(13×24&lt;sup&gt;2700&lt;/sup&gt;+4403)/23||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593269876]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593269876]
|-
|24||3407||A0&lt;sub&gt;2951&lt;/sub&gt;8ID||10×24&lt;sup&gt;2954&lt;/sup&gt;+5053||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593269654]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593269654]
|-
|24||3408||88N&lt;sub&gt;5951&lt;/sub&gt;||201×24&lt;sup&gt;5951&lt;/sup&gt;−1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593275880]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|24||3409||N00N&lt;sub&gt;8129&lt;/sub&gt;LN||13249×24&lt;sup&gt;8131&lt;/sup&gt;−49||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593391606]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593391606]
|-
|28||25485||JN&lt;sub&gt;206&lt;/sub&gt;||(536×28&lt;sup&gt;206&lt;/sup&gt;−23)/27||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002611724435]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 has a large prime factor, and this prime factor is &lt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|28||25486||3&lt;sub&gt;211&lt;/sub&gt;M9||(28&lt;sup&gt;213&lt;/sup&gt;+4841)/9||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161936]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161936]
|-
|28||25487||HD0&lt;sub&gt;213&lt;/sub&gt;D||489×28&lt;sup&gt;214&lt;/sup&gt;+13||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161937]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161937]
|-
|28||25488||64O&lt;sub&gt;217&lt;/sub&gt;9||(1556×28&lt;sup&gt;218&lt;/sup&gt;−143)/9||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840840215]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000840840215]
|-
|28||25489||G0&lt;sub&gt;217&lt;/sub&gt;A0N||16×28&lt;sup&gt;220&lt;/sup&gt;+7863||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161938]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161938]
|-
|28||25490||55OA&lt;sub&gt;226&lt;/sub&gt;F||(110278×28&lt;sup&gt;227&lt;/sup&gt;+125)/27||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161939]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161939]
|-
|28||25491||L0&lt;sub&gt;229&lt;/sub&gt;Q3||21×28&lt;sup&gt;231&lt;/sup&gt;+731||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161940]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161940]
|-
|28||25492||B0&lt;sub&gt;231&lt;/sub&gt;7ID||11×28&lt;sup&gt;234&lt;/sup&gt;+6005||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161941]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161941]
|-
|28||25493||PM&lt;sub&gt;233&lt;/sub&gt;B||(697×28&lt;sup&gt;234&lt;/sup&gt;−319)/27||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161942]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161942]
|-
|28||25494||K0&lt;sub&gt;238&lt;/sub&gt;OF||20×28&lt;sup&gt;240&lt;/sup&gt;+687||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840840142]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000840840142]
|-
|28||25495||I&lt;sub&gt;262&lt;/sub&gt;E3||(2×28&lt;sup&gt;264&lt;/sup&gt;−383)/3||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161943]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161943]
|-
|28||25496||C5A&lt;sub&gt;273&lt;/sub&gt;F||(9217×28&lt;sup&gt;274&lt;/sup&gt;+125)/27||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161944]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161944]
|-
|28||25497||J0&lt;sub&gt;276&lt;/sub&gt;IMB||19×28&lt;sup&gt;279&lt;/sup&gt;+14739||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161945]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 has a large prime factor, factordb entry of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850165915], and primality certificate of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850165915]
|-
|28||25498||F0&lt;sub&gt;282&lt;/sub&gt;QAP||15×28&lt;sup&gt;285&lt;/sup&gt;+20689||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840840006]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000840840006]
|-
|28||25499||M0&lt;sub&gt;296&lt;/sub&gt;KKN||22×28&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt;+16263||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161946]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161946]
|-
|28||25500||C&lt;sub&gt;310&lt;/sub&gt;43||(4×28&lt;sup&gt;312&lt;/sup&gt;−2101)/9||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161947]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003850161947]
|-
|30||2613||AN&lt;sub&gt;206&lt;/sub&gt;||(313×30&lt;sup&gt;206&lt;/sup&gt;−23)/29||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002327651073]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002327651073]
|-
|30||2614||M&lt;sub&gt;241&lt;/sub&gt;QB||(22×30&lt;sup&gt;243&lt;/sup&gt;+3139)/29||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593408295]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593408295]
|-
|30||2615||M0&lt;sub&gt;547&lt;/sub&gt;SS7||22×30&lt;sup&gt;550&lt;/sup&gt;+26047||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593407988]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593407988]
|-
|30||2616||C0&lt;sub&gt;1022&lt;/sub&gt;1||12×30&lt;sup&gt;1023&lt;/sup&gt;+1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000785448736]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|30||2617||5&lt;sub&gt;4882&lt;/sub&gt;J||(5×30&lt;sup&gt;4883&lt;/sup&gt;+401)/29||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002327649423]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002327649423]
|-
|30||2619||OT&lt;sub&gt;34205&lt;/sub&gt;||25×30&lt;sup&gt;34205&lt;/sup&gt;−1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000800812865]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 is trivially 100% factored
|}

==Unproven PRPs==

Only list bases 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 30

{|class=wikitable
|base (''b'')||index of this quasi-minimal prime in base ''b'' (assuming the primality of all PRP in base ''b'')||unproven PRP (base-''b'' form)||unproven PRP (algebraic ((''a''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+''c'')/''d'') form)||factordb entry of this PRP
|-
|11||1068||57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;||(57×11&lt;sup&gt;62668&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/10||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003573679860]
|-
|13||3194||C5&lt;sub&gt;23755&lt;/sub&gt;C||(149×13&lt;sup&gt;23756&lt;/sup&gt;+79)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590647776]
|-
|13||3195||80&lt;sub&gt;32017&lt;/sub&gt;111||8×13&lt;sup&gt;32020&lt;/sup&gt;+183||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000490878060]
|-
|16||2345||DB&lt;sub&gt;32234&lt;/sub&gt;||(206×16&lt;sup&gt;32234&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/15||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002383583629]
|-
|16||2346||4&lt;sub&gt;72785&lt;/sub&gt;DD||(4×16&lt;sup&gt;72787&lt;/sup&gt;+2291)/15||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003615909841]
|-
|16||2347||3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF||(16&lt;sup&gt;116139&lt;/sup&gt;+619)/5||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003851731988]
|-
|22||8003||BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5||(251×22&lt;sup&gt;22002&lt;/sup&gt;−335)/21||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003594696838]
|-
|30||2618||I0&lt;sub&gt;24608&lt;/sub&gt;D||18×30&lt;sup&gt;24609&lt;/sup&gt;+13||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593967511]
|}

All these PRPs pass the [[w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]] to bases 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59 and 61, and pass the [[w:Lucas pseudoprime#Strong Lucas pseudoprimes|strong Lucas primality test]] with parameters (''P'', ''Q'') defined by Selfridge's Method ''A'', and [[w:Trial division|trial factored]] to 10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;. (Thus, they pass the [[w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]])

==Proof==

===Base 2===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1)

* Case (1,1):
** 11 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.

===Base 3===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2)

* Case (1,1):
** Since 12, 21, 111 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0}1 (since any digits 1, 2 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 1{0}1 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (1,2):
** 12 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,1):
** 21 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,2):
** Since 21, 12 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2}2 (since any digits 1 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0,2}2 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.

===Base 4===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,3), (2,1), (2,3), (3,1), (3,3)

* Case (1,1):
** 11 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,3):
** 13 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,1):
** Since 23, 11, 31, 221 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,3):
** 23 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,1):
** 31 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,3):
** Since 31, 13, 23 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3}3 (since any digits 1, 2 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 3{0,3}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.

===Base 5===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4)

* Case (1,1):
** Since 12, 21, 111, 131 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,4}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 1{0,4}1 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (1,2):
** 12 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,3):
** Since 12, 23, 43, 133 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,1}3 (since any digits 2, 3, 4 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 111 is prime, we only need to consider the families 1{0}3 and 1{0}1{0}3 (since any digit combo 11 between (1,3) will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 1{0}3 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 1{0}1{0}3 family, since 10103 is prime, we only need to consider the families 1{0}13 and 11{0}3 (since any digit combo 010 between (1,3) will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 1{0}13 is 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013, which can be written as 1(0^93)13 and equal the prime 5^95+8 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000034686071 factordb])
***** All numbers of the form 11{0}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (1,4):
** Since 12, 34, 104 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{1,4}4 (since any digits 0, 2, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 111, 414 are primes, we only need to consider the families 1{4}4 and 11{4}4 (since any digit combo 11 or 41 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 1{4}4 is 14444.
**** All numbers of the form 11{4}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,1):
** 21 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,2):
** Since 21, 23, 12, 32 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2,4}2 (since any digits 1, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0,2,4}2 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,3):
** 23 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,4):
** Since 21, 23, 34 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2,4}4 (since any digits 1, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0,2,4}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,1):
** Since 32, 34, 21 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,1,3}1 (since any digits 2, 4 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 313, 111, 131, 3101 are primes, we only need to consider the families 3{0,3}1 and 3{0,3}11 (since any digit combo 10, 11, 13 between (3,1) will produce smaller primes)
**** For the 3{0,3}1 family, we can separate this family to four families:
***** For the 30{0,3}01 family, we have the prime 30301, and the remain case is the family 30{0}01.
****** All numbers of the form 30{0}01 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
***** For the 30{0,3}31 family, note that there must be an even number of 3's between (30,31), or the result number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
****** Since 33331 is prime, any digit combo 33 between (30,31) will produce smaller primes.
******* Thus, the only possible prime is the smallest prime in the family 30{0}31, and this prime is 300031.
***** For the 33{0,3}01 family, note that there must be an even number of 3's between (33,01), or the result number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
****** Since 33331 is prime, any digit combo 33 between (33,01) will produce smaller primes.
******* Thus, the only possible prime is the smallest prime in the family 33{0}01, and this prime is 33001.
***** For the 33{0,3}31 family, we have the prime 33331, and the remain case is the family 33{0}31.
****** All numbers of the form 33{0}31 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
**** All numbers of the form 3{0,3}11 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,2):
** 32 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,3):
** Since 32, 34, 23, 43, 313 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 3{0,3}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,4):
** 34 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,1):
** Since 43, 21, 401 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{1,4}1 (since any digits 0, 2, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 414, 111 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{4}1 and 4{4}11 (since any digit combo 14 or 11 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}1 is 44441.
**** All numbers of the form 4{4}11 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,2):
** Since 43, 12, 32 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,2,4}2 (since any digits 1, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 4{0,2,4}2 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,3):
** 43 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,4):
** Since 43, 34, 414 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,2,4}4 (since any digits 1, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 4{0,2,4}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.

===Base 6===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,5), (2,1), (2,5), (3,1), (3,5), (4,1), (4,5), (5,1), (5,5)

* Case (1,1):
** 11 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,5):
** 15 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,1):
** 21 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,5):
** 25 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,1):
** 31 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,5):
** 35 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,1):
** Since 45, 11, 21, 31, 51 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,4}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 4401 and 4441 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{0}1 and 4{0}41 (since any digits combo 40 and 44 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 4{0}1 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{0}41 is 40041
* Case (4,5):
** 45 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,1):
** 51 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,5):
** Since 51, 15, 25, 35, 45 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,5}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 5{0,5}5 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.

===Base 7===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6), (5,1), (5,2), (5,3), (5,4), (5,5), (5,6), (6,1), (6,2), (6,3), (6,4), (6,5), (6,6)

* Case (1,1):
** Since 14, 16, 41, 61, 131 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,1,2,5}1 (since any digits 3, 4, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since the digit sum of primes must be odd (otherwise the number will be divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime), there is an odd total number of 1 and 5 in the {}
**** If there are &gt;=3 number of 1 and 5 in the {}:
***** If there is 111 in the {}, then we have the prime 11111
***** If there is 115 in the {}, then the prime 115 is a subsequence
***** If there is 151 in the {}, then the prime 115 is a subsequence
***** If there is 155 in the {}, then the prime 155 is a subsequence
***** If there is 511 in the {}, then the current number is 15111, which has digit sum = 12, but digit sum divisible by 3 will cause the number divisible by 3 and cannot be prime, and we cannot add more 1 or 5 to this number (to avoid 11111, 155, 515, 551 as subsequence), thus we must add at least one 2 to this number, but then the number has both 2 and 5, and will have either 25 or 52 as subsequence, thus cannot be minimal prime
***** If there is 515 in the {}, then the prime 515 is a subsequence
***** If there is 551 in the {}, then the prime 551 is a subsequence
***** If there is 555 in the {}, then the prime 551 is a subsequence
**** Thus there is only one 1 (and no 5) or only one 5 (and no 1) in the {}, i.e. we only need to consider the families 1{0,2}1{0,2}1 and 1{0,2}5{0,2}1
***** For the 1{0,2}1{0,2}1 family, since 1211 is prime, we only need to consider the family 1{0}1{0,2}1
****** Since all numbers of the form 1{0}1{0}1 are divisible by 3 and cannot be prime, we only need to consider the family 1{0}1{0}2{0}1
******* Since 11201 is prime, we only need to consider the family 1{0}1{0}21
******** The smallest prime of the form 11{0}21 is 1100021
******** All numbers of the form 101{0}21 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime
******** The smallest prime of the form 1001{0}21 is 100121
********* Since this prime has no 0 between 1{0}1 and 21, we do not need to consider more families
***** For the 1{0,2}5{0,2}1 family, since 25 and 52 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0}5{0}1
****** Since 1051 is prime, we only need to consider the family 15{0}1
******* The smallest prime of the form 15{0}1 is 150001
* Case (1,2):
** Since 14, 16, 32, 52 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,1,2}2 (since any digits 3, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 1112 and 1222 are primes, there is at most one 1 and at most one 2 in {}
**** If there are one 1 and one 2 in {}, then the digit sum is 6, and the number will be divisible by 6 and cannot be prime.
**** If there is one 1 but no 2 in {}, then the digit sum is 4, and the number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
**** If there is no 1 but one 2 in {}, then the form is 1{0}2{0}2
***** Since 1022 and 1202 are primes, we only need to consider the number 122
****** 122 is not prime.
**** If there is no 1 and no 2 in {}, then the digit sum is 3, and the number will be divisible by 3 and cannot be prime.
* Case (1,3):
** Since 14, 16, 23, 43, 113, 133 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,5}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 155 is prime, we only need to consider the family 1{0}3 and 1{0}5{0}3
**** All numbers of the form 1{0}3 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
**** All numbers of the form 1{0}5{0}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (1,4):
** 14 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,5):
** Since 14, 16, 25, 65, 115, 155 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,3}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 1{0,3}5 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (1,6):
** 16 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,1):
** Since 23, 25, 41, 61, 221 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,1}1 (since any digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 2111 is prime, we only need to consider the families 2{0}1 and 2{0}1{0}1
**** All numbers of the form 2{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** All numbers of the form 2{0}1{0}1 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,2):
** Since 23, 25, 32, 52, 212 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2,4,6}2 (since any digits 1, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0,2,4,6}2 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,3):
** 23 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,4):
** Since 23, 25, 14 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2,4,6}4 (since any digits 1, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0,2,4,6}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,5):
** 25 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,6):
** Since 23, 25, 16, 56 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2,4,6}6 (since any digits 1, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0,2,4,6}6 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,1):
** Since 32, 41, 61 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,1,3,5}1 (since any digits 2, 4, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 551 is prime, we only need to consider the family 3{0,1,3}1 and 3{0,1,3}5{0,1,3}1 (since any digits combo 55 between (3,1) will produce smaller primes)
**** For the 3{0,1,3}1 family, since 3031 and 131 are primes, we only need to consider the families 3{0,1}1 and 3{3}3{0,1}1 (since any digits combo 03, 13 between (3,1) will produce smaller primes, thus for the digits between (3,1), all 3's must be before all 0's and 1's, and thus we can let the red 3 in 3{3}3{0,1}1 be the rightmost 3 between (3,1), all digits before this 3 must be 3's, and all digits after this 3 must be either 0's or 1's)
***** For the 3{0,1}1 family:
****** If there are &gt;=2 0's and &gt;=1 1's between (3,1), then at least one of 30011, 30101, 31001 will be a subsequence.
****** If there are no 1's between (3,1), then the form will be 3{0}1
******* All numbers of the form 3{0}1 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
****** If there are no 0's between (3,1), then the form will be 3{1}1
******* The smallest prime of the form 3{1}1 is 31111
****** If there are exactly 1 0's between (3,1), then there must be &lt;3 1's between (3,1), or 31111 will be a subsequence.
******* If there are 2 1's between (3,1), then the digit sum is 6, thus the number is divisible by 6 and cannot be prime.
******* If there are 1 1's between (3,1), then the number can only be either 3101 or 3011
******** Neither 3101 nor 3011 is prime.
******* If there are no 1's between (3,1), then the number must be 301
******** 301 is not prime.
***** For the 3{3}3{0,1}1 family:
****** If there are at least one 3 between (3,3{0,1}1) and at least one 1 between (3{3}3,1), then 33311 will be a subsequence.
****** If there are no 3 between (3,3{0,1}1), then the form will be 33{0,1}1
******* If there are at least 3 1's between (33,1), then 31111 will be a subsequence.
******* If there are exactly 2 1's between (33,1), then the digit sum is 12, thus the number is divisible by 3 and cannot be prime.
******* If there are exactly 1 1's between (33,1), then the digit sum is 11, thus the number is divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
******* If there are no 1's between (33,1), then the form will be 33{0}1
******** The smallest prime of the form 33{0}1 is 33001
****** If there are no 1 between (3{3}3,1), then the form will be 3{3}3{0}1
******* If there are at least 2 0's between (3{3}3,1), then 33001 will be a subsequence.
******* If there are exactly 1 0's between (3{3}3,1), then the form is 3{3}301
******** The smallest prime of the form 3{3}301 is 33333301
******* If there are no 0's between (3{3}3,1), then the form is 3{3}31
******** The smallest prime of the form 3{3}31 is 33333333333333331
**** For the 3{0,1,3}5{0,1,3}1 family, since 335 is prime, we only need to consider the family 3{0,1}5{0,1,3}1
***** Numbers containing 3 between (3{0,1}5,1):
****** The form is 3{0,1}5{0,1,3}3{0,1,3}1
******* Since 3031 and 131 are primes, we only need to consider the family 35{3}3{0,1,3}1 (since any digits combo 03, 13 between (3,1) will produce smaller primes)
******** Since 533 is prime, we only need to consider the family 353{0,1}1 (since any digits combo 33 between (35,1) will produce smaller primes)
********* Since 5011 is prime, we only need to consider the family 353{1}{0}1 (since any digits combo 01 between (353,1) will produce smaller primes)
********** If there are at least 3 1's between (353,{0}1), then 31111 will be a subsequence.
********** If there are exactly 2 1's between (353,{0}1), then the digit sum is 20, thus the number is divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
********** If there are exactly 1 1's between (353,{0}1), then the form is 3531{0}1
*********** The smallest prime of the form 3531{0}1 is 3531001, but it is not minimal prime since 31001 is prime.
********** If there are no 1's between (353,{0}1), then the digit sum is 15, thus the number is divisible by 6 and cannot be prime.
***** Numbers not containing 3 between (3{0,1}5,1):
****** The form is 3{0,1}5{0,1}1
******* If there are &gt;=2 0's and &gt;=1 1's between (3,1), then at least one of 30011, 30101, 31001 will be a subsequence.
******* If there are no 1's between (3,1), then the form will be 3{0}5{0}1
******** All numbers of the form 3{0}5{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
******* If there are no 0's between (3,1), then the form will be 3{1}5{1}1
******** If there are &gt;=3 1's between (3,1), then 31111 will be a subsequence.
******** If there are exactly 2 1's between (3,1), then the number can only be 31151, 31511, 35111
********* None of 31151, 31511, 35111 are primes.
******** If there are exactly 1 1's between (3,1), then the digit sum is 13, thus the number is divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
******** If there are no 1's between (3,1), then the number is 351
********* 351 is not prime.
******* If there are exactly 1 0's between (3,1), then the form will be 3{1}0{1}5{1}1 or 3{1}5{1}0{1}1
******** No matter 3{1}0{1}5{1}1 or 3{1}5{1}0{1}1, if there are &gt;=3 1's between (3,1), then 31111 will be a subsequence.
******** If there are exactly 2 1's between (3,1), then the number can only be 311051, 310151, 310511, 301151, 301511, 305111, 311501, 315101, 315011, 351101, 351011, 350111
********* Of these numbers, 311051, 301151, 311501, 351101, 350111 are primes.
********** However, 311051, 301151, 311501 have 115 as subsequence, and 350111 has 5011 as subsequence, thus only 351101 is minimal prime.
******** No matter 3{1}0{1}5{1}1 or 3{1}5{1}0{1}1, if there are exactly 1 1's between (3,1), then the digit sum is 13, thus the number is divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
******** If there are no 1's between (3,1), then the number is 3051 for 3{1}0{1}5{1}1 or 3501 for 3{1}5{1}0{1}1
********* Neither 3051 nor 3501 is prime.
* Case (3,2):
** 32 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,3):
** Since 32, 23, 43, 313 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3,5,6}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are &gt;=2 5's in {}, then 553 will be a subsequence.
*** If there are no 5's in {}, then the family will be 3{0,3,6}3
**** All numbers of the form 3{0,3,6}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there are exactly 1 5's in {}, then the family will be 3{0,3,6}5{0,3,6}3
**** Since 335, 65, 3503, 533, 56 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0}53 (since any digit 3, 6 between (3,5{0,3,6}3) and any digit 0, 3, 6 between (3{0,3,6}5,3) will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 3{0}53 is 300053
* Case (3,4):
** Since 32, 14, 304, 344, 364 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{3,5}4 (since any digits 0, 1, 2, 4, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 3334 and 335 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{5}4 and 3{5}34 (since any digits combo 33, 35 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 3{5}4 is 35555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555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with 9234 5's, which can be written as 3(5^9234)4 and equal the prime (23*7^9235-11)/6 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002766595757 factordb]) ([http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002766595757 primality certificate]) (not minimal prime, since 35555 and 5554 are primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 3{5}34 is 355555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555534 (not minimal prime, since 35555, 553, and 5554 are primes)
* Case (3,5):
** Since 32, 25, 65, 335 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,1,4,5}5 (since any digits 2, 3, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are at least one 1's and at least one 5's in {}, then either 155 or 515 will be a subsequence.
*** If there are at least one 1's and at least one 4's in {}, then either 14 or 41 will be a subsequence.
*** If there are at least two 1's in {}, then 115 will be a subsequence.
*** If there are exactly one 1's and no 4's or 5's in {}, then the family will be 3{0}1{0}5
**** All numbers of the form 3{0}1{0}5 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there is no 1's in {}, then the family will be 3{0,4,5}5
**** If there are at least to 4's in {}, then 344 and 445 will be subsequences.
**** If there is no 4's in {}, then the family will be 3{0,5}5
***** Since 3055 and 3505 are primes, we only need to consider the families 3{0}5 and 3{5}5
****** All numbers of the form 3{0}5 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
****** The smallest prime of the form 3{5}5 is 35555
**** If there is exactly one 4's in {}, then the family will be 3{0,5}4{0,5}5
***** Since 304, 3545 are primes, we only need to consider the families 34{0,5}5 (since any digits 0 or 5 between (3,4{0,5}5) will produce small primes)
****** All numbers of the form 34{0,5}5 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,6):
** Since 32, 16, 56, 346 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3,6}6 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 3{0,3,6}6 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,1):
** 41 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,2):
** Since 41, 43, 32, 52 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,2,4,6}2 (since any digits 1, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 4{0,2,4,6}2 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,3):
** 43 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,4):
** Since 41, 43, 14 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,2,4,5,6}4 (since any digits 1, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there is no 5's in {}, then the family will be 4{0,2,4,6}4
**** All numbers of the form 4{0,2,4,6}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there is at least one 5's in {}, then there cannot be 2 in {} (since if so, then either 25 or 52 will be a subsequence) and there cannot be 6 in {} (since if so, then either 65 or 56 will be a subsequence), thus the family is 4{0,4,5}5{0,4,5}4
**** Since 445, 4504, 544 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,5}5{5}4 (since any digit 4 between (4,5{0,4,5}4) and any digit 0, 4 between (4{0,4,5}5,4) will produce smaller primes)
***** If there are at least two 0's between (4,5{0,4,5}4), then 40054 will be a subsequence.
***** If there is no 0's between (4,5{0,4,5}4), then the family will be 4{5}5{5}4, which is equivalent to 4{5}4
****** The smallest prime of the form 4{5}4 is 45555555555555554 (not minimal prime, since 4555 and 5554 are primes)
***** If there is exactly one 0's between (4,5{0,4,5}4), then the family will be 4{5}0{5}5{5}4
****** Since 4504 is prime, we only need to consider the family 40{5}5{5}4 (since any digit 5 between (4,0{5}5{5}4) will produce small primes), which is equivalent to 40{5}4
******* The smallest prime of the form 40{5}4 is 405555555555555554 (not minimal prime, since 4555 and 5554 are primes)
* Case (4,5):
** Since 41, 43, 25, 65, 445 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,5}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are at least two 5's in {}, then 4555 will be a subsequence.
*** If there is exactly one 5's in {}, then the digit sum is 20, and the number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
*** If there is no 5's in {}, then the family will be 4{0}5
**** All numbers of the form 4{0}5 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,6):
** Since 41, 43, 16, 56 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,2,4,6}6 (since any digits 1, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 4{0,2,4,6}6 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (5,1):
** Since 52, 56, 41, 61, 551 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,1,3}1 (since any digits 2, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are at least two 3's in {}, then 533 will be a subsequence.
*** If there is no 3's in {}, then the family will be 5{0,1}1
**** Since 5011 is prime, we only need to consider the family 5{1}{0}1
***** Since 11111 is prime, we only need to consider the families 5{0}1, 51{0}1, 511{0}1, 5111{0}1 (since any digits combo 1111 between (5,1) will produce small primes)
****** All numbers of the form 5{0}1 are divisible by 6, thus cannot be prime.
****** The smallest prime of the form 51{0}1 is 5100000001
****** All numbers of the form 511{0}1 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
****** All numbers of the form 5111{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there is exactly one 3's in {}, then the family will be 5{0,1}3{0,1}1
**** If there is at least one 1's between (5,3{0,1}1), then 131 will be a subsequence.
***** Thus we only need to consider the family 5{0}3{0,1}1
****** If there are no 1's between (5{0}3,1), then the digit sum is 12, and the number will be divisible by 3 and cannot be prime.
****** If there are exactly one 1's between (5{0}3,1), then the digit sum is 13, and the number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
****** If there are exactly three 1's between (5{0}3,1), then the digit sum is 15, and the number will be divisible by 6 and cannot be prime.
****** If there are at least four 1's between (5{0}3,1), then 11111 will be a subsequence.
****** If there are exactly two 1's between (5{0}3,1), then the family will be 5{0}3{0}1{0}1{0}1
******* Since 5011 is prime, we only need to consider the family 5311{0}1 (since any digit 0 between (5,1{0}1) will produce small primes, this includes the leftmost three {} in 5{0}3{0}1{0}1{0}1, and thus only the rightmost {} can contain 0)
******** The smallest prime of the form 5311{0}1 is 531101
* Case (5,2):
** 52 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,3):
** Since 52, 56, 23, 43, 533, 553 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,1}3 (since any digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are at least two 1's in {}, then 113 will be a subsequence.
*** If there is exactly one 1's in {}, then the digit sum is 12, and the number will be divisible by 3 and cannot be prime.
*** If there is no 1's in {}, then the digit sum is 11, and the number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
* Case (5,4):
** Since 52, 56, 14, 544 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,3,5}4 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are no 5's in {}, then the family will be 5{0,3}4
**** All numbers of the form 5{0,3}4 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there are at least one 5's and at least one 3's in {}, then either 535 or 553 will be a subsequence.
*** If there are exactly one 5's and no 3's in {}, then the digit sum is 20, and the number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
*** If there are at least two 5's in {}, then 5554 will be a subsequence.
* Case (5,5):
** Since 52, 56, 25, 65, 515, 535 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,4,5}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are no 4's in {}, then the family will be 5{0,5}5
**** All numbers of the form 5{0,5}5 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there are no 5's in {}, then the family will be 5{0,4}5
**** All numbers of the form 5{0,4}5 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there are at least one 4's and at least one 5's in {}, then either 5455 or 5545 will be a subsequence.
* Case (5,6):
** 56 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,1):
** 61 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,2):
** Since 61, 65, 32, 52 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,2,4,6}2 (since any digits 1, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 6{0,2,4,6}2 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (6,3):
** Since 61, 65, 23, 43 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,3,6}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 6{0,3,6}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (6,4):
** Since 61, 65, 14 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,2,3,4,6}4 (since any digits 1, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there is no 3's in {}, then the family will be 6{0,2,4,6}4
**** All numbers of the form 6{0,2,4,6}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there are exactly two 3's in {}, then the family will be 6{0,2,4,6}3{0,2,4,6}3{0,2,4,6}4
**** All numbers of the form 6{0,2,4,6}3{0,2,4,6}3{0,2,4,6}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there are at least three 3's in {}, then 3334 will be a subsequence.
*** If there is exactly one 3's in {}, then the family will be 6{0,2,4,6}3{0,2,4,6}4
**** If there is 0 between (6,3{0,2,4,6}4), then 6034 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 2 between (6,3{0,2,4,6}4), then 23 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 4 between (6,3{0,2,4,6}4), then 43 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 6 between (6,3{0,2,4,6}4), then 6634 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 0 between (6{0,2,4,6}3,4), then 304 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 2 between (6{0,2,4,6}3,4), then 32 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 4 between (6{0,2,4,6}3,4), then 344 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 6 between (6{0,2,4,6}3,4), then 364 will be a subsequence.
**** Thus the number can only be 634
***** 634 is not prime.
* Case (6,5):
** 65 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,6):
** Since 61, 65, 16, 56 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,2,3,4,6}6 (since any digits 1, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there is no 3's in {}, then the family will be 6{0,2,4,6}6
**** All numbers of the form 6{0,2,4,6}6 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there is no 2's and no 4's in {}, then the family will be 6{0,3,6}6
**** All numbers of the form 6{0,3,6}6 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there is at least one 3's and at least one 2's in {}, then either 32 or 23 will be a subsequence.
*** If there is at least one 3's and at least one 4's in {}, then either 346 or 43 will be a subsequence.

===Base 8===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,3), (1,5), (1,7), (2,1), (2,3), (2,5), (2,7), (3,1), (3,3), (3,5), (3,7), (4,1), (4,3), (4,5), (4,7), (5,1), (5,3), (5,5), (5,7), (6,1), (6,3), (6,5), (6,7), (7,1), (7,3), (7,5), (7,7)

* Case (1,1):
** Since 13, 15, 21, 51, 111, 141, 161 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,7}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 107, 177, 701 are primes, we only need to consider the number 171 and the family 1{0}1 (since any digits combo 07, 70, 77 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** 171 is not prime.
**** All numbers of the form 1{0}1 factored as 10^n+1 = (2^n+1) * (4^n-2^n+1) (n≥1) (and since if n≥1, 2^n+1 ≥ 2^1+1 = 3 &gt; 1, 4^n-2^n+1 ≥ 4^1-2^1+1 = 3 &gt; 1, this factorization is nontrivial), thus cannot be prime.
* Case (1,3):
** 13 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,5):
** 15 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,7):
** Since 13, 15, 27, 37, 57, 107, 117, 147, 177 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{6}7 (since any digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** The smallest prime of the form 1{6}7 is 16667 (not minimal prime, since 667 is prime)
* Case (2,1):
** 21 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,3):
** 23 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,5):
** Since 21, 23, 27, 15, 35, 45, 65, 75, 225, 255 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0}5 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,7):
** 27 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,1):
** Since 35, 37, 21, 51, 301, 361 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{1,3,4}1 (since any digits 0, 2, 5, 6, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 13, 343, 111, 131, 141, 431, 3331, 3411 are primes, we only need to consider the families 3{3}11, 33{1,4}1, 3{3,4}4{4}1 (since any digits combo 11, 13, 14, 33, 41, 43 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 3{3}11 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 33{1,4}1 family, since 111 and 141 are primes, we only need to consider the families 33{4}1 and 33{4}11 (since any digits combo 11, 14 between them will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 33{4}1 is 3344441
***** All numbers of the form 33{4}11 are divisible by 301, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 3{3,4}4{4}1 family, since 3331 and 3344441 are primes, we only need to consider the families 3{4}1, 3{4}31, 3{4}341, 3{4}3441, 3{4}34441 (since any digits combo 33 or 34444 between (3,1) will produce smaller primes)
***** All numbers of the form 3{4}1 are divisible by 31, thus cannot be prime.
***** Since 4443 is prime, we only need to consider the numbers 3431, 34431, 34341, 344341, 343441, 3443441, 3434441, 34434441 (since any digit combo 444 between (3,3{4}1) will produce smaller primes)
****** None of 3431, 34431, 34341, 344341, 343441, 3443441, 3434441, 34434441 are primes.
* Case (3,3):
** Since 35, 37, 13, 23, 53, 73, 343 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3,6}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 3{0,3,6}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,5):
** 35 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,7):
** 37 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,1):
** Since 45, 21, 51, 401, 431, 471 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{1,4,6}1 (since any digits 0, 2, 3, 5, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 111, 141, 161, 661, 4611 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{4}11, 4{4,6}4{1,4,6}1, 4{4}6{4}1 (since any digits combo 11, 14, 16, 61, 66 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}11 is 44444444444444411 (not minimal prime, since 444444441 is prime)
**** For the 4{4,6}4{1,4,6}1 family, we can separate this family to 4{4,6}41, 4{4,6}411, 4{4,6}461
***** For the 4{4,6}41 family, since 661 and 6441 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{4}41 and 4{4}641 (since any digits combo 64 or 66 between (4,41) will produce smaller primes)
****** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}41 is 444444441
****** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}641 is 444641
***** For the 4{4,6}411 family, since 661 and 6441 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{4}411 and 4{4}6411 (since any digits combo 64 or 66 between (4,411) will produce smaller primes)
****** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}411 is 444444441
****** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}6411 is 4444444444444446411 (not minimal prime, since 444444441 and 444641 are primes)
***** For the 4{4,6}461 family, since 661 is prime, we only need to consider the family 4{4}461
****** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}461 is 4444444461 (not minimal prime, since 444444441 is prime)
**** For the 4{4}6{4}1 family, since 6441 is prime, we only need to consider the families 4{4}61 and 4{4}641 (since any digits combo 44 between (4{4}6,1) will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}61 is 4444444461 (not minimal prime, since 444444441 is prime)
***** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}641 is 444641
* Case (4,3):
** Since 45, 13, 23, 53, 73, 433, 463 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,4}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 4043 and 4443 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{0}3 and 44{0}3 (since any digits combo 04, 44 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 4{0}3 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
**** All numbers of the form 44{0}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,5):
** 45 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,7):
** Since 45, 27, 37, 57, 407, 417, 467 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{4,7}7 (since any digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 747 is prime, we only need to consider the families 4{4}7, 4{4}77, 4{7}7, 44{7}7 (since any digits combo 74 between (4,7) will produce smaller primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}7 is 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447, with 220 4's, which can be written as (4^220)7 and equal the prime (4*8^221+17)/7 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000416605822 factordb])
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}77 is 4444477
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{7}7 is 47777
**** The smallest prime of the form 44{7}7 is 4477777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777, with 851 7's, which can be written as 44(7^851) and equal the prime 37*8^851-1 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000413677646 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since 47777 is prime)
* Case (5,1):
** 51 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,3):
** 53 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,5):
** Since 51, 53, 57, 15, 35, 45, 65, 75 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,2,5}5 (since any digits 1, 3, 4, 6, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 225, 255, 5205 are primes, we only need to consider the families 5{0,5}5 and 5{0,5}25 (since any digits combo 20, 22, 25 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 5{0,5}5 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 5{0,5}25 family, since 500025 and 505525 are primes, we only need to consider the number 500525 the families 5{5}25, 5{5}025, 5{5}0025, 5{5}0525, 5{5}00525, 5{5}05025 (since any digits combo 000, 055 between (5,25) will produce smaller primes)
***** 500525 is not prime.
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}25 is 555555555555525
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}025 is 55555025
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}0025 is 5555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555550025, with 184 5's, which can be written as (5^183)0025 and equal the prime (5*8^187-20333)/7 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002350205912 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since 55555025 and 555555555555525 are primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}0525 is 5550525
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}00525 is 5500525
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}05025 is 5555555555555555555555505025 (not minimal prime, since 5550525, 55555025, and 555555555555525 are primes)
* Case (5,7):
** 57 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,1):
** Since 65, 21, 51, 631, 661 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,1,4,7}1 (since any digits 2, 3, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Numbers containing 4: (note that the number cannot contain two or more 4's, or 6441 will be a subsequence)
**** The form is 6{0,1,7}4{0,1,7}1
***** Since 141, 401, 471 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,7}4{1}1
****** Since 111 is prime, we only need to consider the families 6{0,7}41 and 6{0,7}411
******* For the 6{0,7}41 family, since 60741 is prime, we only need to consider the family 6{7}{0}41
******** Since 6777 is prime, we only need to consider the families 6{0}41, 67{0}41, 677{0}41
********* All numbers of the form 6{0}41 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
********* All numbers of the form 67{0}41 are divisible by 13, thus cannot be prime.
********* All numbers of the form 677{0}41 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
******* For the 6{0,7}411 family, since 60411 is prime, we only need to consider the family 6{7}411
******** The smallest prime of the form 6{7}411 is 67777411 (not minimal prime, since 6777 is prime)
*** Numbers not containing 4:
**** The form is 6{0,1,7}1
***** Since 111 is prime, we only need to consider the families 6{0,7}1 and 6{0,7}1{0,7}1
****** All numbers of the form 6{0,7}1 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
****** For the 6{0,7}1{0,7}1 family, since 711 and 6101 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0}1{7}1
******* Since 60171 is prime, we only need to consider the families 6{0}11 and 61{7}1
******** All numbers of the form 6{0}11 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
******** The smallest prime of the form 61{7}1 is 617771 (not minimal prime, since 6777 is prime)
* Case (6,3):
** Since 65, 13, 23, 53, 73, 643 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,3,6}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 6{0,3,6}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (6,5):
** 65 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,7):
** Since 65, 27, 37, 57, 667 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,1,4,7}7 (since any digits 2, 3, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 107, 117, 147, 177, 407, 417, 717, 747, 6007, 6477, 6707, 6777 are primes, there cannot be digits combo 00, 10, 11, 14, 17, 40, 41, 47, 70, 71, 74, 77 between them
**** If there is 1 between them, then there cannot be 1, 4, 7 before it and cannot be 0, 1, 4, 7 after it, thus the form will be 6{0}17
***** All numbers of the form 6{0}17 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** If there is 7 between them, then there cannot be 1, 4, 7 before it and cannot be 0, 1, 4, 7 after it, thus the form will be 6{0}77
***** All numbers of the form 6{0}77 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** If there is neither 1 nor 7 between them, then the form is 6{0,4}7
***** Since 6007, 407 at primes, we only need to consider the families 6{4}7 and 60{4}7 (since any digits combo 00, 40 between them will produce smaller primes)
****** All numbers of the form 6{4}7 are divisible by 3, 5, or 15, thus cannot be prime.
****** All numbers of the form 60{4}7 are divisible by 21, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (7,1):
** Since 73, 75, 21, 51, 701, 711 are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{4,6,7}1 (since any digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 747, 767, 471, 661, 7461, 7641 are primes, we only need to consider the families 7{4,7}4{4}1, 7{7}61, 7{7}7{4,6,7}1 (since any digits combo 46, 47, 64, 66, 67 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** For the 7{4,7}4{4}1 family, since 747, 471 are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{7}{4}1 (since any digits combo 47 between (7,4{4}1) will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 7{7}1 is 7777777777771
***** The smallest prime of the form 7{7}41 is 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777741, with 79 7's, which can be written as (7^79)41 and equal the prime 8^81-31 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000294462449 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since 7777777777771 is prime)
***** The smallest prime of the form 7{7}441 is 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777441, with 84 7's, which can be written as (7^84)441 and equal the prime 8^87-223 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000294462776 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since 7777777777771 is prime)
***** The smallest prime of the form 7{7}4441 is 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777774441, with 233 7's, which can be written as (7^233)4441 and equal the prime 8^237-1759 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002352073382 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since 7777777777771 is prime)
***** The smallest prime of the form 7{7}44441 is 7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777744441, with 56 7's, which can be written as (7^56)44441 and equal the prime 8^61-14047 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002350250002 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since 7777777777771 is prime)
***** All numbers of the form 7{7}444441 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
***** The smallest prime of the form 7{7}4444441 is 77774444441
****** Since this prime has just 4 7's, we only need to consider the families with &lt;=3 7's
******* The smallest prime of the form 7{4}1 is 744444441
******* All numbers of the form 77{4}1 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
******* The smallest prime of the form 777{4}1 is 777444444444441 (not minimal prime, since 444444441 and 744444441 are primes)
* Case (7,3):
** 73 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (7,5):
** 75 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (7,7):
** Since 73, 75, 27, 37, 57, 717, 747, 767 are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{0,7}7 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 7{0,7}7 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.

===Base 10===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,3), (1,7), (1,9), (2,1), (2,3), (2,7), (2,9), (3,1), (3,3), (3,7), (3,9), (4,1), (4,3), (4,7), (4,9), (5,1), (5,3), (5,7), (5,9), (6,1), (6,3), (6,7), (6,9), (7,1), (7,3), (7,7), (7,9), (8,1), (8,3), (8,7), (8,9), (9,1), (9,3), (9,7), (9,9)

* Case (1,1):
** 11 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,3):
** 13 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,7):
** 17 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,9):
** 19 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,1):
** Since 23, 29, 11, 31, 41, 61, 71, 251, 281 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2}1 (since any digits 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 2221 and 20201 are primes, we only need to consider the families 2{0}1, 2{0}21, 22{0}1 (since any digits combo 22 or 020 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 2{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form 2{0}21 is 20021
**** The smallest prime of the form 22{0}1 is 22000001
* Case (2,3):
** 23 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,7):
** Since 23, 29, 17, 37, 47, 67, 97, 227, 257, 277 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,8}7 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 887 and 2087 are primes, we only need to consider the families 2{0}7 and 28{0}7 (since any digit combo 08 or 88 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 2{0}7 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** All numbers of the form 28{0}7 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,9):
** 29 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,1):
** 31 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,3):
** Since 31, 37, 13, 23, 43, 53, 73, 83 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3,6,9}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 3{0,3,6,9}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,7):
** 37 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,9):
** Since 31, 37, 19, 29, 59, 79, 89, 349 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3,6,9}9 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 3{0,3,6,9}9 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,1):
** 41 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,3):
** 43 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,7):
** 47 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,9):
** Since 41, 43, 47, 19, 29, 59, 79, 89, 409, 449, 499 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{6}9 (since any digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 4{6}9 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (5,1):
** Since 53, 59, 11, 31, 41, 61, 71, 521 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,5,8}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 881 is prime, we only need to consider the families 5{0,5}1 and 5{0,5}8{0,5}1 (since any digit combo 88 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** For the 5{0,5}1 family, since 5051 and 5501 are primes, we only need to consider the families 5{0}1 and 5{5}1 (since any digit combo 05 or 50 between them will produce smaller primes)
***** All numbers of the form 5{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}1 is 555555555551
**** For the 5{0,5}8{0,5}1 family, since 5081, 5581, 5801, 5851 are primes, we only need to consider the number 581
***** 581 is not prime.
* Case (5,3):
** 53 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,7):
** Since 53, 59, 17, 37, 47, 67, 97, 557, 577, 587 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,2}7 (since any digits 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 227 and 50207 are primes, we only need to consider the families 5{0}7, 5{0}27, 52{0}7 (since any digits combo 22 or 020 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 5{0}7 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form 5{0}27 is 5000000000000000000000000000027
**** The smallest prime of the form 52{0}7 is 5200007
* Case (5,9):
** 59 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,1):
** 61 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,3):
** Since 61, 67, 13, 23, 43, 53, 73, 83 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,3,6,9}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 6{0,3,6,9}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (6,7):
** 67 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,9):
** Since 61, 67, 19, 29, 59, 79, 89 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,3,4,6,9}9 (since any digits 1, 2, 5, 7, 8 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 449 is prime, we only need to consider the families 6{0,3,6,9}9 and 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9 (since any digit combo 44 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 6{0,3,6,9}9 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9 family, since 409, 43, 6469, 499 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,3,6,9}49
***** Since 349, 6949 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,6}49
****** Since 60649 is prime, we only need to consider the family 6{6}{0}49 (since any digits combo 06 between {6,49} will produce smaller primes)
******* The smallest prime of the form 6{6}49 is 666649
******** Since this prime has just 4 6's, we only need to consider the families with &lt;=3 6's
********* The smallest prime of the form 6{0}49 is 60000049
********* The smallest prime of the form 66{0}49 is 66000049
********* The smallest prime of the form 666{0}49 is 66600049
* Case (7,1):
** 71 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (7,3):
** 73 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (7,7):
** Since 71, 73, 79, 17, 37, 47, 67, 97, 727, 757, 787 are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{0,7}7 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 7{0,7}7 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (7,9):
** 79 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (8,1):
** Since 83, 89, 11, 31, 41, 61, 71, 821, 881 are primes, we only need to consider the family 8{0,5}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 8501 is prime, we only need to consider the family 8{0}{5}1 (since any digits combo 50 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** Since 80051 is prime, we only need to consider the families 8{0}1, 8{5}1, 80{5}1 (since any digits combo 005 between them will produce smaller primes)
***** All numbers of the form 8{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
***** The smallest prime of the form 8{5}1 is 8555555555555555555551 (not minimal prime, since 555555555551 is prime)
***** The smallest prime of the form 80{5}1 is 80555551
* Case (8,3):
** 83 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (8,7):
** Since 83, 89, 17, 37, 47, 67, 97, 827, 857, 877, 887 are primes, we only need to consider the family 8{0}7 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 8{0}7 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (8,9):
** 89 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (9,1):
** Since 97, 11, 31, 41, 61, 71, 991 are primes, we only need to consider the family 9{0,2,5,8}1 (since any digits 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 251, 281, 521, 821, 881, 9001, 9221, 9551, 9851 are primes, we only need to consider the families 9{2,5,8}0{2,5,8}1, 9{0}2{0}1, 9{0}5{0,8}1, 9{0,5}8{0}1 (since any digits combo 00, 22, 25, 28, 52, 55, 82, 85, 88 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** For the 9{2,5,8}0{2,5,8}1 family, since any digits combo 22, 25, 28, 52, 55, 82, 85, 88 between (9,1) will produce smaller primes, we only need to consider the numbers 901, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801
***** 95801 is the only prime among 901, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801, but it is not minimal prime since 5801 is prime.
**** For the 9{0}2{0}1 family, since 9001 is prime, we only need to consider the numbers 921, 9201, 9021
***** None of 921, 9201, 9021 are primes.
**** For the 9{0}5{0,8}1 family, since 9001 and 881 are primes, we only need to consider the numbers 951, 9051, 9501, 9581, 90581, 95081, 95801
***** 95801 is the only prime among 951, 9051, 9501, 9581, 90581, 95081, 95801, but it is not minimal prime since 5801 is prime.
**** For the 9{0,5}8{0}1 family, since 9001 and 5581 are primes, we only need to consider the numbers 981, 9081, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801
***** 95801 is the only prime among 981, 9081, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801, but it is not minimal prime since 5801 is prime.
* Case (9,3):
** Since 97, 13, 23, 43, 53, 73, 83 are primes, we only need to consider the family 9{0,3,6,9}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 9{0,3,6,9}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (9,7):
** 97 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (9,9):
** Since 97, 19, 29, 59, 79, 89 are primes, we only need to consider the family 9{0,3,4,6,9}9 (since any digits 1, 2, 5, 7, 8 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 449 is prime, we only need to consider the families 9{0,3,6,9}9 and 9{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9 (since any digit combo 44 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 9{0,3,6,9}9 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 9{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9 family, since 9049, 349, 9649, 9949 are primes, we only need to consider the family 94{0,3,6,9}9
***** Since 409, 43, 499 are primes, we only need to consider the family 94{6}9 (since any digits 0, 3, 9 between (94,9) will produce smaller primes)
****** The smallest prime of the form 94{6}9 is 946669

===Base 12===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,5), (1,7), (1,B), (2,1), (2,5), (2,7), (2,B), (3,1), (3,5), (3,7), (3,B), (4,1), (4,5), (4,7), (4,B), (5,1), (5,5), (5,7), (5,B), (6,1), (6,5), (6,7), (6,B), (7,1), (7,5), (7,7), (7,B), (8,1), (8,5), (8,7), (8,B), (9,1), (9,5), (9,7), (9,B), (A,1), (A,5), (A,7), (A,B), (B,1), (B,5), (B,7), (B,B)

* Case (1,1):
** 11 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,5):
** 15 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,7):
** 17 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,B):
** 1B is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,1):
** Since 25, 27, 11, 31, 51, 61, 81, 91, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** The smallest prime of the form 2{0}1 is 2001
* Case (2,5):
** 25 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,7):
** 27 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,B):
** Since 25, 27, 1B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 8B, AB, 2BB are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2,9}B (since any digits 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 90B, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B are primes, we only need to consider the numbers 20B, 22B, 29B, 209B, 220B (since any digits combo 00, 02, 22, 29, 90, 92, 99 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** None of 20B, 22B, 29B, 209B, 220B are primes.
* Case (3,1):
** 31 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,5):
** 35 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,7):
** 37 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,B):
** 3B is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,1):
** Since 45, 4B, 11, 31, 51, 61, 81, 91, 401, 421, 471 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{4,A}1 (since any digit 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since A41 and 4441 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{A}1 and 44{A}1 (since any digit combo 44, A4 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 4{A}1 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form 44{A}1 is 44AAA1
* Case (4,5):
** 45 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,7):
** Since 45, 4B, 17, 27, 37, 57, 67, 87, A7, B7, 447, 497 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,7}7 (since any digit 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 4707 and 4777 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{0}7 and 4{0}77 (since any digit combo 70, 77 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 4{0}7 are divisible by B, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{0}77 is 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077
* Case (4,B):
** 4B is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,1):
** 51 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,5):
** Since 51, 57, 5B, 15, 25, 35, 45, 75, 85, 95, B5, 565 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,5,A}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 5{0,5,A}5 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (5,7):
** 57 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,B):
** 5B is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,1):
** 61 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,5):
** Since 61, 67, 6B, 15, 25, 35, 45, 75, 85, 95, B5, 655, 665 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,A}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 6A05 and 6AA5 are primes, we only need to consider the families 6{0}5 and 6{0}A5 (since any digit combo A0, AA between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 6{0}5 are divisible by B, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form 6{0}A5 is 600A5
* Case (6,7):
** 67 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,B):
** 6B is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (7,1):
** Since 75, 11, 31, 51, 61, 81, 91, 701, 721, 771, 7A1 are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{4,B}1 (since any digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 7BB, 7441 and 7B41 are primes, we only need to consider the numbers 741, 7B1, 74B1
**** None of 741, 7B1, 74B1 are primes.
* Case (7,5):
** 75 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (7,7):
** Since 75, 17, 27, 37, 57, 67, 87, A7, B7, 747, 797 are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{0,7}7 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 7{0,7}7 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (7,B):
** Since 75, 1B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 8B, AB, 70B, 77B, 7BB are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{2,9}B (since any digits 0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 222B, 729B is prime, we only need to consider the families 7{9}B, 7{9}2B, 7{9}22B (since any digits combo 222, 29 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 7{9}B is 7999B
**** The smallest prime of the form 7{9}2B is 79992B (not minimal prime, since 992B and 7999B are primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 7{9}22B is 79922B (not minimal prime, since 992B is prime)
* Case (8,1):
** 81 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (8,5):
** 85 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (8,7):
** 87 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (8,B):
** 8B is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (9,1):
** 91 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (9,5):
** 95 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (9,7):
** Since 91, 95, 17, 27, 37, 57, 67, 87, A7, B7, 907 are primes, we only need to consider the family 9{4,7,9}7 (since any digit 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 447, 497, 747, 797, 9777, 9947, 9997 are primes, we only need to consider the numbers 947, 977, 997, 9477, 9977 (since any digits combo 44, 49, 74, 77, 79, 94, 99 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** None of 947, 977, 997, 9477, 9977 are primes.
* Case (9,B):
** Since 91, 95, 1B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 8B, AB, 90B, 9BB are primes, we only need to consider the family 9{2,7,9}B (since any digit 0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 27, 77B, 929B, 992B, 997B are primes, we only need to consider the families 9{2,7}2{2}B, 97{2,9}B, 9{7,9}9{9}B (since any digits combo 27, 29, 77, 92, 97 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** For the 9{2,7}2{2}B family, since 27 and 77B are primes, we only need to consider the families 9{2}2{2}B and 97{2}2{2}B (since any digits combo 27, 77 between (9,2{2}B) will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 9{2}2{2}B is 9222B (not minimal prime, since 222B is prime)
***** The smallest prime of the form 97{2}2{2}B is 9722222222222B (not minimal prime, since 222B is prime)
**** For the 97{2,9}B family, since 729B and 929B are primes, we only need to consider the family 97{9}{2}B (since any digits combo 29 between (97,B) will produce smaller primes)
***** Since 222B is prime, we only need to consider the families 97{9}B, 97{9}2B, 97{9}22B (since any digit combo 222 between (97,B) will produce smaller primes)
****** All numbers of the form 97{9}B are divisible by 11, thus cannot be prime.
****** The smallest prime of the form 97{9}2B is 979999992B (not minimal prime, since 9999B is prime)
****** All numbers of the form 97{9}22B are divisible by 11, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 9{7,9}9{9}B family, since 77B and 9999B are primes, we only need to consider the numbers 99B, 999B, 979B, 9799B, 9979B
***** None of 99B, 999B, 979B, 9799B, 9979B are primes.
* Case (A,1):
** Since A7, AB, 11, 31, 51, 61, 81, 91, A41 are primes, we only need to consider the family A{0,2,A}1 (since any digits 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 221, 2A1, A0A1, A201 are primes, we only need to consider the families A{A}{0}1 and A{A}{0}21 (since any digits combo 0A, 20, 22, 2A between them will produce smaller primes)
**** For the A{A}{0}1 family:
***** All numbers of the form A{0}1 are divisible by B, thus cannot be prime.
***** The smallest prime of the form AA{0}1 is AA000001
***** The smallest prime of the form AAA{0}1 is AAA0001
***** The smallest prime of the form AAAA{0}1 is AAAA1
****** Since this prime has no 0's, we do not need to consider the families {A}1, {A}01, {A}001, etc.
**** All numbers of the form A{A}{0}21 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (A,5):
** Since A7, AB, 15, 25, 35, 45, 75, 85, 95, B5 are primes, we only need to consider the family A{0,5,6,A}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 565, 655, 665, A605, A6A5, AA65 are primes, we only need to consider the families A{0,5,A}5 and A{0}65 (since any digits combo 56, 60, 65, 66, 6A, A6 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form A{0,5,A}5 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form A{0}65 is A00065
* Case (A,7):
** A7 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (A,B):
** AB is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (B,1):
** Since B5, B7, 11, 31, 51, 61, 81, 91, B21 are primes, we only need to consider the family B{0,4,A,B}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 4B, AB, 401, A41, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41 are primes, we only need to consider the families B{A}0{4,A}1, B{0,4}4{4,A}1, B{0,4,A,B}A{0,A}1, B{B}B{A,B}1 (since any digits combo 00, 0B, 40, 4B, A4, AB, B0, B4 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** For the B{A}0{4,A}1 family, since A41 is prime, we only need consider the families B0{4}{A}1 and B{A}0{A}1
***** For the B0{4}{A}1 family, since B04A1 is prime, we only need to consider the families B0{4}1 and B0{A}1
****** The smallest prime of the form B0{4}1 is B04441 (not minimal prime, since 4441 is prime)
****** The smallest prime of the form B0{A}1 is B0AAAAA1 (not minimal prime, since AAAA1 is prime)
***** For the B{A}0{A}1 family, since A0A1 is prime, we only need to consider the families B{A}01 and B0{A}1
****** The smallest prime of the form B{A}01 is BAA01
****** The smallest prime of the form B0{A}1 is B0AAAAA1 (not minimal prime, since AAAA1 is prime)
**** For the B{0,4}4{4,A}1 family, since 4441 is prime, we only need to consider the families B{0}4{4,A}1 and B{0,4}4{A}1
***** For the B{0}4{4,A}1 family, since B001 is prime, we only need to consider the families B4{4,A}1 and B04{4,A}1
****** For the B4{4,A}1 family, since A41 is prime, we only need to consider the family B4{4}{A}1
******* Since 4441 and BAAA1 are primes, we only need to consider the numbers B41, B441, B4A1, B44A1, B4AA1, B44AA1
******** None of B41, B441, B4A1, B44A1, B4AA1, B44AA1 are primes.
****** For the B04{4,A}1 family, since B04A1 is prime, we only need to consider the family B04{4}1
******* The smallest prime of the form B04{4}1 is B04441 (not minimal prime, since 4441 is prime)
***** For the B{0,4}4{A}1 family, since 401, 4441, B001 are primes, we only need to consider the families B4{A}1, B04{A}1, B44{A}1, B044{A}1 (since any digits combo 00, 40, 44 between (B,4{A}1) will produce smaller primes)
****** The smallest prime of the form B4{A}1 is B4AAA1 (not minimal prime, since BAAA1 is prime)
****** The smallest prime of the form B04{A}1 is B04A1
****** The smallest prime of the form B44{A}1 is B44AAAAAAA1 (not minimal prime, since BAAA1 is prime)
****** The smallest prime of the form B044{A}1 is B044A1 (not minimal prime, since B04A1 is prime)
**** For the B{0,4,A,B}A{0,A}1 family, since all numbers in this family with 0 between (B,1) are in the B{A}0{4,A}1 family, and all numbers in this family with 4 between (B,1) are in the B{0,4}4{4,A}1 family, we only need to consider the family B{A,B}A{A}1
***** Since BAAA1 is prime, we only need to consider the families B{A,B}A1 and B{A,B}AA1
****** For the B{A,B}A1 family, since AB and BAAA1 are primes, we only need to consider the families B{B}A1 and B{B}AA1
******* All numbers of the form B{B}A1 are divisible by B, thus cannot be prime.
******* The smallest prime of the form B{B}AA1 is BBBAA1
****** For the B{A,B}AA1 family, since BAAA1 is prime, we only need to consider the families B{B}AA1
******* The smallest prime of the form B{B}AA1 is BBBAA1
**** For the B{B}B{A,B}1 family, since AB and BAAA1 are primes, we only need to consider the families B{B}B1, B{B}BA1, B{B}BAA1 (since any digits combo AB or AAA between (B{B}B,1) will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form B{B}B1 is BBBB1
***** All numbers of the form B{B}BA1 are divisible by B, thus cannot be prime.
***** The smallest prime of the form B{B}BAA1 is BBBAA1
* Case (B,5):
** B5 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (B,7):
** B7 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (B,B):
** Since B5, B7, 1B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 8B, AB, B2B are primes, we only need to consider the family B{0,9,B}B (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, A between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 90B and 9BB are primes, we only need to consider the families B{0,B}{9}B
**** Since 9999B is prime, we only need to consider the families B{0,B}B, B{0,B}9B, B{0,B}99B, B{0,B}999B
***** All numbers of the form B{0,B}B are divisible by B, thus cannot be prime.
***** For the B{0,B}9B family:
****** Since B0B9B and BB09B are primes, we only need to consider the families B{0}9B and B{B}9B (since any digits combo 0B, B0 between (B,9B) will produce smaller primes)
******* The smallest prime of the form B{0}9B is B0000000000000000000000000009B
******* All numbers of the from B{B}9B is either divisible by 11 (if totally number of B's is even) or factored as 10^(2*n)-21 = (10^n-5) * (10^n+5) (if totally number of B's is odd number 2*n-1 (n≥1)) (and since if n≥1, 10^n-5 ≥ 10^1-5 = 7 &gt; 1, 10^n+5 ≥ 10^1+5 = 15 &gt; 1, this factorization is nontrivial), thus cannot be prime.
***** For the B{0,B}99B family:
****** Since B0B9B and BB09B are primes, we only need to consider the families B{0}99B and B{B}99B (since any digits combo 0B, B0 between (B,99B) will produce smaller primes)
******* The smallest prime of the form B{0}99B is B00099B
******* The smallest prime of the form B{B}99B is BBBBBB99B
***** For the B{0,B}999B family:
****** Since B0B9B and BB09B are primes, we only need to consider the families B{0}999B and B{B}999B (since any digits combo 0B, B0 between (B,999B) will produce smaller primes)
******* The smallest prime of the form B{0}999B is B0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000999B, with 1765 0's, which can be written as B(0^1765)999B and equal the prime 11*12^1769+16967 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002378273165 factordb]) ([http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002378273165 primality certificate]) (not minimal prime, since B00099B and B0000000000000000000000000009B are primes)
******* The smallest prime of the form B{B}999B is BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB999B, with 245 B's, which can be written as (B^244)999B and equal the prime 12^248-3769 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002378270237 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since BBBBBB99B is prime)

== Examples of families which can be ruled out as contain no primes &gt; ''b'' ==

It is not known if this problem is solvable:

Problem: Given strings ''x'', ''y'', ''z'', and a base ''b'', does there exist a prime number whose base-''b'' expansion is of the form ''x''{''y''}''z''?

It will be necessary for our algorithm to determine if families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' contain a prime &gt; ''b'' or not. We use two different heuristic strategies to show that such families contain no primes &gt; ''b''.

In the first strategy, we mimic the well-known technique of “covering congruences”, by finding some finite set ''S'' of primes ''p'' such that every number in a given family is divisible by some element of ''S''. In the second strategy, we attempt to find an algebraic factorization, such as difference-of-squares factorization, difference-of-cubes factorization, and Aurifeuillian factorization for numbers of the form ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;.

Examples of first strategy: (we can show that the corresponding numbers are &gt; all elements in ''S'', if ''n'' makes corresponding numbers &gt; ''b'' (i.e. ''n''≥1 for 5{1} in base 9 and 2{5} in base 11 and {4}D in base 16 and {8}F in base 16, ''n''≥0 for other examples), thus these factorizations are nontrivial)

* In base 10, all numbers of the form 4{6}9 are divisible by 7
* In base 6, all numbers of the form 4{0}1 are divisible by 5
* In base 15, all numbers of the form 9{6}8 are divisible by 11
* In base 9, all numbers of the form 5{1} are divisible by some element of {2, 5}
* In base 11, all numbers of the form 2{5} are divisible by some element of {2, 3}
* In base 14, all numbers of the form B{0}1 are divisible by some element of {3, 5}
* In base 8, all numbers of the form 6{4}7 are divisible by some element of {3, 5, 13}
* In base 13, all numbers of the form 3{0}95 are divisible by some element of {5, 7, 17}
* In base 16, all numbers of the form {4}D are divisible by some element of {3, 7, 13}
* In base 16, all numbers of the form {8}F are divisible by some element of {3, 7, 13}

Examples of second strategy: (we can show that both factors are &gt; 1, if ''n'' makes corresponding numbers &gt; ''b'' (i.e. ''n''≥2 for {1} in base 9, ''n''≥0 for 1{0}1 in base 8 and B{4}1 in base 16, ''n''≥1 for other examples), thus these factorizations are nontrivial)

* In base 9, all numbers of the form {1} factored as difference of squares
* In base 8, all numbers of the form 1{0}1 factored as sum of cubes
* In base 9, all numbers of the form 3{8} factored as difference of squares
* In base 16, all numbers of the form 8{F} factored as difference of squares
* In base 16, all numbers of the form {F}7 factored as difference of squares
* In base 9, all numbers of the form 3{1} factored as difference of squares
* In base 16, all numbers of the form {4}1 factored as difference of squares
* In base 16, all numbers of the form 1{5} factored as difference of squares
* In base 16, all numbers of the from {C}D factored as ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;
* In base 16, all numbers of the form B{4}1 factored as difference of squares

Examples of combine of the two strategies: (we can show that for the part of the first strategy, the corresponding numbers are &gt; all elements in S, and for the part of the second strategy, both factors are &gt; 1, if n makes corresponding numbers &gt; b, thus these factorizations are nontrivial)

* In base 14, numbers of the form 8{D} are divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and factored as difference of squares if ''n'' is even
* In base 12, numbers of the form {B}9B are divisible by 13 if ''n'' is odd and factored as difference of squares if ''n'' is even
* In base 14, numbers of the form {D}5 are divisible by 5 if ''n'' is even and factored as difference of squares if ''n'' is odd
* In base 17, numbers of the form 1{9} are divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and factored as difference of squares if ''n'' is even
* In base 19, numbers of the form 1{6} are divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and factored as difference of squares if ''n'' is even

== Bases 2≤''b''≤1024 such that these families can be ruled out as contain no primes &gt; ''b'' ==

(using A−Z to represent digit values 10 to 35, z−a to represent digit values ''b''−1 to ''b''−26 (e.g. &quot;z&quot; means 1 in base 2, 2 in base 3, 3 in base 4, ..., 8 in base 9, 9 in base 10, A in base 11, B in base 12, ..., Y in base 35, Z in base 36, ...), only consider bases which these families are interpretable, e.g. digit &quot;7&quot; is only interpretable for bases ≥8, and digit &quot;u&quot; (means ''b''−6) is only interpretable for bases ≥7)

=== 1{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;''r''&lt;/sup&gt; with odd ''r''&gt;1: Sum-of-''r''th-powers factorization

=== 1{0}2 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== 1{0}3 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== 1{0}4 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}
* ''b'' == 14 mod 15: Finite covering set {3, 5}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;: Aurifeuillian factorization of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;

=== 1{0}5 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}

=== 1{0}6 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}

=== 1{0}7 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}

=== 1{0}z ===

(none)

=== 1{0}11 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{0}1) ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== 10{z} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{z}) ===

(none)

=== 11{0}1 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{0}1) ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== {1}0z (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1} or {1}z) ===

* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 2''b''−1 are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 25, 841)

=== {1} ===

* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;''r''&lt;/sup&gt; with ''r''&gt;1: Difference-of-''r''th-powers factorization (some bases still have primes, since for the corresponding length this factorization is trivial, but they only have this prime, they are 4 (length 2), 8 (length 3), 16 (length 2), 27 (length 3), 36 (length 2), 100 (length 2), 128 (length 7), 196 (length 2), 256 (length 2), 400 (length 2), 512 (length 3), 576 (length 2), 676 (length 2))

=== {1}2 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1}) ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}

=== 1{2} ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 2(''b''+1) are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 49)

=== 1{3} ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 3(''b''+2) are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 25, 361)
* ''b'' == 1 mod 2 such that 3(''b''+2) is square: Combine of finite covering set {2} (when length is even) and difference-of-squares factorization (when length is odd) (such bases are 25, 73, 145, 241, 361, 505, 673, 865)

=== 1{4} ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 4(''b''+3) are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization

=== 1{z} ===

(none)

=== 2{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== 2{0}3 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}

=== 2{1} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1}) ===

* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 2''b''−1 are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 25, 841)

=== {2}1 ===

* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 2(''b''+1) are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 49)

=== 2{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}

=== 3{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}

=== 3{0}2 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}

=== 3{0}4 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}

=== {3}1 ===

* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 3(2''b''+1) are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 121)

=== 3{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 14 mod 15: Finite covering set {3, 5}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;: Difference-of-squares factorization
* ''b'' == 4 mod 5: Combine of finite covering set {5} (when length is even) and difference-of-squares factorization (when length is odd)

=== 4{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}
* ''b'' == 14 mod 15: Finite covering set {3, 5}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;: Aurifeuillian factorization of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;

=== 4{0}3 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}

=== {4}1 ===

* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 4(3''b''+1) are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 16, 225)

=== 4{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}

=== 5{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== 5{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}
* ''b'' == 34 mod 35: Finite covering set {5, 7}
* ''b'' = 6''m''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; with ''m'' == 2 or 3 mod 5: Combine of finite covering set {5} (when length is odd) and difference-of-squares factorization (when length is even) (such bases are 24, 54, 294, 384, 864, 1014)

=== 6{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}
* ''b'' == 34 mod 35: Finite covering set {5, 7}

=== 6{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== 7{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}

=== 7{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}
* ''b'' == 20 mod 21: Finite covering set {3, 7}
* ''b'' == 83, 307 mod 455: Finite covering set {5, 7, 13} (such bases are 83, 307, 538, 762, 993)
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;: Difference-of-cubes factorization

=== 8{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 20 mod 21: Finite covering set {3, 7}
* ''b'' == 47, 83 mod 195: Finite covering set {3, 5, 13} (such bases are 47, 83, 242, 278, 437, 473, 632, 668, 827, 863, 1022)
* ''b'' = 467: Finite covering set {3, 5, 7, 19, 37}
* ''b'' = 722: Finite covering set {3, 5, 13, 73, 109}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;: Sum-of-cubes factorization
* ''b'' = 128: Cannot have primes since 7''n''+3 cannot be power of 2

=== 8{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;: Difference-of-squares factorization
* ''b'' == 4 mod 5: Combine of finite covering set {5} (when length is even) and difference-of-squares factorization (when length is odd)

=== 9{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}

=== 9{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 32 mod 33: Finite covering set {3, 11}

=== A{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 11: Finite covering set {11}
* ''b'' == 32 mod 33: Finite covering set {3, 11}

=== A{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}
* ''b'' == 14 mod 15: Finite covering set {3, 5}

=== B{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 14 mod 15: Finite covering set {3, 5}

=== B{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 11: Finite covering set {11}
* ''b'' == 142 mod 143: Finite covering set {11, 13}
* ''b'' = 307: Finite covering set {5, 11, 29}
* ''b'' = 901: Finite covering set {7, 11, 13, 19}

=== C{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 13: Finite covering set {13}
* ''b'' == 142 mod 143: Finite covering set {11, 13}
* ''b'' = 296, 901: Finite covering set {7, 11, 13, 19}
* ''b'' = 562, 828, 900: Finite covering set {7, 13, 19}
* ''b'' = 563: Finite covering set {5, 7, 13, 19, 29}
* ''b'' = 597: Finite covering set {5, 13, 29}

=== {#}$ (for bases ''b'' == 1 mod 3, # = (''b''−1)/3, $ = (''b''+2)/3) ===

(none)

=== {#}$ (for odd bases ''b'', # = (''b''−1)/2, $ = (''b''+1)/2) ===

* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;''r''&lt;/sup&gt; with odd ''r''&gt;1: Sum-of-''r''th-power factorization

=== #{z} (for even bases b, # = b/2−1) ===

(none)

=== y{z} ===

(none)

=== {y}z ===

(none)

=== z{0}1 ===

(none)

=== {z0}z1 (almost cannot be quasi-minimal prime, since this is not simple family) ===

* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;''r''&lt;/sup&gt; with odd ''r''&gt;1: Sum-of-''r''th-power factorization (some bases still have primes, since for the corresponding length this factorization is trivial, but they only have this prime, they are 128 (length 7), 216 (length 3), 343 (length 3), 729 (length 3))
* ''b'' = 4''m''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;: Aurifeuillian factorization of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; (base 4 still have primes, since for the corresponding length this factorization is trivial, but it only have this prime, at length 2)

=== {z}yz (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {z}y) ===

(none)

=== {z}1 ===

(none)

=== {z}t ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}

=== {z}u ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}
* ''b'' == 34 mod 35: Finite covering set {5, 7}

=== {z}v ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}

=== {z}w ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 14 mod 15: Finite covering set {3, 5}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;: Difference-of-squares factorization
* ''b'' == 4 mod 5: Combine of finite covering set {5} (when length is even) and difference-of-squares factorization (when length is odd)

=== {z}x ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== {z}y ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}

== Large known (probable) primes (length ≥10000) in these families (for bases 2≤''b''≤1024) ==

Format: base (length)

(using A−Z to represent digit values 10 to 35, z−a to represent digit values ''b''−1 to ''b''−26 (e.g. &quot;z&quot; means 1 in base 2, 2 in base 3, 3 in base 4, ..., 8 in base 9, 9 in base 10, A in base 11, B in base 12, ..., Y in base 35, Z in base 36, ...), only consider bases which these families are interpretable, e.g. digit &quot;7&quot; is only interpretable for bases ≥8, and digit &quot;u&quot; (means ''b''−6) is only interpretable for bases ≥7)

=== 1{0}1 ===

(none)

=== 1{0}2 ===

(none)

=== 1{0}3 ===

(none)

=== 1{0}4 ===

53 (13403)

113 (10647)

=== 1{0}z ===

113 (20089)

123 (64371)

=== 1{0}11 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{0}1) ===

(none)

=== 10{z} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{z}) ===

208 (26682)

607 (11032)

828 (19659)

=== 11{0}1 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{0}1) ===

201 (31276)

222 (52727)

227 (36323)

327 (135983)

425 (11231)

710 (24112)

717 (37508)

719 (13420)

=== {1} ===

152 (270217)

184 (16703)

200 (17807)

311 (36497)

326 (26713)

331 (25033)

371 (15527)

485 (99523)

629 (32233)

649 (43987)

670 (18617)

684 (22573)

691 (62903)

693 (41189)

731 (15427)

752 (32833)

872 (10093)

932 (20431)

=== {1}2 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1}) ===

(none)

=== 1{z} ===

107 (21911)

170 (166429)

278 (43909)

303 (40175)

383 (20957)

515 (58467)

522 (62289)

578 (129469)

590 (15527)

647 (21577)

662 (16591)

698 (127559)

704 (62035)

845 (39407)

938 (40423)

969 (24097)

989 (26869)

=== 2{0}1 ===

101 (192276)

206 (46206)

218 (333926)

236 (161230)

257 (12184)

305 (16808)

467 (126776)

578 (44166)

626 (174204)

695 (94626)

752 (26164)

788 (72918)

869 (49150)

887 (27772)

899 (15732)

932 (13644)

=== 2{z} ===

432 (16003)

=== 3{0}1 ===

912 (132174)

=== 3{z} ===

72 (1119850)

212 (34414)

218 (23050)

270 (89662)

303 (198358)

312 (51566)

422 (21738)

480 (93610)

513 (38032)

527 (46074)

566 (23874)

650 (498102)

686 (16584)

758 (15574)

783 (12508)

800 (33838)

921 (98668)

947 (10056)

=== 4{0}1 ===

107 (32587)

227 (13347)

257 (160423)

355 (10990)

410 (144079)

440 (56087)

452 (14155)

482 (30691)

542 (15983)

579 (67776)

608 (20707)

635 (11723)

650 (96223)

679 (69450)

737 (269303)

740 (58043)

789 (149140)

797 (468703)

920 (103687)

934 (101404)

962 (84235)

=== 4{z} ===

14 (19699)

68 (13575)

254 (15451)

800 (20509)

=== 5{0}1 ===

326 (400786)

350 (20392)

554 (10630)

662 (13390)

926 (40036)

=== 5{z} ===

258 (212135)

272 (148427)

299 (64898)

307 (26263)

354 (25566)

433 (283919)

635 (36163)

678 (40859)

692 (45447)

719 (20552)

768 (70214)

857 (23083)

867 (61411)

972 (36703)

=== 6{0}1 ===

108 (16318)

129 (16797)

409 (369833)

522 (52604)

587 (24120)

643 (164916)

762 (11152)

789 (27297)

986 (21634)

=== 6{z} ===

68 (25396)

332 (15222)

338 (42868)

362 (146342)

488 (33164)

566 (164828)

980 (50878)

986 (12506)

1016 (23336)

=== 7{0}1 ===

398 (17473)

1004 (54849)

=== 7{z} ===

97 (192336)

170 (15423)

194 (38361)

202 (155772)

282 (21413)

283 (164769)

332 (13205)

412 (29792)

560 (19905)

639 (10668)

655 (53009)

811 (31784)

814 (17366)

866 (108591)

908 (61797)

962 (31841)

992 (10605)

997 (15815)

=== 8{0}1 ===

23 (119216)

53 (227184)

158 (123476)

254 (67716)

320 (52004)

410 (279992)

425 (94662)

513 (19076)

518 (11768)

596 (148446)

641 (87702)

684 (23387)

695 (39626)

785 (900326)

788 (11408)

893 (86772)

908 (243440)

920 (107822)

962 (47222)

998 (81240)

1013 (43872)

=== 8{z} ===

138 (35686)

412 (12154)

788 (11326)

990 (23032)

=== 9{0}1 ===

248 (39511)

592 (96870)

=== 9{z} ===

431 (43574)

446 (152028)

458 (126262)

599 (11776)

846 (12781)

=== A{0}1 ===

173 (264235)

198 (47665)

311 (314807)

341 (106009)

449 (18507)

492 (42843)

605 (12395)

708 (17563)

710 (31039)

743 (285479)

744 (137056)

786 (68169)

800 (15105)

802 (149320)

879 (25004)

929 (13065)

977 (125873)

986 (48279)

1004 (10645)

=== A{z} ===

368 (10867)

488 (10231)

534 (80328)

662 (13307)

978 (14066)

=== B{0}1 ===

710 (15272)

740 (33520)

878 (227482)

=== B{z} ===

153 (21660)

186 (112718)

439 (18752)

593 (16064)

602 (36518)

707 (10573)

717 (67707)

=== C{0}1 ===

68 (656922)

219 (29231)

230 (94751)

312 (21163)

334 (83334)

353 (20262)

359 (61295)

457 (10024)

481 (45941)

501 (20140)

593 (42779)

600 (11242)

604 (17371)

641 (26422)

700 (91953)

887 (13961)

919 (45359)

923 (64365)

992 (10300)

=== {#}$ (for bases ''b'' == 1 mod 3, # = (''b''−1)/3, $ = (''b''+2)/3) ===

(none)

=== {#}$ (for odd bases ''b'', # = (''b''−1)/2, $ = (''b''+1)/2) ===

(none)

=== #{z} (for even bases b, # = b/2−1) ===

(none)

=== y{z} ===

38 (136212)

83 (21496)

113 (286644)

188 (13508)

401 (103670)

417 (21003)

458 (46900)

494 (21580)

518 (129372)

527 (65822)

602 (17644)

608 (36228)

638 (74528)

663 (47557)

723 (24536)

758 (50564)

833 (12220)

904 (13430)

938 (50008)

950 (16248)

=== z{0}1 ===

202 (46774)

251 (102979)

272 (16681)

297 (14314)

298 (60671)

326 (64757)

347 (69661)

363 (142877)

452 (71941)

543 (10042)

564 (38065)

634 (84823)

788 (13541)

869 (12289)

890 (37377)

953 (60995)

1004 (29685)

=== {z0}z1 (almost cannot be quasi-minimal prime, since this is not simple family) ===

53 (21942)

124 (16426)

175 (31626)

188 (22036)

316 (48538)

365 (25578)

373 (24006)

434 (10090)

530 (11086)

545 (12346)

560 (15072)

596 (12762)

701 (12576)

706 (10656)

821 (13536)

833 (17116)

966 (14820)

983 (11272)

=== {z}yz (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {z}y) ===

(none)

=== {z}1 ===

(none)

=== {z}y ===

317 (13896)

== Bases 2≤''b''≤1024 which have these families as unsolved families ==

Unsolved families are families which are neither primes (&gt;''b'') found nor can be ruled out as contain no primes &gt; ''b''

(using A−Z to represent digit values 10 to 35, z−a to represent digit values ''b''−1 to ''b''−26 (e.g. &quot;z&quot; means 1 in base 2, 2 in base 3, 3 in base 4, ..., 8 in base 9, 9 in base 10, A in base 11, B in base 12, ..., Y in base 35, Z in base 36, ...), only consider bases which these families are interpretable, e.g. digit &quot;7&quot; is only interpretable for bases ≥8, and digit &quot;u&quot; (means ''b''−6) is only interpretable for bases ≥7)

1{0}1: 38, 50, 62, 68, 86, 92, 98, 104, 122, 144, 168, 182, 186, 200, 202, 212, 214, 218, 244, 246, 252, 258, 286, 294, 298, 302, 304, 308, 322, 324, 338, 344, 354, 356, 362, 368, 380, 390, 394, 398, 402, 404, 410, 416, 422, 424, 446, 450, 454, 458, 468, 480, 482, 484, 500, 514, 518, 524, 528, 530, 534, 538, 552, 558, 564, 572, 574, 578, 580, 590, 602, 604, 608, 620, 622, 626, 632, 638, 648, 650, 662, 666, 668, 670, 678, 684, 692, 694, 698, 706, 712, 720, 722, 724, 734, 744, 746, 752, 754, 762, 766, 770, 792, 794, 802, 806, 812, 814, 818, 836, 840, 842, 844, 848, 854, 868, 870, 872, 878, 888, 896, 902, 904, 908, 922, 924, 926, 932, 938, 942, 944, 948, 954, 958, 964, 968, 974, 978, 980, 988, 994, 998, 1002, 1006, 1014, 1016 (length limit: ≥8388608)

1{0}2: 167, 257, 323, 353, 383, 527, 557, 563, 623, 635, 647, 677, 713, 719, 803, 815, 947, 971, 1013 (length limit: 2000)

1{0}3: 646, 718, 998 (length limit: 2000)

1{0}4: 139, 227, 263, 315, 335, 365, 485, 515, 647, 653, 683, 773, 789, 797, 815, 857, 875, 893, 939, 995, 1007 (length limit: 2000)

1{0}5

1{0}6

1{0}7

1{0}8

1{0}9

1{0}A

1{0}B

1{0}C

1{0}D

1{0}E

1{0}F

1{0}G

1{0}z: 173, 179, 257, 277, 302, 333, 362, 392, 422, 452, 467, 488, 512, 527, 545, 570, 575, 614, 622, 650, 677, 680, 704, 707, 734, 740, 827, 830, 851, 872, 886, 887, 902, 904, 908, 929, 932, 942, 947, 949, 962, 973, 1022 (length limit: 2000)

1{0}11 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{0}1): 198, 213, 318, 327, 353, 375, 513, 591, 647, 732, 734, 738, 759, 948, 951, 957, 1013, 1014 (length limit: 2000)

10{z} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{z}): 575 (length limit: 247000)

11{0}1 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{0}1): 813, 863, 962, 1017 (length limit: ≥100000)

{1}0z (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1} or {1}z): 137, 161, 167, 217, 229, 232, 253, 261, 317, 325, 337, 347, 355, 375, 403, 411, 421, 427, 457, 479, 483, 505, 507, 537, 547, 577, 597, 599, 601, 613, 627, 631, 632, 641, 643, 649, 657, 679, 688, 697, 707, 711, 729, 733, 737, 742, 762, 773, 787, 793, 797, 817, 819, 841, 843, 853, 859, 861, 874, 877, 895, 899, 907, 913, 916, 917, 927, 957, 959, 997, 1003, 1009, 1015, 1017 (length limit: 2000)

{1}: 185, 269, 281, 380, 384, 385, 394, 452, 465, 511, 574, 601, 631, 632, 636, 711, 713, 759, 771, 795, 861, 866, 881, 938, 948, 951, 956, 963, 1005, 1015 (length limit: ≥100000)

11{z} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{z})

{1}2 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1}): 31, 61, 91, 93, 143, 247, 253, 293, 313, 329, 371, 383, 391, 393, 403, 415, 435, 443, 451, 491, 493, 513, 523, 527, 537, 541, 553, 565, 581, 587, 601, 613, 615, 623, 627, 635, 663, 729, 735, 757, 763, 775, 783, 823, 843, 865, 873, 877, 883, 897, 931, 941, 943, 955, 983, 1013, 1015, 1021, 1023 (length limit: 2000)

{1}z

1{2}: 265, 355, 379, 391, 481, 649, 661, 709, 745, 811, 877, 977 (length limit: 2000)

1{3}: 107, 133, 179, 281, 305, 365, 473, 485, 487, 491, 535, 541, 601, 617, 665, 737, 775, 787, 802, 827, 905, 911, 928, 953, 955, 995

1{4}: 83, 143, 185, 239, 269, 293, 299, 305, 319, 325, 373, 383, 395, 431, 471, 503, 551, 577, 581, 593, 605, 617, 631, 659, 743, 761, 773, 781, 803, 821, 857, 869, 897, 911, 917, 923, 935, 983, 1019 (length limit: 2000)

1{z}: 581, 992, 1019 (length limit: ≥100000)

2{0}1: 365, 383, 461, 512, 542, 647, 773, 801, 836, 878, 908, 914, 917, 947, 1004 (length limit: ≥100000)

2{0}3: 79, 149, 179, 254, 359, 394, 424, 434, 449, 488, 499, 532, 554, 578, 664, 683, 694, 749, 794, 839, 908, 944, 982 (length limit: 2000)

2{1} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1}): 109, 117, 137, 147, 157, 175, 177, 201, 227, 235, 256, 269, 271, 297, 310, 331, 335, 397, 417, 427, 430, 437, 442, 451, 465, 467, 481, 502, 517, 547, 557, 567, 572, 577, 591, 597, 607, 627, 649, 654, 655, 667, 679, 687, 691, 697, 715, 727, 739, 759, 766, 782, 787, 796, 797, 808, 817, 821, 829, 841, 852, 877, 881, 899, 903, 907, 937, 947, 955, 1007, 1011, 1021 (length limit: 2000)

{2}1: 106, 238, 262, 295, 364, 382, 391, 397, 421, 458, 463, 478, 517, 523, 556, 601, 647, 687, 754, 790, 793, 832, 872, 898, 962, 1002, 1021 (length limit: 2000)

2{z}: 588, 972 (length limit: ≥100000)

3{0}1: 718 (length limit: ≥100000)

3{0}2: 223, 283, 359, 489, 515, 529, 579, 619, 669, 879, 915, 997 (length limit: 2000)

3{0}4: 167, 391, 447, 487, 529, 653, 657, 797, 853, 913, 937 (length limit: 2000)

{3}1: 79, 101, 189, 215, 217, 235, 243, 253, 255, 265, 313, 338, 341, 378, 379, 401, 402, 413, 489, 498, 499, 508, 525, 535, 589, 591, 599, 611, 621, 635, 667, 668, 681, 691, 711, 717, 719, 721, 737, 785, 804, 805, 813, 831, 835, 837, 849, 873, 911, 915, 929, 933, 941, 948, 959, 999, 1013, 1019 (length limit: 2000)

3{z}: 275, 438, 647, 653, 812, 927, 968 (length limit: ≥100000)

4{0}1: 32, 53, 155, 174, 204, 212, 230, 332, 334, 335, 395, 467, 512, 593, 767, 803, 848, 875, 1024 (length limit: ≥100000)

4{0}3: 83, 88, 97, 167, 188, 268, 289, 293, 412, 419, 425, 433, 503, 517, 529, 548, 613, 620, 622, 650, 668, 692, 706, 727, 763, 818, 902, 913, 937, 947, 958 (length limit: 2000)

{4}1: 46, 77, 103, 107, 119, 152, 198, 203, 211, 217, 229, 257, 263, 291, 296, 305, 332, 371, 374, 407, 413, 416, 440, 445, 446, 464, 467, 500, 542, 545, 548, 557, 566, 586, 587, 605, 611, 614, 632, 638, 641, 653, 659, 698, 701, 731, 733, 736, 755, 786, 812, 820, 821, 827, 830, 887, 896, 899, 901, 922, 923, 935, 941, 953, 977, 983, 991, 1004 (length limit: 2000)

4{z}: 338, 998 (length limit: ≥100000)

5{0}1: 308, 512, 824 (length limit: ≥100000)

5{z}: 234, 412, 549, 553, 573, 619, 750, 878, 894, 954 (length limit: ≥100000)

6{0}1: 212, 509, 579, 625, 774, 794, 993, 999 (length limit: ≥100000)

6{z}: 308, 392, 398, 518, 548, 638, 662, 878 (length limit: ≥100000)

7{0}1: (none)

7{z}: 321, 328, 374, 432, 665, 697, 710, 721, 727, 728, 752, 800, 815, 836, 867, 957, 958, 972 (length limit: ≥100000)

8{0}1: 86, 140, 182, 263, 353, 368, 389, 395, 422, 426, 428, 434, 443, 488, 497, 558, 572, 575, 593, 606, 698, 710, 746, 758, 770, 773, 824, 828, 866, 911, 930, 953, 957, 983, 993, 1014 (length limit: ≥100000)

8{z}: 378, 438, 536, 566, 570, 592, 636, 688, 718, 830, 852, 926, 1010 (length limit: ≥100000)

9{0}1: 724, 884 (length limit: ≥100000)

9{z}: 80, 233, 530, 551, 611, 899, 912, 980 (length limit: ≥100000)

A{0}1: 185, 338, 417, 432, 614, 668, 773, 863, 935, 1000 (length limit: ≥100000)

A{z}: 214, 422, 444, 452, 458, 542, 638, 668, 804, 872, 950, 962 (length limit: ≥100000)

B{0}1: 560, 770, 968 (length limit: ≥100000)

B{z}: 263, 615, 912, 978 (length limit: ≥100000)

C{0}1: 163, 207, 354, 362, 368, 480, 620, 692, 697, 736, 753, 792, 978, 998, 1019, 1022 (length limit: ≥100000)

C{z}

D{0}1

D{z}

E{0}1

E{z}

F{0}1

F{z}

G{0}1

{&amp;#35;}$ (for bases ''b'' == 1 mod 3, # = (''b''−1)/3, $ = (''b''+2)/3): 808, 829, 859, 1006 (length limit: 2000)

{&amp;#35;}$ (for odd bases ''b'', # = (''b''−1)/2, $ = (''b''+1)/2): 31, 37, 55, 63, 67, 77, 83, 89, 91, 93, 97, 99, 107, 109, 117, 123, 127, 133, 135, 137, 143, 147, 149, 151, 155, 161, 177, 179, 183, 189, 193, 197, 207, 211, 213, 215, 217, 223, 225, 227, 233, 235, 241, 247, 249, 255, 257, 263, 265, 269, 273, 277, 281, 283, 285, 287, 291, 293, 297, 303, 307, 311, 319, 327, 347, 351, 355, 357, 359, 361, 367, 369, 377, 381, 383, 385, 387, 389, 393, 397, 401, 407, 411, 413, 417, 421, 423, 437, 439, 443, 447, 457, 465, 467, 469, 473, 475, 481, 483, 489, 493, 495, 497, 509, 511, 515, 533, 541, 547, 549, 555, 563, 591, 593, 597, 601, 603, 611, 615, 619, 621, 625, 627, 629, 633, 635, 637, 645, 647, 651, 653, 655, 659, 663, 667, 671, 673, 675, 679, 683, 687, 691, 693, 697, 707, 709, 717, 731, 733, 735, 737, 741, 743, 749, 753, 755, 757, 759, 765, 767, 771, 773, 775, 777, 783, 785, 787, 793, 797, 801, 807, 809, 813, 817, 823, 825, 849, 851, 853, 865, 867, 873, 877, 887, 889, 893, 897, 899, 903, 907, 911, 915, 923, 927, 933, 937, 939, 941, 943, 945, 947, 953, 957, 961, 967, 975, 977, 983, 987, 993, 999, 1003, 1005, 1009, 1017 (length limit: ≥262143)

&amp;#35;{z} (for even bases ''b'', # = ''b''/2−1): 108, 278, 296, 338, 386, 494, 626, 920 (length limit: 2000)

${&amp;#35;} (for odd bases ''b'', # = (''b''−1)/2, $ = (''b''+1)/2)

x{z}

y{z}: 128, 233, 268, 383, 478, 488, 533, 554, 665, 698, 779, 863, 878, 932, 941, 1010 (length limit: ≥200000)

z{0}1: 123, 342, 362, 422, 438, 479, 487, 512, 542, 602, 757, 767, 817, 830, 872, 893, 932, 992, 997, 1005, 1007 (length limit: ≥100000)

{y}z: 143, 173, 176, 213, 235, 248, 253, 279, 327, 343, 353, 358, 373, 383, 401, 413, 416, 427, 439, 448, 453, 463, 481, 513, 522, 527, 535, 547, 559, 565, 583, 591, 598, 603, 621, 623, 653, 659, 663, 679, 691, 698, 711, 743, 745, 757, 768, 785, 793, 796, 801, 808, 811, 821, 835, 845, 847, 853, 856, 883, 898, 903, 927, 955, 961, 971, 973, 993, 1005, 1013, 1019, 1021 (length limit: 2000)

{z0}z1 (almost cannot be quasi-minimal prime, since this is not simple family): 97, 103, 113, 186, 187, 220, 304, 306, 309, 335, 414, 416, 428, 433, 445, 459, 486, 498, 539, 550, 557, 587, 592, 597, 598, 617, 624, 637, 659, 665, 671, 677, 696, 717, 726, 730, 740, 754, 766, 790, 851, 873, 890, 914, 923, 929, 943, 944, 965, 984, 985, 996, 1004, 1005 (length limit: ≥17326)

zy{z} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form y{z})

{z}yz (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {z}y): 215, 353, 517, 743, 852, 899, 913 (length limit: 2000)

{z}01 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {z}1)

{z}1: 93, 113, 152, 158, 188, 217, 218, 226, 227, 228, 233, 240, 275, 278, 293, 312, 338, 350, 353, 383, 404, 438, 464, 471, 500, 533, 576, 614, 641, 653, 704, 723, 728, 730, 758, 779, 788, 791, 830, 878, 881, 899, 908, 918, 929, 944, 953, 965, 968, 978, 983, 986, 1013 (length limit: 2000)

{z}k

{z}l

{z}m

{z}n

{z}o

{z}p

{z}q

{z}r

{z}s

{z}t

{z}u

{z}v

{z}w: 207, 221, 293, 375, 387, 533, 633, 647, 653, 687, 701, 747, 761, 785, 863, 897, 905, 965, 1017 (length limit: 2000)

{z}x: (none)

{z}y: 305, 353, 397, 485, 487, 535, 539, 597, 641, 679, 731, 739, 755 (length limit: 2000)

== List of lengths for quasi-minimal primes in some simple families ==

[https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/e/2PACX-1vTKkSNKGVQkUINlp1B3cXe90FWPwiegdA07EE7-U7sqXntKAEQrynoI1sbFvvKriieda3LfkqRwmKME/pubhtml list of lengths for quasi-minimal primes in some simple families for bases 2≤''b''≤1024]

NB: this family is not interpretable in this base (e.g. family 7{0}1 and 7{z} in bases &lt;=7, family {z}x in bases &lt;=3) (including the case which this family has either leading zeros (leading zeros do not count) or ending zeros (numbers ending in zero cannot be prime &gt; base) in this base)

RC: this family can be proven to only contain composite numbers (only count numbers &gt; base)

unknown: this family has no primes or PRPs found, nor can this family be proven to only contain composite numbers (only count numbers &gt; base)

Background color: red for title (bases or families), green for length &gt; 10000, orange for 2500 &lt; length ≤ 10000, white for length ≤ 2500, cyan for &quot;RC&quot;, pink for &quot;NB&quot;, yellow for &quot;unknown&quot;.

Search limit for lengths: ≥8388608 for 1{0}1, ≥200000 for y{z}, ≥100000 for ''d''{0}1 (''d'' = one of digits in {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C}) and ''d''{z} (''d'' = one of digits in {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B}) and z{0}1 and {1}, ≥5000 for 1{0}2, {z}y, 1{0}z, {z}1, {y}z, ≥2500 for other families.

== References ==

* [https://mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=24972 mersenneforum thread of this problem]

* [https://docs.google.com/document/d/e/2PACX-1vQct6Hx-IkJd5-iIuDuOKkKdw2teGmmHW-P75MPaxqBXB37u0odFBml5rx0PoLa0odTyuW67N_vn96J/pub Minimal elements for the base ''b'' representations of the primes which are &gt; ''b'' for bases ''b''≤16]

* [https://primes.utm.edu/glossary/xpage/MinimalPrime.html article “minimal prime” in The Prime Glossary]

* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimal_prime_(recreational_mathematics article “minimal prime” in Wikipedia]

* [https://www.primepuzzles.net/puzzles/puzz_178.htm the puzzle of minimal primes (when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required) in The Prime Puzzles &amp; Problems Connection]

* [https://www.primepuzzles.net/problems/prob_083.htm the problem of minimal primes in The Prime Puzzles &amp; Problems Connection]

* [https://github.com/xayahrainie4793/non-single-digit-primes my data for these M(Lb) sets for 2 ≤ b ≤ 16]

* [http://www.cs.uwaterloo.ca/~shallit/Papers/minimal5.pdf Shallit’s proof of base 10 minimal primes, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://scholar.colorado.edu/downloads/hh63sw661 proofs of minimal primes in bases b≤10, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/~cbright/reports/mepn.pdf the article for this minimal prime problem in bases b≤30, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/~cbright/talks/minimal-slides.pdf the article for this minimal prime problem in bases b≤30, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://doi.org/10.1080/10586458.2015.1064048 the article for this minimal prime problem in bases b≤30, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://github.com/curtisbright/mepn-data data for these M(Lb) sets and unsolved families for 2 ≤ b ≤ 30, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required, search limits of lengths: 1000000 for b=17, 707000 for b=19, 506000 for b=21, 292000 for b=25, 486000 for b=26, 543000 for b=28, 233000 for b=29]

* [https://github.com/RaymondDevillers/primes data for these M(Lb) sets and unsolved families for 2 ≤ b ≤ 50, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required, search limits of lengths: 10000 for all b]

* [http://www.bitman.name/math/article/730 article for minimal primes, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [http://www.bitman.name/math/table/497 data for minimal primes in bases 2 ≤ b ≤ 16, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [http://www.prothsearch.com/sierp.html the Sierpinski problem]

* [http://www.prothsearch.com/rieselprob.html the Riesel problem]

* [https://oeis.org/A076336/a076336c.html the dual Sierpinski problem]

* [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjectures.htm generalized Sierpinski conjectures in bases b≤1030, some primes found in these conjectures are minimal primes in base b, especially, all primes for k&amp;lt;b (if exist for a (k,b) combo) are always minimal primes in the base b) (also some examples for simple families contain no primes &amp;gt; b]

* [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjectures.htm generalized Riesel conjectures in bases b≤1030, some primes found in these conjectures are minimal primes in base b, especially, all primes for k&amp;lt;b (if exist for a (k,b) combo) are always minimal primes in the base b) (also some examples for simple families contain no primes &amp;gt; b]

* [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/tab/CRUS_tab.htm list for the status of the generalized Sierpinski conjectures and the generalized Riesel conjectures in bases b≤1030]

* [https://www.utm.edu/staff/caldwell/preprints/2to100.pdf article for generalized Sierpinski conjectures in bases b≤100]

* [http://www.kurims.kyoto-u.ac.jp/EMIS/journals/INTEGERS/papers/i61/i61.pdf article for the mixed (original+dual) Sierpinski problem]

* [http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenRepu.txt generalized repunit primes (primes of the form (bn−1)/(b−1)) in bases b≤160, the smallest such prime for base b (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20021111141203/http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~aads/primes.html generalized repunit primes (primes of the form (bn−1)/(b−1)) in bases b≤1000, the smallest such prime for base b (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [http://jeppesn.dk/generalized-fermat.html generalized Fermat primes (primes of the form b2^n+1) in even bases b≤1000, the smallest such prime for base b (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/GFN-primes.htm generalized Fermat primes (primes of the form b2^n+1) in even bases b≤1030, the smallest such prime for base b (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenFermOdd.txt list of generalized half Fermat primes (primes of the form (b2^n+1)/2) sorted by n, the smallest such prime for base b (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [https://harvey563.tripod.com/wills.txt primes of the form (b−1)*bn−1 for bases b≤2049, the smallest such prime for base b (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [https://www.rieselprime.de/ziki/Williams_prime_MM_least the smallest primes of the form (b−1)*bn−1 for bases b≤2049, these primes (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [https://www.rieselprime.de/ziki/Williams_prime_MP_least the smallest primes of the form (b−1)*bn+1 for bases b≤1024, these primes (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [https://www.rieselprime.de/ziki/Riesel_prime_small_bases_least_n the smallest primes of the form k*bn−1 for k≤12 and bases b≤1024, these primes (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b if b&gt;k]

* [https://www.rieselprime.de/ziki/Proth_prime_small_bases_least_n the smallest primes of the form k*bn+1 for k≤12 and bases b≤1024, these primes (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b if b&gt;k]

* [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/e/2PACX-1vTKkSNKGVQkUINlp1B3cXe90FWPwiegdA07EE7-U7sqXntKAEQrynoI1sbFvvKriieda3LfkqRwmKME/pubhtml list for the smallest primes in given simple family in bases b≤1024]

* [https://www.rose-hulman.edu/~rickert/Compositeseq/ a problem related to this project]

* [http://www.worldofnumbers.com/Appending%201s%20to%20n.txt a problem related to this project]

* [https://stdkmd.net/nrr/prime/primecount.txt near- and quasi- repdigit (probable) primes sorted by count]

* [https://stdkmd.net/nrr/prime/primedifficulty.txt near- and quasi- repdigit (probable) primes sorted by difficulty]

* [http://www.prothsearch.com/fermat.html factoring status of Fermat numbers]

* [http://www.rieselprime.de/dl/CRUS_pack.zip srsieve, sr1sieve, sr2sieve, pfgw, and llr softwares]

* [https://www.bc-team.org/app.php/dlext/?cat=3 srsieve, sr1sieve, sr2sieve, sr5sieve software]

* [https://sourceforge.net/projects/openpfgw/ pfgw software]

* [http://jpenne.free.fr/index2.html llr software]

* [http://www.ellipsa.eu/public/primo/primo.html PRIMO software]

* [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/index.html website for primality proving]

* [https://primes.utm.edu/curios/page.php?number_id=22380 the largest base 10 minimal prime in Prime Curios!]

* [https://oeis.org/A071062 OEIS sequence for base 10 minimal primes, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://oeis.org/A326609 OEIS sequence for the largest base b minimal prime, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://primes.utm.edu/primes/lists/all.txt top proven primes]

* [http://www.primenumbers.net/prptop/prptop.php top PRPs]

* [http://factordb.com online factor database, including many primes which are minimal primes in a small base]</text>
      <sha1>al2s7jhrvlmrlz80hws7bbmtiwkmaxg</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Platos Cave (physics)/sandbox</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>274697</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2417914</id>
      <parentid>2417401</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:43:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Platos Cave (physics)</username>
        <id>2562653</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="61042" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ {{font color|red|yellow|α}} = 137.035 999 139 ... {{font color|red|yellow|Ω}} = x&lt;sup&gt;1/15&lt;/sup&gt; = 2.007 134 949 636 
! Formula
! Calculated (CODATA 2014)
! units u&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{l_p^{15}}{m_P^{9} t_p^{11}} = {2^{15} \pi^{19}} x^2&lt;/math&gt; 
| '''x''' = 34593.7696269
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m^{15}}{kg^{9} s^{11}}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 0
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{(e / t_p)^3 l_p^3}{t_p} = \frac{2^{24} \pi^{14} x}{\alpha^3}&lt;/math&gt; 
| '''x''' = 34561.2903029
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{A^3 m^3}{s}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 0 
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{e^{13} c^{24}}{h^3} = \frac{2^{106} \pi^{64} x^5}{\alpha^{13}} &lt;/math&gt; 
| '''x''' = 34565.9613628
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{A^{13} m^{18}}{s^{8} kg^{3}}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 0 
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{c^9 e^4}{m_e^3} = {2^{97} \pi^{49} 3^9 \alpha^5} x^5&lt;/math&gt; 
| '''x''' = 34565.9571056
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m^9 A^4}{s^5 kg^3}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 0
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{c^{35}}{\mu_0^9 R^7} = {2^{295} \pi^{157} 3^{21} \alpha^{26}} x^{15}&lt;/math&gt; 
| '''x''' = 34565.9580557
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m^{33}A^{18}}{s^{17}kg^9} &lt;/math&gt;, u = 0 
|}
https://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.15874.15041/2 

https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Planck_units_(geometrical)


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Dimension-less physical constant combinations (units = scalars = 1)
! CODATA 2014
! MLTA constant
! unit
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{k_B e c}{h} =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|blue|yellow|'''1.000 8254'''}}
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{(k_B^*) (e^*) (c^*)}{(h^*)}&lt;/math&gt; = {{font color|blue|yellow|'''1.0'''}}
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{ (u^{29}) (u^{-27}) (u^{17}) }{ (u^{19}) } = 1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{h^3}{e^{13} c^{24}} =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 639... 10&lt;sup&gt;-58&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{(h^*)^3}{(e^*)^{13} (c^*)^{24}} = \frac{\alpha^{13}}{2^{106} \pi^{64} (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black}} =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 759... 10&lt;sup&gt;-58&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{(u^{19})^{3}}{(u^{-27})^{13} (u^{17})^{24}} = 1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{c^{35}}{\mu_0^9 R^7} =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.326 103 528 6170... 10&lt;sup&gt;301&lt;/sup&gt;'''}} 
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{(c^*)^{35}}{(\mu_0^*)^9 (R^*)^7} = 2^{295} \pi^{157} 3^{21} \alpha^{26} \color{red}(\Omega^{15})^{15}\color{black} =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.326 103 528 6170... 10&lt;sup&gt;301&lt;/sup&gt;'''}} 
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{(u^{17})^{35}}{(u^{56})^9 (u^{13})^7} = 1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{c^9 e^4}{m_e^3} =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|blue|yellow| '''0.170 514 342... 10&lt;sup&gt;92&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{(c^*)^9 (e^*)^4}{(m_e^*)^3} = 2^{97} \pi^{49} 3^9 \alpha^5 (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black}=&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|blue|yellow| '''0.170 514 368... 10&lt;sup&gt;92&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{ (u^{29}) (u^{-27}) (u^{17}) }{ (u^{19}) } = 1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{k_B}{e^2 m_e c^4} =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|green|yellow| '''73 095 507 858.'''}}
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{(k_B^*)}{(e^*)^2 (m_e^*) (c^*)^4} = \frac{3^3 \alpha^6}{2^3 \pi^5} =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|green|yellow| '''73 035 235 897.'''}} 
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{(u^{29})}{(u^{-27})^2 (u^{15}) (u^{17})^4} = 1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{h c^2 e m_e}{G^2 k_B}  =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.1413...  10&lt;sup&gt;-21&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{(h^*) (c^*)^2 (e^*) (m_e^*)}{(G^*)^2 (k_B^*)} = (m_e^*) (\frac{2^{11} \pi^3}{\alpha^2}) =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.1415...  10&lt;sup&gt;-21&lt;/sup&gt;'''}} 
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{ (u^{19}) (u^{17})^2 (u^{-27}) (u^{15}) }{ (u^{6})^2 (u^{29}) } = 1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{2 h}{\mu_0\; e^2 \;c} = \color{blue}\alpha \color{black}&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{2 (h^*)}{(\mu_0^*) (e^*)^2 (c^*)} = \color{blue}\alpha \color{black}&lt;/math&gt; 
| &lt;math&gt; \frac{u^{19}}{u^{56} (u^{-27})^2 u^{17}} = 1&lt;/math&gt;
|}
https://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.15874.15041/2 ... https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Planck_units_(geometrical)


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+{{font color|red|yellow|R}}=10973731.568508 (u=13) ...   {{font color|red|yellow|c}}=299792458 (u=17) ...  {{font color|red|yellow|μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;}}=4π/10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; (u=56) ... {{font color|red|yellow|α}}=137.035999139 (u=0) ... (CODATA 2014)
! Constant
! Formula
! Units
! Calculated from (R, c, μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, α)
! CODATA 2014 &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)&lt;/ref&gt;
! Units
|-
| [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {\mu_0}^3} {3^6 {c}^5 \alpha^{13} {R}^2}&lt;/math&gt; 
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg^3}{A^6 s}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 57
| ''h&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 6.626 069 134 e-34, u = 19 
| ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 19
|-
| [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(G^*)}^5 = \frac{\pi^3 {\mu_0}}{2^{20} 3^6 \alpha^{11} {R}^2}&lt;/math&gt; 
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg\; m^3}{A^2 s^2}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 30
| ''G&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 6.672 497 192 29 e11, u = 6
| ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 6
|-
| [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(e^*)}^3 = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 {c}^4 \alpha^8 {R}}&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{s^4}{A^3}&lt;/math&gt;, u = -81
| ''e&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19, u = -27
| ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19
| &lt;math&gt;A s&lt;/math&gt;, u = -27
|-
| [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(k_B^*)}^3 = \frac{\pi^5 {\mu_0}^3}{3^3 2 {c}^4 \alpha^5 {R}}&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg^3}{s^2 A^6}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 87
| ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23, u = 29
| ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 29
|-
|
| &lt;math&gt;x = \frac{(k_B^*) (e^*) c}{(h^*)}&lt;/math&gt;
| 
| x = 1.0
| ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;ec/h'' = 1.000 825 132
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m \;A}{s \;K}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 0
|-
| [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(m_e^*)}^3 = \frac{16 \pi^{10} {R} {\mu_0}^3}{3^6 {c}^8 \alpha^7}&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg^3 s^2}{m^6 A^6}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 45
| '' m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 9.109 382 312 56 e-31, u = 15
| ''m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31 
| &lt;math&gt;kg&lt;/math&gt;, u = 15
|-
| 
| &lt;math&gt;x = \frac{2^3 \pi^5 ({k_B}^*)}{3^3 \alpha^6 ({e^*})^2 ({m_e}^*) c^4}&lt;/math&gt; 
| 
| x = 1.0
| ''8π&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;/(27α&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;e&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;)'' = 1.000 825
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{m^2 A^2 K}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 0
|-
| [[w:Gyromagnetic ratio | Gyromagnetic ratio]]
| &lt;math&gt;({(\gamma_e^*)/2\pi})^3 = \frac{g_e^3 3^3 c^4}{2^8 \pi^8 \alpha \mu_0^3 R_\infty^2}&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m^3 s^2 A^6}{kg^3}&lt;/math&gt;, u = -126
| ''(γ&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;/2π)'' = 28024.953 55, u = -42
| ''γ&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;/2π'' = 28024.951 64(17) 
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{A\;s}{kg}&lt;/math&gt;, u = -42
|-
| [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]]
| &lt;math&gt;({m_P^*})^{15} = \frac{2^{25} \pi^{13} {\mu_0}^6}{3^6 c^5 \alpha^{16} R^2}&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg^6 m^3}{s^7 A^{12}}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 225
| ''m&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 0.217 672 817 580 e-7, u = 15
| ''m&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 0.217 647 0(51) e-7
| &lt;math&gt;kg&lt;/math&gt;, u = 15
|-
| [[w:Planck length | Planck length]]
| &lt;math&gt;({l_p^*})^{15} = \frac{\pi^{22} {\mu_0}^9}{2^{35} 3^{24} \alpha^{49} c^{35} R^8}&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg^9 s^{17}}{m^{18}A^{18}}&lt;/math&gt;, u = -195
| ''l&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 0.161 603 660 096 e-34, u = -13
| ''l&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;'' =  0.161 622 9(38) e-34
| &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt;, u = -13
|-
| 
| &lt;math&gt;x = \frac{2^{11} \pi^3(G^*)^2 (k_B^*)}{\alpha^2 (h^*) (c^*)^2 (e^*) (m_P^*)}&lt;/math&gt; 
| 
| x = 1.0
| ''2&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;π&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;G&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;/(α&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;hc&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;em&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt;)'' = 1.001 418
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m^4}{kg^3 s^4 A \;K}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 0
|}
https://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.15874.15041/2 ... https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Planck_units_(geometrical)


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+CODATA 2014:  Ω = 2.0071349496 ... (Ω&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; = 34565.9580557)
! Formula
! Calculated
! units (x)
|-
| &lt;math&gt;x = \frac{l_p^{15}}{m_P^{9} t_p^{11}} \frac{1}{2^{15} \pi^{19}}&lt;/math&gt; 
| &lt;math&gt;x^{1/2}&lt;/math&gt; = 34593.7696269
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m^{15}}{kg^{9} s^{11}}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 0
|-
| &lt;math&gt;x = \frac{(e / t_p)^3 l_p^3}{t_p} \frac{\alpha^3}{2^{24} \pi^{14}}&lt;/math&gt; 
| &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; = 34561.2903029
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{A^3 m^3}{s}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 0 
|-
| &lt;math&gt;x = \frac{e^{13} c^{24}}{h^3} \frac{\alpha^{13}}{2^{106} \pi^{64}} &lt;/math&gt; 
| &lt;math&gt;x^{1/5}&lt;/math&gt; = 34565.9613628
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{A^{13} m^{18}}{s^{8} kg^{3}}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 0 
|-
| &lt;math&gt;x = \frac{c^9 e^4}{m_e^3} \frac{1}{2^{97} \pi^{49} 3^9 \alpha^5}&lt;/math&gt; 
| &lt;math&gt;x^{1/5}&lt;/math&gt; = 34565.9571056
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m^9 A^4}{s^5 kg^3}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 0
|-
| &lt;math&gt;x = \frac{c^{35}}{\mu_0^9 R^7} \frac{1}{2^{295} \pi^{157} 3^{21} \alpha^{26}}&lt;/math&gt; 
| &lt;math&gt;x^{1/15}&lt;/math&gt; = 34565.9580557
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m^{33}A^{18}}{s^{17}kg^9} &lt;/math&gt;, u = 0 
|}
https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Planck_units_(geometrical)


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Unit relationship
|-
| kg = 15
|-
| m = -13
|-
| s = -30
|- 
| A = 3
|- 
| K = 20
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+CODATA 2014:  R=10973731.568508 (u=13) ...   c=299792458 (u=17) ...    μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;=4π/10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; (u=56) ... α=137.035999139 (u=0)
! Constant
! Formula
! Calculated from (R, c, μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, α)
! CODATA 2014 &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)&lt;/ref&gt;
! SI units
|-
| [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {\mu_0}^3} {3^6 {c}^5 \alpha^{13} {R}^2}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 57
| ''h&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 6.626 069 134 e-34, u = 19 
| ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 19
|-
| [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(G^*)}^5 = \frac{\pi^3 {\mu_0}}{2^{20} 3^6 \alpha^{11} {R}^2}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 30
| ''G&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 6.672 497 192 29 e11, u = 6
| ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 6
|-
| [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(e^*)}^3 = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 {c}^4 \alpha^8 {R}}&lt;/math&gt;, u = -81
| ''e&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19, u = -27
| ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19
| &lt;math&gt;A s&lt;/math&gt;, u = -27
|-
| [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(k_B^*)}^3 = \frac{\pi^5 {\mu_0}^3}{3^3 2 {c}^4 \alpha^5 {R}}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 87
| ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23, u = 29
| ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 29
|-
|
| &lt;math&gt;x = \frac{(k_B^*) (e^*) c}{(h^*)}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 0
| x = 1.0
| ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;ec/h'' = 1.000 825 132
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m \;A}{s \;K}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 0
|-
| [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(m_e^*)}^3 = \frac{16 \pi^{10} {R} {\mu_0}^3}{3^6 {c}^8 \alpha^7}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 45
| '' m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 9.109 382 312 56 e-31, u = 15
| ''m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31 
| &lt;math&gt;kg&lt;/math&gt;, u = 15
|-
| 
| &lt;math&gt;x = \frac{2^3 \pi^5 ({k_B}^*)}{3^3 \alpha^6 ({e^*})^2 ({m_e}^*) c^4}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 0
| x = 1.0
| ''8π&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;/(27α&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;e&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;)'' = 1.000 825
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{m^2 A^2 K}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 0
|-
| [[w:Gyromagnetic ratio | Gyromagnetic ratio]]
| &lt;math&gt;(({\gamma_e/2\pi})^*)^3 = \frac{g_e^3 3^3 c^4}{2^8 \pi^8 \alpha \mu_0^3 R_\infty^2}&lt;/math&gt;, u = -126
| ''(γ&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;/2π)&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 28024.953 55, u = -42
| ''γ&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;/2π'' = 28024.951 64(17) 
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m^3 s^2 A^6}{kg^3}&lt;/math&gt;, u = -42
|-
| [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]]
| &lt;math&gt;({m_P^*})^{15} = \frac{2^{25} \pi^{13} {\mu_0}^6}{3^6 c^5 \alpha^{16} R^2}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 225
| ''m&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 0.217 672 817 580 e-7, u = 15
| ''m&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 0.217 647 0(51) e-7
| &lt;math&gt;kg&lt;/math&gt;, u = 15
|-
| [[w:Planck length | Planck length]]
| &lt;math&gt;({l_p^*})^{15} = \frac{\pi^{22} {\mu_0}^9}{2^{35} 3^{24} \alpha^{49} c^{35} R^8}&lt;/math&gt;, u = -195
| ''l&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 0.161 603 660 096 e-34, u = -13
| ''l&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;'' =  0.161 622 9(38) e-34
| &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt;, u = -13
|-
| 
| &lt;math&gt;x = \frac{2^{11} \pi^3(G^*)^2 (k_B^*)}{\alpha^2 (h^*) (c^*)^2 (e^*) (m_P^*)}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 0
| x = 1.0
| ''2&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;π&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;G&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;/(α&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;hc&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;em&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt;)'' = 1.001 418
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m^4}{kg^3 s^4 A \;K}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 0
|}
https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Planck_units_(geometrical)


| 
| &lt;math&gt;f_e = {(\frac{3 \alpha^2 ({e^*}) c}{2\pi^2})}^3 (\frac{c}{2 ({l_p^*})})&lt;/math&gt;, u = 0
| f&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.238 954 530 737 e23
| 
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{A^3 m^3}{s}&lt;/math&gt;, u = 0
|-


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Dimensioned physical constants
! CODATA 2014 &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)&lt;/ref&gt;
! unit
! Natural constant*
! unit*
|-
| ''c'' =  299 792 458 (exact)
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m}{s}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''c*'' = V = 25.3123819329 * &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt; = 299792458
| 17
|-
| ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''h*'' = &lt;math&gt;2 \pi M V L&lt;/math&gt; = 12647.240312 * &lt;math&gt;\frac{r^{13}}{v^5}&lt;/math&gt; = 6.626 069 134 e-34
| 19
|-
| ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''G*'' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{V^2 L}{M}&lt;/math&gt; = 50950.554778 * &lt;math&gt;\frac{r^5}{v^2}&lt;/math&gt; = 6.672 497 192 29 e11
| 6
|-
| ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19
| &lt;math&gt;C = A s&lt;/math&gt;
| ''e*'' = &lt;math&gt;A T&lt;/math&gt; = 735.706358485 * &lt;math&gt;\frac{r^3}{v^3}&lt;/math&gt; = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19
| -27
|-
| ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;*'' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{2 \pi V M}{A}&lt;/math&gt; = 0.679138336 * &lt;math&gt;\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}&lt;/math&gt; = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23
| 29
|}


AL as an ampere-meter (ampere-length) are the units for a [[w:magnetic monopole | magnetic monopole]].

:&lt;math&gt;T = \pi,\; u^{-30}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha^2 A L}{2\pi^2},\; u^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;f_e = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi},\; units = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;f_e = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453...x10^{23}&lt;/math&gt;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 3. Geometrical units
! Attribute
! Geometrical object
! Unit number
! Scalar
|-
| mass 
| &lt;math&gt;M = (1)&lt;/math&gt;  
| 15
| k
|-
| time 
| &lt;math&gt;T = (\pi)&lt;/math&gt;  
| -30
| t
|-
| velocity  
| &lt;math&gt;V = (2\pi\Omega^2)&lt;/math&gt;  
| 17
| v
|-
| length  
| &lt;math&gt;L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)&lt;/math&gt; 
| -13
| l
|-
| ampere 
| &lt;math&gt;A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})&lt;/math&gt; 
| 3
| a
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Geometrical units and scalars
! Geometrical object
! Scalar 
! Unit number
|-
| &lt;math&gt;M = (1)&lt;/math&gt;  
| k
| &lt;math&gt;15&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;T = (\pi)&lt;/math&gt;  
| t
| &lt;math&gt;-30&lt;/math&gt;
|-  
| &lt;math&gt;V = (2\pi\Omega^2)&lt;/math&gt;  
| v
| &lt;math&gt;17&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)&lt;/math&gt; 
| l
| &lt;math&gt;-13&lt;/math&gt;
|- 
| &lt;math&gt;A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})&lt;/math&gt; 
| a
| &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt;
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Geometrical units
! Attribute
! Geometrical object
! Scalar 
! Unit 
|-
| mass 
| &lt;math&gt;M = (1)&lt;/math&gt;  
| k
| &lt;math&gt;unit = u^{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| time 
| &lt;math&gt;T = (\pi)&lt;/math&gt;  
| t
| &lt;math&gt;unit = u^{-30}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| velocity  
| &lt;math&gt;V = (2\pi\Omega^2)&lt;/math&gt;  
| v
| &lt;math&gt;unit = u^{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| length  
| &lt;math&gt;L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)&lt;/math&gt; 
| l
| &lt;math&gt;unit = u^{-13}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| ampere 
| &lt;math&gt;A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})&lt;/math&gt; 
| a
| &lt;math&gt;unit = u^3&lt;/math&gt;
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Physical constants; calculated vs CODATA 2014
! Constant
! Geometry
! Calculated from (R, c, μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, α)
! CODATA 2014 &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {\mu_0}^3} {3^6 {c}^5 \alpha^{13} {R}^2},\; unit = u^{57}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''h&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 6.626 069 134 e-34, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;19&lt;/sup&gt; 
| ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34
|-
| [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(G^*)}^5 = \frac{\pi^3 {\mu_0}}{2^{20} 3^6 \alpha^{11} {R}^2},\; unit = u^{30}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''G&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' =  6.672 497 192 29 e11, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11
|-
| [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(e^*)}^3 = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 {c}^4 \alpha^8 {R}},\; unit = u^{-81}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''e&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19
|-
| [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(k_B^*)}^3 = \frac{\pi^5 {\mu_0}^3}{3^3 2 {c}^4 \alpha^5 {R}} ,\; unit = u^{87} &lt;/math&gt;
| ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;29&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23
|-
| [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(m_e^*)}^3 = \frac{16 \pi^{10} {R} {\mu_0}^3}{3^6 {c}^8 \alpha^7},\; unit = u^{45} &lt;/math&gt;
| '' m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 9.109 382 312 56 e-31, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31 
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Dimensioned physical constants
! SI constant
! Natural constant
! unit
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{k_B e c}{h} =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|blue|yellow|'''1.000 8254'''}}
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{(k_B^*) (e^*) (c^*)}{(h^*)}&lt;/math&gt; = {{font color|blue|yellow|'''1.0'''}}
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{ (u^{29}) (u^{-27}) (u^{17}) }{ (u^{19}) } = 1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{h^3}{e^{13} c^{24}} =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 639... 10&lt;sup&gt;-58&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{(h^*)^3}{(e^*)^{13} (c^*)^{24}} =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 759... 10&lt;sup&gt;-58&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{(u^{19})^{3}}{(u^{-27})^{13} (u^{17})^{24}} = 1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{c^{35}}{\mu_0^9 R^7} =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.326 103 528 6170... 10&lt;sup&gt;301&lt;/sup&gt;'''}} 
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{(c^*)^{35}}{(\mu_0^*)^9 (R^*)^7} =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.326 103 528 6170... 10&lt;sup&gt;301&lt;/sup&gt;'''}} 
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{(u^{17})^{35}}{(u^{56})^9 (u^{13})^7} = 1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{c^9 e^4}{m_e^3} =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|blue|yellow| '''0.170 514 342... 10&lt;sup&gt;92&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{(c^*)^9 (e^*)^4}{(m_e^*)^3} =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|blue|yellow| '''0.170 514 368... 10&lt;sup&gt;92&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{ (u^{29}) (u^{-27}) (u^{17}) }{ (u^{19}) } = 1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{k_B}{e^2 m_e c^4} =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|green|yellow| '''73 095 507 858.'''}}
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{(k_B^*)}{(e^*)^2 (m_e^*) (c^*)^4} =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|green|yellow| '''73 035 235 897.'''}} 
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{(u^{29})}{(u^{-27})^2 (u^{15}) (u^{17})^4} = 1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{h c^2 e m_e}{G^2 k_B}  =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.1413...  10&lt;sup&gt;-21&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{(h^*) (c^*)^2 (e^*) (m_e^*)}{(G^*)^2 (k_B^*)} =&lt;/math&gt; {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.1415...  10&lt;sup&gt;-21&lt;/sup&gt;'''}} 
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{ (u^{19}) (u^{17})^2 (u^{-27}) (u^{15}) }{ (u^{6})^2 (u^{29}) } = 1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{2 h}{\mu_0\; e^2 \;c} = \color{blue}\alpha \color{black}&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{2 (h^*)}{(\mu_0^*) (e^*)^2 (c^*)} = \color{blue}\alpha \color{black}&lt;/math&gt; 
| &lt;math&gt; \frac{u^{19}}{u^{56} (u^{-27})^2 u^{17}} = 1&lt;/math&gt;
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Dimensioned physical constants
! Constant
! CODATA 2014 &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)&lt;/ref&gt;
! unit
|-
| [[w:Speed of light | Speed of light]]
| ''c'' =  299 792 458 (exact)
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m}{s}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]]
| ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]]
| ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]]
| ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19
| &lt;math&gt;C = A s&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]]
| ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[w:Vacuum permeability | Vacuum permeability]]
| ''μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 4π/10^7 (exact)
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg \;m}{s^2 \;A^2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]]
| ''m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31
| &lt;math&gt;kg&lt;/math&gt;
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Dimensioned physical constants
! SI constant
! CODATA 2014 &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)&lt;/ref&gt;
! unit
! Natural constant*
! unit*
|-
| [[w:Speed of light | Speed of light]]
| ''c'' =  299 792 458 (exact)
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m}{s}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''c*'' = V
| 17
|-
| [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]]
| ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;h^* = 2 \pi M V L&lt;/math&gt;
| 19
|-
| [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]]
| ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;G^* = \frac{V^2 L}{M}&lt;/math&gt;
| 6
|-
| [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]]
| ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19
| &lt;math&gt;C = A s&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;e^* = A T&lt;/math&gt;
| -27
|-
| [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]]
| ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;k_B^* = \frac{2 \pi V M}{A}&lt;/math&gt; 
| 29
|-
| [[w:Vacuum permeability | Vacuum permeability]]
| ''μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 4π/10^7 (exact)
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg \;m}{s^2 \;A^2}&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\mu_0^* = \frac{4 \pi V^2 M}{\alpha L A^2}&lt;/math&gt;
| 56
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Dimensionless physical constants
! Constant
! value
|-
| [[w:Fine structure constant | Fine structure constant]]
| ''α'' = 137.035 999 139(31)
|-
| [[v:Planck_units_(geometrical)#Omega | Omega]]
| ''Ω'' = 2.007 134 9496 
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Dimensioned physical constants
! Constant
! value
! unit
|-
| [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]]
| ''m&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt;'' = .217 647 0(51) e-7
| &lt;math&gt;kg&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[w:Planck length | Planck length]]
| ''l&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;'' = .161 622 9(38) e-34
| &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[w:Planck time | Planck time]]
| ''t&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 5.391 247(60) e-44
| &lt;math&gt;s&lt;/math&gt;
|}


'''Natural Planck units as geometrical objects'''

[[w:Planck units |Planck unit]] theories use basic units for mass, length, time and charge, and operate at the Planck scale. In a geometrical Planck theory, these basic units are assigned geometrical objects (''MLTA'') rather than numerical values, the advantage being that the geometries themselves can encode the function of the unit, for example the object for length (''L'') will encode the function of ''length'', the geometrical ''L'' is 1 unit of (Planck) length, such that, unlike numerical models, a dimensioned descriptive (i.e.: ''kg, m, s, A'',  ... ) is not required. 

The ''MLTA'' geometrical objects are selected whereby they may interact with each other (the mass object for example is not independent of the length and the time objects). This permits a mathematical unit relationship linking the objects, and so a physical universe can be constructed [[w:Lego |Lego-style]] by combining the base (Planck unit) ''MLTA'' objects to form more complex objects such as electrons (i.e.: by embedding ''L'' and ''A'' into the geometry of the electron, the electron can have wavelength and charge). 

Furthermore, these objects can overlap and cancel in a particular ratio (according to that unit relationship), and this ratio occurs in the electron. And so, although the electron has physical parameters (wavelength, charge ...), '''the electron itself is a mathematical particle (units = 1)''', not a physical particle. 


=== Geometrical objects ===
Base units for mass &lt;math&gt;M&lt;/math&gt;, length &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt;, time &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and ampere &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; can be constructed from the geometry of 2 [[w:dimensionless physical constant | dimensionless physical constants]], the (inverse) [[w:fine-structure constant | fine structure constant '''α''']] = 137.036 and [[v:Simulation_argument_(coding_Planck_units)#Omega | Omega]] '''Ω''' = 2.007 134 949 &lt;ref&gt;Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x }}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Being independent of any numerical system and of any system of units, these MLTA units would qualify as &quot;natural units&quot;;
{{bq|''...ihre Bedeutung für alle Zeiten und für alle, auch außerirdische und außermenschliche Kulturen notwendig behalten und welche daher als »natürliche Maßeinheiten« bezeichnet werden können...''
...These necessarily retain their meaning for all times and for all civilizations, even extraterrestrial and non-human ones, and can therefore be designated as &quot;natural units&quot;... -Max Planck &lt;ref&gt;Planck (1899), p. 479.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;TOM&quot;&gt;*Tomilin, K. A., 1999, &quot;[http://www.ihst.ru/personal/tomilin/papers/tomil.pdf Natural Systems of Units: To the Centenary Anniversary of the Planck System]&quot;, 287–296.&lt;/ref&gt;}}  

==== Objects ==== 
Each object is assigned a specific geometry, embedded in this geometry is the object function (attribute) and a mathematical relationship between the objects defined using '''u&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;''' where ''n'' is the unit number;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Geometrical units
! Attribute
! Geometrical object
! Unit relationship
|-
| mass 
| &lt;math&gt;M = (1)&lt;/math&gt;  
| &lt;math&gt;unit = u^{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| time 
| &lt;math&gt;T = (\pi)&lt;/math&gt; 
| &lt;math&gt;unit = u^{-30}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[v:Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]]
| &lt;math&gt;P = (\Omega)&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;unit = u^{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| velocity  
| &lt;math&gt;V = (2\pi\Omega^2)&lt;/math&gt;  
| &lt;math&gt;unit = u^{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| length  
| &lt;math&gt;L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)&lt;/math&gt; 
| &lt;math&gt;unit = u^{-13}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| ampere 
| &lt;math&gt;A = \frac{16 V^3}{\alpha P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})&lt;/math&gt; 
| &lt;math&gt;unit = u^3&lt;/math&gt;
|}


==== Scalars ==== 

To translate from geometrical objects to a numerical system of units requires scalars ('''kltpva''') that can be assigned numerical values. For example, scalars for the SI units; 

:If we use '''k''' to convert '''M''' to the SI Planck mass &lt;math&gt;m_P&lt;/math&gt; (M = 1k = &lt;math&gt;m_P&lt;/math&gt;), then '''k''' = 0.2176728e-7kg and '''&lt;math&gt;u^{15}&lt;/math&gt;''' will equate to '''kg'''. 

:To convert '''V''' = 2πΩ&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 25.3123819 to '''c''' requires scalar '''v''' = 11843707.905m/s ('''V''' ''v'' = 2πΩ&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''v'' = 299792458m/s) with '''&lt;math&gt;u^{17}&lt;/math&gt;''' equating to '''m/s'''. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Geometrical units
! Attribute
! Geometrical object
! Scalar 
! Unit 
|-
| mass 
| &lt;math&gt;M = (1)&lt;/math&gt;  
| k
| &lt;math&gt;unit = u^{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| time 
| &lt;math&gt;T = (\pi)&lt;/math&gt;  
| t
| &lt;math&gt;unit = u^{-30}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[v:Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]]
| &lt;math&gt;P = (\Omega)&lt;/math&gt;
| p
| &lt;math&gt;unit = u^{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| velocity  
| &lt;math&gt;V = (2\pi\Omega^2)&lt;/math&gt;  
| v
| &lt;math&gt;unit = u^{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| length  
| &lt;math&gt;L = TV = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)&lt;/math&gt; 
| l
| &lt;math&gt;unit = u^{-13}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| ampere 
| &lt;math&gt;A = \frac{16 V^3}{\alpha P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})&lt;/math&gt; 
| a
| &lt;math&gt;unit = u^3&lt;/math&gt;
|}


===== Scalar relationships =====
The scalars follow the same unit relationship. This means that we can find ratios where the scalars cancel. Here the following ''u&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;'' groups cancel ('''units = scalars = 1'''), as such '''only 2 numerical scalars are required''', for example, if we know '''a''' and '''l''' then we know '''t''' ('''t = a&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;l&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;'''), and from '''l''' and '''t''' we know '''k'''. 

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{u^{3*3} u^{-13*3}}{u^{-30}}\;(\frac{a^3 l^3}{t}) = \frac{u^{-13*15}}{u^{15*9} u^{-30*11}} \;(\frac{l^{15}}{k^9 t^{11}}) = \;...\; =1&lt;/math&gt;

And so we know any 2 constants, then we can solve the scalars for those constants, and from those 2 scalars we can solve the Planck units, and from these the dimensioned physical constants. This will apply to any set of units.

In this example, to maintain integer exponents, a scalar ''p'' is defined in terms of a scalar ''r''.  

:&lt;math&gt;r = \sqrt{p} = \sqrt{\Omega},\; unit \;u^{16/2=8}&lt;/math&gt;

The SI Planck units are known with a low precision, conversely 2 of the CODATA 2014 physical constants have been assigned exact numerical values; ''c'' and permeability of vacuum ''μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;''. Scalars ''r'' and ''v'' were chosen as they can be derived directly from ''V = c'' and ''μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 4π/10^7 (see table [[v:Planck_units_(geometrical)#Physical_constants_(as_geometrical_formulas) |geometrical physical constants]] below).

Using α = 137.035 999 139 (CODATA 2014), Ω = 2.007 134 949 636...

:&lt;math&gt;v = \frac{c}{2 \pi \Omega^2}= 11 843 707.905 ...,\; units = m/s&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;r^7 = \frac{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4 \mu_0}{\alpha};\; r = 0.712 562 514 304 ...,\; units = (\frac{kg.m}{s})^{1/4}&lt;/math&gt;

This gives scalars ''klta'' ([[v:Planck_units_(geometrical)#u_as_sqrt(velocity/mass)) |for derivation of units kg, m, s, A from r, v]]);

:&lt;math&gt;k = \frac{r^4}{v}&lt;/math&gt; = 0.217 672 817 580... ''x'' 10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt;kg, &lt;math&gt;\;\;\;u^{15} = \frac{(u^8)^4}{u^{17}}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;l = \frac{r^9}{v^5}&lt;/math&gt; = 0.203 220 869 487... ''x'' 10&lt;sup&gt;-36&lt;/sup&gt;m, &lt;math&gt;\;\;\;u^{-13} = \frac{(u^8)^9}{(u^{17})^5}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;t = \frac{r^9}{v^6}&lt;/math&gt; = 0.171 585 512 841... ''x'' 10&lt;sup&gt;-43&lt;/sup&gt;s, &lt;math&gt;\;\;\;u^{-30} = \frac{(u^8)^9}{(u^{17})^6}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;a = \frac{v^3}{r^6}&lt;/math&gt; = 0.126 918 588 592... ''x'' 10&lt;sup&gt;23&lt;/sup&gt;A, &lt;math&gt;\;\;\;u^{3} = \frac{(u^{17})^3}{(u^8)^6}&lt;/math&gt;


===== Natural units MLTPA =====
Regardless of which system of units we use, alien or terrestrial, any combination of constants where '''scalars = 1''' (i.e.: the scalars overlap and cancel) will give the same numerical result, they will default to the MLTPA objects. This implies that these objects are Planck's 'natural' units, i.e.: that '''all possible systems of units''' are based on these objects, and so, given that these are geometrical objects, they can be construed as evidence of a mathematical universe. The following are examples of '''units = scalars = 1''' ratios using SI units &lt;ref&gt;Macleod, Malcolm J. {{Cite journal |title= Do the fundamental constants embed evidence of a mathematical universe at the Planck scale? |journal=RG | doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.15874.15041/1 }}&lt;/ref&gt;. Note: the geometry &lt;math&gt;\color{red}(\Omega^{15})^n\color{black}&lt;/math&gt; (integer n ≥ 0) is common to these ratios.

====== m&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt;, l&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;, t&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; ======
In this ratio, the MLT units and ''klt'' scalars both cancel; units = scalars = 1, reverting to the base MLT objects. Setting the scalars ''klt'' for SI Planck units;

:k = 0.217 672 817 580... ''x'' 10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt;kg

:l = 0.203 220 869 487... ''x'' 10&lt;sup&gt;-36&lt;/sup&gt;m 

:t = 0.171 585 512 841... ''x'' 10&lt;sup&gt;-43&lt;/sup&gt;s 

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{L^{15}}{M^{9} T^{11}} = \frac{(2\pi^2\Omega^2)^{15}}{(1)^{9} (\pi)^{11}} (\frac{l^{15}}{k^9 t^{11}}) = \frac{l_p^{15}}{m_P^{9} t_p^{11}} &lt;/math&gt; (CODATA 2018 mean)

The ''klt'' scalars cancel, leaving;

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{L^{15}}{M^{9} T^{11}} = \frac{(2\pi^2\Omega^2)^{15}}{(1)^{9} (\pi)^{11}} (\frac{l^{15}}{k^9 t^{11}}) = 2^{15} \pi^{19} \color{red}(\Omega^{15})^2\color{black} = &lt;/math&gt;{{font color|blue|yellow|'''0.109 293... 10&lt;sup&gt;24&lt;/sup&gt; '''}}, &lt;math&gt;(\frac{l^{15}}{k^9 t^{11}}) = 1, \;\frac{u^{-13*15}}{u^{15*9} u^{-30*11}} = 1&lt;/math&gt;

Solving for the SI units;

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{l_p^{15}}{m_P^{9} t_p^{11}} = \frac{(1.616255e-35)^{15}}{(2.176434e-8)^{9} (5.391247e-44)^{11}} = &lt;/math&gt; {{font color|blue|yellow| '''0.109 485... 10&lt;sup&gt;24&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}


====== A, l&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;, t&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; ======
:a = 0.126 918 588 592... ''x'' 10&lt;sup&gt;23&lt;/sup&gt;A

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{A^3 L^3}{T} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})^3 \frac{(2\pi^2\Omega^2)^3}{(\pi)} (\frac{a^3 l^3}{t}) = \frac{2^{24} \pi^{14} \color{red}(\Omega^{15})^1\color{black}}{\alpha^3} = &lt;/math&gt; {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.205 571... 10&lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}, &lt;math&gt;(\frac{a^3 l^3}{t}) = 1,\; \frac{u^{3*3} u^{-13*3}}{u^{-30}} = 1&lt;/math&gt; 

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{(e / t_p)^3 l_p^3}{t_p} = \frac{(1.602176634e-19/5.391247e-44)^3 (1.616255e-35)^3}{(5.391247e-44)} = &lt;/math&gt; {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.205 543... 10&lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}, &lt;math&gt;units = \frac{(C/s)^3 m^3}{s} &lt;/math&gt; 


The Planck units are known with low precision, and so by defining the 3 most accurately known dimensioned constants in [[v:Planck_units_(geometrical)#Physical_constants_(as_geometrical_formulas) |terms of these objects]] (c, R = Rydberg constant, &lt;math&gt;\mu_0&lt;/math&gt;; CODATA 2014 mean values), we can test to greater precision; 

====== c, μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, R ======
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{(c^*)^{35}}{(\mu_0^*)^9 (R^*)^7} = (2 \pi \Omega^2 v)^{35}/(\frac{\alpha r^7}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4})^9 .(\frac{v^5}

{2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} \alpha^5 \Omega^{17} r^9})^7 = 2^{295} \pi^{157} 3^{21} \alpha^{26} \color{red}(\Omega^{15})^{15}\color{black} = &lt;/math&gt; {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.326 103 528 6170... 10&lt;sup&gt;301&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}, &lt;math&gt;\frac{(u^{17})^{35}}{(u^{56})^9 (u^{13})^7} = 1, \;(v^{35})/(r^7)^9 (\frac{v^5}{r^9})^7 = 1&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{c^{35}}{\mu_0^9 R^7} = \frac{(299792458)^{35}}{(4 \pi/10^7)^9 (10973731.568160)^7} = &lt;/math&gt; {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.326 103 528 6170... 10&lt;sup&gt;301&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}, &lt;math&gt;units = \frac{m^{33}A^{18}}{s^{17}kg^9} == \frac{(u^{-13})^{33} (u^{3})^{18}}{(u^{-30})^{17} (u^{15})^9} = 1&lt;/math&gt;


The [[w:2019 redefinition of SI base units | 2019 SI unit revision]] assigned exact numerical values to 4 constants (c, e, k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;, h). 
{{see also |Planck units (geometrical)#2019 SI unit revision}} 
From the table [[v:Planck_units_(geometrical)#Physical_constants_(as_geometrical_formulas) |geometrical physical constants]], we get geometrical formulas and scalars for;

:&lt;math&gt;h^* = 2 \pi MVL = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5},\; u^{15+17-13 = 19}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;e^* = AT = \frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{r^3}{v^3},\; u^{3-30 = -27}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;k_B^*= 2 \pi MV/A = \frac{\alpha}{2^5 \pi \Omega} \frac{r^{10}}{v^3},\; u^{17+15-3 = 29}&lt;/math&gt;


====== c, e, k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;, h ======
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{(k_B^*) (e^*) (c^*)}{(h^*)} = (\frac{\alpha}{2^5 \pi \Omega} \frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) (\frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha} \frac{r^3}{v^3}) (2 \pi \Omega^2 v) / (2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5}) &lt;/math&gt; = {{font color|blue|yellow|'''1.0'''}}, &lt;math&gt;\frac{ (u^{29}) (u^{-27}) (u^{17}) }{ (u^{19}) } = 1,\; (\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) (\frac{r^3}{v^3}) (v) / (\frac{r^{13}}{v^5}) = 1&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{k_B e c}{h} = &lt;/math&gt; {{font color|blue|yellow|'''1.000 8254'''}}, &lt;math&gt;units = \frac{m C}{s^2 K} == \frac{(u^{-13}) (u^{-27})}{(u^{-30})^2 (u^{20})}  = 1&lt;/math&gt;


====== c, h, e ======
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{(h^*)^3}{(e^*)^{13} (c^*)^{24}} = (2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5})^3/(\frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3 r^3}{\alpha v^3})^7.(2\pi\Omega^2 v)^{24} = \frac{\alpha^{13}}{2^{106} \pi^{64} (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black}} = &lt;/math&gt; {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 759... 10&lt;sup&gt;-58&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}, &lt;math&gt;\frac{(u^{19})^{3}}{(u^{-27})^{13} (u^{17})^{24}} = 1, \;(\frac{r^{13}}{v^5})^3 / (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^{13} (v^{24}) = 1&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{h^3}{e^{13} c^{24}} = &lt;/math&gt; {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 639... 10&lt;sup&gt;-58&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}, &lt;math&gt;units = \frac{kg^3 s^{21}}{m^{18} C^{13}} == \frac{(u^{15})^3 (u^{-30})^{21}}{(u^{-13})^{18} (u^{-27})^{13}}  = 1&lt;/math&gt; 


====== m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;, λ&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; ======
:&lt;math&gt;\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = {2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5}\frac{r^3}{v^2},\; u^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;f_e = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} =  2^{20} 3^3 \pi^8 \alpha^3 (\color{red}\Omega^{15})\color{black},\;
\frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} =1,\;  (\frac{r^3}{v^2})^3 \frac{v^6}{r^9} = 1&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;(m_e^*) = \frac{M}{f_e} = \color{blue}9.109\;382\;3227 \;10^{-31}\color{black}\;u^{15}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;(m_e^*) = \frac{2^3 \pi^5 (h^*)}{3^3 \alpha^6 (e^*)^3 (c^*)^5} = \frac{1}{2^{20} \pi^8 3^3 \alpha^3 (\color{red}\Omega^{15})\color{black}} \frac{r^4 u^{15}}{v} = \color{blue}9.109\;382\;3227 \;10^{-31}\color{black}\;u^{15}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;m_e = \color{blue}9.109\;383\;7015... \;10^{-31}\color{black}\;kg&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;(\lambda_e^*) = 2 \pi L f_e = \color{purple}2.426\;310\;238\;667 \;10^{-12}\color{black}\;u^{-13}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\lambda_e = \frac{h}{m_e c} = \color{purple}2.426 \;310 \;238 \;67 \;10^{-12}\color{black}\;m&lt;/math&gt;


====== c, e, m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; ======
:&lt;math&gt;(m_e^*)= \frac{M}{f_e}, \;f_e = 2^{20} 3^3 \pi^8 \alpha^3 (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^1\color{black} &lt;/math&gt;, units = scalars = 1 ([[v:Planck_units_(geometrical)#Electron_formula |m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; formula]])

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{(c^*)^9 (e^*)^4}{(m_e^*)^3} = 2^{97} \pi^{49} 3^9 \alpha^5 (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black} = &lt;/math&gt; {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.170 514 368... 10&lt;sup&gt;92&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}, &lt;math&gt;\frac{(u^{17})^9 (u^{-27})^4}{(u^{15})^3} = 1,\; (v^9) (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^4 / (\frac{r^4}{v})^3 = 1&lt;/math&gt; 

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{c^9 e^4}{m_e^3} = &lt;/math&gt; {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.170 514 342... 10&lt;sup&gt;92&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}, &lt;math&gt;units = \frac{m^9 C^4}{s^9 kg^3} == \frac{(u^{-13})^9 (u^{-27})^4}{(u^{-30})^9 (u^{15})^3}  = 1&lt;/math&gt;


====== k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;, c, e, m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; ======
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{(k_B^*)}{(e^*)^2 (m_e^*) (c^*)^4} = \frac{3^3 \alpha^6}{2^3 \pi^5}  = &lt;/math&gt; {{font color|blue|yellow| '''73 035 235 897.'''}}, &lt;math&gt;\frac{(u^{29})}{(u^{-27})^2 (u^{15}) (u^{17})^4} = 1,\; (\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) / (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^2 (\frac{r^4}{v}) (v)^4 = 1&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{k_B}{e^2 m_e c^4} = &lt;/math&gt; {{font color|blue|yellow| '''73 095 507 858.'''}}, &lt;math&gt;units = \frac{s^2}{m^2 K C^2} == \frac{(u^{-30})^2}{(u^{-13})^2 (u^{20}) (u^{-27})^2}  = 1&lt;/math&gt;


====== m&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt;, t&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;, ε&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; ======
These 3 constants, Planck mass, Planck time and the vacuum permittivity have no Omega term.
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{M^4 (\epsilon_0^*)}{T} = (1) (\frac{2^9 \pi^3}{\alpha}) / (\pi) = \frac{2^9 \pi^2}{\alpha} = &lt;/math&gt; {{font color|green|yellow| '''36.875'''}}, &lt;math&gt;\frac{(u^{15})^4 (u^{-90})}{(u^{-30})} = 1,\; (\frac{r^4}{v})^4 (\frac{1}{r^7 v^2}) / (\frac{r^9}{v^6}) = 1&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{m_p^4 (\epsilon_0)}{t_p} = &lt;/math&gt; {{font color|green|yellow| '''36.850'''}}, &lt;math&gt;units = \frac{kg^4}{s} \frac{s^4 A^2}{m^3 kg}  = \frac{kg^3 A^2 s^3}{m^3} == \frac{(u^{15})^3 (u^{3})^2 (u^{-30})^3}{(u^{-13})^3}  = 1&lt;/math&gt;


====== G, h, c, e, m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;, K&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; ======
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{(h^*) (c^*)^2 (e^*) (m_e^*)}{(G^*)^2 (k_B^*)} = (m_e^*) (\frac{2^{11} \pi^3}{\alpha^2}) = &lt;/math&gt; {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.1415...  10&lt;sup&gt;-21&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}, &lt;math&gt;\frac{ (u^{19}) (u^{17})^2 (u^{-27}) (u^{15}) }{ (u^{6})^2 (u^{29}) } = 1,\; (\frac{r^{13}}{v^5}) v^2 (\frac{r^{3}}{v^3})(\frac{r^{4}}{v^1}) / (\frac{r^5}{v^2})^2 (\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) = 1&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{h c^2 e m_e}{G^2 k_B}  = &lt;/math&gt; {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.1413...  10&lt;sup&gt;-21&lt;/sup&gt;'''}}, &lt;math&gt;units = \frac{kg^3 s^3 C K}{m^4} == \frac{(u^{15})^3 (u^{-30})^3 (u^{-27}) (u^{20}) }{(u^{-13})^4}  = 1&lt;/math&gt;


====== α ======
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{2 (h^*)}{(\mu_0^*) (e^*)^2 (c^*)} = 2({2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4})/(\frac{\alpha}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4})(\frac{2^{7} \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha})^2(2 \pi \Omega^2) =  \color{blue}\alpha \color{black},\; \frac{u^{19}}{u^{56} (u^{-27})^2 u^{17}} = 1,\; (\frac{r^{13}}{v^5})(\frac{1}{r^7})(\frac{v^6}{r^6})(\frac{1}{v}) = 1&lt;/math&gt;


Note: The above will apply to any combinations of constants (alien or terrestrial) where '''scalars = 1'''.


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table of dimensioned physical constants
! CODATA 2014 &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)&lt;/ref&gt;
! SI unit
! Natural constant* (scalars = 1)
! unit number*
|-
| ''c'' =  299 792 458 (exact)
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m}{s}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''c*'' = V = 25.3123819329 
| 17
|-
| ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''h*'' = &lt;math&gt;2 \pi M V L&lt;/math&gt; = 12647.240312
| 19
|-
| ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''G*'' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{V^2 L}{M}&lt;/math&gt; = 50950.554778
| 6
|-
| ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19
| &lt;math&gt;C = A s&lt;/math&gt;
| ''e*'' = &lt;math&gt;A T&lt;/math&gt; = 735.706358485
| -27
|-
| ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;*'' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{2 \pi V M}{A}&lt;/math&gt; = 0.679138336 
| 29
|}


===== SI Planck unit scalars =====

:&lt;math&gt;M = m_P = (1)k;\; k = m_P = .217\;672\;817\;58... \;10^{-7},\; u^{15}\; (kg)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;T = t_p = {\pi}t;\; t = \frac{t_p}{\pi} = .171\;585\;512\;84... 10^{-43},\; u^{-30}\; (s)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;L = l_p = {2\pi^2\Omega^2}l;\; l = \frac{l_p}{2\pi^2\Omega^2} = .203\;220\;869\;48... 10^{-36},\; u^{-13}\; (m)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;V = c = {2\pi\Omega^2}v;\; v = \frac{c}{2\pi\Omega^2} = 11\;843\;707.905... ,\; u^{17}\; (m/s)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;A = e/t_p = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})a = .126\;918\;588\;59... 10^{23},\; u^{3}\; (A)&lt;/math&gt;


====== MT to LPVA ======

In this example LPVA are derived from MT. The formulas for MT;

:&lt;math&gt;M = (1)k,\; unit = u^{15}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;T = (\pi) t,\; unit = u^{-30}&lt;/math&gt;

Replacing scalars ''pvla'' with ''kt''

:&lt;math&gt;P = (\Omega)\;\frac{k^{12/15}}{t^{2/15}},\; unit = u^{12/15*15-2/15*(-30)=16}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;V = \frac{2 \pi P^2}{M} = (2 \pi \Omega^2)\; \frac{k^{9/15}}{t^{4/15}},\; unit = u^{9/15*15-4/15*(-30)=17}  &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;L = T V = (2 \pi^2 \Omega^2) \; k^{9/15} t^{11/15},\; unit = u^{9/15*15+11/15*(-30)=-13}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{\alpha P^3} = \left(\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\right)\; \frac{1}{k^{3/5} t^{2/5}},\; unit = 

u^{9/15*(-15)+6/15*30=3}    &lt;/math&gt;


====== PV to MTLA ======

In this example MLTA are derived from PV. The formulas for PV; 

:&lt;math&gt;P = (\Omega)p,\; unit = u^{16}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;V = (2\pi\Omega^2)v,\; unit = u^{17}&lt;/math&gt;

Replacing scalars ''klta'' with ''pv''

:&lt;math&gt;M = \frac{2\pi P^2}{V} = (1)\frac{p^2}{v},\; unit = u^{16*2-17=15} &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;T = (\pi) \frac{p^{9/2}}{v^6},\; unit = u^{16*9/2-17*6=-30} &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;L = T V = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)\frac{p^{9/2}}{v^5},\; unit = u^{16*9/2-17*5=-13}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{\alpha P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})\frac{v^3}{p^3},\; unit = u^{17*3-16*3=3}&lt;/math&gt;


==== Physical constants (as geometrical formulas) ====
note: &lt;math&gt;\color{red}(u^{15})^n\color{black}&lt;/math&gt; constants have no Omega term.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Dimensioned constants; geometrical vs CODATA 2014
! Constant
! In Planck units
! Geometrical object
! SI calculated (r, v, Ω, α&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;)
! SI CODATA 2014 &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[w:Speed of light | Speed of light]]
| V
|  &lt;math&gt;c^* = (2\pi\Omega^2)v,\;u^{17} &lt;/math&gt; 
| ''c&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 299 792 458, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt; 
| ''c'' =  299 792 458 (exact)
|-
| [[w:Fine structure constant | Fine structure constant]]
|  
| 
| ''α&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 137.035 999 139 (mean)
| ''α'' = 137.035 999 139(31)
|-
| [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]]
| &lt;math&gt;R^* = (\frac{m_e}{4 \pi L \alpha^2 M})&lt;/math&gt;  
| &lt;math&gt;R^* = \frac{1}{2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} \alpha^5 \Omega^{17}}\frac{v^5}{r^9},\;u^{13} &lt;/math&gt; 
| ''R&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 10 973 731.568 508, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt;  
| ''R'' = 10 973 731.568 508(65)
|-
| [[w:Vacuum permeability | Vacuum permeability]]
| &lt;math&gt;\mu_0^* = \frac{4 \pi V^2 M}{\alpha L A^2}&lt;/math&gt; 
| &lt;math&gt;\mu_0^* = \frac{\alpha}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4} r^7,\; u^{17*2+15+13-6=7*8=56}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 4π/10^7, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;56&lt;/sup&gt; 
| ''μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 4π/10^7 (exact)
|-
| [[w:Vacuum permittivity | Vacuum permittivity]]
| &lt;math&gt;\epsilon_0^* = \frac{1}{\mu_0^* (c^*)^2}&lt;/math&gt; 
| &lt;math&gt;\epsilon_0^* = \frac{2^9 \pi^3}{\alpha}\frac{1}{r^7 v^2},\; \color{red}1/(u^{15})^6\color{black} = u^{-90}&lt;/math&gt;
|  
|
|-
| [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]]
| &lt;math&gt;h^* = 2 \pi M V L&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;h^* = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5},\; u^{15+17-13 = 8*13-17*5 = 19}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''h&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 6.626 069 134 e-34, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;19&lt;/sup&gt; 
| ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34
|-
| [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]]
| &lt;math&gt;G^* = \frac{V^2 L}{M}&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;G^* = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^6 \frac{r^5}{v^2},\; u^{34-13-15 = 8*5-17*2 = 6}&lt;/math&gt; 
| ''G&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' =  6.672 497 192 29 e11, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11
|-
| [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]]
| &lt;math&gt;e^* = A T&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;e^* = \frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{r^3}{v^3},\; u^{3-30=3*8-17*3=-27}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''e&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19
|-
| [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]]
| &lt;math&gt;k_B^* = \frac{2 \pi V M}{A}&lt;/math&gt; 
| &lt;math&gt;k_B^* = \frac{\alpha}{2^5 \pi \Omega} \frac{r^{10}}{v^3},\; u^{17+15-3=10*8-17*3=29}&lt;/math&gt; 
| ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;29&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23
|-
| [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]]
| 
| &lt;math&gt;m_e^* = \frac{M}{f_e},\; u^{15}&lt;/math&gt; 
| ''m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 9.109 382 312 56 e-31, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31
|-
| [[w:Classical electron radius | Classical electron radius]]
|  
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda_e^* = 2\pi L f_e,\; u^{-13}&lt;/math&gt;  
| ''λ&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 2.426 310 2366 e-12, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;-13&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''λ&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 2.426 310 236 7(11) e-12
|-
| [[w:Planck temperature | Planck temperature]]
| &lt;math&gt;T_p^* = \frac{A V}{\pi}&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;T_p^* = \frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^5}{\alpha} \frac{v^4}{r^6} ,\; u^{3+17=17*4-6*8=20} &lt;/math&gt;
| ''T&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' =  1.418 145 219 e32, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;20&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''T&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 1.416 784(16) e32
|-
| [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]]
| M
| &lt;math&gt;m_P^* = (1)\frac{r^4}{v} ,\; \color{red}(u^{15})^1\color{black}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''m&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' =  .217 672 817 580 e-7, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; 
| ''m&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt;'' = .217 647 0(51) e-7
|-
| [[w:Planck length | Planck length]]
| L = TV
| &lt;math&gt;l_p^* = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)\frac{r^9}{v^5},\;u^{-13} &lt;/math&gt; 
| ''l&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = .161 603 660 096 e-34, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;-13&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''l&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;'' = .161 622 9(38) e-34
|-
| [[w:Planck time | Planck time]]
| T
| &lt;math&gt;t_p^* = (\pi)\frac{r^9}{v^6} ,\; \color{red}1/(u^{15})^2\color{black} &lt;/math&gt;
| ''t&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 5.390 517 866 e-44, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;-30&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''t&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 5.391 247(60) e-44
|-
| [[w:Ampere | Ampere]]
| &lt;math&gt;A = \frac{16 V^3}{\alpha P^3}&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;A^* = \frac{2^7\pi^3\Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{v^3}{r^6} ,\; u^3 &lt;/math&gt;
| A&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; = 0.297 221 e25, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''e/t&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 0.297 181 e25 
|-
| [[w:Quantum Hall effect | Von Klitzing constant ]]
| &lt;math&gt;R_K^* = (\frac{h}{e^2})^*&lt;/math&gt;  
|  &lt;math&gt;R_K^* = \frac{\alpha^2}{2^{11} \pi^4 \Omega^2} r^7 v ,\; u^{73}&lt;/math&gt; 
| ''R&lt;sub&gt;K&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 25812.807 455 59, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;73&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''R&lt;sub&gt;K&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 25812.807 455 5(59)
|-
| [[w:Gyromagnetic ratio | Gyromagnetic ratio]]
| 
| &lt;math&gt;\gamma_e/2\pi = \frac{g l_p^* m_P^*}{2 k_B^* m_e^*},\; unit = u^{-42}&lt;/math&gt;  
| ''γ&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;/2π&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 28024.953 55, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;-42&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''γ&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;/2π'' = 28024.951 64(17) 
|}
 
Note that ''r, v, Ω, α'' are dimensionless numbers, however when we replace ''u''&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; with the SI unit equivalents (''u''&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; → kg, ''u''&lt;sup&gt;-13&lt;/sup&gt; → m, ''u''&lt;sup&gt;-30&lt;/sup&gt; → s, ...), the ''geometrical objects'' (i.e.: ''c&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 2πΩ&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;v = 299792458, units = u&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt;) become '''indistinguishable''' from their respective ''physical constants'' (i.e.: ''c'' = 299792458, units = m/s). If this mathematical relationship can therefore be identified within the SI units themselves, then we have an argument for a Planck scale mathematical universe &lt;ref&gt;[https://codingthecosmos.com/planck-scale.html Planck scale mathematical universe model]&lt;/ref&gt;.


===== Electron formula =====
{{main|Electron (mathematical)}}
Although the Planck units MLTA are embedded within the electron formula ''f&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;'', this formula is both unit-less and non scalable (units = 1, scalars = 1). Furthermore it is the geometry of 2 dimensionless physical constants and so can also be defined as a dimensionless physical constant (if units = scalars = 1, then that constant will be independent of any numerical system and of any system of units, and so would qualify as a &quot;natural unit&quot;).

:&lt;math&gt;f_e = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453...x10^{23}&lt;/math&gt;

AL as an ampere-meter (ampere-length) are the units for a [[w:magnetic monopole | magnetic monopole]].

:&lt;math&gt;T = \pi \frac{r^9}{v^6},\; u^{-30}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = {2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5}\frac{r^3}{v^2},\; u^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;f_e = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi},\; units = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1, scalars = (\frac{r^3}{v^2})^3 \frac{v^6}{r^9} = 1&lt;/math&gt;


The electron has dimensioned parameters, however the dimensions derive from the Planck units, ''f&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;'' is a mathematical function that dictates how these Planck objects are applied, it does not have dimension units of its own, consequently there is no physical electron. 

[[w:electron mass | electron mass]]     &lt;math&gt;m_e = \frac{M}{f_e}&lt;/math&gt; (M = [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]])

[[w:Compton wavelength | electron wavelength]] &lt;math&gt;\lambda_e = 2\pi L f_e&lt;/math&gt; (L = [[w:Planck length | Planck length]])

[[w:elementary charge | elementary charge]]    &lt;math&gt;e = A.T&lt;/math&gt;


===== Fine structure constant =====
The Sommerfeld [[w:fine-structure constant | fine structure constant alpha]] is a dimensionless physical constant, the CODATA 2018 inverse alpha = 137.035999084. 

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{2 (h^*)}{(\mu_0^*) (e^*)^2 (c^*)} = 2({2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4})/(\frac{\alpha}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4})(\frac{2^{7} \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha})^2(2 \pi \Omega^2) =  \color{blue}\alpha \color{black},\; \frac{u^{19}}{u^{56} (u^{-27})^2 u^{17}} = 1,\; (\frac{r^{13}}{v^5})(\frac{1}{r^7})(\frac{v^6}{r^6})(\frac{1}{v}) = 1&lt;/math&gt;


===== Omega =====
The most precise of the experimentally measured constants is the Rydberg ''R = 10973731.568508(65) 1/m''. Here ''c, μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, R'' are combined into a unit-less ratio;

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{(c^*)^{35}}{(\mu_0^*)^9 (R^*)^7} = (2 \pi \Omega^2)^{35}/(\frac{\alpha}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4})^9 .(\frac{1}

{2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} \alpha^5 \Omega^{17}})^7,\;units = \frac{(u^{17})^{35}}{(u^{56})^9 (u^{13})^7} = 1&lt;/math&gt;

We can now define ''Ω'' using the geometries for (''c&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;, μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;, R&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'') and then solve by replacing (''c&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;, μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;, R&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'') with the numerical (''c, μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, R''). 

:&lt;math&gt;\Omega^{225}=\frac{(c^*)^{35}}{2^{295} 3^{21} \pi^{157} (\mu_0^*)^9 (R^*)^7 \alpha^{26}}, \;units = 1&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\Omega = 2.007\;134\;949\;636...,\; units = 1&lt;/math&gt; (CODATA 2014 mean values)

:&lt;math&gt;\Omega = 2.007\;134\;949\;687...,\; units = 1&lt;/math&gt; (CODATA 2018 mean values)

There is a close natural number for ''Ω'' that is a square root implying that ''Ω'' can have a plus or a minus solution and this agrees with theory. This solution would however re-classify Omega as a mathematical constant (as being derivable from other mathematical constants).

:&lt;math&gt;\Omega = \sqrt{ \left(\frac{\pi^e}{e^{(e-1)}}\right)}  = 2.007\;134\;9543... &lt;/math&gt;

 
===== G, h, e, m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;, k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; =====
As geometrical objects, the physical constants (''G, h, e, m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;, k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;'') can also be defined using the geometrical formulas for (''c&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;, μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;, R&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'') and solved using the numerical (mean) values for (''c, μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, R, α''), i.e.:.

:&lt;math&gt;{(h^*)}^3 = (2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13} u^{19}}{v^5})^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {(\mu_0^*)}^3} {3^6 {(c^*)}^5 

\alpha^{13} {(R^*)}^2},\; unit = u^{57}&lt;/math&gt;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Physical constants; calculated vs CODATA 2014
! Constant
! Geometry
! Calculated from (R, c, μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, α)
! CODATA 2014 &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {\mu_0}^3} {3^6 {c}^5 \alpha^{13} {R_\infty}^2},\; unit = u^{57}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''h&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 6.626 069 134 e-34, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;19&lt;/sup&gt; 
| ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34
|-
| [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(G^*)}^5 = \frac{\pi^3 {\mu_0}}{2^{20} 3^6 \alpha^{11} {R_\infty}^2},\; unit = u^{30}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''G&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' =  6.672 497 192 29 e11, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11
|-
| [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(e^*)}^3 = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 {c}^4 \alpha^8 {R_\infty}},\; unit = u^{-81}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''e&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19
|-
| [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(k_B^*)}^3 = \frac{\pi^5 {\mu_0}^3}{3^3 2 {c}^4 \alpha^5 {R_\infty}} ,\; unit = u^{87} &lt;/math&gt;
| ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;29&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23
|-
| [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]]
| &lt;math&gt;{(m_e^*)}^3 = \frac{16 \pi^{10} {R_\infty} {\mu_0}^3}{3^6 {c}^8 \alpha^7},\; unit = u^{45} &lt;/math&gt;
| '' m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 9.109 382 312 56 e-31, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31
|-
| [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]]
| &lt;math&gt;(m_P^*)^{15} = \frac{2^{25}\pi^{13} \mu_0^6}{ 3^6 c^5 \alpha^{16} R_\infty^2},\; unit = (u^{15})^{15}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''m&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' =  .217 672 817 580 e-7, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''m&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt;'' = .217 647 0(51) e-7
|-
| [[w:Planck length | Planck length]]
| &lt;math&gt;(l_p^*)^{15} = \frac{\pi^{22} \mu_0^9}{2^{35} 3^{24} \alpha^{49} c^{35} R_\infty^8},\; unit = (u^{-13})^{15} &lt;/math&gt;
| ''l&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = .161 603 660 096 e-34, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;-13&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''l&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;'' = .161 622 9(38) e-34
|-
| [[w:Gyromagnetic ratio | Gyromagnetic ratio]]
| &lt;math&gt;(\gamma_e/2\pi)^3 = \frac{g^3 3^3 c^4}{2^8 \pi^8 \alpha \mu_0^3 R_\infty^2},\; unit = u^{-126}&lt;/math&gt;
| ''γ&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;/2π&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = 28024.953 55, unit = u&lt;sup&gt;-42&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''γ&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;/2π'' = 28024.951 64(17) 
|}


==== 2019 SI unit revision ====

Following the 26th General Conference on Weights and Measures ([[w:2019 redefinition of SI base units|2019 redefinition of SI base units]]) are fixed the numerical values of the 4 physical constants (''h, c, e, k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;''). In the context of this model however only 2 base units may be assigned by committee as the rest are then numerically fixed by default and so the revision may lead to unintended consequences. For example, the von Klitzing constant Rk = h/e2, yet to derive h and e using Rk suggests an (inverse) alpha = 137.0359952 &lt;ref&gt;[https://codingthecosmos.com/physical-constants-calc.html Physical constants calculator]&lt;/ref&gt;.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Physical constants
! Constant
! CODATA 2018 &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2018)&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[w:Speed of light | Speed of light]]
| ''c'' =  299 792 458 (exact)
|-
| [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] 
| ''h'' = 6.626 070 15 e-34 (exact)
|-
| [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]]
| ''e'' = 1.602 176 634 e-19 (exact)
|-
| [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]]
| ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 1.380 649 e-23 (exact)
|-
| [[w:Fine structure constant | Fine structure constant]]
| ''α'' = 137.035 999 084(21)
|-
| [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] 
| ''R'' = 10973 731.568 160(21)
|-
| [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]]
| ''m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 9.109 383 7015(28) e-31
|-
| [[w:Vacuum permeability | Vacuum permeability]]
| ''μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 1.256 637 062 12(19) e-6
|-
| [[w:Quantum_Hall_effect#Applications | Von Klitzing constant]]
| ''R&lt;sub&gt;K&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 25812.807 45 (exact)
|}

For example, if we solve using the above formulas;

&lt;math&gt;R^* = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 c^4 \alpha^8 e^3} = 10973\;729.082\;465&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;{(m_e^*)}^3 = \frac{2^4 \pi^{10} R \mu_0^3}{3^6 c^8 \alpha^7},\;m_e^* = 9.109\;382\;3259 \;10^{-31}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;{(\mu_0^*)}^3 = \frac{3^6 h^3 c^5 \alpha^{13} R^2}{2 \pi^{10}},\;\mu_0^* = 1.256\;637\;251\;88\;10^{-6}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2 \pi^{10} \mu_0^3}{3^6 c^5 \alpha^{13} R^2},\;h^* = 6.626\;069\;149\;10^{-34}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;{(e^*)}^3 = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 c^4 \alpha^8 R},\; e^* = 1.602\;176\;513\;10^{-19}&lt;/math&gt;


==== u as sqrt(velocity/mass) ====
We find there is a single base unit '''u''' from which the other units and numerical values can be derived. This base unit incorporates [[v:Sqrt_Planck_momentum |MLT as square roots]].

=====''u = √{L/M.T}''=====

:&lt;math&gt;u,\; units = \sqrt{\frac{L}{M T}} = \sqrt{u^{-13-15+30=2}} = u^1&lt;/math&gt;


Setting:

:&lt;math&gt;x,\;units = \sqrt{\frac{M^9 T^{11}}{L^{15}}} = u^0, units = 1, scalars = 1&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;y,\;units = M^2T = u^0, units = 1, scalars &lt;&gt; 1&lt;/math&gt;

Gives;

:&lt;math&gt;u^3 = \frac{L^{3/2}}{M^{3/2} T^{3/2}} = A,\; (ampere)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;u^6 (y) = \frac{L^3}{T^2 M},\; (G)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;u^{13} (xy) = \frac{1}{L},\; (1/l_p)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;u^{15} (xy^2) = M,\; (m_P)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;u^{17} (xy^2) = V,\; (c)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;u^{19} (xy^3) = \frac{ML^2}{T},\; (h)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;u^{20} (xy^2) = \frac{L^{5/2}}{M^{3/2} T^{5/2}} = AV,\;(T_P)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;u^{27} (x^2y^3) = \frac{M^{3/2}\sqrt{T}}{L^{3/2}} = 1/AT,\; (1/e)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;u^{29} (x^2y^4) = \frac{M^{5/2}\sqrt{T}}{\sqrt{L}} = ML/AT,\; (k_B)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;u^{30} (x^2 y^3) = \frac{1}{T},\; (1/t_p)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;u^{56} (x^4 y^7) = \frac{M^4 T}{L^2},\;(\mu_0)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;u^{90} (x^6 y^{11}) = \frac{M^4}{T} 

&lt;/math&gt;


===== ''β'' (unit = ''u'') =====

''i'' (from ''x'') and ''j'' (from ''y''). 

:&lt;math&gt;R = \sqrt{P} = \sqrt{\Omega} r,\; units = u^8&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\beta = \frac{V}{R^2} = \frac{2\pi R^2}{M} = \frac{A^{1/3} \alpha^{1/3}}{2} \;..., \; unit = u&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;i = \frac{1}{2\pi {(2\pi \Omega)}^{15}},\; units = 1, scalars = 1&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;j = \frac{r^{17}}{v^8} = k^2t = \frac{k^8}{r^{15}} ...,\; unit = \frac{u^{17*8}}{u^{8*17}}  = u^{15*2}u^{-30} ... = 

1,\; units = 1, scalars &lt;&gt; 1&lt;/math&gt;

For example; the constants solved in terms of (''r, v'')

:&lt;math&gt;\beta = \frac{V}{R^2} = \frac{2\pi \Omega^2 v}{\Omega r^2} = \frac{2\pi \Omega v}{r^2},\; u^1 = u&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;A = \beta^3 (\frac{2^4}{\alpha}) = \frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{v^3}{r^6},\; u^3&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\beta^6}{2^3 \pi^2}  (j) = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^6 \frac{r^5}{v^2},\; u^6&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;L^{-1} = 4\pi \beta^{13} (ij) = \frac{1}{2\pi^2 \Omega^2} \frac{v^5}{r^9},\; u^{13}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;M = 2\pi \beta^{15} (ij^2) = \frac{r^4}{v},\; u^{15}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;P = \beta^{16} (ij^2) = \Omega r^2,\; u^{16}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;V = \beta^{17} (ij^2) = 2\pi \Omega^2 v,\; u^{17}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;h = \pi \beta^{19} (ij^3) = 8\pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5},\; u^{19}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;T_P^* =\frac{2^3  \beta^{20}}{\pi \alpha} (ij^2) = \frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^5}{\alpha} \frac{v^4}{r^6} ,\; u^{20} 

&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;e^{-1} = \frac{\alpha \pi \beta^{27} (i^2j^3)}{4} = \frac{\alpha}{128\pi^4 \Omega^3} \frac{v^3}{r^{3}},\; u^{27}

&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;k_B = \frac{\alpha \pi^2 \beta^{29}(i^2j^4)}{4} = \frac{\alpha}{32 \pi \Omega} \frac{r^{10}}{v^3},\; u^{29}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;T^{-1} = 4\pi \beta^{30} (i^2 j^3) = \frac{1}{\pi}\frac{v^6}{r^9},\; u^{30}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\mu_0^* = \frac{\pi^3 \alpha \beta^{56}}{2^3} (i^4 j^7) = \frac{\alpha}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4} r^7,\; u^{56}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\epsilon_0^{*-1} =  \mu_0^* (c^*)^2 = \frac{\pi^3 \alpha \beta^{90}}{2^3} (i^6 j^{11})  = \frac{\alpha}{2^9 \pi^3} v^2 r^7,\; u^{90}

&lt;/math&gt;


===== limit ''j'' =====

The SI values for ''j'' suggest a limit (numerical boundary) to the values the SI constants can have.

:&lt;math&gt;j = \frac{r^{17}}{v^8} = k^2 t = \frac{k^{17/4}}{v^{15/4}} = ... &lt;/math&gt; gives a range from 0.812997... ''x''10&lt;sup&gt;-59&lt;/sup&gt; to 0.123... ''x''10&lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt;

In SI terms unit ''β'' can be derived via these ratio;

:&lt;math&gt;a^{1/3} = \frac{v}{r^2} = \frac{1}{t^{2/15}k^{1/5}} = \frac{\sqrt{v}}{\sqrt{k}} ... = 23326079.1...; unit = u&lt;/math&gt;


===== Rydberg formula =====

The [[w:Rydberg_formula |Rydberg formula]] can now be re-written in terms of amperes &lt;math&gt;A^2&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{hc}{2\pi \alpha^2} = \frac{j^2 A^2}{2^8 2\pi t_p}&lt;/math&gt;


==== External links ==== 
* [[v:electron_(mathematical) | Mathematical electron]]
* [[v:Relativity_(Planck) | Programming relativity at the Planck scale]]
* [[v:Quantum_gravity_(Planck) | Programming gravity at the Planck scale]]
* [[v:Black-hole_(Planck) | Programming the cosmic microwave background at the Planck scale]]
* [[v:Sqrt_Planck_momentum | The sqrt of Planck momentum]]
* [[v:God_(programmer) | The Programmer God]]
* [[w:Simulation_hypothesis | The Simulation hypothesis]]
* [https://codingthecosmos.com/ Programming at the Planck scale using geometrical objects] -Malcolm Macleod's website
* [http://www.simulation-argument.com/ Simulation Argument] -Nick Bostrom's website
* [https://www.amazon.com/Our-Mathematical-Universe-Ultimate-Reality/dp/0307599809 Our Mathematical Universe: My Quest for the Ultimate Nature of Reality] -Max Tegmark
* [https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2531429 The mathematical electron model in a Planck scale universe] -(article)
* [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0202289308020011/ Dirac-Kerr-Newman black-hole electron] -Alexander Burinskii (article)


==== References ==== 
{{Reflist}}


[[Category: Physics]]
[[Category: Philosophy of science]]</text>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history  {{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history  {{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is Emotion? ==

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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    </revision>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history  

=== Role of Endocannabinoid System ===
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is Emotion? ==

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history  

=== Role of Endocannabinoid System ===
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is Emotion? ==

=== Relevant Theories ===

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418052</id>
      <parentid>2418048</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:10:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
      </contributor>
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      <comment>headings for structure</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8731" xml:space="preserve">{{METP}}
{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history  

=== Role of Endocannabinoid System ===
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is Emotion? ==

=== Relevant Theories ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotion ==

=== Interaction ===

== Biological processes of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion ==


==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
      <sha1>8toupjytykek5ct239ankeac5rxmxmw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418060</id>
      <parentid>2418052</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:22:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Biological processes of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion */</comment>
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      <text bytes="8709" xml:space="preserve">{{METP}}
{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history  

=== Role of Endocannabinoid System ===
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is Emotion? ==

=== Relevant Theories ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotion ==

== Biological processes of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion ==

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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      <id>2418070</id>
      <parentid>2418060</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:29:44Z</timestamp>
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        <id>2947623</id>
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      <comment>/* Biological processes of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion */</comment>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and signficance  

=== Role of Endocannabinoid System ===
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is Emotion? ==

=== Relevant Theories ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotion ==
== Biological Processes of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion ==

== Endocannabinoid System and the effect on emotional regulation ==
stress responsiveness and emotional regulation 


==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418087</id>
      <parentid>2418070</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:43:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Endocannabinoid System and the effect on emotional regulation */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8851" xml:space="preserve">{{METP}}
{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Role of Endocannabinoid System ===
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is Emotion? ==

=== Relevant Theories ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotion ==

=== Impact of Endocannabinoid System on Emotional Regulation and Stress Responses ===

=== Interactions ===

== Biological Processes of the Endocannabinoid System and the Impact on Emotion ==
CB1 receptors etc, neuropsychological aspects and processes key to emotion, significance to anxiety related responses   

== The Endocannabinoid System as a therapeutic tool in anxiety related disorders ==

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
      <sha1>4vqxfhwf6klpui780hj5s5oia1dcqiw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418089</id>
      <parentid>2418087</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:47:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Interactions */  and deleting other headings</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Role of Endocannabinoid System ===
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is Emotion? ==

=== Relevant Theories ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotion ==

=== Impact of Endocannabinoid System on Emotional Regulation and Stress Responses ===

=== Important Interactions ===

== Biological Processes of the Endocannabinoid System and the Impact on Emotion ==
CB1 receptors etc, neuropsychological aspects and processes key to emotion, significance to anxiety related responses   

== Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Tool in Managing Anxiety-related Disorders ==

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:01:58Z</timestamp>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Role of Endocannabinoid System ===
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is Emotion? ==

=== Relevant Theories ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotion ==

=== Impact of Endocannabinoid System on Emotional Regulation and Stress Responses ===

== Biological Processes of the Endocannabinoid System and the Impact on Emotion ==
CB1 receptors etc, neuropsychological aspects and processes key to emotion, significance to anxiety related responses   

== Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Tool in Managing Anxiety-related Disorders ==

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2418095</id>
      <parentid>2418094</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:10:55Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====

== What is Emotion? ==

=== Basic Emotions ===

=== Spotlight on Fear and Anxiety Emotions ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotion ==

=== Impact of Endocannabinoid System on Emotional Regulation and Stress Responses ===

== Biological Processes of the Endocannabinoid System and the Impact on Emotion ==
CB1 receptors etc, neuropsychological aspects and processes key to emotion, significance to anxiety related responses   

== Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Tool in Managing Anxiety-related Disorders ==

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418096</id>
      <parentid>2418095</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:12:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Spotlight on Fear and Anxiety Emotions */</comment>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====

== What is Emotion? ==

=== Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotion ==

=== Impact of Endocannabinoid System on Emotional Regulation and Stress Responses ===

== Biological Processes of the Endocannabinoid System and the Impact on Emotion ==
CB1 receptors etc, neuropsychological aspects and processes key to emotion, significance to anxiety related responses   

== Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Tool in Managing Anxiety-related Disorders ==

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
      <sha1>b0060ynbojtppa0ax6cisdk0b45e2sv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418098</id>
      <parentid>2418096</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:16:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
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      <comment>/* Endocannabinoid System and Emotion */</comment>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====

== What is Emotion? ==

=== Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===
== Case studies ==
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====

== What is Emotion? ==

=== Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety ====

==== Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety ====

== Case studies ==
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
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__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====

== What is Emotion? ==

=== Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== ''Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==== ''Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

== Case studies ==
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:27:25Z</timestamp>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====
[[File:Anxiety cloud.png|thumb|Fig 1. Emotions of Fear, Anxiety and Stress represented as a cloud]]

== What is Emotion? ==

=== Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== ''Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==== ''Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

== Case studies ==
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418104</id>
      <parentid>2418103</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:29:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Basic Emotions */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5479" xml:space="preserve">{{METP}}
{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====
[[File:Anxiety cloud.png|thumb|Fig 1. Emotions of Fear, Anxiety and Stress represented as a cloud]]

== What is Emotion? ==

=== The Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== ''Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==== ''Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418105</id>
      <parentid>2418104</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:30:10Z</timestamp>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====
[[File:Anxiety cloud.png|thumb|Fig 1. Emotions of Fear, Anxiety and Stress represented as a cloud]]

== What is Emotion? ==

=== The Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== ''Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==== ''Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}
*
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2418106</id>
      <parentid>2418105</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:31:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
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      <comment>/* What is Emotion? */</comment>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====
[[File:Anxiety cloud.png|thumb|Fig 1. Emotions of Fear, Anxiety and Stress represented as a cloud]]

== What is Emotion? ==

=== The 7 Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== ''Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==== ''Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}
*
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418109</id>
      <parentid>2418106</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:36:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Endocannabinoid System and Emotions */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====
[[File:Anxiety cloud.png|thumb|Fig 1. Emotions of Fear, Anxiety and Stress represented as a cloud]]

== What is Emotion? ==

=== The 7 Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== ''Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==== ''Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

== Future research direction: Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Tool for Anxiety-related Disorders ==

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}
*
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418110</id>
      <parentid>2418109</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:36:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Future research direction: Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Tool for Anxiety-related Disorders */</comment>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====
[[File:Anxiety cloud.png|thumb|Fig 1. Emotions of Fear, Anxiety and Stress represented as a cloud]]

== What is Emotion? ==

=== The 7 Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== ''Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==== ''Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

== Future Research Direction: Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Tool for Anxiety-related Disorders ==

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}
*
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
      <sha1>ryb1ige55c2uhaisi11dcymabrdbuym</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418115</id>
      <parentid>2418110</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:55:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
The [[wikipedia:Endocannabinoid_system|endocannabinoid system]] is defined as a widespread neuromodulatory system that plays a significant role in central nervous system (CNS) development, synaptic plasticity and recognising endogenous and environmental stimuli (Lu, &amp; Mackie, K., 2015). 


You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====
[[File:Anxiety cloud.png|thumb|Fig 1. Emotions of Fear, Anxiety and Stress represented as a cloud]]

== What is Emotion? ==

=== The 7 Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== ''Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==== ''Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

== Future Research Direction: Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Tool for Anxiety-related Disorders ==

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}
*
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Lu, &amp; Mackie, K. (2015). An Introduction to the Endogenous Cannabinoid System. Biological Psychiatry (1969), 79(7), 516–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.07.028

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
The [[wikipedia:Endocannabinoid_system|endocannabinoid system]] is critical in the emotional, cognitive and physical homeostasis within the human body. The endocannabinoid system is defined as a widespread neuromodulatory system that plays a significant role in central nervous system (CNS) development, synaptic plasticity and recognising endogenous and environmental stimuli (Lu, &amp; Mackie, K., 2015). 


You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====
[[File:Anxiety cloud.png|thumb|Fig 1. Emotions of Fear, Anxiety and Stress represented as a cloud]]

== What is Emotion? ==

=== The 7 Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== ''Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==== ''Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

== Future Research Direction: Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Tool for Anxiety-related Disorders ==

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}
*
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Lu, &amp; Mackie, K. (2015). An Introduction to the Endogenous Cannabinoid System. Biological Psychiatry (1969), 79(7), 516–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.07.028

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418122</id>
      <parentid>2418120</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:59:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5435" xml:space="preserve">{{METP}}
{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
The [[wikipedia:Endocannabinoid_system|endocannabinoid system]] is critical in the emotional, cognitive and physical homeostasis within the human body. The endocannabinoid system is defined as a widespread neuromodulatory system that plays a significant role in central nervous system (CNS) development, synaptic plasticity and recognising endogenous and environmental stimuli (Lu &amp; Mackie, 2015). 


You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====
[[File:Anxiety cloud.png|thumb|Fig 1. Emotions of Fear, Anxiety and Stress represented as a cloud]]

== What is Emotion? ==

=== The 7 Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== ''Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==== ''Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

== Future Research Direction: Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Tool for Anxiety-related Disorders ==

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}
*
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Lu, &amp; Mackie, K. (2015). An Introduction to the Endogenous Cannabinoid System. Biological Psychiatry (1969), 79(7), 516–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.07.028

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
      <sha1>6thi843q5jqvpq6rjdoo3blasarzb6n</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418128</id>
      <parentid>2418122</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T06:07:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
The [[wikipedia:Endocannabinoid_system|endocannabinoid system]] is critical in the emotional, cognitive and physical homeostasis within the human body. The endocannabinoid system is defined as a widespread neuromodulatory system that plays a significant role in central nervous system (CNS) development, synaptic plasticity and recognising endogenous and environmental stimuli (Lu &amp; Mackie, 2015). Endocannabinoids and their receptors are densely packed together and located throughout the entirety of the human body; in the organs, conncective tissues, in the brain, glands and in immune cells (Alger, 2013; Kendall &amp; Yudowski, 2016).  


You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====
[[File:Anxiety cloud.png|thumb|Fig 1. Emotions of Fear, Anxiety and Stress represented as a cloud]]

== What is Emotion? ==

=== The 7 Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== ''Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==== ''Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

== Future Research Direction: Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Tool for Anxiety-related Disorders ==

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}
*
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alger, B. (2013). Getting high on the endocannabinoid system. Cerebrum, 14, 1-11. doi: PMC3997295

Kendall, &amp; Yudowski, G. A. (2016). Cannabinoid Receptors in the Central Nervous System: Their Signaling and Roles in Disease. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 10, 294–294. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2016.00294

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Lu, &amp; Mackie, K. (2015). An Introduction to the Endogenous Cannabinoid System. Biological Psychiatry (1969), 79(7), 516–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.07.028

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
      <sha1>4gi6790osbcjgkk9qdii6rre8c9hf74</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418132</id>
      <parentid>2418128</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T06:14:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
The [[wikipedia:Endocannabinoid_system|endocannabinoid system]] is critical in the emotional, cognitive and physical homeostasis within the human body. The endocannabinoid system is defined as a widespread neuromodulatory system that plays a significant role in central nervous system (CNS) development, synaptic plasticity and recognising endogenous and environmental stimuli (Lu &amp; Mackie, 2015). Endocannabinoids and their receptors are densely packed together and located throughout the entirety of the human body; in the organs, conncective tissues, in the brain, glands and in immune cells (Alger, 2013; Kendall &amp; Yudowski, 2016). Additionally, research into the endocannabinoid system and the pharmacology of endocannabinoids began in the late 1940's, several decades before cannabinoids were detected in [[Should cannabis be legal?|canabis]] (also known as [[marijuana]]) (  


You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====
[[File:Anxiety cloud.png|thumb|Fig 1. Emotions of Fear, Anxiety and Stress represented as a cloud]]

== What is Emotion? ==

=== The 7 Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== ''Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==== ''Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

== Future Research Direction: Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Tool for Anxiety-related Disorders ==

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}
*
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alger, B. (2013). Getting high on the endocannabinoid system. Cerebrum, 14, 1-11. doi: PMC3997295

Kendall, &amp; Yudowski, G. A. (2016). Cannabinoid Receptors in the Central Nervous System: Their Signaling and Roles in Disease. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 10, 294–294. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2016.00294

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Lu, &amp; Mackie, K. (2015). An Introduction to the Endogenous Cannabinoid System. Biological Psychiatry (1969), 79(7), 516–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.07.028

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x

Pertwee. (2006). Cannabinoid pharmacology: the first 66 years. British Journal of Pharmacology, 147(S1), S163–S171. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0706406
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
The [[wikipedia:Endocannabinoid_system|endocannabinoid system]] is critical in the emotional, cognitive and physical homeostasis within the human body. The endocannabinoid system is defined as a widespread neuromodulatory system that plays a significant role in central nervous system (CNS) development, synaptic plasticity and recognising endogenous and environmental stimuli (Lu &amp; Mackie, 2015). Endocannabinoids and their receptors are densely packed together and located throughout the entirety of the human body; in the organs, conncective tissues, in the brain, glands and in immune cells (Alger, 2013; Kendall &amp; Yudowski, 2016). Additionally, research into the endocannabinoid system and the pharmacology of endocannabinoids began in the late 1940's, several decades before cannabinoids were detected in [[Should cannabis be legal?|canabis]] (also known as [[marijuana]]) (Pertwee, 2006). Since the first discovery in the 1940's, endocannabinoids were quickly discovered to be very useful and efficient in pharmacological medicines in order to treat drug addictions, regulating anxiety and as a therapeutic tool to improve emotional regulation (Litvin, Phan, Hill, Pfaff, &amp; McEwen, 2013; Marco &amp; Laviola, 2013).   


The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====
[[File:Anxiety cloud.png|thumb|Fig 1. Emotions of Fear, Anxiety and Stress represented as a cloud]]

== What is Emotion? ==

=== The 7 Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== ''Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==== ''Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

== Future Research Direction: Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Tool for Anxiety-related Disorders ==

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}
*
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alger, B. (2013). Getting high on the endocannabinoid system. Cerebrum, 14, 1-11. doi: PMC3997295

Kendall, &amp; Yudowski, G. A. (2016). Cannabinoid Receptors in the Central Nervous System: Their Signaling and Roles in Disease. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 10, 294–294. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2016.00294

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Lu, &amp; Mackie, K. (2015). An Introduction to the Endogenous Cannabinoid System. Biological Psychiatry (1969), 79(7), 516–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.07.028

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x

Pertwee. (2006). Cannabinoid pharmacology: the first 66 years. British Journal of Pharmacology, 147(S1), S163–S171. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0706406
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-24T06:30:51Z</timestamp>
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        <id>2947623</id>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
The [[wikipedia:Endocannabinoid_system|endocannabinoid system]] is critical in the emotional, cognitive and physical homeostasis within the human body. The endocannabinoid system is defined as a widespread neuromodulatory system that plays a significant role in central nervous system (CNS) development, synaptic plasticity and recognising endogenous and environmental stimuli (Lu &amp; Mackie, 2015). Endocannabinoids and their receptors are densely packed together and located throughout the entirety of the human body; in the organs, conncective tissues, in the brain, glands and in immune cells (Alger, 2013; Kendall &amp; Yudowski, 2016). Additionally, research into the endocannabinoid system and the pharmacology of endocannabinoids began in the late 1940's, several decades before cannabinoids were detected in [[Should cannabis be legal?|canabis]] (also known as [[marijuana]]) (Pertwee, 2006). Since the first discovery in the 1940's, endocannabinoids were quickly discovered to be very useful and efficient in pharmacological medicines in order to treat drug addictions, regulating anxiety and as a therapeutic tool to improve emotional regulation (Litvin, Phan, Hill, Pfaff, &amp; McEwen, 2013; Marco &amp; Laviola, 2013).   
   
Throughout the chapter the endocannabinoid system will be presented and discussed in depth with assistance from credible research. Firstly, the endocannabinoid system will be discussed, outlining the systems history, impacts and significance in the psychology field. Additionally, discussing physiological processes of the endocannabinoid system and the main receptors involved. Next, the chapter will delve into basic emotions, highlighting core emotions related to the endocannabinoid system and the impact on emotional processing and regulation of an individual. Lastly the chapter will outline future directions of research.    


The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====
[[File:Anxiety cloud.png|thumb|Fig 1. Emotions of Fear, Anxiety and Stress represented as a cloud]]

== What is Emotion? ==

=== The 7 Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== ''Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==== ''Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

== Future Research Direction: Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Tool for Anxiety-related Disorders ==

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}
*
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alger, B. (2013). Getting high on the endocannabinoid system. Cerebrum, 14, 1-11. doi: PMC3997295

Kendall, &amp; Yudowski, G. A. (2016). Cannabinoid Receptors in the Central Nervous System: Their Signaling and Roles in Disease. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 10, 294–294. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2016.00294

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Lu, &amp; Mackie, K. (2015). An Introduction to the Endogenous Cannabinoid System. Biological Psychiatry (1969), 79(7), 516–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.07.028

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x

Pertwee. (2006). Cannabinoid pharmacology: the first 66 years. British Journal of Pharmacology, 147(S1), S163–S171. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0706406
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
The [[wikipedia:Endocannabinoid_system|endocannabinoid system]] is critical in the emotional, cognitive and physical homeostasis within the human body. The endocannabinoid system is defined as a widespread neuromodulatory system that plays a significant role in central nervous system (CNS) development, synaptic plasticity and recognising endogenous and environmental stimuli (Lu &amp; Mackie, 2015). Endocannabinoids and their receptors are densely packed together and located throughout the entirety of the human body; in the organs, conncective tissues, in the brain, glands and in immune cells (Alger, 2013; Kendall &amp; Yudowski, 2016). Additionally, research into the endocannabinoid system and the pharmacology of endocannabinoids began in the late 1940's, several decades before cannabinoids were detected in [[Should cannabis be legal?|canabis]] (also known as [[marijuana]]) (Pertwee, 2006). Since the first discovery in the 1940's, endocannabinoids were quickly discovered to be very useful and efficient in pharmacological medicines in order to treat drug addictions, regulating anxiety, stress, and as a therapeutic tool to improve emotional regulation (Litvin, Phan, Hill, Pfaff, &amp; McEwen, 2013; Marco &amp; Laviola, 2013).   
   
Throughout the chapter the endocannabinoid system will be presented and discussed in depth with assistance from credible research. Firstly, the endocannabinoid system will be discussed, outlining the systems history, impacts and significance in the psychology field. Additionally, discussing physiological processes of the endocannabinoid system and the main receptors involved. Next, the chapter will delve into basic emotions, highlighting core emotions related to the endocannabinoid system and the impact on emotional processing and regulation of an individual. Lastly the chapter will outline future directions of research.    


The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the Endocannabinoid System?
* What is Emotion?  
* How does the Endocannabinoid system and emotion interact?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====
[[File:Anxiety cloud.png|thumb|Fig 1. Emotions of Fear, Anxiety and Stress represented as a cloud]]

== What is Emotion? ==

=== The 7 Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== ''Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==== ''Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

== Future Research Direction: Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Tool for Anxiety-related Disorders ==

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}
*
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alger, B. (2013). Getting high on the endocannabinoid system. Cerebrum, 14, 1-11. doi: PMC3997295

Kendall, &amp; Yudowski, G. A. (2016). Cannabinoid Receptors in the Central Nervous System: Their Signaling and Roles in Disease. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 10, 294–294. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2016.00294

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Lu, &amp; Mackie, K. (2015). An Introduction to the Endogenous Cannabinoid System. Biological Psychiatry (1969), 79(7), 516–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.07.028

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x

Pertwee. (2006). Cannabinoid pharmacology: the first 66 years. British Journal of Pharmacology, 147(S1), S163–S171. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0706406
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418144</id>
      <parentid>2418143</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T06:36:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
The [[wikipedia:Endocannabinoid_system|endocannabinoid system]] is critical in the emotional, cognitive and physical homeostasis within the human body. The endocannabinoid system is defined as a widespread neuromodulatory system that plays a significant role in central nervous system (CNS) development, synaptic plasticity and recognising endogenous and environmental stimuli (Lu &amp; Mackie, 2015). Endocannabinoids and their receptors are densely packed together and located throughout the entirety of the human body; in the organs, conncective tissues, in the brain, glands and in immune cells (Alger, 2013; Kendall &amp; Yudowski, 2016). Additionally, research into the endocannabinoid system and the pharmacology of endocannabinoids began in the late 1940's, several decades before cannabinoids were detected in [[Should cannabis be legal?|canabis]] (also known as [[marijuana]]) (Pertwee, 2006). Since the first discovery in the 1940's, endocannabinoids were quickly discovered to be very useful and efficient in pharmacological medicines in order to treat drug addictions, regulating anxiety, stress, and as a therapeutic tool to improve emotional regulation (Litvin, Phan, Hill, Pfaff, &amp; McEwen, 2013; Marco &amp; Laviola, 2013).   
   
Throughout the chapter, the endocannabinoid system will be presented and discussed in depth with assistance from credible research. Firstly, the endocannabinoid system will be discussed, outlining the systems history, impacts and significance in the psychology field. Additionally, discussing physiological processes of the endocannabinoid system and the main receptors involved. Next, the chapter will delve into basic emotions, highlighting core emotions related to the endocannabinoid system and the impact on emotional processing and regulation of an individual. Lastly the chapter will outline future directions of research.    


The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the Endocannabinoid System?
* What is Emotion?  
* How does the Endocannabinoid system and emotion interact?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

#
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====
[[File:Anxiety cloud.png|thumb|Fig 1. Emotions of Fear, Anxiety and Stress represented as a cloud]]

== What is Emotion? ==

=== The 7 Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== ''Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==== ''Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

== Future Research Direction: Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Tool for Anxiety-related Disorders ==

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}
*
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alger, B. (2013). Getting high on the endocannabinoid system. Cerebrum, 14, 1-11. doi: PMC3997295

Kendall, &amp; Yudowski, G. A. (2016). Cannabinoid Receptors in the Central Nervous System: Their Signaling and Roles in Disease. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 10, 294–294. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2016.00294

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Lu, &amp; Mackie, K. (2015). An Introduction to the Endogenous Cannabinoid System. Biological Psychiatry (1969), 79(7), 516–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.07.028

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x

Pertwee. (2006). Cannabinoid pharmacology: the first 66 years. British Journal of Pharmacology, 147(S1), S163–S171. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0706406
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2418146</id>
      <parentid>2418144</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T06:44:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="6502" xml:space="preserve">{{METP}}
{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
The [[wikipedia:Endocannabinoid_system|endocannabinoid system]] is critical in the emotional, cognitive and physical homeostasis within the human body. The endocannabinoid system is defined as a widespread neuromodulatory system that plays a significant role in central nervous system (CNS) development, synaptic plasticity and recognising endogenous and environmental stimuli (Lu &amp; Mackie, 2015). Endocannabinoids and their receptors are densely packed together and located throughout the entirety of the human body; in the organs, conncective tissues, in the brain, glands and in immune cells (Alger, 2013; Kendall &amp; Yudowski, 2016). Additionally, research into the endocannabinoid system and the pharmacology of endocannabinoids began in the late 1940's, several decades before cannabinoids were detected in [[Should cannabis be legal?|canabis]] (also known as [[marijuana]]) (Pertwee, 2006). Since the first discovery in the 1940's, endocannabinoids were quickly discovered to be very useful and efficient in pharmacological medicines in order to treat drug addictions, regulating anxiety, stress, and as a therapeutic tool to improve emotional regulation (Litvin, Phan, Hill, Pfaff, &amp; McEwen, 2013; Marco &amp; Laviola, 2013).   
   
Throughout the chapter, the endocannabinoid system will be presented and discussed in depth with assistance from credible research. Firstly, the endocannabinoid system will be discussed, outlining the systems history, impacts and significance in the psychology field. Additionally, discussing physiological processes of the endocannabinoid system and the main receptors involved. Next, the chapter will delve into basic emotions, highlighting core emotions related to the endocannabinoid system and the impact on emotional processing and regulation of an individual. Lastly the chapter will outline future directions of research.    {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the endocannabinoid System?
* What is emotion?  
* How does the endocannabinoid system and emotion interact?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==
Description of the Endocannabinoid system 

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====
[[File:Anxiety cloud.png|thumb|Fig 1. Emotions of Fear, Anxiety and Stress represented as a cloud]]

== What is Emotion? ==

=== The 7 Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== ''Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==== ''Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

== Future Research Direction: Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Tool for Anxiety-related Disorders ==

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}
*
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alger, B. (2013). Getting high on the endocannabinoid system. Cerebrum, 14, 1-11. doi: PMC3997295

Kendall, &amp; Yudowski, G. A. (2016). Cannabinoid Receptors in the Central Nervous System: Their Signaling and Roles in Disease. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 10, 294–294. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2016.00294

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Lu, &amp; Mackie, K. (2015). An Introduction to the Endogenous Cannabinoid System. Biological Psychiatry (1969), 79(7), 516–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.07.028

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x

Pertwee. (2006). Cannabinoid pharmacology: the first 66 years. British Journal of Pharmacology, 147(S1), S163–S171. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0706406
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
      <sha1>bflya70lbbhaqgd946ufgor2vu6xsmg</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418157</id>
      <parentid>2418146</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T07:03:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
The [[wikipedia:Endocannabinoid_system|endocannabinoid system]] is critical in the emotional, cognitive and physical homeostasis within the human body. The endocannabinoid system is defined as a widespread neuromodulatory system that plays a significant role in central nervous system (CNS) development, synaptic plasticity and recognising endogenous and environmental stimuli (Lu &amp; Mackie, 2015). Endocannabinoids and their receptors are densely packed together and located throughout the entirety of the human body; in the organs, conncective tissues, in the brain, glands and in immune cells (Alger, 2013; Kendall &amp; Yudowski, 2016). Additionally, research into the endocannabinoid system and the pharmacology of endocannabinoids began in the late 1940's, several decades before cannabinoids were detected in [[Should cannabis be legal?|canabis]] (also known as [[marijuana]]) (Pertwee, 2006). Since the first discovery in the 1940's, endocannabinoids were quickly discovered to be very useful and efficient in pharmacological medicines in order to treat drug addictions, regulating anxiety, stress, and as a therapeutic tool to improve emotional regulation and processes (Litvin, Phan, Hill, Pfaff, &amp; McEwen, 2013; Marco &amp; Laviola, 2013).   
   
Throughout the chapter, the endocannabinoid system will be presented and discussed in depth with assistance from credible research. Firstly, the endocannabinoid system will be discussed, outlining the systems history, impacts and significance in the psychology field. Additionally, discussing physiological processes of the endocannabinoid system and the main receptors involved. Next, the chapter will delve into basic emotions, highlighting core emotions related to the endocannabinoid system and the impact on emotional processing and regulation of an individual. Lastly the chapter will outline future directions of research.    {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the endocannabinoid system?
* What is emotion?  
* How does the endocannabinoid system and emotions interact?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==

* The endocannabinoid system is a complex cell signalling system that serves various protective roles in pathophysiological conditions (Chanda, Neumann, &amp; Glatz, 2019). 
*

Main functions and prevalence in the human body and throughout history, impacts and significance  

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====
[[File:Anxiety cloud.png|thumb|Fig 1. Emotions of Fear, Anxiety and Stress represented as a cloud]]

== What is Emotion? ==

=== The 7 Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== ''Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==== ''Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

== Future Research Direction: Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Tool for Anxiety-related Disorders ==

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}
*
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alger, B. (2013). Getting high on the endocannabinoid system. Cerebrum, 14, 1-11. doi: PMC3997295

Chanda, Neumann, D., &amp; Glatz, J. F. C. (2019). The endocannabinoid system: Overview of an emerging multi-faceted therapeutic target. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids, 140, 51–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2018.11.016

Kendall, &amp; Yudowski, G. A. (2016). Cannabinoid Receptors in the Central Nervous System: Their Signaling and Roles in Disease. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 10, 294–294. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2016.00294

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Lu, &amp; Mackie, K. (2015). An Introduction to the Endogenous Cannabinoid System. Biological Psychiatry (1969), 79(7), 516–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.07.028

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x

Pertwee. (2006). Cannabinoid pharmacology: the first 66 years. British Journal of Pharmacology, 147(S1), S163–S171. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0706406
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
      <sha1>or32k12sfn12lg2m71m14a0chwdo3be</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418162</id>
      <parentid>2418157</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T07:08:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rwilliams12</username>
        <id>2947623</id>
      </contributor>
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      <comment>/* What is the Endocannabinoid System? */</comment>
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{{title|Endocannabinoid System and Emotion: What is the Role of the Endocannabinoid System and Emotion? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
The [[wikipedia:Endocannabinoid_system|endocannabinoid system]] is critical in the emotional, cognitive and physical homeostasis within the human body. The endocannabinoid system is defined as a widespread neuromodulatory system that plays a significant role in central nervous system (CNS) development, synaptic plasticity and recognising endogenous and environmental stimuli (Lu &amp; Mackie, 2015). Endocannabinoids and their receptors are densely packed together and located throughout the entirety of the human body; in the organs, conncective tissues, in the brain, glands and in the immune systems cells (Alger, 2013; Kendall &amp; Yudowski, 2016). Additionally, research into the endocannabinoid system and the pharmacology of endocannabinoids began in the late 1940's, several decades before cannabinoids were detected in [[Should cannabis be legal?|canabis]] (also known as [[marijuana]]) (Pertwee, 2006). Since the first discovery in the 1940's, endocannabinoids were quickly discovered to be very useful and efficient in pharmacological medicines in order to treat drug addictions, regulating anxiety, stress, and as a therapeutic tool to improve emotional regulation and processes (Litvin, Phan, Hill, Pfaff, &amp; McEwen, 2013; Marco &amp; Laviola, 2013).   
   
Throughout the chapter, the endocannabinoid system will be presented and discussed in depth with assistance from credible research. Firstly, the endocannabinoid system will be discussed, outlining the systems history, impacts and significance in the psychology field. Additionally, discussing physiological processes of the endocannabinoid system and the main receptors involved. Next, the chapter will delve into basic emotions, highlighting core emotions related to the endocannabinoid system and the impact on emotional processing and regulation of an individual. Lastly the chapter will outline future directions of research.    {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the endocannabinoid system?
* What is emotion?  
* How does the endocannabinoid system and emotions interact?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is the Endocannabinoid System?==

* The endocannabinoid system is a complex cell signalling system that serves various protective roles in pathophysiological conditions (Chanda, Neumann, &amp; Glatz, 2019). 
*The endocannabinoid system is significant in relation to emotions across the human lifespan, emotional regulation and processing (Marco &amp; Laviola, 2013).   

=== Physiological processes of the Endocannabinoid System ===

==== ''CB1 Receptors'' ====

==== ''CB2 Receptors'' ====
[[File:Anxiety cloud.png|thumb|Fig 1. Emotions of Fear, Anxiety and Stress represented as a cloud]]

== What is Emotion? ==

=== The 7 Basic Emotions ===

=== Focus emotions: Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses ===

== Endocannabinoid System and Emotions ==

=== Fear, Anxiety and Stress Responses on the Endocannabinoid System ===
1 small paragraph on fear, then anxiety then stress interacting with the system. 

=== Role of Endocannabinoid system in Emotional Regulation and Processing ===

==== ''Positive Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

==== ''Negative Impact of Endocannabinoid system on Anxiety'' ====

== Future Research Direction: Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Tool for Anxiety-related Disorders ==

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}
*
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alger, B. (2013). Getting high on the endocannabinoid system. Cerebrum, 14, 1-11. doi: PMC3997295

Chanda, Neumann, D., &amp; Glatz, J. F. C. (2019). The endocannabinoid system: Overview of an emerging multi-faceted therapeutic target. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids, 140, 51–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2018.11.016

Kendall, &amp; Yudowski, G. A. (2016). Cannabinoid Receptors in the Central Nervous System: Their Signaling and Roles in Disease. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 10, 294–294. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2016.00294

Litvin, Phan, A., Hill, M. N., Pfaff, D. W., &amp; McEwen, B. S. (2013). CB1 receptor signaling regulates social anxiety and memory. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(5), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12045

Lu, &amp; Mackie, K. (2015). An Introduction to the Endogenous Cannabinoid System. Biological Psychiatry (1969), 79(7), 516–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.07.028

Marco, &amp; Laviola, G. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in the regulation of emotions throughout lifespan: a discussion on therapeutic perspectives. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 26(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111408459

Moreira, &amp; Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: emotion, learning and addiction. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x

Pertwee. (2006). Cannabinoid pharmacology: the first 66 years. British Journal of Pharmacology, 147(S1), S163–S171. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0706406
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Endocannabinoid system and emotion|Endocannabinoid system and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) - u3216457</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Mindsets, control, and the self/Images</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>276187</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-23T14:34:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CommonsDelinker</username>
        <id>9184</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Replacing Girl_with_styrofoam_swimming_board.jpg with [[File:Girl_with_swimming_board.jpg]] (by [[:c:User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] because: [[:c:COM:FR|File renamed]]: [[:c:COM:FR#FR3|Criterion 3]] (obvious error) · unlikely to be styrofoam).</comment>
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      <text bytes="319" xml:space="preserve">==Images==
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Girl with swimming board.jpg
File:Drill sergeant screams.jpg
File:Skier-carving-a-turn.jpg
File:Shuttle Box Dog Orange.png
&lt;!-- File:Jomopro09-expert-flat-04.jpg --&gt;
File:De mulieribus claris - Marcia.png
&lt;/gallery&gt;

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Mindsets, control, and the self]]</text>
      <sha1>73a1xo7rer1r97oerybvyhjolww61zl</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Self-efficacy and achievement</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>276547</id>
    <revision>
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      <parentid>2415941</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:53:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ category</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="159" xml:space="preserve">__TOC__
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Achievement]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-efficacy]]</text>
      <sha1>kdjz13k9abaz3rxjjrwp0b9fbe5f4zd</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Self-regulation</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>276717</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2417932</id>
      <parentid>2360553</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T14:34:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CommonsDelinker</username>
        <id>9184</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Replacing Girl_with_styrofoam_swimming_board.jpg with [[File:Girl_with_swimming_board.jpg]] (by [[:c:User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] because: [[:c:COM:FR|File renamed]]: [[:c:COM:FR#FR3|Criterion 3]] (obvious error) · unlikely to be styrofoam).</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="34769" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Self-regulation:&lt;br&gt;What is it, why does it matter, and how can it be developed?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://youtu.be/Lpi2bFKKAag}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Study Session.png|thumb|Self-regulation in studying]]

Self-regulation is the regulation of emotions, behaviour, reactions of self and to the environment around an individual. It is an important thing to develop because it can be used in every aspect of life. It helps to motivate desires and keep behaviours align{{gr}} with social norms and expectations. Self-regulation includes aspects that are used and developed such as planning, applying, evaluating and monitoring one's behaviours and cognitions before, during and after tasks.    

There are many types of self-regulation, the types that will be discussed are emotional self-regulation, behavioural self-regulation, and learned self-regulation{{gr}}.   

Why does self-regulation matter? Self-regulation is important because it helps with individual development, psychological wellbeing, and to help apply learned behaviour.   

How can self-regulation be developed and how can psychological science help? To answer this question three theories will be discussed in relation to each focused self-regulation. The theories include Baumeister's self-regulation theory, Bandura's social cognitive theory, and social learning theory.   

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is self-regulation
* Why does self-regulation matter?
* How can it be developed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is self-regulation?==
[[File:Emotions Image.jpg|thumb|Emotions]]
'''[[w:Self|Self]]''' is referred to as an individual's own reflection of their consciousness. A sense of one's self. '''[[w:Regulation|Regulation]]''' is referred to as management of systems formed by rules. Self-regulation, or '''[[w: Emotional self-regulation| Emotional self-regulation]]''' is defined as an individual's ability to manage and understand their own behaviours, feelings, and reactions occurring in their environment. This includes the ability to regulation{{gr}} one's reactions and behaviours to their own emotions. In other words, it is a characteristic each person has that links them to the context of their environment that helps shape the individual's own personal development. &quot;self-regulation refers to the exercise of control over oneself, especially with regard to bringing the self into line with preferred (thus, regular) standards.&quot; (Vohs &amp; Baumeister, 2004, P. 2).   

While there are many types of self-regulation, they usually fall under the categories of personal, behavioral, and environmental. A couple types of self-regulation that will be focused on are: 

=== Emotional self-regulation ===
'''[[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]]''' focuses on the emotion aspect of self-regulation. It is the ability for an individual to emotionally react to their experiences in a socially acceptable way. It involves regulating an individual's own emotions. Emotional self-regulation can be explained as [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Intrinsic motivation|'''intrinsic motivation''']] and '''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Extrinsic motivation|extrinsic motivation]]&lt;nowiki/&gt;s''' responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and modifying an individual's reactions emotionally.

In the next section, when discussing why self-regulation is important, emotional self-regulation will connect to psychological well-being, and later discussed through the self-regulation theory.

=== Behavioural self-regulation ===
Behavioural self-regulation is the behaviour aspect of self-regulation. It is used to manage our attention, energy, emotions and behaviours in socially acceptable ways, for socially acceptable behavioural outcomes (Lowry, 2016). 

Behavioural self-regulation will link to individual development, and then the social cognitive theory. 

=== Learned self-regulation ===
'''[[w:Self-regulated learning|Self-regulated learning]]''' is an individual's ability to recognize, understand, and control their learning environment (Self-regulated learning refers, P. 1, 2012). Learned self-regulation is linked to learned behaviour which is why it is an important type of self-regulation to look at. It is regulated through cognition, and Motivation.   

When discussing why self-regulation matters, learned self-regulation will link to Applying learned behaviours which will then be discussed through the social learning theory.    
==Why does self-regulation matter?==
Self-regulation can be used as a tool to help an individual align themselves with their ideal self, this occurs through individual development, psychological well-being, and applying learning behaviours{{gr}}. These three things and their outcomes are what make self-regulation important. 

Self-regulation can serve as a protector to one's self through applying learned behaviour, individual development, and health and wellbeing, Singh &amp; Sharma (2018) &quot;With the help of self-regulation strategy people can regulating desired feelings, thoughts, and actions can allow them to not only protect themselves against recurring stressors and psychological distress but also achieve desired well-being goals and standards.&quot; (P. 443). 

=== Individual development ===
Individual development or [[w:Personal development|Personal development]] is when an individual participates in activities that help to develop their abilities and potential. This development creates a higher quality of life and goals and aspirations.

Through self-regulation, self-control can occur. Self-control then helps with self management, this then leads to an individual to view themselves and their life as continuously growing, moving towards goals and looking for new experiences, all of these things continue to support self development.

Research has found that those with good self-control when managing view themselves as constantly growing and moving towards their desired goals, and seek out new experiences in life (Singh &amp;  Sharma, 2018, P. 443). Those with good self-regulation are able to do so in ways that are socially acceptable, while individual development is important for oneself it is also important because it plays a role in how you behave around others, so it has an impact on behavioral self-regulation.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study 1'''

'''Goal pursuit and goal adjustment: Self-regulation and intentional self-development in changing developmental contexts (Brandtstadter, 2009).'''

This study looks at how people try to control their individual development throughout their life. The things involved in personal development are skills such as strong goal orientated, ability to adjust goals, and openness to change to achieve goals (Brandtstadter, 2009){{gr}}. These skills that need to be used are skills that are required in self-regulation.

It was found that psychological well-being has an effect on how goal attainment will occur and the outcomes (Brandtstadter, 2009). This shows that it is important to have positive psychological wellbeing for self-regulation. The next section will discuss how psychological well-being is important in self-regulation.

'''Take home messages'''

The take home messages of this study were that self-regulation is involved in individual development through skills such as goal orientation, ability to be flexible with goals, and open to change when it comes to these goals. Another message is that psychological wellbeing has an impact on how self-regulation will occur.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Psychological wellbeing ===
Psychological wellbeing is a positive mental state consisting of positive emotions such as happiness and satisfaction (Cooper, 2021). The '''[[w:Six-factor Model of Psychological Well-being|Six-factor Model of Psychological Well-being]]''' theory consists of six factors that influence psychological wellbeing. They include: 

# '''Autonomy''' - an individual independently regulates themselves and their behaviours without society pressures. 
# '''Environmental Mastery''' - individual effectively uses mastery and opportunities when managing environmental activities and factors that contribute to creating beneficial situations.
# '''Personal Growth''' - open to new experiences, open to development, and acknowledges self and behavioural improvements over time.
# '''Positive Relations with Others''' - individuals engaging in meaningful relationship with other people.
# '''Life Purpose''' - individuals that are goal orientated and believe that life has meaning.
# '''Self-Acceptance''' - individual has positive beliefs and attitudes about themselves.
Research into self-regulation and psychological wellbeing found that there is a positive correlation between self-regulation and psychological wellbeing; this includes its factors such as life purpose, personal growth, and self-acceptance, (Singh &amp;  Sharma, 2018, P. 443). For example, those who have good self-regulation are able to develop new behaviours and attitudes to become more focused on their goals (Singh &amp;  Sharma, 2018, P. 443); this relates to the factors of personal growth and life purpose. 

Development of self-regulation skills could be effective in managing stressors, positive psychological well-being, and preventing poor mental wellbeing (Singh &amp;  Sharma, 2018, P. 443). This is because self-regulation involved suppressing one's negative emotions which then allows for people to reframe their negative thoughts and focus on positive outcomes (Singh &amp;  Sharma, 2018, P. 443). This is emotional regulation, one being able to regulate their emotions in a way that is beneficial to the individual. 

Research found that when people are more goal orientated through external rewards and controls instead of internal drives they have negative consequences, this includes poorer psychological well-being; this includes when an individual places importance on extrinsic drives rather than intrinsic drives, poorer wellbeing will be exhibited (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2000, P. 48){{gr}}. In other words, self-regulation is best when it is an internal motivation, this then leads to better psychological wellbeing in comparison to external motivations which lead to negative wellbeing{{gr}}.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study 2'''
'''When rewards compete with nature: The undermining of intrinsic motivation and self-regulation (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2002).'''

The purpose of this study was to look at the underlying affects by intrinsic and extrinsic motivations on self-regulation.

Research found that extrinsic rewards lead to negative affects{{sp}} in learning, assimilation, creative social behaviour, and values and meanings (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2020).

There was two studies done that found that when individuals are more driven by extrinsic motivations rather than intrinsic, they had negative affects such as poor psychological well-being (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2020). It was also found that self-regulation occurs better when an individual is given the chance to be driven by autonomy (intrinsic) support rather than control (extrinsic) (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2020). Autonomy is an aspect of intrinsic motivation, and control is an aspect of extrinsic motivation. This supports the idea that intrinsic motivations are better for using and developing self-regulation.

See book chapters intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation for a deeper understanding of the motivations.{{ic|Add embedded links}}

'''Take home messages'''

The take home messages of this case study is that when an individual is driven by intrinsic motivations it leads to better outcomes. Being able to use internal forces to motivate onself and achieve goals leads to greater psychological wellbeing.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Applying learned behaviours ===
[[File:Academic success.jpg|alt=|thumb|Self-regulation motivating towards academic goal]]

Applied learning refers to educational approaches where students learn through engaging directly in the application of skills, models, and theories. It is when students apply what is learnt in theory and use it in practical, hands on real like experience (Suny, 2021).

Bradley et al. (2017) found that students that{{gr}} feel strongly connected to school and have strong self-efficacy for online classes were more likely to effectively use learning strategies such as self-regulation to finish their school work in comparison to student with no connection to school and little to no self-efficacy beliefs. This is an example of learned self-regulation. This is an example of how self-regulation can be used in applying learned behaviour. It talks about how self-efficacy leads to the use of self-regulation, {{gr}} this is important because self-efficacy is a part of self-regulation as well Bandura's social-cognitive theory. This links self-regulation to the social-cognitive theory.    

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study 3'''
'''Self-Regulation Empowerment Program: A School-Based Program to Enhance Self-Regulation and Self-Motivated Cycles of Student Learning (Cleary &amp; Zimmerman, 2004).'''

This article was about a training program called Self-regulation empowerment program (SREP). It was designed to help measure and develop motivation and self-regulation cycles of learning in students in middle and high school.

The program combines self-regulation dynamic feedback model and important factors of the problem solving model. It was done by assessing student's study strategies and self-regulation beliefs (Cleary &amp; Zimmerman, 2004, P. 537).  The social-cognitive theory and features of the problem-solving model helped to structure the program (Cleary &amp; Zimmerman, 2004, P. 537).

While this study has shown positive outcomes on the achievements and motivations of the students, there are some limitations. One is that the processes involved in this program may not be the only aspects that contribute to positive academic outcomes, for example, student attendance, and peer relations could be contributing factors. Other limitations could be motivational, cognitive, and cultural differences in students. For example, those with low intelligence would struggle with the skills needed in self-regulation (Cleary &amp; Zimmerman, 2004).

This study is important to look at because it answers the focus questions of why does it matter and how can it be developed. Case-study results supports the idea that the program could have positive outcomes on motivation and achievement (Cleary &amp; Zimmerman, 2004, P. 549). This study investigates the outcomes of self-regulation and learning, which answers the question of why it is important.  The question of how it can be developed was also answered in this case study. It was investigated through the strategies and self-regulation beliefs that were assessed, as well as, combining these strategies and beliefs with the social-cognitive theory.

'''Take home messages'''

The take home message of this case study is with the help of the self-regulation dynamic feedback model and important factors of the problem solving model, students are able to develop important skills that help in self-regulation. With stronger self-regulation one is able to meet their academic goals, which contributes to their wellbeing.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Quizzes===
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Self-regulation is important because it is used to apply learning to behaviour:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Self-Regulation Empowerment Program (SREP) results showed no positive outcomes?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{'Values' are a component of environmental process?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Self-efficacy is when behaviour is encouraged by rewards:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==How can self-regulation be developed? ==

*
Self-regulation is about regulating one's reactions, emotions, and behaviours, especially in a social context. Due to this it is important to look at self-regulation through social theories.

To investigate how self-regulation can be developed, three theories in relation to the motivation will be discussed.

=== Self regulation theory ===
'''[[w:Self-regulation theory|Self-regulation theory]]''' is a personal conscious management system that helps with the process of guiding an individual's feelings, thoughts, and behaviours to reach goals. It involves stages and people contribute their own motivations, development, and behaviours in a system of interacting influences.
[[File:Roy Baumeister.jpg|thumb|social psychologist '''[[wikipedia:Roy Baumeister|Roy Baumeister]]''' ]]
Social psychologist '''[[w:Roy Baumeister|Roy Baumeister]]''' researched self-regulation and found that it has four components:

# Standards of desirable behaviour
# Motivations to meet standards
# Monitoring of situations and thoughts that precede breaking said standards
# Willpower
This theory will help to investigate how psychological wellbeing can be developed through self-regulation.

Self-regulation theory has found that for healthy behavioural patterns one must have active self-regulation (Hall &amp; Fong, 2007). This can be done through the four components above. For example if an individual wants to better manage their social anxiety:

* Standards of desirable behavior - they could find behaviours that are small but realistically slowly start managing their anxiety. This could be at a shop instead of going to the self checkout, go to a checkout where you'll be served by a person. This way the person will be exposed to people and they will slowly become more comfortable with this which will improve their social anxiety. 
* Motivations to meet standards - this could be a commitment one has to bettering their social anxiety. Maybe a future goal that would require more social interaction is a motivator to developing now. One could also set reminders and make conscious efforts to put themselves in uncomfortable situations, over time they would become comfortable with these situations. 
* Monitoring of situations and thoughts that precede breaking said standards - this could include keeping a journal and tracking their progress, thoughts, and feelings around the development of their social anxiety. 
* Willpower - it is easy to set goals, but it takes willpower to actually do them. Willpower is important to get through all of these standards of behaviours. It is easy to remain in situations that are comfortable which is why willpower is important.

=== Social cognitive theory ===
[[wikipedia:Social_cognitive_theory|'''Social cognitive theory''']] is about how the observation of others leads to an individual's knowledge. social experiences, interactions, and media influences contribute to this [[wikipedia:Observational_learning|Observational learning]]. This theory is used in communication, education, and psychology. The theory states that when an individual observes a behaviour and its outcomes, they remember it and use this knowledge later to guide their own behaviour. There are two important aspects that contribute to the social cognitive theory:
[[File:Bandura social cognitive theory.png|thumb|Bandura social cognitive theory]]
# '''Behavioural''' - includes the response an individual receives after they have behaviour{{gr}} in a certain way. This gives the individual the opportunity to learn socially acceptable behaviours by other's responses.  
# '''Environmental''' - Environmental settings influence a person's ability to successfully reach goals and complete behaviours. For example, developing self-regulation would require the right environment to support the development. 


Due to self-regulation being important in applying learning to behaviour, it is important to look at how people learn. This will be investigated through Bandura's social cognitive theory. &quot;In social cognitive theory human behaviour is extensively motivated and regulated by the ongoing exercise of self-influence.&quot; (Bandura, 1991, P. 248), this statement supports the idea that an individual can develop self-regulation through personal influence and motivation. It also links back to the Self-Regulation Empowerment Program case study.

There are three main parts of the social cognitive theory, behavioural processes, personal processes, and environmental processes. The factors within these processes are shown in table 1.

Table 1.

''Bandura's Social cognitive theory''
{| align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Social Cognitive Theory 
|- 
| '''''Behavioural Processes'''''
| '''''Personal Processes'''''
| '''''Environmental Processes'''''
|- 
| Activity Choice
| Self-Efficacy 
| Social models
|-
|Persistence 
|Values
|Instruction
|-
|Effort
|Attributions
|Feedback &amp; self-evaluation
|-
|Achievement 
|Goals
|Reward 
|-
|Regulation of environment
|Outcome Expectations
|Standard
|}


Research looking at the relationship between [[wikipedia:Self-efficacy|Self-efficacy]] beliefs and computer-related performance showed that a higher performance correlated with higher self-efficacy beliefs, and that a decrease in computer performance related to lower self-efficacy beliefs (Harrison, Rainer et al., 1997, P.84). This research suggest that through self-efficacy, social cognitive theory can help develop self-regulation. The correlation between self-efficacy and performance shows that when the stages of behaviour and personal in the social cognitive theory work together they create a positive outcome. 

A study that looked at the environmental influences on physical activity in older Australia{{gr}} found that there were two factors that were strongly correlated with physical activity, they were location opportunities for physical activity and social support from family and friends (Booth, Owen et al., 2000, P. 22). This shows how environmental factors and behavioural factors work together in the social cognitive theory to develop self-regulation. This is because the social support received to help motivate is an environmental process of the social cognitive theory, and the location for physical activity is a behavioral process. These two processes help strengthen the likely hood {{sp}} and motivation that the individual will participate in physical activity, this then leads to self-regulation over time.

Social cognitive theory linked with self-regulation can provide motivation for behaviour. In the social cognitive theory there are environmental influences which can include social influences. Self-regulation helps an individual to regulate there own behaviours and emotions in a way that aligns with social settings, social norms, and behavioural expectations. When these behaviours that stem from self-regulation occur, the individual is met with rewards (environmental processes) such as social acceptance. These environmental processes reinforce one's personal and behavioural processes, when they are working in alignment together they create and develop self-regulation. 

The three main components of social-cognitive theory work together to create self-regulation. For example, a university student will have a goal (personal processes) to do well on an exam, they will then direct effort (behavioural processes) to achieving their goal, once the goal has been achieved that is when environmental processes will occur. In this example the exam results will produce environmental processes such as reward, feedback, and self evaluation.

=== Social learning theory ===
[[wikipedia:Social_learning_theory|'''Social learning theory''']] focuses on social behaviours and learning processes that state that new behaviours could be learned through  observing one's self and other people. The theory states learning as a cognitive process taking place in social aspects and occur during observation or instruction. A process known as vicarious reinforcement can also help influence learning through rewards and punishments of behaviours. 

Social learning theory combines cognitive and behavioural theories of learning to made a model that explains learning experiences that occur in the real world. Key points of this theory include: 

# Learning is not just behaviours, but a cognitive process that occurs in social contexts.  
# Vicarious reinforcement - learning can occur through both observing behaviour and its consequences. 
# Learning can occur with no observable behavioural change. Learning includes observation, knowledge of information from observations, and decision making about behaivour performance. 
# Reinforcement can play a role in learning but it isn't the only responsibility in learning. 
# Environment, behaviour, and cognition all influence each other to lead to learning. 
[[File:Girl with swimming board.jpg|thumb|Child learning to swim]]
Research that looked at how modelling and self-regulation played a part in children learning how to swim found that self-modeling intervention is a good technique for promoting self-regulation of learning and it improved swimming skills in children. The self-modelling in this study was a recorded video of the children's current skills and progression (Clark &amp; Ste-Marie, 2007). From this the child were able to watch themselves and their skills and improve through self-observation. 

This research has implications for physical educations and teachers involved in teaching motor skills (Clark &amp; Ste-Marie, 2007). This research has found that allowing students to self-model and self-observe will help them to develop and apply their learnings. Being able to watch one's self through the self-modelling video enhanced the child's self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and physical performance (Clark &amp; Ste-Marie, 2007). This research found that watch even one's own behavior is enough for one to learn and apply what they have learned to their behaviours.
*
*
*

==Conclusion==
Self-regulation is the regulation of one's emotions, behaviours, and reactions of self and to the environment around them. While there are many types of self-regulation, this chapter focused on three. These being emotional self-regulation, behavioural self-regulation, and learned self-regulation.   

Self-regulation matters because it is an important tool that can be used in all aspects of life, and it helps to motivate the desires that people have. Self-regulation also helps to regulate an individual's emotions and behaviours in a way that is socially acceptable.  
[[File:Happy life.jpg|thumb|Good psychological wellbeing]]
The three main reasons self-regulation matters were individual development, psychological wellbeing, and applying learned behaviours. Individual development allows people to view their lives as constantly moving forwards towards their goals, which acts as a motivator in self-regulation. Psychological wellbeing is important because self-regulation allows people to be able to manage the stressors and things around them to avoid negative psychological wellbeing. The correlation between psychological wellbeing and self-regulation found that people tend have life purpose, personal growth, and self-acceptance. Applying learned behaviour is important because it allows students to engage in their work as well as develop the skill of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy works closely with self-regulation which means that students then learn later how to self-regulate.  

To answer the question of how self-regulation can be developed, three theories were investigated.   

The first was Baumeister's self-regulation theory which is a personal conscious management system which helps with guiding a person's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours to reach goals. This theory included four components that helped to attain goals. Each component helps in the development of self-regulation. The next theory discussed was Bandura's social cognitive theory which was about how people learn through observing and modelling behaviours. There are three processes in this theory that work together that help to develop self-regulation through repeated and combined use of these processes. Lastly was the social learning theory, this is that people can learn behaviours through observing themselves and others. The key points of this theory are that learning involved reinforcements and environment.  

The take away messages are: 

Self-regulation is important for individual development through skills around goals such as setting goals, being flexible, and open to change. Individual develop is important because it allows people to feel like their live is always moving towards their goals 

Effectively using self-regulation includes using intrinsic motivations which have greater psychological outcomes. Psychological wellbeing is important in self-regulation because it allows people to regulate themselves in ways that allow for greater psychological wellbeing and when combined people have life purpose, self-acceptance, and personal growth.  

Self-regulation is a great tool in applying learned behaviour. It is important because with self-regulation students are able to apply self-efficacy and have greater academic and/or performance outcomes, these outcomes also contribute to greater psychological wellbeing.  

==See also==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Emotion regulation and ageing|Emotion regulation and ageing]] (Book chapter, 2020)
* [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Extrinsic motivation|Extrinsic motivation]] (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Instrinsic motivation|Instrinsic motivation]] (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[w:Observational learning|Observational learning]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w:Reinforcement|Reinforcement]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w:Regulation|Regulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w:Self|Self]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[w:Self efficacy|Self efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
*[[w:Six-factor Model of Psychological Well-being|Six-factor Model of Psychological Well-being]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[w:Social cognitive theory|Social cognitive theory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. ''Organizational behavior and human decision processes'', 50(2), 248-287. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90022-L

Baumeister, R. F., &amp; Vohs, K. D. (2004). Self-regulation. ''Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification'', 499—516.

Bodrova, E., Germeroth, C., &amp; Leong, D. J. (2013). Play and self-regulation: lessons from Vygotsky. &lt;em&gt;American journal of play,&lt;/em&gt; 6(1), 111—123.

Booth, M. L., Owen, N., Bauman, A., Clavisi, O., &amp; Leslie, E. (2000). Social–cognitive and perceived environment influences associated with physical activity in older Australians. ''Preventive medicine'', 31(1), 15—22. https://doi.org/10.1006/pmed.2000.0661

Bradley, R. L., Browne, B. L., &amp; Kelley, H. M. (2017). Examining the influence of self-efficacy and self-regulation in online learning. ''College Student Journal'', 51(4), 518—530.

Brandtstädter, J. (2009). Goal pursuit and goal adjustment: Self-regulation and intentional self-development in changing developmental contexts. ''Advances in Life Course Research'', 14(1-2), 52—62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcr.2009.03.002

Clark, S. E., &amp; Ste-Marie, D. M. (2007). The impact of self-as-a-model interventions on children's self-regulation of learning and swimming performance. ''Journal of sports sciences'', 25(5), 577—586. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410600947090

Cleary, T. J., &amp; Zimmerman, B. J. (2004). Self‐regulation empowerment program: A school‐based program to enhance self‐regulated and self‐motivated cycles of student learning. ''Psychology in the Schools'', 41(5), 537—550. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.10177

Gestsdottir, S., &amp; Lerner, R. M. (2008). Positive development in adolescence: The development and role of intentional self-regulation. ''Human Development'', 51(3), 202—224. https://doi.org/10.1159/000135757

Hall, P. A., &amp; Fong, G. T. (2007). Temporal self-regulation theory: A model for individual health behavior. ''Health Psychology Review'', 1(1), 6—52. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437190701492437

Harrison, A. W., Rainer Jr, R. K., Hochwarter, W. A., &amp; Thompson, K. R. (1997). Testing the self-efficacy—performance linkage of social—cognitive theory. ''The Journal of social psychology,'' 137(1), 79—87. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224549709595415

McClelland, M. M., John Geldhof, G., Cameron, C. E., &amp; Wanless, S. B. (2015). Development and self‐regulation. ''Handbook of child psychology and developmental science,'' 1—43. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy114

No, T. C. F. S. (2012). Self-regulated learning. ''Just Write! Guide,'' 29. https://teal.ed.gov/resources.

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2000). When rewards compete with nature: The undermining of intrinsic motivation and self-regulation. In Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (pp. 13—54). ''Academic Press.'' https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012619070-0/50024-6

Schunk, D. H. (2001). Self-regulation through goal setting. http://www.tourettesyndrome.net

Singh, S., &amp; Sharma, N. R. (2018). Self-regulation as a correlate of psychological well-being. ''Indian Journal of Health and Wellbeing,'' 9(3), 441—444. https://ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/self-regulation-as-correlate-psychological-well/docview/2030127745/se-2?accountid=28889

Vohs, K. D., &amp; Baumeister, R. F. (2004). Understanding self-regulation. ''Handbook of self-regulation'', 19.

}}

==External links==
*
* [https://www.suny.edu/applied-learning/about/definitions/ Common Definitions in Applied Learning] (The State University of New York)
*[https://youtu.be/VW5v6PQ5PEc Importance of Self-efficacy] (YouTube)
* [https://youtu.be/m4UGDaCgo_s Self-regulation skills: Why they are fundamental?] (YouTube)
* [https://youtu.be/kTCVutFr1ao Social cognitive theory] (YouTube)
* [https://www.ruralhealthinfo.org/toolkits/health-promotion/2/theories-and-models/social-cognitive Social cognitive theory model]  (Rural Health Info)
* [https://youtu.be/5z1Ka5aL09U Social learning theory] (YouTube)
* [https://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/mph-modules/sb/behavioralchangetheories/behavioralchangetheories5.html The Social Cognitive Theory] (sphweb)
*[https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-intrinsic-motivation-2795385#:~:text=Intrinsic%20motivation%20refers%20to%20behavior,is%20naturally%20satisfying%20to%20you. What Does Intrinsic Motivation Mean?] (verywellmind)
*[http://www.hanen.org/helpful-info/articles/what-is-behaviour-regulation--and-what-does-it-hav.aspx What is behavioural self-regulation?] (The Hanen Centre)
*[https://www.robertsoncooper.com/blog/what-is-psychological-wellbeing/ What is psychological wellbeing?] (robertsoncooper)

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      <text bytes="499" xml:space="preserve">== Suggested article ==
Here is a new article that may be of interest: https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-psych-012921-045304---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:21, 18 August 2021 (UTC)

Also checkout the new headspace resources on Indigenous youth mental health. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:25, 18 August 2021 (UTC)</text>
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  <page>
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      <text bytes="981" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{title|Topic development - Checklist}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;
# Use the correct title and sub-title (use sentence casing)
# Create a heading structure - at least 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion - may include sub-headings
# At least 3 dot points per section, including before branching into sub-headings; Cover theory, research, and application
# Embed and caption (Figure 1 ...) a relevant image
# Provide at least 1 internal link (See also) and at least 1 external link (External links)
# Include at least 3 citations and references (References)
# Make at least 1 [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|social contribution]] and summarise it on your user page
# Check the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Marking_criteria|marking criteria]]

For more info, see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development author guidelines]].&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic]]&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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{{title|Task Initiation. 
What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
 
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}} 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''

- What is Task Initiation?
 
- What are the challenges in task initiation? 

- How role does motivation play in task initiation? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Understanding Task initiation and Motivation ==


=== '''What is task initiation?''' ===
Task initiation refers to the ability to start a task. It includes the ability to overcoming procrastination and getting started on task. Task initiation is a critical life skill as this 


=== '''How does task initiation develop in adults?''' ===


=== '''How does task initiation develop in children?''' ===

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Task initiation in Autism ==

=== How does Task initiation differ in those with Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)? ===


=== What is the neurological basis of task initiation in ASD? ===


== Task initiation in ADHD ==

=== How does task initiation differ in those with ADHD? ===


=== What is the neurological basis of task initiation in ADHD? ===

==Interactive learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life, compared to an essay, are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Feature boxes===
Feature boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating feature boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some example 3 x 3 tables which could be adapted:

Table 1.

''Example of a Table with an APA Style Caption''
{| align=center border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
! '''Children''' 
! '''Gather''' 
! '''Round'''
|- 
| Mary
| had
| a
|- 
| little
| lamb
| it's
|- 
| fleece
| was
| white
|}

Table 2.

''Another Example of a Table with an APA Style Caption''
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
{|  class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Nursery''' 
! '''Rhyme''' 
! '''Time'''
|- 
| Incy
| Wincy
| spider
|- 
| climbed
| up
| the
|- 
| water
| spout
| down
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

Table 3.

''Example of a Sortable Table with an APA Style Caption''
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! Fruit
! Price/kg
! Popularity
|-
| Tomatoes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $6.00
| 1st
|-
| Bananas
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $5.00
| 2nd
|-
| Watermelon
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $2.99
| 3rd
|-
| Oranges
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $3.85
| 4th
|-
| Apples
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $4.95
| 5th
|-
| Grapes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $9.50
| 6th
|-
| Mangoes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $12.00
| 7th 
|-
| Avocados
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $12.00
| 8th
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Working notes==
It could be useful to have a temporary section for working notes during the topic development and chapter drafting. This section will be ignored when the topic development is marked, but remove it before finalising the book chapter.

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read only the Overview and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
In this section, list the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.). For example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by a en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant external resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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{{title|Task Initiation. 
What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
 
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}} 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''

- What is Task Initiation?
 
- What are the challenges in task initiation? 

- How role does motivation play in task initiation? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Understanding Task initiation and Motivation ==

'''&lt;big&gt;What is task initiation?&lt;/big&gt;'''

Task initiation refers to the ability to start a task. It includes the ability to overcoming procrastination and getting started on task. Task initiation is a critical life skill as this  


=== '''How does task initiation develop in adults?''' ===


=== '''How does task initiation develop in children?''' ===

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Task initiation in Autism ==

=== How does Task initiation differ in those with Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)? ===


=== What is the neurological basis of task initiation in ASD? ===


== Task initiation in ADHD ==

=== How does task initiation differ in those with ADHD? ===


=== What is the neurological basis of task initiation in ADHD? ===

==Interactive learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life, compared to an essay, are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Feature boxes===
Feature boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating feature boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some example 3 x 3 tables which could be adapted:

Table 1.

''Example of a Table with an APA Style Caption''
{| align=center border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
! '''Children''' 
! '''Gather''' 
! '''Round'''
|- 
| Mary
| had
| a
|- 
| little
| lamb
| it's
|- 
| fleece
| was
| white
|}

Table 2.

''Another Example of a Table with an APA Style Caption''
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
{|  class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Nursery''' 
! '''Rhyme''' 
! '''Time'''
|- 
| Incy
| Wincy
| spider
|- 
| climbed
| up
| the
|- 
| water
| spout
| down
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

Table 3.

''Example of a Sortable Table with an APA Style Caption''
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! Fruit
! Price/kg
! Popularity
|-
| Tomatoes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $6.00
| 1st
|-
| Bananas
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $5.00
| 2nd
|-
| Watermelon
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $2.99
| 3rd
|-
| Oranges
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $3.85
| 4th
|-
| Apples
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $4.95
| 5th
|-
| Grapes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $9.50
| 6th
|-
| Mangoes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $12.00
| 7th 
|-
| Avocados
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $12.00
| 8th
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Working notes==
It could be useful to have a temporary section for working notes during the topic development and chapter drafting. This section will be ignored when the topic development is marked, but remove it before finalising the book chapter.

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read only the Overview and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
In this section, list the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.). For example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by a en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant external resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>06ajtzb26xm0s5yc36dvaweifnpaje3</sha1>
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    <revision>
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      <text bytes="9564" xml:space="preserve">{{METE}}
{{title|Task Initiation. 
What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
 
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}} 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''

- What is Task Initiation?
 
- What are the challenges in task initiation? 

- How role does motivation play in task initiation? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Understanding Task initiation and Motivation ==

'''&lt;big&gt;What is task initiation?&lt;/big&gt;'''

Task initiation refers to the ability to start a task. It includes the ability to overcoming procrastination and getting started on task. Task initiation is a critical life skill as this  


'''&lt;big&gt;What is motivation?&lt;/big&gt;''' 

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What are the challenges with Task Initiation? ==


== The relationship between Task Initiation and Motivation? ==


==Interactive learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life, compared to an essay, are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Feature boxes===
Feature boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating feature boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some example 3 x 3 tables which could be adapted:

Table 1.

''Example of a Table with an APA Style Caption''
{| align=center border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
! '''Children''' 
! '''Gather''' 
! '''Round'''
|- 
| Mary
| had
| a
|- 
| little
| lamb
| it's
|- 
| fleece
| was
| white
|}

Table 2.

''Another Example of a Table with an APA Style Caption''
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
{|  class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Nursery''' 
! '''Rhyme''' 
! '''Time'''
|- 
| Incy
| Wincy
| spider
|- 
| climbed
| up
| the
|- 
| water
| spout
| down
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

Table 3.

''Example of a Sortable Table with an APA Style Caption''
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! Fruit
! Price/kg
! Popularity
|-
| Tomatoes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $6.00
| 1st
|-
| Bananas
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $5.00
| 2nd
|-
| Watermelon
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $2.99
| 3rd
|-
| Oranges
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $3.85
| 4th
|-
| Apples
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $4.95
| 5th
|-
| Grapes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $9.50
| 6th
|-
| Mangoes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $12.00
| 7th 
|-
| Avocados
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $12.00
| 8th
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Working notes==
It could be useful to have a temporary section for working notes during the topic development and chapter drafting. This section will be ignored when the topic development is marked, but remove it before finalising the book chapter.

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read only the Overview and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
In this section, list the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.). For example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by a en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant external resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>s9rvnqexh9zk38h1wy3nauq99fm8co0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418154</id>
      <parentid>2418153</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T06:58:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>137.92.200.135</ip>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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{{title|Task Initiation. 
What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
 
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}} 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''

- What is Task Initiation?
 
- What are the challenges in task initiation? 

- How role does motivation play in task initiation? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Understanding Task initiation and Motivation ==

=== '''&lt;big&gt;What is task initiation?&lt;/big&gt;''' ===
Task initiation refers to the ability to start a task. It includes the ability to overcoming procrastination and getting started on task. Task initiation is a critical life skill as this  


==== '''&lt;big&gt;What is motivation?&lt;/big&gt;''' ====
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What are the challenges with Task Initiation? ==


== The relationship between Task Initiation and Motivation? ==


==Interactive learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life, compared to an essay, are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Feature boxes===
Feature boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating feature boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some example 3 x 3 tables which could be adapted:

Table 1.

''Example of a Table with an APA Style Caption''
{| align=center border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
! '''Children''' 
! '''Gather''' 
! '''Round'''
|- 
| Mary
| had
| a
|- 
| little
| lamb
| it's
|- 
| fleece
| was
| white
|}

Table 2.

''Another Example of a Table with an APA Style Caption''
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
{|  class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Nursery''' 
! '''Rhyme''' 
! '''Time'''
|- 
| Incy
| Wincy
| spider
|- 
| climbed
| up
| the
|- 
| water
| spout
| down
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

Table 3.

''Example of a Sortable Table with an APA Style Caption''
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! Fruit
! Price/kg
! Popularity
|-
| Tomatoes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $6.00
| 1st
|-
| Bananas
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $5.00
| 2nd
|-
| Watermelon
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $2.99
| 3rd
|-
| Oranges
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $3.85
| 4th
|-
| Apples
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $4.95
| 5th
|-
| Grapes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $9.50
| 6th
|-
| Mangoes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $12.00
| 7th 
|-
| Avocados
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $12.00
| 8th
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Working notes==
It could be useful to have a temporary section for working notes during the topic development and chapter drafting. This section will be ignored when the topic development is marked, but remove it before finalising the book chapter.

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read only the Overview and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
In this section, list the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.). For example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by a en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant external resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>h6eqgqkdpog2fg5q4fpim66i1sn2kcx</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418155</id>
      <parentid>2418154</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T06:59:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>137.92.200.135</ip>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9577" xml:space="preserve">{{METE}}
{{title|Task Initiation. 
What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
 
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}} 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''

- What is Task Initiation?
 
- What are the challenges in task initiation? 

- How role does motivation play in task initiation? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Understanding Task initiation and Motivation ==

=== '''&lt;big&gt;What is task initiation?&lt;/big&gt;''' ===
Task initiation refers to the ability to start a task. It includes the ability to overcoming procrastination and getting started on task. Task initiation is a critical life skill as this  


=== '''&lt;big&gt;What is motivation?&lt;/big&gt;''' ===
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What are the challenges with Task Initiation? ==


== The relationship between Task Initiation and Motivation? ==


==Interactive learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life, compared to an essay, are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Feature boxes===
Feature boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating feature boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some example 3 x 3 tables which could be adapted:

Table 1.

''Example of a Table with an APA Style Caption''
{| align=center border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
! '''Children''' 
! '''Gather''' 
! '''Round'''
|- 
| Mary
| had
| a
|- 
| little
| lamb
| it's
|- 
| fleece
| was
| white
|}

Table 2.

''Another Example of a Table with an APA Style Caption''
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
{|  class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Nursery''' 
! '''Rhyme''' 
! '''Time'''
|- 
| Incy
| Wincy
| spider
|- 
| climbed
| up
| the
|- 
| water
| spout
| down
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

Table 3.

''Example of a Sortable Table with an APA Style Caption''
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! Fruit
! Price/kg
! Popularity
|-
| Tomatoes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $6.00
| 1st
|-
| Bananas
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $5.00
| 2nd
|-
| Watermelon
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $2.99
| 3rd
|-
| Oranges
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $3.85
| 4th
|-
| Apples
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $4.95
| 5th
|-
| Grapes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $9.50
| 6th
|-
| Mangoes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $12.00
| 7th 
|-
| Avocados
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $12.00
| 8th
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Working notes==
It could be useful to have a temporary section for working notes during the topic development and chapter drafting. This section will be ignored when the topic development is marked, but remove it before finalising the book chapter.

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read only the Overview and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
In this section, list the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.). For example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by a en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant external resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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{{title|Task Initiation. 
What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
 
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}} 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''

- What is Task Initiation?
 
- What are the challenges in task initiation? 

- How role does motivation play in task initiation? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Understanding Task initiation and Motivation ==

=== '''&lt;big&gt;What is Task Initiation?&lt;/big&gt;''' ===
Task initiation refers to the ability to start a task. It includes the ability to overcoming procrastination and getting started on task. Task initiation is a critical life skill as this  


=== '''&lt;big&gt;What is Motivation?&lt;/big&gt;''' ===
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is the relationship between Task Initiation and Motivation? ==


== What are the challenges with Task Initiation? ==


== Motivational Theories ==


==How do we get started? What Motivate us to complete the task? ==


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some example 3 x 3 tables which could be adapted:

Table 1.

''Example of a Table with an APA Style Caption''
{| align=center border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
! '''Children''' 
! '''Gather''' 
! '''Round'''
|- 
| Mary
| had
| a
|- 
| little
| lamb
| it's
|- 
| fleece
| was
| white
|}

Table 2.

''Another Example of a Table with an APA Style Caption''
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
{|  class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Nursery''' 
! '''Rhyme''' 
! '''Time'''
|- 
| Incy
| Wincy
| spider
|- 
| climbed
| up
| the
|- 
| water
| spout
| down
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

Table 3.

''Example of a Sortable Table with an APA Style Caption''
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! Fruit
! Price/kg
! Popularity
|-
| Tomatoes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $6.00
| 1st
|-
| Bananas
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $5.00
| 2nd
|-
| Watermelon
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $2.99
| 3rd
|-
| Oranges
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $3.85
| 4th
|-
| Apples
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $4.95
| 5th
|-
| Grapes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $9.50
| 6th
|-
| Mangoes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $12.00
| 7th 
|-
| Avocados
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $12.00
| 8th
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Working notes==
It could be useful to have a temporary section for working notes during the topic development and chapter drafting. This section will be ignored when the topic development is marked, but remove it before finalising the book chapter.

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read only the Overview and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
In this section, list the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.). For example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by a en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant external resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>e9eed7mrb86p8q9vszggnb7kc2ldr8j</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418166</id>
      <parentid>2418164</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T07:11:54Z</timestamp>
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      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5985" xml:space="preserve">{{METE}}
{{title|Task Initiation. 
What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
 
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}} 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''

- What is Task Initiation?
 
- What are the challenges in task initiation? 

- How role does motivation play in task initiation? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Understanding Task initiation and Motivation ==

=== '''&lt;big&gt;What is Task Initiation?&lt;/big&gt;''' ===
Task initiation refers to the ability to start a task. It includes the ability to overcoming procrastination and getting started on task. Task initiation is a critical life skill as this  


=== '''&lt;big&gt;What is Motivation?&lt;/big&gt;''' ===
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is the relationship between Task Initiation and Motivation? ==


== What are the challenges with Task Initiation? ==


== Motivational Theories ==


==How do we get started? What Motivate us to complete the task? ==


== Test yourself ==
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read only the Overview and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
In this section, list the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.). For example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by a en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant external resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>avqlx2n0p8skfkq0gxypp085oa05hkq</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418167</id>
      <parentid>2418166</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T07:12:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>137.92.200.135</ip>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5994" xml:space="preserve">{{METE}}
{{title|Task Initiation. 
What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
 
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}} 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''

- What is Task Initiation?
 
- What are the challenges in task initiation? 

- How role does motivation play in task initiation? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Understanding Task initiation and Motivation ==

=== '''&lt;big&gt;What is Task Initiation?&lt;/big&gt;''' ===
Task initiation refers to the ability to start a task. It includes the ability to overcoming procrastination and getting started on task. Task initiation is a critical life skill as this  


=== '''&lt;big&gt;What is Motivation?&lt;/big&gt;''' ===
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

=== &lt;big&gt;What is the relationship between Task Initiation and Motivation?&lt;/big&gt; ===


== What are the challenges with Task Initiation? ==


== Motivational Theories ==


==How do we get started? What Motivate us to complete the task? ==


== Test yourself ==
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read only the Overview and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
In this section, list the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.). For example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by a en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant external resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>m784xjpq3koqnf038qd76wdpsdd5b65</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418168</id>
      <parentid>2418167</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T07:13:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>137.92.200.135</ip>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6000" xml:space="preserve">{{METE}}
{{title|Task Initiation. 
What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
 
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}} 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''

- What is Task Initiation?
 
- What are the challenges in task initiation? 

- How role does motivation play in task initiation? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Understanding Task initiation and Motivation ==

=== '''&lt;big&gt;What is Task Initiation?&lt;/big&gt;''' ===
Task initiation refers to the ability to start a task. It includes the ability to overcoming procrastination and getting started on task. Task initiation is a critical life skill as this  


=== '''&lt;big&gt;What is Motivation?&lt;/big&gt;''' ===
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

=== &lt;big&gt;'''What is the relationship between Task Initiation and Motivation?'''&lt;/big&gt; ===


== What are the challenges with Task Initiation? ==


== Motivational Theories ==


==How do we get started? What Motivate us to complete the task? ==


== Test yourself ==
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read only the Overview and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
In this section, list the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.). For example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by a en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant external resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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{{title|Task Initiation. 
What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you ever feel so hard to get started on task


In this chapter, we will explore the challenge in task initiation and how motivational play role that drive to complete the tasks. {{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}} 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''

- What is Task Initiation?
 
- What are the challenges in task initiation? 

- How role does motivation play in task initiation? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Understanding Task initiation and Motivation ==

=== '''&lt;big&gt;What is Task Initiation?&lt;/big&gt;''' ===
Task initiation refers to the ability to start a task. It includes the ability to overcoming procrastination and getting started on task. Task initiation is a critical life skill as this  


=== '''&lt;big&gt;What is Motivation?&lt;/big&gt;''' ===
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

=== &lt;big&gt;'''What is the relationship between Task Initiation and Motivation?'''&lt;/big&gt; ===


== What are the challenges with Task Initiation? ==


== Motivational Theories ==


==How do we get started? What Motivate us to complete the task? ==


== Test yourself ==
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read only the Overview and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
In this section, list the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.). For example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by a en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant external resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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{{title|Task Initiation. 
What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you ever feel so hard to get started on task


In this chapter, we will explore the challenge in task initiation and how motivational play role that drive to complete the tasks. {{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}} 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''

- What is Task Initiation?
 
- What are the challenges in task initiation? 

- How role does motivation play in task initiation? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Understanding Task initiation and Motivation ==

=== '''&lt;big&gt;What is Task Initiation?&lt;/big&gt;''' ===
Task initiation refers to the ability to start a task. It includes the ability to overcoming procrastination and getting started on task. Task initiation is a critical life skill as this  


=== '''&lt;big&gt;What is Motivation?&lt;/big&gt;''' ===
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== &lt;big&gt;What role does Motivation plays in Task Initiation?&lt;/big&gt; ==


== What are the challenges with Task Initiation? ==


== Motivational Theories ==


==How do we get started? What Motivate us to complete the task? ==


== Test yourself ==
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read only the Overview and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
In this section, list the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.). For example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by a en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
In this section, provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant external resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>874p7f15hvvjy3swkqm05oa2z9sthj4</sha1>
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      <text bytes="27618" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Anticipatory regret and motivation:&lt;br&gt;What is the motivational role of anticipatory regret?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://youtu.be/aXWDlxImg3I}}
__TOC__  

==Overview==
[[File:Regret cropped.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Woman displaying the negative experience of regret.]]

People demonstrate the capacity to experience [[wikipedia:Regret|regret]] from as early as five years old (Weisberg &amp; Beck, 2010). Regret is a negative emotion which is experienced when we believe the current situation could have been improved, had the chosen action been replaced with an alternate one (Zeelenberg &amp; Pieters, 2007). Regret is experienced after a behaviour or decision has occurred. However, regret can influence our cognitive process at the time of making a decision, this is called [https://dictionary.apa.org/anticipatory-regret anticipatory regret]. Anticipatory regret occurs when the decision maker imagines that a pending choice may cause an unsatisfactory outcome that will lead them to regretting that choice (Gavanski &amp; Wells, 1989).

The negative experience of regret is associated with an unpleasant feeling, sense of self-blame, and the desire to change the chosen outcome (see figure 1 for a depiction of someone displaying regret) (Zeelenberg &amp; Pieters, 2007). Regret theories, such as Zeelenberg and Pieters' (2007) theory of regret regulation, suggest that humans are wired to avoid the unpleasant experience of regret. Anticipation of regret, therefore, is seen as a powerful motivational force that influences our decisions. 

{{RoundBoxTop}}
'''Example of the power of anticipatory regret:'''

In a study by Wolfson and Briggs (2002), regular lottery participants in the national lottery in England (held Saturdays) were asked a range of questions including if they felt compelled or not (and to what extent the compulsion related to a feeling of anticipatory regret) to buy a ticket in a new Wednesday draw. Despite answering that they were not looking forward to the Wednesday draw and did not expect a big win, 38% of participants intended to play the Wednesday game because they did not want to miss out on a possible win. Of those participants intending to play, 80% reported using all or mostly the same numbers each week and that their motivation to play each game (including the new one) was motivated by a sense of despair and regret they imagined they would feel if their regular numbers were drawn and they hadn't bought a ticket. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Decision and regret theories help us better understand the effect of anticipatory regret on behaviours such as [[wikipedia:Gambling|gambling]] and [[wikipedia:Consumerism|consumerism]], and can be harnessed to promote positive outcomes in health and goal directed activities such as sport.
&lt;!--
{{Quote box
 |quote  = &quot;I see it all perfectly; there are two possible situations-one can either do this or that. My honest opinion and my friendly advice is thisː do it or do not do it- you will regret both.&quot;
 |author = -[[Søren Kierkegaard]]
 |width  = 50%
 |align  = left
}}
--&gt;
{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|13}}}|title=Focus questions}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
# What is anticipatory regret?
# Which psychological theories help to understand anticipatory regret?
# How does anticipatory regret motivate behaviour?
# How can anticipated regret be applied to promote positive outcomes?
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

==What is anticipatory regret?==
[[File:Anticipatory_regret.png|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Person experiencing anticipatory regret during the process of choosing between eating a burger or an apple.|270x270px]]

Regret is a negative emotion that is experienced universally across gender, race, culture, nationality, religion, language, social status, age (from the point you develop the capacity), and geographical location (Cadish, 2001, as cited in Zeelenberg &amp; Pieters, 2007). It has been rated as the most intense and the second most frequently occurring emotion (Saffrey &amp; Roese, 2006, as cited in Zeelenberg &amp; Pieters, 2007). Regret is associated with a type of thinking referred to as [[wikipedia:Counterfactual_thinking|counterfactual thinking]]. It is counterfactual because the person imagines alternate outcomes to the actual outcome that did occur. These imagined outcomes are based on perceptions of alternate decisions they could have been made instead of the one that led to the regretted outcome (Bailey &amp; Kinerson, 2005). Anticipated regret is often generated from experiences of [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|regret]] that a person has learned from and is trying to avoid experiencing again (Bailey &amp; Kinerson, 2005). For example, see figure 2 where the person has previously chosen to eat a burger and felt regret after being too full and bloated, so is anticipating regretting the choice of the burger (option B) in their current decision. Anticipatory regret can also be generated in novel situations, where the person is able to imagine what they think the outcome may be (Baumeister et al., 2007).   

Simply put, anticipatory regret is a prediction that a decision or action about to be undertaken will cause regret (Gavanski &amp; Wells, 1989).
 
== Which psychological theories help to understand anticipatory regret? ==
{{expand}}

=== Expected utility theory ===
[[wikipedia:Expected_utility_hypothesis|Expected utility (EU) theory]] attempts to explain and guide choice by calculating the most valuable course of action for a decision maker. This is done by multiplying the value of each potential outcome (in terms of value to the decision maker) by the estimated probability of its occurrence. The sum of that equation indicates the EU value for each potential course of action/option. It therefore offers guidance about how to select a course of action with the greatest benefit for the individual and their circumstance (Sebora &amp; Cornwell, 1995). Regret is said to factor into this theory when determining the value of each potential outcome for the individual, as both negative and positive elements of the outcome determine the value (Zeelenberg, 1999). This theory assumes a very rational approach to decision making which does not consider personal factors, emotions and cognitive limitations that human beings are susceptible to. It therefore fails to encapsulate the complicated relationship that regret, including anticipatory regret has on our decision making process (Sebora &amp; Cornwell, 1995).

=== Prospect theory ===
The authors of [[w:Prospect theory|prospect theory]], Kahneman and Tversky's (1979) attempt to account for some of the limitations of EU theory by exploring the impacts that emotion and cognitive biases have on decision making. The premise of this theory was formed on the findings that people tend to assess loss and gain unequally. {{gr}} Meaning, that the same offer with the same outcome is assessed differently when it is proposed in terms of loss than when it is proposed in terms of gain. This can be seen in the case study below where Charlie chooses to be given 30 marbles and avoid the experience of losing half of the marbles, even though the outcome is the same either way. 

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|9}}}|title=Case study - example of prospect theory}}

Charlie is offered a choice between being given 30 marbles that he can keep or being given 60 marbles that he then has to return 30 of and can keep the remaining 30. Charlie chooses to be given 30 marbles as he does not want to experience the loss of the other 30 marbles.

{{Robelbox/close}}   
     
Prospect theory is also known as [[wikipedia:Loss_aversion|loss aversion]] theory because the assumption behind the difference in people's assessment of gain versus loss is that humans are motivated to avoid loss because the negative experience of losing is suggested to be more powerful than the joy experienced when winning (Tversky &amp; Kahneman, 1992). This theory helps us begin to understand how anticipatory regret can motivate behaviour by directing the decisions we make where we predict that certain choices could lead to a regrettable loss. However, this theory does not consider other important factors in the decision making process outside of loss and gain.    

=== Regret regulation theory ===
Zeelenberg and Pieters (2007) designed a theory of regret regulation based on 25 years of regret research in the fields of economics and psychology. Their theoretical model consists of ten key propositionsː

# Regret is an aversive, cognitive emotion that people are motivated to regulate in order to maximise outcomes in the short term and learn maximising them in the long run.
# Regret is a comparison-based emotion of self-blame, experienced when people realise or imagine that their present situation would have been better had they decided differently in the past.
# Regret is distinct from related other specific emotions such as anger, disappointment, envy, guilt, sadness and shame, and from general negative affect on the basis of its appraisals, experiential content and behavioural consequences.
# Individual differences in the tendency to experience regret are reliably related to the tendency to maximise and compare one's outcomes.
# Regret can be experienced about past (retrospective regret) and future (anticipated or prospective regret) decisions.
# Anticipated regret is experienced when decisions are difficult and important and when the decision maker expects to learn the outcomes of both the chosen and rejected options quickly.
# Regret can stem from decisions to act and from decisions not to actː The more justifiable the decision, the less regret.
# Regret can be experienced about decision processes (process regret) and decision outcomes (outcome regret).
# Regret aversion is distinct from risk aversion, and they jointly and independently influence behavioural decisions.
# Regret regulation strategies are decision-, alternative-, or feeling-focused, and implemented based on their accessibility and their instrumentality to the current overarching goal.

This theory sees the main purpose of emotions as a guiding force for human behaviour. Unlike prospect theory which focuses on loss specifically, regret regulation theory acknowledges the importance of all conscious emotion in decision making, but particularly the effects of regret. Its authors believe that people learn to anticipate emotional outcomes and select behaviour that aims to pursue the emotions they prefer and avoid those they do not. Zeelenberg and Pieters (2007) emphasise a human tendency to regret, citing the works of Carmon et al. (2003) who found that regret is evident immediately after the act of choosing, before receiving feedback about the outcome of a decision. Regret regulation theory sees regret as both an adaptive and maladaptive emotion. It is seen to be maladaptive in that it causes emotional distress due to the negative feelings associated with it, and can lead to unhelpful rumination (Jokisaari, 2003, as cited in Zeelenberg &amp; Pieters, 2007). Ultimately though, it is seen as an adaptive emotion that leads to more careful, better quality decision making, whether it is experienced retrospectively or anticipated (Reb, 2007).

=== Neuro-psychological theory ===
Regret is a complex emotion that involves higher-order cognitive processing because it is heavily reliant on reasoning and comparison processes (Baumeister et al., 2007). A study by Sirigu et al. (2005) used [[wikipedia:Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging|functional magnetic resonance imaging]] to determine the brain structures involved in the experience of regret. They found that when participants were primed to experience or anticipate regret, there was significant activity in both the [[wikipedia:Amygdala|amygdala]] and medial [[wikipedia:Orbitofrontal_cortex|orbitofrontal cortex]] (OFC). They propose that the cumulative experience of regret (and therefore activation of these brain structures) provide an updated weighting of the emotional advantages/disadvantages of the current choices before us, which leads to a biasing to forgo choices that may lead to the experience of regret. Simply put, the main structures involved in anticipatory regret are the amygdala and the OFC, and neuro-psychologists support the premise that we are programmed to avoid regret and also propose that our drive to avoid regret can be strengthened by an accumulation of experienced regret (Sirigu et al., 2005).

== Quick quiz ==
{{RoundBoxLeft}}&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{'''1. Which of the following does not apply to anticipatory regret'''
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Influences decisions
- Motivates behaviour
+ Makes you feel cognitively advanced
- Is a universal emotion
&lt;/quiz&gt;

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{'''2. Prospect theory is also known as loss aversion theory'''.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{'''3. Which theory assumes that people are rational decision makers?'''
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Prospect theory
+ Expected utility theory
- Neuro-psychological theory
- Regret regulation theory
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{LeftRightBoxClose}}

== How does anticipatory regret motivate behaviour? ==
[[File:Regret_influences_future_decisions.jpg|thumb|Figure 3. Demonstration of regretted experience influencing later behaviour via anticipatory regret.]]

Regardless of the theory you choose to apply, regret is seen as a powerful motivator of our chosen behaviour. Prospect and expected utility theories, while not specifically focusing on regret, support the influence of regret on our behaviour in relation to avoiding loss and avoiding the selection of a less desirable option (which can coincide with and/or cause regret) (Sebora &amp; Cornwall, 1995). According to both regret regulation theory, and neuro-psychological theories, we are programmed and therefore, highly motivated to avoid the negative experience of regret. Therefore, anticipation of regret motivates behaviour by influencing the decisions we make. Where regret is predicted to result from one decision over another, we are motivated to select the behaviour that will best avoid the experience of regret (Zeelenberg &amp; Pieters, 2007). As well as motivating avoidance of certain outcomes, regret and the anticipation of it, has been shown to encourage more vigilant decision making by motivating a desire to discover more options, to research those options more thoroughly, and to make more careful comparisons between options (Reb, 2007).   

Bailey and Kinerson, (2005) found that anticipatory regret often occurs in response to an actual experience of regret that the person has learned from. Baumeister et al. (2007) consider this an instructive feedback system, where a previous experience triggers an emotion which then motivates a change in future behaviour. Figure 3 demonstrates this process with an example of someone who has stepped in dog poo when they walked on grass. The person experienced an unpleasant emotional response which triggered the presence of anticipatory regret when they were next deciding where to walk. The anticipatory regret then motivates the person to avoid walking on the grass, as well as to consider more options and think more carefully about the outcomes of those options before deciding.

== How can anticipated regret be applied to promote positive outcomes? ==
{{expand}}

=== Health ===
Anticipatory regret can be used to promote positive health behaviours such as [[wikipedia:Screening_(medicine)|screening]] for [[wikipedia:Cancer|cancers]] or [[wikipedia:Disease|diseases]], using [[wikipedia:Safe_sex|protection during sex]], and adhering to [[wikipedia:Vaccination|vaccination]] recommendations (Baumeister et al., 2007). A meta-analysis by Conner et al. (2015) measured the effects of anticipatory regret on a range of health behaviours including exercise, cancer screening, condom use and more. They found that across the studied health behaviours, anticipated regret significantly predicted whether or not people engaged in health promoting behaviours. More specifically, Zajak et al. (2017) conducted a study exploring the relationship between anticipatory regret and [[wikipedia:Colorectal_cancer|colorectal cancer]] (CRC) screening uptake. Participants were offered free screening for CRC and surveyed about their intentions to participate in that screening exercise as well as future CRC screening. They were also questioned about their experience of anticipatory regret around their decision. They found that anticipatory regret was a significant predictor of intention to participate in screening behaviours, such that people who scored high in anticipatory regret (i.e., they would regret not being screened and then finding out they had CRC) were seven times more likely to engage in screening behaviours than those who scored low in anticipatory regret.

Another example is a study by Leask et al. (2006) that found anticipatory regret to be a significant factor in countering anti-vaccination messaging. In light of this, they recommended that information about the effects of vaccine-preventable diseases be made available to the public to invoke anticipatory regret and therefore motivate more careful and informed decision making around vaccination. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/COVID-19 vaccine motivation|chapter 17 (Covid-19 vaccine motivation)]] for more information on motivational factors of vaccine decisions. These are just a few examples of health behaviours that have been shown to be influenced by anticipatory regret, others include smoking, alcohol and drug use, eating and weight management, and more (Brewer et al., 2016).  

=== Spending and gambling ===
Financial decisions are often influenced by anticipatory regret, especially in relation to gambling and purchase timing (Keller et al., 2020; Wolfson &amp; Briggs, 2002). Simonson (1992) investigated the effects of anticipatory regret on purchase timing and brand choice. Simonson primed participants to anticipate regret by asking how they would feel if they later found out they had made the wrong decision in regards to price or brand. Simonson showed that people could be motivated to buy more expensive brand named items over cheaper alternatives and to purchase now at the current price over waiting for a later date and potential sale. The understanding we gain from decision and regret theories help enlighten and forewarn the consumer about these kinds of marketing strategies and therefore promote positive outcomes where the consumer can avoid manipulation and make the best decisions for their circumstances. 

Gambling can be heavily motivated by anticipatory regret (Wolfson &amp; Briggs, 2002). A study by Wu et al. (2021) provides further support for the influence of anticipatory regret in gambling. They studied participants with [[wikipedia:Problem_gambling|gambling disorder]] (GD) compared with a [[wikipedia:Treatment_and_control_groups|control group]] without the disorder. They found that participants with GD had a significantly greater sensitivity to anticipatory regret than those without GD. In response to their findings, they recommend the use of anticipatory regret in public messaging and prevention programs that invoke regret related to making the gamble, rather than not making it.   

=== Goal direction ===
Anticipatory regret has been applied to goal directed behaviours such as exercising, dieting and sporting (Baumeister et al., 2007). A study by Bagozzi et al. (1998) showed that priming participants with exercise and dieting goals, to anticipate their emotional response if they did not reach their goal, motivated them to work harder towards that goal and therefore achieve it (Bagozzi et al., 1998, as cited in Baumeister et al., 2007). Turman (2005) studied a range of messages delivered from coaches to their sportsmen/women and discovered that many of them used anticipatory regret. For example, coaches before and during the activity, explained what a losing scenario would look and feel like to their sportsmen/women if they did not perform well. While this study did not follow the results of the messaging, regret theory would lead to a reasonable belief that these types of messages would motivate increased performance (Zeelenberg &amp; Pieters, 2007).

==Conclusion==
This chapter described anticipatory regret as a negative emotional experience that occurs when the decision maker imagines that a pending choice may have an unsatisfactory outcome that will lead them to regretting that choice (Gavanski &amp; Wells, 1989). It then outlined some of the key decision and regret theories (expected utility, prospect, regret regulation, and neurological theories) and how they help us understand anticipatory regret.

Expected utility theory, a key theory in decision research, assumes that people are rational decision makers and therefore, fails to acknowledge and explain the role of emotional influences such as anticipatory regret (Sebora &amp; Cornwell,1995). Prospect theory acknowledges the important influence of emotion in decision making but has a specific focus on feelings of loss and gain, so does not explore the significance of regret and its anticipation in any depth (Tversky &amp; Kahneman, 1992). Regret regulation theory sees regret and its anticipation as a significant factor in decision making. It'=s authors, Zeelenberg and Pieters (2007) believe that humans are programmed to pursue the emotions they prefer and avoid those they do not, (particularly regret).

Neuro-psychological research indicates that the brain structures involved in anticipatory regret are the amygdala and the OFC. It also provides support for the idea that we are programmed to avoid regret (Sirigu et al., 2005). Next, this chapter answered how anticipatory regret motivates behaviour by drawing on key decision and regret theories. It named two main ways in which anticipatory regret motivates our behaviour. First, by selecting behaviour that will best avoid the experience of regret (Zeelenberg &amp; Pieters, 2007). Second, by encouraging more vigilant decision making (Reb, 2007).

Finally, the chapter explored how anticipatory regret can be applied to promote positive outcomes by reviewing some areas in which anticipatory regret has been found to influence behaviour. It covered examples in health, spending, gambling, and goal directed behaviours. All of which provide evidence for the fact that anticipatory regret is a powerful motivational force that influences the decisions we make, and therefore the behaviours we enact{{gr}}.   

==See also==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Cognitive dissonance and motivation|Cognitive dissonance]] (Book chapter, 2021)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Cognitive evaluation theory and motivation|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Book chapter, 2021)
*[[w:Regret (decision theory)|Decision theory]] (Wikipedia)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotions and security investing|Emotions and security investing]] (Book chapter, 2021)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fear appeals|Fear appeals]] (Book chapter, 2021)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Bailey, J. J., &amp; Kinerson, C. (2005). Regret Avoidance and Risk Tolerance. ''Journal of Financial Counseling &amp; Planning'', ''16''(1), 23–28.

Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., DeWall, C. N., &amp; Zhang, L. (2007). How Emotion Shapes Behavior: Feedback, Anticipation, and Reflection, Rather Than Direct Causation. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''11''(2), 167–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868307301033

Brewer, N. T., DeFrank, J. T., &amp; Gilkey, M. B. (2016). Anticipated regret and health behavior: A meta-analysis. '''Health Psychology'', ''35''(11), 1264–1275. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000294

Conner, M., McEachan, R., Taylor, N., O’Hara, J., &amp; Lawton, R. (2015). Role of Affective Attitudes and Anticipated Affective Reactions in Predicting Health Behaviors. ''Health Psychology'', ''34''(6), 642–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000143

Gavanski, I., &amp; Wells, G. L. (1989). Counterfactual processing of normal and exceptional events. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology'', ''25'', 314-325. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(89)90025-5

Keller, P. A., Hesselton, K., &amp; Volpp, K. G. (2020). Increasing recruitment and engagement with time-limited financial incentives. ''Journal of the Association for Consumer Research'', ''5''(3), 	259–270. https://doi.org/10.1086/708879

Leask, J., Chapman, S., Hawe, P., &amp; Burgess, M. (2006). What maintains parental support for vaccination when challenged by anti-vaccination messages? A qualitative study. ''Vaccine'', ''24''(49), 7238–7245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.05.010

Reb, J. (2008). Regret aversion and decision process quality: Effects of regret salience on decision process carefulness. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes'', ''105''(2), 169–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2007.08.006

Sebora, T. C., &amp; Cornwall, J. R. (1995). Expected Utility Theory Vs. Prospect Theory: Implications For Strategic Decision Makers. ''Journal of Managerial Issues'', ''7''(1), 41–61. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40604049

Simonson, I. (1992). The influence of anticipating regret and responsibility on purchase decisions. ''Journal of Consumer Research'', ''19'', 105-118. https://doi.org/10.1086/209290

Sirigu, A., Dolan, R. J., Coricelli, G., Critchley, H. D., Joffily, M., &amp; O’Doherty, J. P. (2005). Regret and its avoidance: a neuroimaging study of choice behavior. ''Nature Neuroscience'', ''8''(9), 1255–1262. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1514

Turman, P. D. (2005). Coaches’ Use of anticipatory and counterfactual regret messages during 	competition. ''Journal of Applied Communication Research'', ''33''(2), 116–138. 	https://doi.org/10.1080/00909880500045072

Tversky, A., &amp; Kahneman, D. (1992). Advances in Prospect Theory: Cumulative Representation of Uncertainty. ''Journal of Risk and Uncertainty'', ''5''(4), 297–323. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00122574

Wolfson, S., &amp; Briggs, P.(2002). Locked into gambling: Anticipatory regret as a motivator for playing the 	national lottery. ''J Gambl Stud'', ''18'', 1–17.https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014548111740

Wu, Y., Kennedy, D., Goshko, C.-B., &amp; Clark, L. (2021). “Should’ve known better”: Counterfactual processing in disordered gambling. ''Addictive Behaviors'', ''112'', 106622–106622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106622

Zajac, I. T., Duncan, A., Freegard, S., Wilson, C., Flight, I., &amp; Turnbull, D. (2017). Exploring the 	potential of anticipated regret as an emotional cue to improve bowel cancer screening 	uptake. ''BioMed Research International'', ''2017''(2949020), 20-27. 	https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/2949020

Zeelenberg, M. (1999). Anticipated regret, expected feedback and behavioral decision making. ''Journal of Behavioral Decision Making'', ''12''(2), 93–106. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0771(199906)12:2&lt;93::AID-BDM311&gt;3.0.CO;2-S

Zeelenberg, M., &amp; Pieters, R. (2007). A theory of regret regulation 1.0. ''Journal of Consumer 	Psychology'', ''17''(1), 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327663jcp1701_3
}}

==External links==
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/anticipatory-regret APA definition of anticipatory regret] (apa.org)
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/expected-utility Expected utility theory] (britannica.com)
* [https://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/loss-psychology.asp Loss aversion] (investopedia.com)
* [https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/prospecttheory.asp Prospect theory] (investopedia.com)

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==Motivation ==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cannabis use and dopamine/]] - What is the impact of cannabis use on dopamine in the brain? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]]
# [[/Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma influence subsequent drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]]
# [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]]
# [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:Somer Gellatly|Somer Gellatly]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - 
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Grit and achievement/]] - How does grit affect achievement? - [[User:AnaStuart|AnaStuart]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[User:U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]]
# [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-actualisation and motivation/]] - What motivates self-actualisation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Self-help/]] - What is self-help and what motivates people to engage in it? - [[Cdevlin9|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:Jnoth|Jnoth]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]]
# [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] 
# [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:U3196624|U3196624]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:U3214260|U3214260]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:U3213568|U3213568]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:U3195233|U3195233]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]]
# [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|U3217109]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]]
# [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3195332|U3195332]] 
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:U3025906|U3025906]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Trauma and emotion/]] - What is the effect of trauma on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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==Motivation ==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cannabis use and dopamine/]] - What is the impact of cannabis use on dopamine in the brain? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]]
# [[/Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma influence subsequent drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]]
# [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]]
# [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:Somer Gellatly|Somer Gellatly]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? -MyUserName
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Grit and achievement/]] - How does grit affect achievement? - [[User:AnaStuart|AnaStuart]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[User:U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]]
# [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-actualisation and motivation/]] - What motivates self-actualisation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Self-help/]] - What is self-help and what motivates people to engage in it? - [[Cedevlin9|MyUserNam]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:Jnoth|Jnoth]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]]
# [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] 
# [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:U3196624|U3196624]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:U3214260|U3214260]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:U3213568|U3213568]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:U3195233|U3195233]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]]
# [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|U3217109]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]]
# [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3195332|U3195332]] 
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:U3025906|U3025906]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Trauma and emotion/]] - What is the effect of trauma on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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        <id>2947652</id>
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==Motivation ==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cannabis use and dopamine/]] - What is the impact of cannabis use on dopamine in the brain? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]]
# [[/Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma influence subsequent drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]]
# [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]]
# [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:Somer Gellatly|Somer Gellatly]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? -MyUserName
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Grit and achievement/]] - How does grit affect achievement? - [[User:AnaStuart|AnaStuart]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[User:U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]]
# [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-actualisation and motivation/]] - What motivates self-actualisation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Self-help/]] - What is self-help and what motivates people to engage in it? - Cedevlin9
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:Jnoth|Jnoth]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]]
# [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] 
# [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:U3196624|U3196624]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:U3214260|U3214260]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:U3213568|U3213568]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:U3195233|U3195233]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]]
# [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|U3217109]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]]
# [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3195332|U3195332]] 
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:U3025906|U3025906]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Trauma and emotion/]] - What is the effect of trauma on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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==Motivation ==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cannabis use and dopamine/]] - What is the impact of cannabis use on dopamine in the brain? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]]
# [[/Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma influence subsequent drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]]
# [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]]
# [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:Somer Gellatly|Somer Gellatly]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? -MyUserName
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Grit and achievement/]] - How does grit affect achievement? - [[User:AnaStuart|AnaStuart]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[User:U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]]
# [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-actualisation and motivation/]] - What motivates self-actualisation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Self-help/]] - What is self-help and what motivates people to engage in it? - Cedevlin9
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:Jnoth|Jnoth]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]]
# [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] 
# [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:U3196624|U3196624]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:U3214260|U3214260]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:U3213568|U3213568]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:U3195233|U3195233]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]]
# [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|U3217109]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]]
# [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3195332|U3195332]] 
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:U3025906|U3025906]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Trauma and emotion/]] - What is the effect of trauma on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[u3207862]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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==Motivation ==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cannabis use and dopamine/]] - What is the impact of cannabis use on dopamine in the brain? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]]
# [[/Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma influence subsequent drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]]
# [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]]
# [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:Somer Gellatly|Somer Gellatly]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? -MyUserName
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Grit and achievement/]] - How does grit affect achievement? - [[User:AnaStuart|AnaStuart]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[User:U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]]
# [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-actualisation and motivation/]] - What motivates self-actualisation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Self-help/]] - What is self-help and what motivates people to engage in it? - Cedevlin9
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:Jnoth|Jnoth]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]]
# [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] 
# [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:U3196624|U3196624]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:U3214260|U3214260]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:U3213568|U3213568]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:U3195233|U3195233]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]]
# [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]]
# [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3195332|U3195332]] 
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:U3025906|U3025906]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Trauma and emotion/]] - What is the effect of trauma on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[u3207862]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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      <id>2418062</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:24:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
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      <comment>Fix user names</comment>
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==Motivation ==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cannabis use and dopamine/]] - What is the impact of cannabis use on dopamine in the brain? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]]
# [[/Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma influence subsequent drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]]
# [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]]
# [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:Somer Gellatly|Somer Gellatly]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Grit and achievement/]] - How does grit affect achievement? - [[User:AnaStuart|AnaStuart]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[User:U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]]
# [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-actualisation and motivation/]] - What motivates self-actualisation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Self-help/]] - What is self-help and what motivates people to engage in it? - [[User:Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:Jnoth|Jnoth]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]]
# [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] 
# [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:U3196624|U3196624]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:U3214260|U3214260]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:U3213568|U3213568]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:U3195233|U3195233]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]]
# [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|CaityDcr1603]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]]
# [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3195332|U3195332]] 
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:U3025906|U3025906]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Trauma and emotion/]] - What is the effect of trauma on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:U3207862|U3207862]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
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      <comment>/* Motivation */ [[/ADHD and motivation/]] - How does ADHD impact on motivation and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]</comment>
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==Motivation ==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/ADHD and motivation/]] - How does ADHD impact on motivation and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cannabis use and dopamine/]] - What is the impact of cannabis use on dopamine in the brain? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]]
# [[/Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma influence subsequent drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]]
# [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]]
# [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:Somer Gellatly|Somer Gellatly]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Grit and achievement/]] - How does grit affect achievement? - [[User:AnaStuart|AnaStuart]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[User:U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]]
# [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-actualisation and motivation/]] - What motivates self-actualisation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Self-help/]] - What is self-help and what motivates people to engage in it? - [[User:Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:Jnoth|Jnoth]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]]
# [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] 
# [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:U3196624|U3196624]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:U3214260|U3214260]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:U3213568|U3213568]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:U3195233|U3195233]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]]
# [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|CaityDcr1603]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]]
# [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3195332|U3195332]] 
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:U3025906|U3025906]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Trauma and emotion/]] - What is the effect of trauma on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:U3207862|U3207862]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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        <username>Jtneill</username>
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      <comment>[[/Video conferencing fatigue/]] - What is video conferencing fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it?</comment>
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==Motivation ==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/ADHD and motivation/]] - How does ADHD impact on motivation and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cannabis use and dopamine/]] - What is the impact of cannabis use on dopamine in the brain? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]]
# [[/Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma influence subsequent drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]]
# [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]]
# [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:Somer Gellatly|Somer Gellatly]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Grit and achievement/]] - How does grit affect achievement? - [[User:AnaStuart|AnaStuart]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[User:U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]]
# [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-actualisation and motivation/]] - What motivates self-actualisation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Self-help/]] - What is self-help and what motivates people to engage in it? - [[User:Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:Jnoth|Jnoth]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]]
# [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] 
# [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:U3196624|U3196624]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:U3214260|U3214260]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:U3213568|U3213568]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:U3195233|U3195233]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]]
# [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|CaityDcr1603]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]]
# [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3195332|U3195332]] 
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:U3025906|U3025906]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Trauma and emotion/]] - What is the effect of trauma on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Video conferencing fatigue/]] - What is video conferencing fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:U3207862|U3207862]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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      <comment>[[/Emotional development in adolescence/]] - How does emotionality develop during adolescence? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]]</comment>
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==Motivation ==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/ADHD and motivation/]] - How does ADHD impact on motivation and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cannabis use and dopamine/]] - What is the impact of cannabis use on dopamine in the brain? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]]
# [[/Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma influence subsequent drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]]
# [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]]
# [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:Somer Gellatly|Somer Gellatly]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Grit and achievement/]] - How does grit affect achievement? - [[User:AnaStuart|AnaStuart]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[User:U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]]
# [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-actualisation and motivation/]] - What motivates self-actualisation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Self-help/]] - What is self-help and what motivates people to engage in it? - [[User:Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:Jnoth|Jnoth]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]]
# [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]]
# [[/Emotional development in adolescence/]] - How does emotionality develop during adolescence? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] 
# [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:U3196624|U3196624]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:U3214260|U3214260]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:U3213568|U3213568]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:U3195233|U3195233]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]]
# [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|CaityDcr1603]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]]
# [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3195332|U3195332]] 
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:U3025906|U3025906]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Trauma and emotion/]] - What is the effect of trauma on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Video conferencing fatigue/]] - What is video conferencing fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:U3207862|U3207862]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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      <comment>[[/Psilocybin assisted therapy and depression/]] – How can psilocybin assisted therapy help to treat depression? - [[User:U3191488|U3191488]]</comment>
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==Motivation ==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/ADHD and motivation/]] - How does ADHD impact on motivation and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cannabis use and dopamine/]] - What is the impact of cannabis use on dopamine in the brain? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]]
# [[/Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma influence subsequent drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]]
# [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]]
# [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:Somer Gellatly|Somer Gellatly]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Grit and achievement/]] - How does grit affect achievement? - [[User:AnaStuart|AnaStuart]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[User:U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]]
# [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-actualisation and motivation/]] - What motivates self-actualisation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Self-help/]] - What is self-help and what motivates people to engage in it? - [[User:Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:Jnoth|Jnoth]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]]
# [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]]
# [[/Emotional development in adolescence/]] - How does emotionality develop during adolescence? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] 
# [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:U3196624|U3196624]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:U3214260|U3214260]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:U3213568|U3213568]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:U3195233|U3195233]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]]
# [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|CaityDcr1603]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]]
# [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3195332|U3195332]] 
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted therapy and depression/]] – How can psilocybin assisted therapy help to treat depression? - [[User:U3191488|U3191488]]

# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:U3025906|U3025906]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Trauma and emotion/]] - What is the effect of trauma on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Video conferencing fatigue/]] - What is video conferencing fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:U3207862|U3207862]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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      <comment>/* Emotion */</comment>
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==Motivation ==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/ADHD and motivation/]] - How does ADHD impact on motivation and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cannabis use and dopamine/]] - What is the impact of cannabis use on dopamine in the brain? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]]
# [[/Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma influence subsequent drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]]
# [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]]
# [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:Somer Gellatly|Somer Gellatly]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Grit and achievement/]] - How does grit affect achievement? - [[User:AnaStuart|AnaStuart]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[User:U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]]
# [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-actualisation and motivation/]] - What motivates self-actualisation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Self-help/]] - What is self-help and what motivates people to engage in it? - [[User:Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:Jnoth|Jnoth]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]]
# [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]]
# [[/Emotional development in adolescence/]] - How does emotionality develop during adolescence? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] 
# [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:U3196624|U3196624]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:U3214260|U3214260]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:U3213568|U3213568]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:U3195233|U3195233]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]]
# [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|CaityDcr1603]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]]
# [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3195332|U3195332]] 
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted therapy and depression/]] – How can psilocybin assisted therapy help to treat depression? - [[User:U3191488|U3191488]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:U3025906|U3025906]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Trauma and emotion/]] - What is the effect of trauma on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Video conferencing fatigue/]] - What is video conferencing fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:U3207862|U3207862]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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==Motivation ==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/ADHD and motivation/]] - How does ADHD impact on motivation and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cannabis use and dopamine/]] - What is the impact of cannabis use on dopamine in the brain? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]]
# [[/Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma influence subsequent drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[User:GeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]]
# [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]]
# [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:Somer Gellatly|Somer Gellatly]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Grit and achievement/]] - How does grit affect achievement? - [[User:AnaStuart|AnaStuart]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[User:U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]]
# [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-actualisation and motivation/]] - What motivates self-actualisation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Self-help/]] - What is self-help and what motivates people to engage in it? - [[User:Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:Jnoth|Jnoth]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]]
# [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]]
# [[/Emotional development in adolescence/]] - How does emotionality develop during adolescence? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] 
# [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:U3196624|U3196624]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:U3214260|U3214260]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:U3213568|U3213568]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:U3195233|U3195233]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]]
# [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|CaityDcr1603]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]]
# [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3195332|U3195332]] 
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted therapy and depression/]] – How can psilocybin assisted therapy help to treat depression? - [[User:U3191488|U3191488]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:U3025906|U3025906]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Trauma and emotion/]] - What is the effect of trauma on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Video conferencing fatigue/]] - What is video conferencing fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:U3207862|U3207862]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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==Internal links ==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Resentment|Resentment]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[Emotion]] 

==External links==
* [https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/allinthemind/overcoming-resentment-with-gratitude/13660930 Overcoming resentment with gratitude] (All in the Mind, 2021)
* [https://www.ted.com/talks/axel_alletru_a_strong_mindset_for_a_life_without_resentment A strong mindset for a life without resentment] (TEDx Talks, 2020)

== Link to User Page (U3216389) ==
[[User:U3216389|My User Page]]
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Resentment]]
{{title|Resentment&lt;br&gt;What is Resentment, what causes it, and what are it's consequences?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Resentment is an emotion that is viewed as typically negative, and defined as a feeling of bitterness, animosity, or hostility elicited by something or someone perceived as insulting or injurious (APA, 2022). There seems to be no single cause of resentment, however, most cases have the sense of mistreatment and wrongdoing from another person, group or thing associated with it. The more I study resentment the more I am fascinated by it, as it is a truly unique emotion that has an interrelatedness with violence and trauma as well as a large influence upon our interpersonal connections. So where does Resentment stem from? 

(Possible draft overview briefly describing resentment)

Still to be discussed in overview:
* Where does resentment come from?
* Use an example of resentment so the reader has a clear conception of resentment
* Discuss the current research that has been conducted on resentment - Why is this topic important?
* Briefly outline the specific topics that will be discussed i.e:

# Causes of Resentment &amp; its Consequences 
# Resentment and Morality 
# Ressentiment 

[[File:Emotions - 3.png|thumb|Figure 1. A diagram of the primary emotions that we all experience, with resentment sitting under anger. ]]
==Resentment ==

* What is Resentment? (Angenot, 2010)
* '''By-products of resentment:''' Outrage, hostility, spite, frustration, bitterness, hate, dislike, scorn, hostility, fury, punishment, alienation, desire for revenge, wrath, ferocity, loathing, and vengefulness.
* Flesh out the general definition of resentment before getting into the theory behind resentment

== Basic Emotion Theory ==

* Primary emotions: (TenHouten, 2018)
* Resentment as a tertiary emotion ‌(TenHouten, 2018)
* '''Appraisal Approach:''' An approach to understanding emotional processes is the action of experiencing emotion through cognitive appraisal. This approach involves assuming that emotions include distinct steps to be had. There is the 1. stimulus event; 2. the event is then appraised; and 3. an emotion is felt that results in behavioural changes as well as physiological changes in the body. This approach describes emotions as being a process rather than states. (Rhonda Maria Stoertebecker, 2016)
Table 1. 

''Primary Emotions, Secondary Emotions, and Combinations of Primary Emotions (TenHouten, 2018)'' 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Primary Emotions 
!Secondary Emotions branching off of the primary emotion 
!Combinations of primary emotions 
|-
|Anger 
|Annoyance, Rage 
|Anger + Joy = Pride 
|-
|Sadness 
|Pensiveness, Grief 
|Sadness + Anticipation = Pensiveness
|-
|Disgust 
|Loathing, Boredom 
|Disgust + Joy = Morbidness 
|-
|Anticipation 
|Interest, Vigilance 
|Anticipation + Trust = Hope 
|-
|Joy 
|Serenity, Ecstasy 
|Joy + Trust = Love
|-
|Trust 
|Acceptance, Admiration 
|Trust + Surprise = Curiosity 
|-
|Fear 
|Terror, Apprehension 
|Fear + Disgust = Shame 
|-
|Surprise 
|Amazement, Distraction 
|Surprise + Sadness = Disappointment 
|}

== What Causes Resentment and What are its Consequences ==

*Resentment is a combination of '''disappointment, disgust, anger, and fear'''.
*It is caused by the feelings of wrongdoing and unfair treatment 
*The consequences of resentment (Relationships, personal health and touch upon collective resentment) (Braniecka et al., 2014)

== Ressentiment ==

* What is Ressentiment: Ressentiment is a french term which explores the feelings of resentment, however, it is not the same concept. Ressentiment encompasses a wider scope of resentment, otherwise known as collective resentment. Ressentiement tends to be induced by a more endured and intense feeling of resentment which is experienced typically by a group of people, for example, slaves throughout history. (Magnus Hörnqvist, 2021), ‌(TenHouten, 2018)
* Underlying psychological theories of ressentiment ‌
* Collective resentment ‌(TenHouten, 2018)
* Examples of groups that have experienced ressentiment

===Recap quiz===
Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Is Surprise classified as a Primary emotion?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Does the term Ressentiment originate from France?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1= Angenot, M. (2010). ''Resentment.'' ResearchGate; Vanderbilt University Library. https://&amp;#x09;www.researchgate.net/publication/285625544_Resentment

APA Dictionary of Psychology. Apa.org. https://dictionary.apa.org/resentment

Braniecka, A., Trzebińska, E., Dowgiert, A., &amp; Wytykowska, A. (2014). ''Mixed Emotions and Coping: The Benefits of Secondary Emotions.'' PLoS ONE, 9(8), e103940.                                                                        https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0103940

Magnus Hörnqvist. (2021). ''Ressentiment''. ResearchGate; unknown. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349638499_Ressentiment

Rhonda Maria Stoertebecker. (2016). ''Differentiating Anger and Resentment: Implications for Forgiveness and Psychological Distress.'' Griffith University; https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Differentiating-Anger-and-Resentment%3A-Implications-Stoertebecker/9c6759eeb270a34eedcdc3fce5b5c5617de67aca

TenHouten, W. D. (2018). ''From Ressentiment to Resentment as a Tertiary Emotion.'' ResearchGate; Canadian Center of Science and Education. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327470893_From_Ressentiment_to_Resentment_as_a_Tertiary_Emotion

‌TenHouten, W. D., &amp; Tenhouten, W. D. (2018). ''From Primary Emotions to the Spectrum of Affect: An Evolutionary Neurosociology of the Emotions.'' ResearchGate; unknown. https://www.researchgate.net/publication323497402_From_Primary_Emotions_to_the_Spectrum_of_Affect_An_Evolutionary_Neurosociology_of_the_Emotion}}  

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Resentment]]</text>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Resentment is an emotion that is viewed as typically negative, and defined as a feeling of bitterness, animosity, or hostility elicited by something or someone perceived as insulting or injurious (APA, 2022). There seems to be no single cause of resentment, however, most cases have the sense of mistreatment and wrongdoing from another person, group or thing associated with it. The more I study resentment the more I am fascinated by it, as it is a truly unique emotion that has an interrelatedness with violence and trauma as well as a large influence upon our interpersonal connections. So where does Resentment stem from? 

(Possible draft overview briefly describing resentment)

Still to be discussed in overview:
* Where does resentment come from?
* Use an example of resentment so the reader has a clear conception of resentment
* Discuss the current research that has been conducted on resentment - Why is this topic important?
* Briefly outline the specific topics that will be discussed i.e:

# Causes of Resentment &amp; its Consequences 
# Resentment and Morality 
# Ressentiment 

[[File:Emotions - 3.png|thumb|Figure 1. A diagram of the primary emotions that we all experience, with resentment sitting under anger. ]]
==Resentment ==

* What is Resentment? (Angenot, 2010)
* '''By-products of resentment:''' Outrage, hostility, spite, frustration, bitterness, hate, dislike, scorn, hostility, fury, punishment, alienation, desire for revenge, wrath, ferocity, loathing, and vengefulness.
* Flesh out the general definition of resentment before getting into the theory behind resentment

== Basic Emotion Theory ==

* Primary emotions: (TenHouten, 2018)
* Resentment as a tertiary emotion ‌(TenHouten, 2018)
* '''Appraisal Approach:''' An approach to understanding emotional processes is the action of experiencing emotion through cognitive appraisal. This approach involves assuming that emotions include distinct steps to be had. There is the 1. stimulus event; 2. the event is then appraised; and 3. an emotion is felt that results in behavioural changes as well as physiological changes in the body. This approach describes emotions as being a process rather than states. (Rhonda Maria Stoertebecker, 2016)
Table 1. 

''Primary Emotions, Secondary Emotions, and Combinations of Primary Emotions (TenHouten, 2018)'' 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Primary Emotions 
!Secondary Emotions branching off of the primary emotion 
!Combinations of primary emotions 
|-
|Anger 
|Annoyance, Rage 
|Anger + Joy = Pride 
|-
|Sadness 
|Pensiveness, Grief 
|Sadness + Anticipation = Pensiveness
|-
|Disgust 
|Loathing, Boredom 
|Disgust + Joy = Morbidness 
|-
|Anticipation 
|Interest, Vigilance 
|Anticipation + Trust = Hope 
|-
|Joy 
|Serenity, Ecstasy 
|Joy + Trust = Love
|-
|Trust 
|Acceptance, Admiration 
|Trust + Surprise = Curiosity 
|-
|Fear 
|Terror, Apprehension 
|Fear + Disgust = Shame 
|-
|Surprise 
|Amazement, Distraction 
|Surprise + Sadness = Disappointment 
|}

== What Causes Resentment and What are its Consequences ==

*Resentment is a combination of '''disappointment, disgust, anger, and fear'''.
*It is caused by the feelings of wrongdoing and unfair treatment 
*The consequences of resentment (Relationships, personal health and touch upon collective resentment) (Braniecka et al., 2014)

== Ressentiment ==

* What is Ressentiment: Ressentiment is a french term which explores the feelings of resentment, however, it is not the same concept. Ressentiment encompasses a wider scope of resentment, otherwise known as collective resentment. Ressentiement tends to be induced by a more endured and intense feeling of resentment which is experienced typically by a group of people, for example, slaves throughout history. (Magnus Hörnqvist, 2021), ‌(TenHouten, 2018)
* Underlying psychological theories of ressentiment ‌
* Collective resentment ‌(TenHouten, 2018)
* Examples of groups that have experienced ressentiment

===Recap quiz===
Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Is Surprise classified as a Primary emotion?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Does the term Ressentiment originate from France?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Resentment|Resentment]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[Emotion]] 

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1= Angenot, M. (2010). ''Resentment.'' ResearchGate; Vanderbilt University Library. https://&amp;#x09;www.researchgate.net/publication/285625544_Resentment

APA Dictionary of Psychology. Apa.org. https://dictionary.apa.org/resentment

Braniecka, A., Trzebińska, E., Dowgiert, A., &amp; Wytykowska, A. (2014). ''Mixed Emotions and Coping: The Benefits of Secondary Emotions.'' PLoS ONE, 9(8), e103940.                                                                        https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0103940

Magnus Hörnqvist. (2021). ''Ressentiment''. ResearchGate; unknown. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349638499_Ressentiment

Rhonda Maria Stoertebecker. (2016). ''Differentiating Anger and Resentment: Implications for Forgiveness and Psychological Distress.'' Griffith University; https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Differentiating-Anger-and-Resentment%3A-Implications-Stoertebecker/9c6759eeb270a34eedcdc3fce5b5c5617de67aca

TenHouten, W. D. (2018). ''From Ressentiment to Resentment as a Tertiary Emotion.'' ResearchGate; Canadian Center of Science and Education. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327470893_From_Ressentiment_to_Resentment_as_a_Tertiary_Emotion

‌TenHouten, W. D., &amp; Tenhouten, W. D. (2018). ''From Primary Emotions to the Spectrum of Affect: An Evolutionary Neurosociology of the Emotions.'' ResearchGate; unknown. https://www.researchgate.net/publication323497402_From_Primary_Emotions_to_the_Spectrum_of_Affect_An_Evolutionary_Neurosociology_of_the_Emotion}}  

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/allinthemind/overcoming-resentment-with-gratitude/13660930 Overcoming resentment with gratitude] (All in the Mind, 2021)
* [https://www.ted.com/talks/axel_alletru_a_strong_mindset_for_a_life_without_resentment A strong mindset for a life without resentment] (TEDx Talks, 2020)
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Resentment]]</text>
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      <text bytes="27158" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1957 | title= Syntatic Structures | publisher= Walter de Gruyter GmbH | publication-date= 1965 | isbn= 978-3-112-30484-6| url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/HQCEzQEACAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjLoMiokb_0AhU9JTQIHfC2BrcQ8fIDegQIAxBD }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1965 | title= Aspects of the Theory of Syntax | publisher= MIT Press | isbn= 978-0-262-03011-3 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/911UQwAACAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjFho-Nkr_0AhXTMX0KHaRGBJMQ8fIDegQIAxAt }}
* {{cite journal | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1967 | title= The Responsibility of Intellectuals | journal= The New York Review of Books | publication-date= February 23, 1967 | url= https://chomsky.info/19670223/ }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1968a | title= Language and Mind | publisher= Cambridge University Press | publication-date= January 12, 2006 | isbn= 978-0-521-67493-5 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Language_and_Mind/FflrAAAAIAAJ?hl=en }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1969a | title= American Power and the New Mandarins | publisher= Vintage Books | isbn= 978-0-394-70555-2 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/3GorAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjJl4eplb_0AhVJLDQIHQktA9sQre8FegQIBRAH }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1969b | title= At War With Asia | publisher= AK Press | publication-date= 2005 | isbn= 978-1-902-59389-0 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/At_War_with_Asia/FajmTh_BmEkC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1971 | title= Problems Of Knowledge And Freedom:  The Russell Lectures | publisher= Fontana | publication-date= 1972 | isbn= 978-0-006-32868-1 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/Gv-5QgAACAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjLqc2Jlr_0AhWAHDQIHaAmBJ0Q8fIDegQIAxAx }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1973 | title= For Reasons of State | publisher= New Press | publication-date= 2002 | isbn= 978-1-565-84794-1 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/nt2wQgAACAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwijw9W5iMT0AhXLPn0KHVZWBEwQ8fIDegQIAxAn }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1975 | title= Reflections on Language | publisher= Pantheon Books | isbn= 978-0-394-73123-0 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/R78kAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjL4aWgl7_0AhU0LTQIHQtrApgQ8fIDegQIAxAm }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1981 | title= Radical Priorities | edition= 3rd | editor= C.P. Otero | publisher= AK Press | publication-date= 2003 | isbn= 978-1-902-59369-2 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/s1LewAEACAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE2IP8l7_0AhW5GDQIHUTGBUkQ8fIDegQIAxAT }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1985 | title= Language and Problems of Knowledge: the Managua Lectures | publisher= MIT Press | publication-date= 1988 | isbn= 978-0-262-03133-2  | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/eMHznQEACAAJ?hl=en&amp;kptab=overview }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1986 | title= Pirates and Emperors, Old and New - International Terrorism in the Real World | publisher= South End Press | publication-date= 2002 | isbn= 978-0-896-08685-2  | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Pirates_and_Emperors_Old_and_New/CHL5SwGvobQC?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjR6sfC_MH0AhXgJDQIHU-fDvcQiqUDegQIBhAH }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1987a | title= On Power and Ideology: The Managua Lectures | publisher= South End Press | isbn= 978-0-896-08290-8 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/On_Power_and_Ideology/SJRIAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1987b | title= Chomsky Reader | editor= James Peck | publisher= Pantheon Books | isbn= 978-0-394-75173-3 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/fHeLDQAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj688rknL_0AhU3GDQIHeTiDz4Q8fIDegQIBBAI }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1989 | title= Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies | publisher= South End Press | publication-date= June 1989 | isbn= 978-0-896-08366-0 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Necessary_Illusions/t5yVao-mv8sC?hl=en }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1991a | title= Terrorizing the Neighborhood: American Foreign policy in the Post-Cold War Era | publisher= AK Press | isbn= 978-1-873-17600-9 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Terrorizing_the_Neighborhood/e6NxAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1991b | title= Deterring Democracy | publisher= Farrar, Straus and Giroux | publication-date= April 6, 1992 | isbn= 978-1-466-80153-0 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Deterring_Democracy/uZui06DXqmcC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0&amp;kptab=overview }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1991c | title= Media Control: The Spectacular Achievements of Propaganda | publisher= Seven Stories Press | publication-date= 1997 | isbn= 978-1-888-36349-4 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/j6_ZAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwi4z-bJtb_0AhWILDQIHTpoAW0Q8fIDegQIBBAM }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1992a | title= Year 501 - The Conquest Continues | publisher= Verso | publication-date= 1993 | isbn= 978-0-860-91680-2 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Year_501/DIpW10rWZFAC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite AV media | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1992b | title= Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media | publisher= Encore + | publication-date= November 6, 2017 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EuwmWnphqII }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (2:47:08)
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1993a | title= Language and Thought | publisher= Moyer Bell | isbn= 978-1-559-21076-8 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Language_and_Thought/BQ9iAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0&amp;kptab=overview }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1993b | title= Letters From Lexington: Reflections on Propaganda | publisher= Common Courage Press | isbn= 978-1-567-51010-2 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/IUujQgAACAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjRzeuyqL_0AhXcIDQIHb5bDv8Q8fIDegQIAxAo }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1993c | title= Rethinking Camelot: JFK, The Vietnam War, and U.S. Political Culture | publisher= South End Press | isbn= 978-0-896-08458-2 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/ENqiQY5V4ooC?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiDw_y6q7_0AhWkJzQIHTH7DkQQ8fIDegQIBRAM }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1995 | title= The Minimalist Program | publisher= MIT Press | publication-date= September 28, 1995 | isbn= 978-0-262-53128-3 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Minimalist_Program/vtPQiYCNpjgC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1996a | title= Powers and Prospects: Reflections on Human Nature and the Social Order | publisher= South End Press | isbn= 978-0-896-08535-0 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/rF4bXdo10ZYC?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj4t93psb_0AhUuCTQIHRvpC6MQ8fIDegQIAxAv }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1996b | title= World Orders, Old and New | publisher= Columbia University Press | isbn= 978-0-231-10157-8 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/World_Orders_Old_and_New/7imPCrBo7aEC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1997 | title= Objectivity and Liberal Scholarship | publisher= New Press | isbn= 978-1-565-84858-0 | publication-date= 2003 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/KYb4NwAACAAJ?hl=en }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1998 | title= The Essential Chomsky | publisher= New Press | publication-date= 2008 | isbn= 978-1-595-58189-1 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/hwBcWpdUfpQC?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjO9uz26cH0AhV_EDQIHUU8DIcQ8fIDegQIChAL }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1999a | title= The Umbrella of U.S. Power: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Contradictions of U.S. Policy | publisher= Seven Stories Press | isbn= 978-1-888-36385-2 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/sEqPQgAACAAJ?sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwisuqG7ur_0AhU2FjQIHcFcCNAQ8fIDegQICxAI }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1999b | title= Profit Over People: Neoliberalism and Global Order | publisher= Seven Stories Press | publication-date= November 1999 | isbn= 978-1-888-36389-0 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/c-btAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjb0qrfvL_0AhX0oFsKHYtNDQ8Q8fIDegQIAxAL }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 1999c | title= The New Military Humanism: Lessons from Kosovo | publisher= Common Courage Press | publication-date= December 1999 | isbn= 978-1-567-51176-5 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_New_Military_Humanism/7iQjmAEACAAJ?hl=en }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 2000a | title= New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind | publisher= Cambridge University Press | publication-date= April 13, 2000 | isbn= 978-0-521-65822-5 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/New_Horizons_in_the_Study_of_Language_an/johr4hURMPgC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 2000b | title= Rogue States: The Rule of Force in World Affairs | publisher= South End Press | isbn= 978-0-896-08611-1 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Rogue_States/n6PGe0TZuKMC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 2000c | title= Chomsky on Mis-Education | publisher= Rowman &amp; Littlefield | isbn= 978-0-742-50129-4 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chomsky_on_Miseducation/xYHt7GrkHCoC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 2001a | title= 9-11 | publisher= Seven Stories Press | publication-date= November 2001 | isbn= 978-1-583-22489-2 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/9_11_neuf_onze_/E5NoWOUhcpYC?kptab=overview }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 2001b | title= On Nature and Language | publisher= Cambridge University Press | publication-date= October 10, 2002 | isbn= 978-0-521-01624-7 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/On_Nature_and_Language/ZVgdqm77AB8C?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 2002a | title= Understanding Power: The Indispensable Chomsky | publisher= New Press | publication-date= February 1, 2002 | isbn= 978-1-595-58588-2 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Understanding_Power/5ZHvqVYf2nEC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite AV media | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 2002b | title= Activism, Anarchism, and Power | series= Conversations with History [Show ID: 6568] | publisher= University of California Television (UCTV) | medium= Recorded March 2, 2002 | publication-date= January 31, 2008 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ghoXQxdk6s }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:59:08)
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 2002c | title= Power and Terror: Post-9/11 Talks and Interviews | publisher= Seven Stories Press | isbn= 978-1-583-22590-5 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Power_and_Terror/ZGsVdv53FpsC?hl=en }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 2003a | title= Chomsky on Democracy and Education | editor= C.P. Otero | publisher= RoutledgeFalmer | isbn= 978-0-415-92632-4 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chomsky_on_Democracy_Education/3ORu91WxxL4C?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 2003b | title= Toward A New Cold War: U.S. Foreign Policy From Vietnam To Reagan | publisher= New Press | isbn= 978-1-565-84859-7 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Towards_a_New_Cold_War/9WJ5QgAACAAJ?hl=en }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 2003c | title= Middle East Illusions - Including Peace in the Middle East?: Reflections on Justice and Nationhood | publisher= Rowman &amp; Littlefield | isbn= 978-0-742-52977-9 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Middle_East_Illusions/Ap6FgY5mR-IC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 2003d | title= Hegemony or Survival: America's Quest for Global Dominance | publisher= Metropolitan Books | publication-date= October 1, 2003 | isbn= 978-0-965-80634-3 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/ml17PwAACAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwikvuTR4sH0AhVdK30KHXaLBXUQ8fIDegQICxAM }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 2005a | title= Government In The Future | publisher= Seven Stories Press | publication-date= April 5, 2005 | isbn= 978-1-583-22685-8 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/QaJIAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj73oDh48H0AhXlLX0KHbcVDG8Q8fIDegQIChAK }}
* {{cite journal | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 2005b | title= Universals of Human Nature | journal= Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics | volume= 74 | number= 5 | pages= 263–268 | publication-date= August 2005 | pmid= 16088263 | doi= 10.1159/000086316 | url= https://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/86316 }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 2005c | title= Chomsky on Anarchism | publisher= AK Press | isbn= 978-1-904-85920-8 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chomsky_on_Anarchism/6DbGwAEACAAJ?hl=en }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 2006 | title= Failed States: The Abuse of Power and the Assault on Democracy | publisher= Metropolitan Books | publication-date= April 4, 2006 | isbn= 978-0-739-47187-6 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/d3RRRwAACAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjot-_z5sH0AhWyKn0KHatrC6QQ8fIDegQIAxA7 }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 2007 | title= Interventions | publisher= City Lights Publishers | publication-date= May 2007 | isbn= 978-0-872-86483-2 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/Mwh3AAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj3m5Dd6MH0AhXNFTQIHaCLAtUQ8fIDegQIAxAx }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 2010 | title= Hopes and Prospects | publisher= Haymarket Books | isbn= 978-1-931-85996-7 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Hopes_and_Prospects/S0gpZIq1E-gC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite book | last= Chomsky | first= Noam | year= 2014 | title= Who Rules The World? | publisher= Henry Holt and Company | publication-date= May 10, 2016 | isbn= 978-1-627-79381-0 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Who_Rules_The_World_/k7ImDAAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;kptab=overview }}
* {{cite book | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2= Barsamian | first2= David | year= 1992a | title= Chronicles of Dissent | publisher= Common Courage Press | isbn= 978-0-962-88388-0 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chronicles_of_Dissent/BGQNAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite book | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2= Barsamian | first2= David | year= 1992b | title= What Uncle Sam Really Wants | series= The Chomsky Trilogy | publisher= Odonian Press | isbn= 978-1-878-82501-8 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/What_Uncle_Sam_Really_Wants/tbpTP-Q2BsgC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite book | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2= Barsamian | first2= David | year= 1993 | title= The Prosperous Few and The Restless Many | series= The Chomsky Trilogy | publisher= Odonian Press | isbn= 978-1-878-82503-2 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Prosperous_Few_and_the_Restless_Many/Ni7QAQAACAAJ?hl=en }}
* {{cite book | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2= Barsamian | first2= David | year= 1994a | title= Secrets, Lies, and Democracy | series= The Chomsky Trilogy | publisher= Odonian Press | isbn= D 860.C467 1994 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Secrets_Lies_and_Democracy/geqfAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite book | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2= Barsamian | first2= David | year= 1994b | title= Keeping the Rabble in Line | publisher= Common Courage Press | isbn= 978-1-567-51033-1 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Keeping_the_Rabble_in_Line/4bdoAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite book | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2= Barsamian | first2= David | year= 1996 | title= Class Warfare | publisher= Common Courage Press | isbn= 978-1-567-51092-8 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Class_Warfare/M3WOzgEACAAJ?hl=en }}
* {{cite book | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2= Barsamian | first2= David | year= 1998 | title= The Common Good | publisher= Odonian Press | isbn= 978-1-878-82508-7 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Common_Good/2w0EAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite book | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2= Barsamian | first2= David | year= 2001 | title= Propaganda and the Public Mind | publisher= South End Press | isbn= 978-0-896-08634-0 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/aQTYAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwixnOy2wr_0AhWGDjQIHbruDNYQ8fIDegQIBBAN }}
* {{cite book | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2= Barsamian | first2= David | year= 2005 | title= Imperial Ambitions: Conversations on the Post-9/11 World | publisher= Metropolitan Books | publication-date= September 15, 2005 | isbn= E 902.C474 2005 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/2eB6zgEACAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwi0w8uq5MH0AhXuJzQIHSFEAMEQ8fIDegQICxAM }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2= Barsamian | first2= David | year= 2022 | title= In Ukraine, Diplomacy Has Been Ruled Out | journal= Chomsky.info | series= “Chronicles of Dissent” Interview Transcript | publication-date= June 16, 2022 | publisher= TomDispatch | url= https://chomsky.info/20220616/ }}
* {{cite AV media | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2= Fletcher Jr. | first2= Bill | year= 2022 | title= Noam Chomsky: A Left Response to the Russian Invasion of Ukraine | publisher= The Real News Network | publication-date= April 7, 2022 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=68Rh1tKx98k }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:59:13)
* {{cite AV media | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2= Foucault | first2= Michael | last3= Elders | first3= Fons | year= 1971 | title= The Chomsky-Foucault Debate: On Human Nature | series= Philosophical Debate at Eindhoven University of Technology, Netherlands | publisher= withDefiance | publication-date= March 13, 2013 | medium= Recorded October 22, 1971 - Dutch TV November 28, 1971 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3wfNl2L0Gf8 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (1:10:02)
* {{cite book | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2= Foucault | first2= Michael | last3= Elders | first3= Fons | year= 1974 | title= The Chomsky-Foucault Debate: On Human Nature | publisher= New Press | publication-date= 2006 | isbn= 978-1-595-58134-1 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/wueIoexcT_4C?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj5qdzVor_0AhV9GDQIHcBOBQEQ8fIDegQIAxAm }}
* {{cite book | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2= Halle | first2= Morris | year= 1968 | title= The sound pattern of English | publisher= MIT Press | publication-date= January 17, 1991 | isbn= 978-0-262-53097-2 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Sound_Pattern_of_English/cJB9QgAACAAJ?hl=en }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2 = Polychroniou | first2= C.J. | year= 2021a | title= Chomsky: Coup Attempt Hit Closer to Centers of Power Than Hitler’s 1923 Putsch | journal= Truthout | series=  Interview - Politics &amp; Elections | publication-date= January 19, 2021 | url= https://truthout.org/articles/chomsky-coup-attempt-hit-closer-to-centers-of-power-than-hitlers-1923-putsch/ }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2 = Polychroniou | first2= C.J. | year= 2021b | title= Chomsky: Outdated US Cold War Policy Worsens Ongoing Russia-Ukraine Conflict | journal= Truthout | series=  Interview - War &amp; Peace | publication-date= December 23, 2021 | url= https://truthout.org/articles/chomsky-outdated-us-cold-war-policy-worsens-ongoing-russia-ukraine-conflict/ }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2 = Polychroniou | first2= C.J. | year= 2022a | title= Noam Chomsky: GOP’s Soft Coup Is Still Underway One Year After Capitol Assault | journal= Truthout | series=  Interview - Politics &amp; Elections | publication-date= January 6, 2021 | url= https://truthout.org/articles/noam-chomsky-gops-soft-coup-is-still-underway-one-year-after-capitol-assault/ }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2 = Polychroniou | first2= C.J. | year= 2022b | title= Chomsky: US Approach to Ukraine and Russia Has “Left the Domain of Rational Discourse” | journal= Truthout | series=  Interview - War &amp; Peace | publication-date= February 4, 2022 | url= https://truthout.org/articles/us-approach-to-ukraine-and-russia-has-left-the-domain-of-rational-discourse/ }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2 = Polychroniou | first2= C.J. | year= 2022c | title= Chomsky: US Push to “Reign Supreme” Stokes the Ukraine Conflict | journal= Truthout | series=  Interview - War &amp; Peace | publication-date= February 16, 2022 | url= https://truthout.org/articles/chomsky-us-push-to-reign-supreme-stokes-the-ukraine-conflict/ }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2 = Polychroniou | first2= C.J. | year= 2022d | title= Noam Chomsky: US Military Escalation Against Russia Would Have No Victors | journal= Truthout | series=  Interview - War &amp; Peace: [https://truthout.org/series/russias-war-on-ukraine-in-an-age-of-escalating-imperial-tensions/ Russia's War on Ukraine in an Age of Escalating Imperial Tensions] | publication-date= March 1, 2022 | url= https://truthout.org/articles/noam-chomsky-us-military-escalation-against-russia-would-have-no-victors/ }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2 = Polychroniou | first2= C.J. | year= 2022e | title= Noam Chomsky: A No-Fly Zone Over Ukraine Could Unleash Untold Violence | journal= Truthout | series=  Interview - War &amp; Peace: [https://truthout.org/series/russias-war-on-ukraine-in-an-age-of-escalating-imperial-tensions/ Russia's War on Ukraine in an Age of Escalating Imperial Tensions] | publication-date= March 8, 2022 | url= https://truthout.org/articles/noam-chomsky-a-no-fly-zone-over-ukraine-could-unleash-untold-violence/ }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2 = Polychroniou | first2= C.J. | year= 2022f | title= Chomsky: Peace Talks in Ukraine “Will Get Nowhere” If US Keeps Refusing to Join | journal= Truthout | series=  Interview - War &amp; Peace: [https://truthout.org/series/russias-war-on-ukraine-in-an-age-of-escalating-imperial-tensions/ Russia's War on Ukraine in an Age of Escalating Imperial Tensions] | publication-date= March 14, 2022 | url= https://truthout.org/articles/chomsky-peace-talks-in-ukraine-will-get-nowhere-if-us-keeps-refusing-to-join/ }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2 = Polychroniou | first2= C.J. | year= 2022g | title= Chomsky: Let’s Focus on Preventing Nuclear War, Rather Than Debating “Just War” | journal= Truthout | series=  Interview - War &amp; Peace: [https://truthout.org/series/russias-war-on-ukraine-in-an-age-of-escalating-imperial-tensions/ Russia's War on Ukraine in an Age of Escalating Imperial Tensions] | publication-date= March 24, 2022 | url= https://truthout.org/articles/chomsky-lets-focus-on-preventing-nuclear-war-rather-than-debating-just-war/ }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2 = Polychroniou | first2= C.J. | year= 2022h | title= Noam Chomsky: Russia’s War Against Ukraine Has Accelerated the Doomsday Clock | journal= Truthout | series=  Interview - War &amp; Peace | publication-date= March 30, 2022 | url= https://truthout.org/articles/noam-chomsky-russias-war-against-ukraine-has-accelerated-the-doomsday-clock/ }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2 = Polychroniou | first2= C.J. | year= 2022i | title= Chomsky: US Policy Toward Russia Is Blocking Paths to De-escalation in Ukraine | journal= Truthout | series=  Interview - War &amp; Peace | publication-date= April 7, 2022 | url= https://truthout.org/articles/chomsky-us-policy-toward-putin-assures-no-path-to-de-escalation-in-ukraine/ }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2 = Polychroniou | first2= C.J. | year= 2022j | title= Chomsky: Our Priority on Ukraine Should Be Saving Lives, Not Punishing Russia | journal= Truthout | series=  Interview - War &amp; Peace: [https://truthout.org/series/russias-war-on-ukraine-in-an-age-of-escalating-imperial-tensions/ Russia's War on Ukraine in an Age of Escalating Imperial Tensions] | publication-date= April 20, 2022 | url= https://truthout.org/articles/chomsky-our-priority-on-ukraine-should-be-saving-lives-not-punishing-russia/ }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2 = Polychroniou | first2= C.J. | year= 2022k | title= Noam Chomsky: Propaganda Wars Are Raging as Russia’s War on Ukraine Expands | journal= Truthout | series=  Interview - War &amp; Peace: [https://truthout.org/series/russias-war-on-ukraine-in-an-age-of-escalating-imperial-tensions/ Russia's War on Ukraine in an Age of Escalating Imperial Tensions] | publication-date= April 28, 2022 | url= https://truthout.org/articles/noam-chomsky-propaganda-wars-are-raging-as-russias-war-on-ukraine-expands/ }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2 = Polychroniou | first2= C.J. | year= 2022l | title= Chomsky: US Is Prioritizing Its Jockeying With Russia, Not Ukrainians’ Lives | journal= Truthout | series=  Interview - War &amp; Peace: [https://truthout.org/series/russias-war-on-ukraine-in-an-age-of-escalating-imperial-tensions/ Russia's War on Ukraine in an Age of Escalating Imperial Tensions] | publication-date= May 4, 2022 | url= https://truthout.org/articles/chomsky-u-s-is-prioritizing-its-jockeying-with-russia-not-ukrainians-lives/ }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2 = Polychroniou | first2= C.J. | year= 2022m | title= Chomsky: To Tackle Climate, Our Morality Must Catch Up With Our Intelligence | journal= Truthout | series= Interview - Environment &amp; Health | publication-date= May 11, 2022 | url= https://truthout.org/articles/chomsky-to-tackle-climate-our-morality-must-catch-up-with-our-intelligence/ }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2 = Polychroniou | first2= C.J. | year= 2022n | title= Noam Chomsky: The Supreme Court Is Wielding Illegitimate Authority in the US | journal= Truthout | series=  Interview - Politics &amp; Elections | publication-date= May 20, 2022 | url= https://truthout.org/articles/noam-chomsky-the-supreme-court-is-wielding-illegitimate-authority-in-the-us/ }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Chomsky | first1= Noam | last2 = Polychroniou | first2= C.J. | year= 2022o | title= Chomsky: We Must Insist That Nuclear Warfare Is an Unthinkable Policy | journal= Truthout | series=  Interview - War &amp; Peace: [https://truthout.org/series/russias-war-on-ukraine-in-an-age-of-escalating-imperial-tensions/ Russia's War on Ukraine in an Age of Escalating Imperial Tensions] | publication-date= June 2, 2022 | url= https://truthout.org/articles/chomsky-we-must-insist-that-nuclear-warfare-is-an-unthinkable-policy/ }}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Universal Language of Absolutes/Appendix</title>
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      <text bytes="158402" xml:space="preserve">= &lt;ref&gt;'''William Shakespeare''' (bapt. 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616&lt;/ref&gt;A message. =


What humanity needs is not any individual approach but a governance powerful body of excellence that has modern technology, knowledge, and freedom they can use to disseminate clear information. Clear information about a new language structure of absolutes beneficial to an International forum, and eventually to reach a Universal status.Its benefits reach toward conceptual language on a planet that speaks more than 7,000 languages.

No matter the language spoken the concepts of:

Air - Food - Water are recognised.

The overall development of conceptual language can only be beneficial and will be as appropriate to Absolutes definitions.

Reaching for the Stars might show us the way.

Universal Language of Absolutes. &quot;A very grand title but it took many years to explain its value&quot;


= Our history. =

Born in Scotland in 1927 left school at 14 years of age. Married at 21 years of age and we had two children. We emigrated to New Zealand in 1953 and lived there for approximately thirty years. During our stay there I did a Liberal Studies Course at Canterbury University Christchurch and graduated. We have since had ten books published through Google books on the subject matter at hand and my wife Jean Caldwell McMillan is the co-author to most of the work presented here. My wife Jean was an avid reader of many works on philosophy and psychology. She was influenced by the works of Erich Fromm. Jean died 9th of January 2011.

To refresh the original purpose of  our  earlier writings my wife and I  went on an odyssey  looking for any data, ancient or otherwise, on human consciousness, specifically related to Alzheimer’s disease.

Now at 95 years of age (well past my used by date) it may well be that I am a candidate with a focus on my own pending dementia. If so, then the theory and the method I now write about is holding it at bay. To address the health of my mind in this way could be the catalyst that retains its own functional activity.

The creation of a  semantic template is well documented below.

No semantic definition of absolutes or principles can be ill-defined.

They are always interconnected, interdependent and infinite.

Each configuration constructed by anyone has meaning particular to them, although its value is universal. That  is why it is never personal property!


[[File:JimNJean.png|center|thumb|228x228px|Jim and Jean]]


= The Beginning. =


&quot;The road's half traveled when you know the way&quot;


[[File:Tree lined path - geograph.org.uk - 2269906.jpg|center|thumb]]
Oxford dictionary definitions:

Principle: &quot;A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning&quot;.

Absolute: &quot; Complete - Entire - Perfect - Pure.

These particular dictionary given definitions offers us guidelines to ‘existing conditions’ necessary for complementary understanding, and experience.
We can only examine that which is real, basic evidence, that is fundamentally true, and we must ‘use’ it, to establish that which is reasonable.

The general consensus is that there are no Absolutes. The following material is set out to show the very reverse is true and that everything that is is Absolute.

Establish that there are no dichotomies that will leave the primary terms alone to create a semantic template.

There are no dichotomies. Mythical dichotomies distort Reality.

Everything is: The computer you use today has always existed, it is the arrangement of particles that have materialized it.

The subject matter &quot;Universal Language of Absolutes' is promoted to provide a new understanding of spoken language. This understanding was initially constructed by the cognitive experiences of both my wife and myself many years ago.

Just like the principle of a jigsaw puzzle, meaning lies significantly in the fact that all pieces of the puzzle are interdependent and interconnected. When completed they provide a picture of the whole.

We have endeavoured to produce a picture of the evolutionary process of language in human history because the evolution of language prefixes all modes of thought in human culture. The material directs the reader towards a new view that all that evolves is in a vertical direction, not the linear direction commonly understood.

Human consciousness is of itself the phenomenon of evolution and to recognize its existence is part of the process. Shakespeare expressed this succinctly through the voice of Juliet who proclaimed, “a rose by any other name- would smell as sweet.”

[[File:Comestible rose in the Laquenexy orchard garden, Moselle, France (01).jpg|thumb|center|237x237px]]

=== Conceptual language. ===
My wife and I recognized how profound the extension of this observation would mean conceptually. Of all the languages spoken on this planet, it would be fair to say that all of them would contain the properties of, air, food, and water conceptually, etc. This is a form of consciousness equality that is available to us all. It points to the reality of our constant relation to each other and our existence.

We can never exist in a world of individuality, but only in relation to the consciousness of one another. Consequently, that exceptional experience can only be shared superficially. We cannot ‘know’ any other life experiences other than our own introspection.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Einstein 1921 by F Schmutzer - restoration.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;&quot; ''Albert Einstein 1921. We experience our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us.&quot;''

''Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future,p.99''

Einstein came very close. In reality, every human being has a backpack from the day they were conceived. In the backpack every experience in

their mother’s womb is experienced. At birth and throughout their lives, everything that happens to them in life is registered and creates their personality.

That life with all its experiences can never be known to anyone else, consequently, we can never “know” another person. It creates equality of consciousness that we must understand. We can know details about a person, but that is all. That life is sacrosanct. Who we are really goes beyond normal human experience and into the realm of the Absolute.


Werner Karl Heisenberg (physicist).

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

As a young layman with no knowledge of Heisenberg but interested in principles it seemed to me that the Uncertainty Principle was just a contradiction in terms.

In later years I found that Heraclitus describes life as being in a state of flux a replica of the Uncertainty Principle which in fact can be defined as an absolute state.

Within the context of knowing who we are and the backpack we carry our life in, we can never know each individual life as that life experience is singularly their own and sacrosanct.

It now seems that the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle can fall into the category of being an Absolute.

Evolution proceeds in advance of our need to evolve. In our pure active state, we are.There is no static end (an abomination) - only beginning. As we cannot know what tomorrow will bring, living with expectations is rather futile. Nature has its own agenda.

 Zen Koan recorded 1228:

 'An instant realization sees endless time.

 Endless time is as one moment.

 When one comprehends the endless moment

 He, or she, realizes the person who is seeing it.'
We do not own Space.

We do not own Time

We do not own Energy

We do not own Matter                                                                                                  
[[File:Universum.jpg|center|thumb]]


&quot;What we call the beginning is often the end

And to make an end is to make a beginning.

The end is where we start from

We shall not cease from exploration

And the end of all our exploring

Will be to arrive where we started

And know the place for the first time&quot;

T.S Eliot

= Everything is in scale. =
The present moment is the point in which Eternity has placed us – we all live in that moment, and whether we like it or not, we exist in it, experience it, have knowledge of it, and we all share it, measure by measure.

There are no dichotomies. Illusion is a measure of Reality, as Stupidity is a measure of Intelligence

If one keeps measuring illusion it is an attempted downward spiral to nothingness.There is no opposite to Reality – that illusion is a measure of Reality.

There is no such thing as ‘nothing’ in the elemental construction of Homo sapiens. All the innate ‘something’s’ are the fundamentals of our being human and all our experiences.

The correct use, and understanding of who we are, is an extension therefrom.

Does it require any interpretation on anyones part to say ‘we are? Any attempted denial of that statement would be perverse use of the language, and delusional.

=== Try saying ‘we are not” ===
‘We are’ is the foundation of all affirmation, and within that spectrum, we can know, and be.

‘We are’ is self-evident Truth.

We can neither know, nor experience what isn’t. Eternity is the here and now, that is why it is possible to explain the experience of Eternity. Nothing is ever lost in Time. We are located  in a vast Universe.

‘twas a moment’s pause,-

All that took place within me came and went

As in a moment; yet with Time it dwells,

And grateful memory, as a thing divine.

Wordsworth Prelude, Book V111

We already know – the ''basic'' condition that must exist for us to re-cognise.

It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest.

Unless there was mutual identity we could not know anything. It is why we are urged to evacuate the Platonic cave. Sadly most prefer the shadows rather than confront who they are.

We already know – the basic condition that must exist for us to recognise.

It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest.

== Lost Shadows ==
[[File:People Shadow.JPG|left|thumb]]
The shadows move

Lost in confusion

Lost in despair

Imagination shrouds the real

Looking back

Looking forward

Is this the Centre?

James Brines.


= Basic Principles. =
We are all in the business of living and attempting to understand the principles involved in that human process up to the end of life. The implicit principles necessary for life eventually disappear and all measurable criteria pronounce a body to be devoid of life. Throughout historical agreement we know what that means, and we act accordingly on *common knowledge*. We know that dying is a necessary factor of life. It is a Natural law that if we live - we also die. Natural law is Universal, for us to *know* that a body lives; we also *know* that a body’s life will end. Albeit that reports tell us that today millions of people die of disease, starvation, wars, we of necessity accept that as the ongoing reality because again we are universally connected and know the results of such carnage. Because it is in our realm of common knowledge we have graveyards, crematoriums, undertakers, doctors who pronounce bodies to have died. We understand the consequences of leaving such bodies unburied, the diseases that would prevail. Again, please explore the definition of principle (Universal principle) and try to go to the limitations of the definition without using mythical dichotomies.


[[File:( A great picture of outer space ).jpg|center|thumb]]


Principle: A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning.


All of these questions are based on singularity (the Cartesian dogma) If Descartes had only introduced inclusion into his musings (they were taken as conservative singularity) he may have realized the difficulty of addressing thought as reality. He then may have quite easily concluded that universally - *We are!!*

That pronouncement is inclusive, and conclusive in every way, *we are - and we know!!*

Because my knowledge is not a private, personal piece of property concerning principles, but Universal (Archimedes et al), then that innate knowledge has completeness we can share. Whatever identical resonance we may be able to share (concerning completeness), that can only be accomplished by understanding the principles involved and their constant relationship to each of us. Clearly the plethora of present and past discoveries establishes the existence of that which is fundamentally true, and the foundation for law.

The principles are established, and always have been, we are in the business of making them transparent and complete.

However tenuous the link we are all connected through communication, the air we breathe, the ground we walk on, the universe we live in, the common principles we live by. We all must have sustenance to survive, or we will not live. (See above)

&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt;There is nothing else to experience.*

When we actively explore the reality of anything, all principles involved in that exploration are complementary, and honest, and we understand the wasteful divisive mythology that people attempt to attach to them.

We cannot */partially know/* the truth, it must be complete. Dichotomies attempt to deny the existence of truth, and are misleading.

How do we more reasonably completely know anything?

The complexity of language systems with contemporary usage requires new and creative structures to provide clear information. Internal and external reasoning capacities can only develop in concert with Man’s recognition of the principles that essentially form our lives. 

The inevitability of human consciousness rising beyond its historical beginnings posits a future outside our normal perceptions, and  a factual reality that points to the existence of new perceptions that are infinite.  

It is natural to know when we are no longer trapped in any mythical ideologies that gives credence to dichotomies that stifle the recognition of simple principles. 

There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed.*

Ask yourself - ‘how do you know to ask any questions at all?’

There is no hidden dimension or mystical world. The only philosophical reality is ‘that which is’. To access that we need a new structure to explore ‘knowledge’, a new transformational language. Real knowledge is not amassed information, nor is it the establishment of dogmas, isms, or mythical belief systems.

[[File:FAIR data principles.jpg|center|thumb]]


Basic principles are the source and foundation of all /*knowledge*/. Until that is recognized, extension from mythical sources only leads to a denial of one’s own senses. Trying to conceive of a contemporary world without principles is to posit a world without reason, or intelligence.

The principle of pure knowledge (Truth) could be said to exist in another dimension given the present state of human understanding. To progress that mistaken belief there would be strong support in the need for a comparative reality.

Curiously it seems that philosophy (the seeking of knowledge) constantly discounts any knowledge that does not come within the sphere of established philosophy, and the comparative reality dictum. That consequence profoundly distils the purity of any experience and alienates the observer in their confrontation of that which is real. The measure of that ‘comparative reality’ knowledge bounded by dichotomies is so restrictive that it lies in a mythical dimension where denial of its very purpose is the order of the day. Evidently it will not allow doubt to undermine its own denials.

A basic principle of Nature is /*knowledge*/ and it constantly communicates innately in every living structure. How to grow, develop, and disseminate.

Knowledge is reciprocal truth that depends on our relationship and the recognition of principles operating. Knowledge (unlike information) is not stored in an individual box; it is ubiquitously manifest in everything we do. Knowledge is the experience of a positive reality, and its true construction is a dependable source of secure information (not to be misused). We daily have the opportunity of witnessing ‘knowledge’ in action as expressed by the ‘the principles of knowledge’, namely the principles themselves.

The questions lie in a continuing mythical belief in a mystical unknown (the Cartesian stance) which because of its non-existence can never be known. It is a belief that is detrimental (because it attempts to deny all existing factual knowledge) to dealing with Nature and Reality and the fundamental necessity of our relationship with them.

Making that relationship transparent is our basic obligation and the ongoing evolutionary activity.

Although there is an obvious avoidance to address the definition of principle itself, it is a factor that must be paid attention to, to realize that ‘common knowledge’ is the only reality that exists. Amazingly although there is avoidance of principles - truth - reason etc, there is acceptance of the Cartesian dogma,. Paradoxically this determined acceptance of Descartes supports the reality of innate knowledge existing (I think - therefore I am) which establishes for him innate knowledge; however mistaken he is concerning the interpretation of his experience.

= Leverage. =
Long before I read of Archimedes and his various principle discoveries I was using the principle of leverage in a variety of ways, prying lids off boxes, moving articles with a lever well beyond my physical strength to do so without said lever, and I knew how to do it. Transferring that knowledge to a student or apprentice is relatively easy because innately they also /*know*/ how to do it.

Every aspect of human industry uses the principle in a myriad of ways because it is our obligation to constantly progress the principle and confirm the constant utilization of knowledge. We wholeheartedly adopted Archimedes principles (et al) because we recognized their fundamental utility. It is preposterous to question the widespread /*factual knowledge*/ of all principles, more especially so when we cannot escape their ubiquitous daily existence in all our lives - Nature and Reality do not lie.

[[File:Archimedes'-Lever.png|center|thumb]]
One may abstain from admitting their existence. To do so is simply attempting the impossible, and is devoid of all reason.

Real knowledge has been put into the realm of the mystical unknowable even to the point that knowledge practitioners go to the outer extremes and deny the gift of their natural senses. With their adherence to what they consider is knowledge they become captive automatons to any prescription for life that is expressed in that ’knowledge medium’, which then becomes the authority. When ’knowledge’ is addressed as having a collective source in Universal principles then we have the potential to experience its complete reality (microcosm - macrocosm) without any imaginary, or divisive comparative content. There is then a re-orientation process toward our true being and recognition of our own reality in relation to the natural processes we share. Real knowledge is elementary and Natural.

We know, because that which is knowable is constantly expressed by the principles involved. We all share those principles and can correctly infer the most simple and obvious truths. All social life functions by our adherence to the implicit laws operating within them. Seeking experimental contradiction to a fact of life offers us nothing but proof which is the establishing of ‘complete knowledge’ however ‘more reasonably’ one wishes to extend the exercise.

The construction of new philosophies must seek a mandate to fully explore the relationship between experience and innate knowledge as the foundation for pure knowledge to emerge. To repeat, knowledge or truth do not reside in any individual domain, nor are they the private possession of any human being.

We know, because ’knowledge’ is an innate natural possession that we constantly share - otherwise civilization could not exist.

== Knowledge: Evident facts about mutual standards that provide us with security. ==

We do not become human beings because we can ‘think’; we become more human because we learn to conform to the implicit principles in Nature and Reality. Denying them - denies our being.

It is natural to know. There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed.

Knowledge is an evolutionary process. Human beings developed from primitive innate instinctual knowledge to contemporary cultures. Some know more than others through experience, and make that knowledge transparent.

Insistence on how we can ’completely’ know is an ephemeral philosophical question that attempts to deny that we can have ’knowledge’ at all, as you understand it. Knowing that we ’know’ the inherent completeness of everything through the existence of principles, is the natural catalyst to make ’that which is’ transparent.

Heraclitus:

&quot;No man steps in the same river twice &quot;

He believed in the &quot;Unity of Opposites (Absolutes).

He cried for the needless unconsciousness of mankind..

“Exploration of a mythical dichotomy below for the purpose of establishing principles. Principles that are not a 'mind' construct, but the very essence of our being. Independence, is the curious and dangerous malady where humanity has lionized negative mythology in denial of its own reality.

The human fundamental reality has at its base the simple natural law that we are dependent beings. From conception, the human embryo is entirely dependent on the health and well-being of its mother to provide it adequate healthy sustenance to enable its entry into the world. That form of innate dependability the human species carries with it throughout its spectrum of life.

Every aspect of human activity is premised on the availability of air, food, and water without which the organism cannot survive (this would be an incontrovertible 'more reasonable' truism or an Absolute).

In a perverse way, that which is our natural state has become the target for what appears to be open defiance of the laws that govern our behavior.

When a basic premise is either used mistakenly, or deliberately, its consequences can be socially far reaching, for any deviation however far it is extended is a distortion of the truth, and a denial of who we are.

The erroneous conclusion through exercising responsibility that we can confer independence to our actions has gained a distorting and ubiquitous influence which paradoxically undermines the very responsibility practiced.

Within the context of being dependent we can correctly be responsible for our own actions but with the surety of knowledge that that responsibility is contingent on the measure of life giving forces available that we are dependent on.

The mythical dichotomy 'independence' connotes with the myth of separateness, division, alienation, and the force of these particular myths is expressed in wars, genocide, criminality. Alarmingly the mythological term has become a residual in our lexicon and is used more widely with acclaim than its true counterpart.

To uphold delusional 'independence' as a value to strive for erodes our human heritage by diverting useless energy toward a dubious goal, and consequences that leave us questioning our means of arrival. Sadly it is a loss of being with the paradoxical view that the energy expended will deliver up a personal reality.

The cult of independent individuality with its mythical ideology based on personal intimacy is now taken for granted, which then passes into the acceptance of the spurious dichotomy as a tangible reality. This in turn disposes the adherents to discredit the very essence of their being, and in the process dehumanizes many cultures. The presumption of independent individuality leading hopefully to a superior future is in fact counter-productive to the purpose, and leads eventually to corrupt power, and subsequently the invention of immoral policies that continue the negative spiral, which in the end has no ethical base to extend from.

The alienation from our substantial being creates inevitable tension anxiety, and the need to somehow relieve that anxiety with any artificial means available.

= Responsibility. =
Being responsible for any social activity would best be enacted with regard to the effect it will have (directly or indirectly) on the lives of those who are dependent on a beneficial outcome.

To recognize with some significance the basic structure of our being in turn significantly increases the measure of our understanding of human relationships.

Being dependent is not a mental construct choice - it is a state of being, and there can be no being-ness without at least one other being, there is then the possibility that the principle of true egalitarianism becomes the manifest reality. 

Being-ness can only be identified and expressed in relationship. 


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This is why the cult of 'independence' is eventually so socially destructive, as it creates that alienation which attempts to deny each real human need, and leads to a depravation of honesty. Human relationships between children and adults where independence is the accepted norm is severely undermined when the educational process predominantly teaches an unnatural form of living (either intentionally or unintentionally). The educational process is then reduced to the adoption of a fiction, which in turn puts at risk any educational program.

The effect of interpreting mythical dichotomies as described here is symptomatically ascribed to the existence of all other principles that govern life.

The construction of any ethological debate should not be premised on comparative perspectives, based on human thought, but rather on the issues that we can recognize as being universally compatible, therein lies the common denominator point of extension. 

The focus of attention on comparative perspectives denies justice to 'what is'. To contemplate the 'right or wrong' of any circumstance is a deviation from the truth. The correctness of any debate (however minute the finding), is the justifiable extension, and the only true trajectory we are morally obliged to travel. Truth is not defined, nor experienced by comparison, but by 'what we are'. An orange is to an orange, what an orange is to an orange.

To define correctly there should be careful and disciplined action toward establishing 'true factors' that we constantly use to promote reasonable standards.

= Time. =

In that moment of time, we have the potential to merge on an equal basis with the reality that exists, and to know what true interaction is. That is the point of 'direct experience'. 

It is then that we know the truth about ourselves and the beauty of this Universe which also reveals to us the folly of our present conditioning. In that experience, it becomes very clear that all so called cerebral activity has nothing to do with reality. The fundamental repository of our knowledge and relationship with life is our 

being-ness, which is not located inside a mental box to be analyzed, accepted, or discarded at will, but the very privileged natural gift of being.

What some scholars deal with is the appearance of life prescribed by the illusion of comparative perspective which functions on the basis of dichotomous ideology. It is in effect a denial of our humanity to conclude that all things that exist [from our perspective] exist only in the mind, that is, they are purely notional.

It compounds the denial of 'what is', and an extraordinary refusal to observe transparent life. It should be noted that there is ample contemporary exposure to the Cartesian doctrine, and in this regard, I would refer you to the works of Professor Gilbert Ryle, notably his publication The Concept of Mind.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=1977|title=Professor Gilbert Ryle|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mind/lxxxvi.341.1-s|journal=Mind|volume=LXXXVI|issue=341|pages=1–s-1|doi=10.1093/mind/lxxxvi.341.1-s|issn=0026-4423}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The heuristic principle applies throughout when establishing our connectedness with reality. It is only through our contact with reality that we can discover, and equate with the mutual structure of the principles that govern all existence.

Have already noted that it is also a peculiar form of arrogance that presumes that life is only a notional existence beyond the boundaries of the 'mind in a box' assertion. It would be foolish of anyone to assert that ice cream has a cold smooth satisfying texture and taste on a warm summers day unless they had actually experienced it, preferably on more than one occasion. For anyone who has never enjoyed that experience, it would be foolish of them to discount the very numerous accounts of such an experience that is available just because they had not been party to that event.

From a logical point of view, given the avowed experiences of ice cream eaters, we could reasonably ascertain the validity of each experience by documenting their separate opinions. Each participant would have 'direct experience' in the consumption of ice cream, which at that point in time has the potential for that participant to experience the full measure of that factual reality. We have the natural capacity to experience coldness, smoothness, which equates with the reality that exists, and the potential for those realities to unify.

It is not a question of how to get outside of our minds (mind in a box position); we are constantly outside our so-called minds performing acts of transparency throughout our entire existence. The belief that our constant engagement with reality can never be based on a rational acceptance of 'what is', is at the least, very sad.

The Platonic Cave shadows are a metaphor for the (mind in a box) syndrome.

[[File:An Illustration of The Allegory of the Cave, from Plato’s Republic.jpg|center|thumb]]


The need to reach simple, and obvious conclusions and accept them for the reality they are provides the opportunity to engage the complete reality of the moment. It is indeed going too far beyond the reality of the moment searching for philosophical profoundness which does not exist, that fails to establish the constant principles that always operate. Pure principles are not amorphous shadowy ideals; they are represented in everything that exists. The only way we can equate our inner knowledge of reality is through direct experience of its truth.
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Within that context then, life cannot take on a notional existence but is an existence that is very real, and that we continually share through our innate knowledge. That our so-called minds are defined by comparison - incompleteness - dualism would have extreme difficulty in pursuing the proposition that we are defined by our direct relationship with reality which is expressed in our innate ability to directly interact with 'what is'. The reality of interconnection, and interaction, are not idealistic concepts of a notional nature, but actual and consistent transparent realities. We do not live in a shadowy world that is hidden from our direct experience, but we are constantly engaged in the process of life, and we do not have the right, nor the choice, to deny it.

The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232

== Create your own semantic template. ==
That will consist of an alphabetical list of Absolutes that are all interdependent and interconnected. Their unifying construction creates a ‘new’ consciousness meaning.

That ‘meaning’ is yours specifically.

The greatest knowledge you can ever have is your own!

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That meaning also creates its own moral construction that cannot be misused . The semantic template is available to everyone, and its dissemination is our responsibility.

“Consider that the language structure, concepts, and definitions now in use no longer always deliver, accurate, reasonable, and responsible information. Indeed at times, they can be quite ambiguous.

The statement ‘mutual agreement’, and its physical manifestation in whatever form, is its own dialectic, and will carry within it all other principles necessary for the activity to proceed. Given the Socratic assertion that if something is true then it cannot lead to false consequences no matter how circular any argument may be.

Then extrapolating the statement into extended definitions must only lead to a better understanding of the inherent truths available. This can promote recognition of the underlying essence of all things, which can become more real than our conventional understanding of Reality.

There is a contemporary need to find new definitions, new paradigms to explore the concepts that govern our existence.


Examples of principles and how to define them without dichotomies, just add conjunctions to create any sentence.


Communication. Truth. Standard. Proof. Express. Contribute. Mutual. Direction. Advance. Comfort. Organize. Certain. Immediate. Interest. 

Improve. Present. Constructive. Gain. Trust. Progress. Source. Knowledge.

Basic. Original Reality. Awareness.Freedom. Purpose. Connect. Understand.

Support. Peace. Cause. Unity. Ability. Rights. Honest. Discover. Positive. Energy. Balance. Good. Courage. Willing.  Control. Use. Association.  Observe.

Reason. Easy. Wealth. Simple. Law. Increase. Order. Flow.Co-operation. Exact.

Quality. Accuracy. Strength. Responsible. Operating. Creative. Measure. Recognition. Accept. Constant. Obligation. Include. Dependence. Relationship. Value. Success. Principle. Equality. Stable. Share. Love. 

Sustenance. Action. Identity. Intelligence. Education. Secure. Facts. Agreement. Information. For. Rules.Clear. Yield.


Example:


Success = Securing facts through  responsible co-operation and using constructive knowledge to develop your success.

There are no dichotomies!

Any principle is correctly defined by any two other principles. You create a new language. Using conjunctions you can write your own book.


Where a circular argument is based on an untruth, then it cannot lead to a truth. The reverse of that is that when the truth is established, it cannot be denied.

Establishing ‘mutual agreement’ as a center from which we can reach out for extended knowledge in its ever-evolving radius, is not a limitation, or a stop, it is only a beginning!

When any concept is truly established the superficial exemplification ceases to dominate, and we can truly experience the apparent essence of ‘what is’.

Paradoxically to resource innate knowledge, we must recognize our profound ignorance of Nature, and Reality.

Completeness does not lie in individuality. This is an extreme form of monastic expectation. There can be no individuality (or completeness) unless there is at least one other individual. This is the true foundation of completeness.

Whenever we are privileged to experience that instantaneous essence of one other, then we know in that moment that we experience ourselves. It is complete complementation with the knowledge paradoxically that it is an endless process. There are many paradoxes we live within that strain our conventional views of what is ‘more reasonable’. Any true relationship experience is not based on a causality premise, but on an experience that is necessarily complementation.

Individuality in terms of completeness is a fundamental circular argument back to one, which in its form of denial excludes any form of reasonable argument to the contrary. It is a non sequitur, which denies the pressure of facts that are in abundance, despite the evidence of their reality.

To observe ‘mutual agreement’ is looking at things as they are.

True observation of ‘mutual agreement’ in action is observing essence transparency – it is knowing ‘who we are’. That form of recognition is essence duplication.

The proposition that we can observe the Truth may well be the highest attainment of Realities properties, for Truth is knowledge.

Consider the hypothesis of a human entity (an individual) being born in a black space with no other form of life in that environment.

How could there be Agreement?

How could there be Intelligence?

How could there be Understanding?

How could there be Recognition?

How could there be Love?

How could there be Law?

How could there be Reason?

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All of the above principles are the transparent manifestation of Nature and Realities properties that are constantly evolving. They are ethical imperatives, and we have developed the positive properties of language to establish them for our use.

We can only be defined through relationship principles for they offer us the best hope to recognize the factors that lead to complementation.

There is a fundamental need to grasp simple common-sense essentials.

The Here and Now is not a temporary transitional time phase that we move in and out of. It is a constant certainty that is essential to recognize, so that our focus of attention has a foundation.

Centrism can imply a fixation, which also implies vulnerability, which can be perfectly true if it does not lead to extension.

To understand who we are, it is essential that we recognize and become aware of the very principles that we operate from. They encapsulate all the measure of any human societies ethics, morals, and laws, which is a continuous evolutionary educational process within which the realization of its total essence is always available.

To use the doctrine that reason is a reliable tool to discover Truth – therefore ‘mutual agreement’ in the context ‘correct information’ translates to the Truth to reason!

Evolution is a constant dynamic process.

The human phenomena of ‘who we are’ is only understood in our union with each other, and ‘what is’. The paradox again is that there never is any separation. Separation is a mythical non-existent.

The principles that are our necessities have continuous expansion properties that as humans we are privileged to assist their propagation.

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The human constellation in its evolutionary march must use these fundamental principles to ensure continuity.

To maintain coherence and consistency our source is centered in the principles and factors that we have interpreted from our association with Nature, and Reality.

Whatever we write that is of any consequence, or at any other time, is written with the hope that stronger interpreters than us overtake what we present.

To ‘see’ Reality as we have seen, and be intoxicated by it, as we have been, will ensure its progression.”

== Discovery ==
The consciousness whole is the sum of all its parts and experiences. As we are all on an evolutionary path, our life and knowledge hopefully develop in the right direction.

The exploration took us through a plethora of data and opinions about reality from authorities on science, religion, philosophy and metaphysics. Nowhere could we find a definitive conclusive argument, or agreement, that met our needs.

For us, the question came down to “Is there anything at all that provides some form of construction, and certainty?” Something that has its own inherent ethical standards.

The alternative proposition to that is a nihilistic “nothingness”. A pathological proposition that makes no sense.

Heraclitus’s “unity of opposites” seemed the most promising. Our understanding of that now made dichotomies a semantic illusion. If achieved in a mindful way it is the act of uniting them, providing a conscious correct experience of ‘what is’.

We live our lives with secondary knowledge that everything that is – is always interconnected and interdependent. Yet our illusory experience belies that form of knowledge.

It is here that we understood Heraclitus and his “unity of opposites”. Mentally uniting opposites replaces the existing illusion of their existence – there are no dichotomies!

[[File:Heraclitus, Johannes Moreelse.jpg|center|thumb]]
Once the illusion is gone a new solution manifests that is peculiar to the mindfulness operator, and belongs to a higher form of consciousness.

Heraclitus was known as “The Weeping Philosopher”.

He wept for the needless unconsciousness of mankind when the ‘unity of opposites” was always available.

He was also known as Heraclitus The Obscure.

A title we suspect that came about because the successful conclusion to uniting opposites and replacing the illusion, opened a door to a new dimension.

Semantic description at this time may not have been available.

This brings us to the ancient Yin and Yang symbol of the ‘unity of opposites’. As separate entities in Chinese philosophy, they are complementary, and in fusion they represent the whole. So as dichotomies they don’t exist.

[[File:Ying and Yang Street Art - panoramio.jpg|center|thumb]]


The whole is the elemental answer to any fusion of opposites, whatever that may be.

Symbolize a line as being infinite in the sense that any line can be categorised as being infinite. Apply an infinite number of points in any line. Intersect any line through any point by another line then we have a specific identifiable point at the intersection, which at that point in time has an infinite quality, yet constant and complete.

Any such point has Matter, Energy, Space, and Time, the epitome of the microcosm.

We may locate a Reality point that establishes the Truth. Conventional mechanical ‘thought processes’ deal with dichotomies that are based on a comparative perspective ideology, and consequently, skew any real experience of that which is real.

We must use correct ‘measuring sticks’ to secure proper standards, but from the point of view that there is a belief in dichotomies, it will always be a compelling argument that aspects of reality can be contradictory. The element of denial within human historical memory accumulates to establishing dichotomies as being real.

We are defined not by how ‘different’ we are, but by our commonality of existence. When we locate that Reality point we will then know that the definition in itself has a whole, and complete explanation of ‘reason” in all possible senses.

All the reality we can deal with is here, and now. There is no possibility that ‘infinite regress’ (an imagined reality) is any part of our immediate experience. Infinite regress through thought processes, deals with questionable imponderables. It is a descending spiral, which further removes one from reality, which only produces illusion, and correct meanings are always deferred. It is making a holy virtue out of complexity. The epitome of completeness is the active realization of the operational principle.

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Conclusion: A brick – a house. Each complete in themselves. A house is not composed of one single brick, but each brick in its composition is complete, and whole in itself in that it has matter, energy, space, and time. In that context, it is a microscopic whole which has implicit within it the macrocosmic whole, a house.

We cannot define that which isn’t. We constantly use negative dichotomous terms in language, which are in essence factually indefinable, and therefore non-existent, but they are used as though we can support a view as to their existence. At this time we constantly use mythical concepts as though they had real substance. That erroneous belief in turn diminishes that which is real and compounds the problem of recognition of Reality. The flat earth society no doubt had to be persuaded of the mythical nature of their beliefs. This dictates that we must research ‘that which is” to achieve an understanding that supports that reality.

Separation is the mythical measure we use in an attempt to justify the real identity of either ‘relationship’ or ‘completion’, but it has no substance in fact.That we are connected, that we are related, that we are communicating, that we agree that ‘mutual agreement’ exists, all of these factors fall into the category of ‘that which is. There is nothing that is real that is not immediately available to us, there is ‘mutual agreement’.

Attempting to view true relationships as having a necessary separation link, or dichotomy is a clear misunderstanding of the nature and completeness of all that we are related to.

== Connectedness. ==

A relationship is defined as we are by the measure of contact (especially homo sapiens) that is apparent. It would be true to say that I have a measure of relationship with everyone who reads this material. No matter how tenuous the link we have a measure of relationship with all life – we are related! Depending on the strength of that relationship defines ‘who we are’.

‘Who we are’ is not defined by any spurious separation from life, quite simply because we cannot be separated from it, we are engaged in it at every moment in time. Any attempt to establish ‘separation’ as a reality is an attempt to deny ‘who we are’, and another exercise in futility! Again artificial interioralisation of concepts or principles leads only to a denial of their external reality.

We are all connected by the very simple fact that we all exist on this planet. It is a very simple axiom that all life on this planet is supported by the conditional properties this planet provides. It is also a very simple, and more reasonable axiom to conclude that no matter how tenuous the link that all life in this regard has very concrete and definitive forms of relationship. We all must breathe, we all must eat, and we all must drink, and if you need any further certainty of ‘completion’ relationships, we certainly, all must die!


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To set in qualifications from the premise that there is a ‘separate mind’ (a kind of Platonic cave) to get outside of. This premise precludes either in part or in whole the evidence and experience of Nature, and Reality, within which our beingness is located. It would all be beyond our grasp if indeed our conventional concepts of consciousness was adhered to, which in effect attempts to deny us that direct ‘relationship’ to ‘what is’, and the completeness of that experience.

Knowing or being and solipsistic theories advise that we cannot truly know each others experience, nor can we penetrate others experience, but in the democratic recognition that we know and have our being in relationship, and the mutual, and natural convergence of everything there is. Homo sapiens (race, color, or creed aside) necessarily conduct themselves in ways that extend recognition, and understanding at every level, without the constant need of ‘completion’ recognition that is inherent in all our interrelated actions. 

The flat earth society eventually moved on to a realization that their visionary scope was shrunken, and severely limited. They were deprived of a planetary (never mind a universal) relationship that one can only imagine severely curtailed the very expansion of consciousness necessary for humanity to progress. We have evolved some little way because of our understanding of the natural relationship.

The centered in the mind condition - which connotes with the separation ideology - screams to be released from that mythology, and engage itself directly in real relationship with everything that is.

= Relationship. =


Separation is the mythical tool we attempt to use to maintain a false continuity of an imaginary individuality that does not exist.

The taking for granted conditional mythologies (the flat earth society) engage the victims in what can best be described as serious problems in recognizing the very limitations that restrict their development.

We must learn to view wholes, which equates with viewing ‘completeness’. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts, but the parts are not necessarily separate conceptual parts. We can ‘see’ the whole when we are able to identify the factors that constitute their existence as a complete reality.

That which is complete in Law = Agreements that produce secure and dependent outcomes.

We know in essence the concept of ‘completeness’, and we demonstrate the evidence in myriad ways. Each act is a microcosm of the whole – view from the other end of the telescope!

In the traffic analogy the driver, and all other drivers, conform to the law by driving off when the light turns green. There is an implicit agreement about the value of traffic laws, and traffic lights that control the flow of traffic. At that moment there is a complete relationship understanding of those values. The ‘complete’ or ‘wholesome’ activity of motorists waiting at traffic lights for the green signal to go, and they then move off, validates all the factors implicit within the properties of ‘mutual agreement’.


[[File:ParkStreetTraffic2.jpg|center|thumb]]


Whatever we communicate for the benefit of future generations should not be based on mythical assumptions, but should be based on necessary factors.
It is ordinary life that portrays all the dignity, honor, and the complementary wonder of the human species.

We are here – we are present – we are communicating.

We have an obligation (which we necessarily fulfill) to make transparent the basic principles that govern our existence.

That, which is factual, provides us with a correct motive for behavior, and we do a disservice to Reality when we attempt to deny it. We exist and live in a world where acts of ‘completeness’ expressed in one form as ‘mutual agreement’, are continually enacted.

It is the form of expression, and continuance of processes that we constantly use to arrive at reasonable solutions, and we employ factors that are necessary to provide us with a clear, and unambiguous understanding. They motivate reasonable behavior toward activity that we can accept as being a logical process.

== Natural Experience: ==
No form of life can exist in and of itself, it is brought into existence through a relationship with its own environment, or its species. The obvious egotistical monistic nature of oneness (if there was such an entity) could not leave any room for the realization of anything that might disturb its comfort zone. There is no real knowledge where any concentration is on the “I am” syndrome.

&quot;No man is an island, entire of itself;

Every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main.&quot;

- John Donne, 'No Man Is An Island, Meditation XVII - Devotion Upon Emergent Occasion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/40682518|title=&quot;No man is an island&quot; John Donne.|last=1572-1631.|first=Donne, John,|date=(1999 [printing])|publisher=Souvenir|isbn=0-285-62874-7|oclc=40682518}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Uros people residence on floating island, Lake Titicaca Peru.jpg|center|thumb]]
“We are’ is an inclusive affirmation that deals with “what is’. There is no constructive dialogue, no real understanding, without a relationship.

Based on personal experience, we are a distinct, and unique species born of Nature and Reality that has combined to provide us with the innate ability to recognize the very properties that created us, and utilize them through an evolutionary process toward ever-increasing transparency. That transparency can only become available through a matching process between innate knowledge, and the reality we share, a reality that is our heritage.

We like all other forms of life are the product of Nature, and subject to its laws, and principles. Necessity created a language that evaluated Reality, and provided us with guidelines to emulate its constant properties. The measure, and quality of knowledge is dependent on the realization of ‘what is’. The crux of correct knowledge is to know the base that we function from. The principles that are implicit within Nature, and Reality we have now translated through the evolved language systems with symbols and definitions that we now use to share the experience. When principles are fundamentally true and recognized for what they are, misguided belief systems will evaporate.

To ask what is the source of the principles we present is ipso facto to ask what is the source of Nature, and Reality, and we repeat, that is an exercise in futility, but that does not mean that we cannot recognize that which is natural to us, and express it, as best we can through language.

The experience of ‘who we are’ is the Ultimate transparency that transcends all doubt, or denial.

We can know with an understanding that is pure and indisputable, that is the motivational drive for evolutionary continuance.

To understand who we are we must address Nature, and Reality, and ask ‘what is’ Here, and Now, with an understanding of the dichotomies that exist in language.

The ‘Eureka’ moments, epiphanies, enlightenments, etc, are all evolutionary evidence of who we are, and when we can translate them into principles, and concepts, then the assertions of an Archimedes (and many others) are recognized, and properly used. Through Nature, and Reality we can establish what Truth is! Is it true to say that most people conform to the rules of the road? It would be more reasonable to assert that the answer is yes! Consequently, we can say that we have ‘Mutual agreement’, and ‘Co-operative Understanding’ as observable realities.

There is no conceptual source through Time, or history where there is an end. There is only ‘beginning’. Here and Now is always the ‘beginning’, and a more reasonable platform to explore than any exploration into the past concerning our true identity.

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Contemporary terms like Absolute, Complete, Positive we use to match our conditional understanding of ‘what is’. When we use contemporary conditional language to address concepts like Truth, Knowledge, Understanding, they are limited by the measure of our progression, but we use them all as stepping-stones. Language is a constantly evolving process.

When we agree that there is ‘some certainty’ and ‘limited knowledge’ you have agreed to the concepts of certainty and knowledge as factors that are part of our natural reality. All of us function within the framework of certainty, and knowledge, to some degree. Given that we agree to their existence, these are the factors that can lead us to the experience of ‘who we are’. They are a part of us that can lead us to recognition of ‘what is’, and make a transparent reality of the very things we do on a daily basis. We do not need absolute and certain knowledge to perform everyday tasks, but those performances are structured contemporarily because of our advanced understanding of the things we do, based on our own innate reality.

To honestly perceive the consistency of ‘what is’ (to be interdependent, and mutually connected) in interaction, can and does promote the visible reality of ‘who we are’. That visible evidence translates into the knowledge of our complete presence. We know with certainty that our beingness is of pure essence, and from that experience, we are obliged to formulate, as best we can, the structures that are responsible for making that transparent (witness the explosion of human progression, without the necessity in Time of experiencing fully ‘who we are’). To take a more reasonable stand please observe the multiplicity of human action where interdependence, and connection naturally proliferate. To realize that we are ‘interdependent, and mutually connected’ is the realization of a consistent fundamental truth – ‘what is’. Through identifying ‘what is’ as an internal reality we can make transparent the factors that are our natural construct. It is only through sharing this reality that we recognize it!
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These factors are not based on any ideology, belief systems, or opinions; they are composed of the Reality that is available to us all. We are unique in that we have the opportunity to be able to use their value in the manner that is implicit within their structure. That use is evidence of our understanding of Reality. What could have happened without the assertion that traffic lights are a safe way to control crossroads, or the assertion that the rules of the road are beneficial for our safety?

Any true experience, epiphany, enlightenment, etc, of ‘who we are’ provides fundamental, and indisputable knowledge of that Reality. Applying the recognized principles provided by Nature, and Reality consistently advances the evolutionary process, hence we have Science, Philosophy, Religion, Education, Art, and Law.

When there is a Pure Realization of who ‘we are’ through relationship recognition, it is unquestionably the recognition of the encapsulated, and innate principles we all share, and there is no place for the dissolving of another Real identity through that recognition. Indeed it is a privileged insight into the epitome of purity.

Nature and Reality can give us direction and guidance to our human existence, and we repeat, it is an exercise in futility to seek any cause to their beginnings.

We have proffered the concept of two as a basis from which human reality can be ‘experienced’. To recognize through, and equate with the true substance, and essence of one other is to automatically experience the totality of ‘who we are’ in full measure. This does not mean that the terms ‘totality’ and ‘full measure’ convey an ‘end’ to ‘what is’.

We have consistently offered recognizable facts (not assertions) that are part of our natural human activity, and give correct direction and meaning to our basic essence. We do function within the structure of ‘mutual agreement’, and we do communicate and ‘make known’ – basic obligations. These are evident simple examples of innate knowledge, and our understanding of ‘what is’ made transparent. To repeat we could not recognize anything without innate knowledge. All knowledge is a continual matching process 1 + 1 = 2. toward the realization of ‘who we are’ the development of language structures that correctly establish basic reality as it is, provides continuous knowledge that makes transparent the very nature of that reality.

It is vitally important to recognize that we have active communal agreements concerning the existence of basic principles and concepts that form the very foundation of our lives.

Constant change and movement in Space-Time - Energy - Matter are applicable absolutes to be recognised, which equates to evolution. There never will be a static property involved in the evolution advance. Evolution encompasses its own absolute properties to provide cognitive connection confirmation.

The evolution of conceptual language exists to provide natural equality and to promote cognition between language states. No matter the languages spoken the concepts of air - food- water is the same and can provide a gateway to explore the future dynamics of human relationships.
=== Knowing. ===
Knowing what all the truth is is not some miraculous state of perception. Nor is it a high academic achievement of amassed information. It is simply an objective common-sense view of ‘what is” and in reality what must be. It is what must be for life to function within the principles that exist that are its natural foundation.

We are always of necessity the living expression of a reality that must be experienced in the whole. Our recognition of the same principles operating universally is also our recognition of who we are. That proliferate ‘sameness’ is an evident easily recognizable identity.

When a child is afraid of an imaginary monster in the dark, we generally do not accuse them of being absurd, or that they are lying. Appeasement comes with an explanation of reality at that level which is truthful. An explanation, which the child can grow up with, and find comfort. It is simply introducing a child to a level of truth that is more real to them. In every instance, the only reality that ever exists is truth. However, distorted it may be expressed. One of the major distortions as the result of thought processes is to consider that we can manufacture something other than the reality that exists. The ‘fact’ that you recognize contradictory or absurd statements is that behind them there is a measure of truth. The habitual liar lives in a world in which he or she imagines that truth is something they can manufacture.
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Where human ‘thought’ constructs its reality in terms of dichotomies it can never deal with the truth because it continually makes those comparative perception judgments. Those judgments are always in question because again they cannot deal with reality as it is.

No matter how absurd or contradictory any statement is, that is the measure of truth expressed. Ergo whatever it is that is expressed, or made manifest, is the truth to some degree. Ergo everything that is, is the truth. It is our responsibility to recognize it for what it is.

It may be appropriate to review previous observations on dichotomies and gradient scale. Consistently we have contended that there are no dichotomies, which then properly puts each principle into the category of an absolute. To identify ‘truth’ as an absolute in that category then everything that is must have a measure of truth. It is a very simple and sensible approach to establish ‘what is’. It is the means of identifying a reality that must have truth as a base – whatever it is, and however nonsensical it may appear. All principles have an elementary gradient scale that we must use to identify knowledge that is honest.

That gradation scale knows no dichotomies. Dichotomies are always the imaginary properties of pseudo subjective reasoning. Necessary factors establish that gradient scale where only objective realities exist to furnish a healthy subjective reason with truth, and so we learn to apply the conjunction to address reality for what it is. Truth comes in an abundant variety of ways in its commonality – and therein lays its overall ‘complete’ power, despite any denial to the contrary.

Embedded knowledge as we see it is neither experience nor knowledge without principle content. A person may be well educated in all aspects of the geography of a beautiful South Sea island, but have no practical experience at all of its beauty. Being clever about a subject does not necessarily equate to an understanding of the subject. Nor should it lend itself to posing as adjudicators on a proposition preset we imagine by the same adjudicators, or essentially the same school of embedded thought processes.

Long before human evolution, the principle of leverage has always existed in all Nature (as have all other principles, wherever there is space – time – energy – matter). Our adaptation to the existence of principles has added to the sum total of ‘knowledge’ as we know it, including the concept of knowledge itself. That form of ‘knowledge’, and our ‘knowing’ is natural and not any personal or esoteric acquisition. Just as a fish knows what its natural habitat is, or a bird to fly in the air, the human species uses all available principles it recognizes to add to its knowledge (already said).

Any valid theory of knowledge must have as its base constructive definitive principles to support it, and it is evident that our accumulated common knowledge equates to our common experience. No matter how erudite or convoluted any argument may be, if in the end it is reduced to inane observations that have no factual basis in principle, then it is time to abandon them. Do try to consider the sort of ‘mind’ processes that offers us up a world that knows nothing but separation.

How can we possibly evaluate what ‘wholesomeness’ really is?

How can we possibly evaluate ‘who we are’?

How can there be any theory of knowledge without addressing Nature or our innate and biological relationship with it?

Any attempt to debate ‘who we are’ and the completeness of that concept must have some sense of reality on the real meaning of ‘completeness’, and some understanding of the principles that are the nucleus of human society. To wrap any argument around a non-existent concept that can never be realized is apropos to attaching oneself to a system of belief in things that do not exist. One can make ponderous and convoluted statements about those beliefs but in reality, they are morally and ethically misguided.

The ability to correlate correct definitions to the reality of life offers up that direct link to the truths that are common to us all. It corrects the presumptive notion that there can be ‘different’ perspectives on the same reality. There can be ‘differences’ but there can not be ‘different’ measuring sticks for the same reality. No matter the multiplicity of perspectives, they can never alter the core principle of ‘what is’.

Historically evolutionary progress can best be measured by the adoption of recognized principles. Reality at whatever level we find it can only be understood by addressing ‘what is’. Nothing can be understood by attempting to relegate it to a non-entity through questionable theories of ‘knowledge’, which in essence negate the very content of knowledge itself. The perpetuation of any theory of knowledge, which cannot recognize the principles that are its foundation, can only be a shadow of its own reality. Construct the ‘necessary factors’ around the skeleton and a body will take form

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If any particular theory of knowledge cannot identify simple truths, how can we possibly question how anyone ‘knows’?

A dichotomy is the human attempt to deny the existence of a whole reality of a principle. We have the principle of leverage and its necessary gradient scale.

Mutual agreements of a consistent reality, at a communal level, are a passive form of the Eureka moment, which recognizes fundamental principles that relates to truth. In every social structure, there are varying degrees of recognition, which determine social use. The mosaics of differences, which make up the rich pattern of life, are a testament to human creativity.

Principles offer up a form of predictability in which our brain forms knowledge through the process of interaction. The experience accumulated through each moment, forms exponentially in use, or becomes transparent immediately in a Eureka moment, in which we know. Real knowledge is through the constant interaction with natural principles, much more than the transference of divided embedded information. The problem we face is that ‘knowing’ or ‘how we know” is never a personal possession.

Any theory of knowledge no matter how in that respect, is true interaction. Peeling a potato and ‘knowing’ it, is rewarding enough!

All principles are the repository of pure erudite knowledge. We recognize Universal principles in play at all times in Nature and its by-product – human societies. The correlation between determined interdependence to objective reality requires our intellect to ‘honestly observe ‘what is’, and assimilate that subjectively. Then the equality of the external and the internal becomes a reality and we ‘know’.

Knowledge is the process of natural action, reaction, and interaction. It is nonsensical to ask how do we ‘know’.Every moment in time is complete because it must contain all the principles that form its nucleus. It can only be like that to facilitate the immediate experience of Eternity, or the wholesomeness of any of its principles. On the gradient scale of experience, we all exist somewhere on that scale. It is called life.

=== Relevant: ===
That which is relevant can be consistent with interconnectedness and a gradient scale of knowledge.

What it cannot do is confuse the relationship that correct gradient scales of principles have in reality.

Hot and cold would be on a temperature scale.

Leverage could only be measured by its own scale.

The domestic cat is the same animal species as a wild lion.

The domestic dog is the same animal species as a wolf .

Gradient scales are the natural human mechanisms used to recognize constant principles. They ensure the human perspective is aligned correctly to identify ‘what is’. The distorted human perspective is the result of human thought processes unable to establish constants that must exist in each moment of time.

The problem with embedded information is that it becomes stultified and it can stifle healthy reaction. The injection of recognizable principles invigorates and brings new life that offers countless avenues for human energy to be released. More importantly, those energies are used to enhance the evolutionary process.

We are collectively gifted with the potential to elevate life itself. We can correctly use such information by transforming its content so that its inherent truth is made recognizable.

It would be impossible for life to function if it was composed of ‘different’ opposite realities.

All theories of knowledge are in essence interconnected and can only contain validity when the principles that are the coalescent mechanisms are recognized. The unification of the truth that must exist in any theory needs to be harvested and used to offer up a body of ‘knowledge’ that has commonality of meaning. The identification of principles, truth, knowledge, and their subsequent establishment can only be achieved through direct interaction with Nature and life.

Gifted with life we have an obligation to demonstrate its capacity to use every resource to sustain and nourish its own environment.

We all know through the constant natural process of action – re-action – interaction. Depending on the quality of that process, knowledge will take its appropriate place on the gradient scale. That we ‘know’ is natural. It is not some extraordinary esoteric attainment, posited by a body of theories that, by their very nature, look for difficulties where none exists.

Universal belief systems based on mythologies can have an entrenched view of good principles being established because of their beliefs. Indeed the perpetuation of the beliefs throughout history offers a dynamic that is counterproductive to the ‘realization’ of principles that are necessarily true. Principles used in this approximate way, paradoxically hold no real meaning, and in fact, impose unhealthy dysfunctionality.

When there is a critical change toward establishing correct principles, it is axiomatic that the diffusion of mythologies becomes an automatic process.

True interaction lies in the knowledge that correct action is its own reward

Any other interpretation is less than tangible.

The accuracy in interpreting basic principles, and the alternate knowledge implicit in the interpretation, will always establish the primary principle sought. Archimedes et al.

Truth can be found in the oddest places.

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Archimedes cognition on how to weigh metals in water through displacement.

=== Truth. ===
Language is the construct of human action and the word “truth” seems to hold pride of place by the power of its usage and the meanings it evokes. It is preferable if we could turn our attention to the unity of principles (including truth) that are the construct of every language we use. By uniting the principal terms we can elevate the meanings we desire. Reasonable constructs and the correct duality of established principles always lead toward meaning. It is the only form of meaning that leads to its own extension eg. how to weigh metals – how else could it be?
 All principles have reciprocal value one to the other. No foundation principle can stand alone. They can only exist in a union, one with the other, the source of reciprocity.
All absolutes are universal. There is no hierarchy beyond the meanings they evoke in their joint construction. The binary connotations, however, one may express them, provide a constant reality beyond conventional consciousness. That experience is the immediate reward through disciplined application of their use. That discipline takes the form in all human action (such as the bathing scene above) disposed toward the correct functionality of basic principles. The daily connections we make always include the distinct possibility of their recognition, when we make those connections in a mindful state. From any common sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’. That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right. When the realities of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things.

‘More reasonable’ seems to have the particular philosophical motivation, not toward simple, sensible, and reasonable evidence, but more likely toward that ‘immaterialism’ ideology, and continually seeking for an elusive protracted answer is hardly ‘more reasonable'. Since we are apparently confined to a human perspective, we must settle with the latter position: the apparent state of representation of the world. The de-materializing of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism. A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance, etc. However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality.
=== Truth and Reason. ===
The reason could easily be defined, and validated, as the correct application of common sense. More expressions of common sense can only endorse the completeness of any concept. A true experience of reality does not require endless explanations as to its ‘wholeness’. It just is.

Truth is in reality a network of implicit principles in which it is the predominant energy in each of them. They are identifiable by their interdependent nature (see network below) not the least of which is common sense. Dictionary given definitions of ‘truth’ place it in a very common sense acceptable category. One of which is ‘accuracy of representation’. Note how the two definitions in this paragraph coalesce.

The human drive toward recognizing and understanding the place of principles (constants) correlates to the energy we expend on questioning ‘who we are&quot;. The constant principles of action, reaction, interaction, are the automated natural impulse toward ‘establishing’ a human reality, and human identity. The process of evolving within that process has an egalitarian dynamic that powers it. In essence, it is a natural gift that we must accept. Each life and its identity contains all its personal experiences which can never be known to anyone else. In a sense, we can never “know” another person. Their life is sacrosanct. We can know a lot about them, and there it ends.

Truth is at the top of the gradient scale that measures the veracity of all things that are complete and related and paradoxically all reality is the truth. It gets back squarely to ‘who we are” and where we exist on that scale. To view gradient scales as having no truth to their structures is denying truth itself.

For the entire interconnected, interdependent network of principles, each of them has a gradient scale whereby each measure expresses truth in its own manner. All forms of leverage, from the minuscule to the lever that will move the world, are in of themselves, true and exact at that point. It is the only way we can recognize their existence, and use that complete truth at that time, to move up the scale. Time is the relative measuring stick that determines the amount of knowledge we can absorb. Consider the advanced extensions to the Archimedes principle of leverage throughout time.

                                                   Network scale example.
                                                           Truth

                                              Knowledge             Common sense
                              Responsibility                                        Reason
                Understanding                                                             Intelligence
All interdependent, and interconnected with all other principles and absolutes.
 No ‘thought processes’ or ‘mind’ constructs can create reality.
All we can ever do to gain knowledge is ‘act’ react’ and ‘interact’ within the confines of our immediate reality. The quality of that action is determined by the nature of available information. When there is freedom from embedded thought processes, there is a natural human ability to relate to the existence of truth as it is expressed in reality, and our brain records it accordingly. Thus, the principles of civilized societies evolve. Where there are predominant belief systems, the implicit energy will naturally direct itself toward human standards that blend all ethics together. That implicit energy will find its true home in the principles it seeks. The connected strength of those principles offers sanctity of experience that demands no sacrifice.

Everything that is, must of necessity, have a true comparative value (not a distorted dichotomy value) for honest recognition to be realized. which is to ‘know’.
All things are relative but only within their own true scale. It is the process by which we can identify reality, as it is. Principles cannot operate on any scale practicing negative discrimination.

Thus a healthy individual can be at the top of the scale and someone with various health issues can be near the bottom of the scale. But that is how Healthy they are.

There can be no relativity when ‘mind’ or ‘thought processes’ believe in mythical dichotomies. When human perception is distorted by such beliefs, they create a false reality and deny access to the true state.

Where there is a network of connected basic standards that are universal, then it is possible to use them and be nourished accordingly. The scale of natural human progression provides recognizable evidence that we are constantly developing. Reality is the direct and conclusive evidence of possibilities realized. Therefore, the reality is always the source of all possibilities where truth exists. When the truth is used as the universal measure of ‘what is&quot; there can be no discord as to its accuracy. It can only measure the principles that are implicit in everything there is, its natural milieu! Truth can only deal with ‘something’, it cannot measure an imaginative negative counterpart. Truth is the constant implicit property in every universal scale of principles. Thus, reality becomes transparent.

Have writ large on the value of distorted comparative perception judgments.

The standard of correct knowledge always carries with it, its own appraisal.

Where principles are concerned there is an obvious scale of identification (e.g., leverage and the numerous references) that is all-inclusive and provides us with evidence of its existence. We could say with some truth, that the industrial crane has more leverage than a child’s see-saw, but we cannot deny the truth at the lower level or the reason applied. Where principles are concerned, truth is not a possibility, it is a constant reality (e.g., leverage).

When mythological dichotomies are recognized and established for what they are, the process of ‘ironing’ them out and experiencing their constant reality will translate into the reality, which they are, and used accordingly. To evoke that new sense of reality, the mechanisms of ‘selective immaterialism’ need to be dismantled. Where human experience is presented with something it does not understand and is unable to appreciate the principles involved, the reaction can invoke a sense of fear. That condition can be a primary breeding ground to establish a language of dichotomies and put a selective name to something it does not deserve.

The diffusion of a false singular dichotomy into the natural healthy state of the common good puts responsibility into its proper place. Within the process of diffusion, there is the natural and equal absorption of our true reality. The transition between separation and inclusion will be a seamless process because it is our natural state.

Objectivity and Commonsense:
Explore the plethora of principles - truths - constants that are the mark and phenomena of Homo sapiens.

We cannot have any doubt about our existence in this present reality.

The truth of reality is and can be experienced wholly and completely by anyone at any point in time. All human progress is the result of such experiences, manifest in principles throughout time and their subsequent ‘use’ evolves exponentially. The overwhelming evidence is our reality, now.

A simple analogy of objectivity and commonsense. Somewhere in our early development, someone put the ingredients of a loaf of bread together, somehow baked it, and hey presto, the first experience of a loaf of bread. It is now a form of sustenance, which feeds billions of people. We no longer need to experience that ‘truth’ that ‘knowledge’. It is unnecessary because it is subjective assimilation and the act of external and internal activity.

Because ‘our’ brain functions in a manner that can identify the natural elements it exists in –space, time, energy, matter, we learn to ‘know’ and recognize ‘completely’ a child’s see-saw. Knowing is a natural evolutionary function. The quality of ‘knowing’ has its own natural determinants which of necessity contain the measure of principles required for universal recognition. An Archimedes insight (or anyone else’s) could not become a universal reality unless those determinants were in play. I know the very same way we all know – by experience via action, reaction, and interaction. Truth persists and what Archimedes experienced was true and complete. Any experience of any truth, principle, or constant can be as ‘complete’ within a grain of sand, or knowledge of a pyramid.

All experience of that nature is an experience in ‘time’, and when it is the truth, we use it accordingly.

There is no mechanical translation, or opinion of ‘necessary factors’ as they are constant universals. That, which is ‘complete’, is transparent universal knowledge e.g., the principle of leverage.

The precision of terms must include ‘necessary factors’. Necessary factors translate into a common universal language so there is no loss of meaning.

All truth – principles-constants – absolutes, that stands the test of time we use accordingly. Thus, human societies evolve, and we evolve without the necessity of having to re-experience any of the principles we recognize and establish. That simply would not be a ‘natural’ commonsense proposition and an entire waste of unnecessary energy. The truth of any principle at any point in time, and at that point in time, can be experienced completely by anyone. Whatever it may be if the principle is established – from then on, it will evolve. There are some misguided notions that ‘truth’ ‘knowledge’ and ‘experience’ have some secret value that is unattainable by ordinary experience. It is a ‘natural’ evolutionary reality that what we ‘know’ becomes useful. We have a mutual responsibility to recognize, use and honor the principles, which are the common property we share.


= Human consciousness. =


[[File:Lane past Coombshead Farm - geograph.org.uk - 589598.jpg|center|thumb|369x369px|&quot;The roads half travelled when you know the way&quot;]]

[[File:Sombrero Galaxy in infrared light (Hubble Space Telescope and Spitzer Space Telescope).jpg|center|300x300px]]

=== The Universe ===

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Space&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Time&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Energy&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Matter&lt;/big&gt;''


The human capacity to understand the question of sovereignty or ownership of Space - Time - Energy - or Matter can only be accepted when any basis of dispute includes two dispositions - human and spiritual indigenous ties throughtout history.

With the evolutionary appearance of indigenous peoples throughout this planet, their way of life should make it paramount that their existence be recognised as a natural law that has providence!

Their culture and way of life has its own identity in which Space - Time - Energy - Matter is expressed as they experience it.

That proof also lies in the existence of caves thousands of years old, and the existence their art and culture.


So the constructs defined below are a new approach to understanding the concept of ‘knowledge’ and its proper place in an evolutionary expanding universe.

Knowledge acquisition requires appropriate recognition through action, reaction, interaction, in which proper perception and comsciousnessvalues are applied. That form of construction requires the dismantling of previously embedded information. This requires a new direction to formulate a sound basis from which to extend.

Construction of an analytical methodology to establish a form of ‘knowledge’ that is best suited to distinguish in a contemporary reality. A reality that adequately conforms to common notions of that which is true, and can only exist without any false relation to that which does not exist. All science needs the certainty that established absolutes provide.

A pragmatic construction of real knowledge would propose that all reality expresses a form of evidence or proof and that the observer and the observed contain innate properties necessary to establish a foundational agreement. That form of agreement would necessarily function on the basis that everything that is – is truth.

Any other interpretation would be a disconnect from reality, and the interdependent correspondence that must exist for true recognition of any absolute. Controversy will always emerge when the discourse on bifurcation and the introduction of non-existent dichotomies are used as arguments to be explored.

Pragmatism would say that the human species would need basic properties to formulate any form of reliable epistemological analysis to explain and simplify the reality that forms their existence. That reality could well be recognized initially as the absolutes of space-time - energy-matter, through innate perceptual data that corresponds to an outward structure that is constantly evolving.

That which is absolute is the determinative factor in establishing the existence of truth. When a chair, is a chair, is a chair, its recognition is established when we ‘commonly’ apply subjective and objective measures to that which is truly external to that which is truly internal. That which does exist becomes ‘common’ knowledge, and accepted as being true. Thus, the distinction between a priori knowledge and a posteriori knowledge no longer exists.

Where there is consensus, everything is.

The formulation of absolute criteria that offers ‘simplicity’ as a tool to measure all and everything, dispenses with the confusion of ‘difficulties’ historical philosophies engage in. It also offers an observable synthesis that clarifies the confusion.

Within the combined properties of those absolutes then everything potentially would be. Everything that is by that definition is original, ipso facto, everything that has no false relationship, and therefore true (no dichotomies).

Given contemporary human development, it would be ‘common’ pragmatism to accept the proposition that we exist within the absolutes of space-time – energy-matter. Within those absolutes and their innate properties, it would also be pragmatic to assert that ‘everything then is’ (whatever everything may be). Pragmatism would also dictate that ‘everything that is, is its own form of truth, and must contain available constructs of meaning. Therefore knowledge and understanding would be obtainable to that common experience, and at whatever level that experience is activated it is in interdependent unison with the source.

The continuing establishment of basic absolute principles (their generalities and their specifics) forms our reason. 1+1= 2 is a ‘simple’ but true universal constant generality. That form of generality is used because we recognize the specific principles of a balanced equation that adds up and makes sense. Simple generalities with their inclusive specifics form the foundation of human reason and its constant evolution. Simplicity is the bane of a ‘mind’ that must have difficulties.


= Availability. =
The unifying feature that makes ‘knowledge’ available to us all, are the innate universal principles in all things. Archimedes established the principle of leverage. To paraphrase - ‘give me a lever, and I will move the world’. Once the law is established it can then be put to good use.

The principle of leverage is manifest in countless ways, and put to good use! The principle of leverage is a constant available to us all, and always has been.

Through his application Archimedes conveyed his insight in practical terms, and made aware of the principle and the laws governing it. We now use those laws. We no longer need to philosophise on its existence as a truth. Similarly whenever 2+2 = 4.  Whatever we use to make the equation – apples, oranges, bricks, the mathematical equation is a constant, and the principle of correctness applies. Here 2+2 =4 is empirical proof that the principle of correctness and agreement exist.

Principle, or law: ‘a fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning’.          

If it were otherwise we could not measure anything. That which appears abstract then, requires no implausible argument as to its non-existence.


Such is the nature of all universal principles, they exist whether the notion of a ‘mind’ can perceive their existence, or not. Because ‘thought’ does not create the reality of principles – universals- truth, it cannot from its mythical standpoint understand the simplicity of a Reality where ‘everything is’, nor the simple and factual conclusion – how could it be otherwise!

Where ‘everything is’ evidently encompasses the whole evolutionary dimension. It is not an ideological enclosed static that stultifies expansion of an unfolding Reality.

Any pure knowledge experience that ‘everything is’ ,(quite apart from the common-sense truth of the statement) is to experience the Absolute in any immediate part of anything that exists, which establishes its own truth forever.

To examine a road code of law with that knowledge, and view the actions of drivers at traffic lights, it is more than reasonable to conclude with some conviction that there is  to some degree, Agreement – Knowledge – Understanding, and Conformity to that code of law. It becomes a ‘more reasonable’ proposition within Reality to understand that that code of law is multiplied exponentially, and the principles practised,  wherever drivers, motorcars, and traffic lights exist.


It is the nature of the type of knowledge we are measuring that determines the measure of reason that can be applied to any given form of Reality. We can conclude that 2+2 = 4 is a reasonable mathematical calculation that contains the principles of Agreement – Understanding – Conformity. Given the accepted knowledge of these innate principles we can with more reason apply such a calculation Universally. Knowing is agreement with ‘what is’. Knowledge is not the attempted denial of any existing reality. That is a contradiction in terms.

Mechanistic observation is akin to viewing from the outside, a straw in a glass of water. The straw always looks bent, but when removed from the glass we realise it is straight.

To claim an experience of that which is Absolute, is not a claim of an experience from a higher domain, or an  isolated incident – it is common-place, numbered by just how many we are. Attempting to denigrate such experience is denying the everyday actions that contain the innate principles of a constant Reality. All life functions within the constraints of the laws that are the constructs of Nature and Reality. All life is an expression of the Absolute. It is when that expression is realised, not only in an instinctive sense, but in a real sense, that we penetrate reality beyond a comparative framework of mythology. To claim that you ‘know’ intrinsically what the principle of leverage is, or the principle behind the mathematical equation 2+2=4 is to claim experience of the Absolute.

The Absolute is not some abstract esoteric truth – it is that which is immediate. Whether in awareness or not, we constantly comply, to some degree, with the laws of a constant reality.

Therein lies the difficulty for a comparative framework mythology – the Absolute is everything!

= Basic Equation. =

However much the simplicity of the equation is, it contains the properties of correctness – balance – equality – mutual identity – meaning, which in its ‘simplicity’ presages all future mathematical equations. In that universal meaning, there is particular knowledge of consistent truth. That form of ‘simple’ consistency, creates its own natural equilibrium, and its ‘usefulness’ evolves exponentially up the reality scale. Here is where we need to give proper credence to ‘that which is’.

All generalities have profound and specific principles as their ‘common’ identity, which are absolute. Unless those components are recognized, both objectively and subjectively, they are reduced to a comparative value spectrum (using dichotomies) as a misguided ‘simplistic’ factor. Deductive reasoning is then deprived of all value, and leads to the inevitable spurious question ‘how do we know?

Given the above criteria to establish a correct basis for knowledge that is recognizable, and of a kind that can be used universally, ‘simplicity’ can be recognized as a tool that promotes its own established formula. That which we constantly use.

Everything is the truth with regard to the methodology. How that truth or generality is expressed denotes the measure of the principle that is at its core, and forms that measure of reasoning we enjoy. Fortunately, although the truth is an innate property, it is not a ‘personal’ property per se, nor is the ‘experience’ of its reality. Its natural evolution is progressive. In that progression we are in common, the beneficent recipients that ‘evidently’ conform to its constant existence.

Philosophical dissertations have become a monopolistic form of opinions that always seem to presume the ‘rightness’ of difficulties in establishing the source of our being, and are unable to put in ‘simple’ terms the question of ‘who we are’. There comes with that the denial of evidence that permeates human history, which establishes the principles of our ‘common’ reality. Those opinions carry with them a colossal library of questionable erudition that becomes embedded, using questionable values to support their argument.

The most distinguished opponent of such arguments (Ludwig Wittgenstein 1889-1951&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1203018418|title=Tractatus logico-philosophicus|last=author.|first=Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 1889-1951,|isbn=978-1-78527-656-9|oclc=1203018418}}&lt;/ref&gt;) proposed that language logic was a necessary tool to dismantle the convoluted ‘mind’ propositions that have permeated the philosophical hierarchy. Those ‘mind’ propositions only served to construct meaningless concepts as to ‘who we are’. Although he gained prominence in philosophical circles, his work was directed more toward academia.

In his Tractatus Logico – Philosophies he quotes: “The limits of my language mean the limits of my world - What cannot be shown cannot be said”, and “There can be no representation of the logic of facts”.

Having a belief in mystical truths that were inexpressible, his statements above are indicative of the embedded language of dichotomies. His form of ‘knowledge’ ‘philosophy’ gave (without question) the concept of ‘mind’ credence to formulate its own logic to clarify its own form of reasoning.

Wittgenstein, by not recognizing within the language the distortion that dichotomies create, was unable to approach the evident constructs of true meaning that lie within the interdependent relationship of absolutes, and their constant existence. Evidential reality is all there ever is. The ‘meaning’ or ‘knowledge’ that becomes evident in reality is ‘commonly’ accepted and used accordingly.

To repeat, the evidential reality is all there ever is. In that regard, the exponential drive toward ‘difficulties’ amassed a historical discourse of misinformation, which is used to address the very ‘difficulties’ created by spurious value systems. In effect, dealing with ‘nothingness’.

We have managed to turn ‘truth’ into a problem, into a difficulty, when the truth is simplicity itself. An oxymoron of gargantuan proportions.

This contemporary malady solidifies a diversion that discounts the reality of continuous progression. Progression in which ‘common sense’ is a motivating principle that promotes human evolution. The consistency of specific principles allows us to achieve correspondence.

Real knowledge is not a fabrication of convoluted prescriptions. It is the ‘coalescence’ of ‘what is’ to internal reality. That established, evolutionary progress is assured, and reality factors are recognized for what they are.

True meaning can best be attained by the interaction and interdependence of natural principles and so recognized as such. That meaning which contains all the specific components of reality is experienced as ‘true knowledge’, measure by measure by anyone.

That form of ‘experience’ is not a ‘mind’ process, but a very natural state of realization consistent with our level of action, reaction, and interaction.

A correct and pragmatically form of knowledge-seeking foundational answers to perennial questions would seek a direct passage to our ‘commonality’, the beacon that offers guidance. Consider the quantity and quality of knowledge we all pursue that has meaning and usefulness.

To posit the notion that there are no dichotomies is a cataclysmic proposition that seems nonsensical to established embedded constructs of knowledge. Constructs of knowledge that offer only confusion, and continually pose impossible questions, whose absence would provide clarity.

That absence of confusion would dispel and dismantle a reality of ‘mind’, which functions on its own selection of problems.

To address reality as having only absolute constructs dispels the confusion of duality and its inability to ‘use’ relativism in its proper fashion.

All general absolutes contain specific principles representing facts; the essential properties that confirm reality. This reference directs the observer to observe, and go beyond the restrictions of a ‘mind’ governed by dualism, monism, or any other spurious form of philosophy that distorts the very reality it exists in.

Where there are no dichotomies, all we can deal with is ‘what is’, and the logic of ‘necessary factors’ thus destroying the possible inclusion of anything described as a “paradox”.

= Pure Experience. =
To design a chair our brain requires to exercise the qualities and properties necessary for its manifestation e.g., strength, balance , design, functionality etc, etc.

A chair, is a chair, is a chair, the product of innate knowledge.  

If we did address any tentative agreement that ‘I’  is a ‘fiction’, could not our ‘conscious experience’ of that ‘fiction’ be just as fictitious. It would follow that whatever perception of Reality we experience must also be fiction.

Our contention, as always, has been that ’I think - therefore I am’ by Descartes is the greater fiction for reasons already explained.

To consider to whatever degree that we can function on the basis of a fictional ’I’ precludes any attempt to honestly address ’who we are’.


Saying that ‘conscious perspectives’ are limited and inconsistent with apparent reality are quite correct. It then brings into question the validity of ‘conscious perspectives’ to guide us toward ‘what is’.

The entangled fictional relationship between ‘mind’ ‘I’ ‘thought’ ‘consciousness’ impose formidable barriers to that which is evident.


Base observations on the construct and interpretation of what ‘knowledge’ is.

Human experience is limited by its mechanical interpretation of Reality, especially ‘cogito ergo sum’.

If everything that is, is its own measure of Reality (the differences) then everything must be measured, at whatever level, as being that part of the whole with all principles intact, making that measure available to be experienced as the Absolute. With absolutes there is no antagonism.

We cannot exist or experience anything without a Universal complementary source of identification.

It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality.

Not experiencing Reality as it is, is equivalent to not experiencing ‘who we are’, and is indeed the only human source and validity of truth, although Descartes held the erroneous belief that such knowledge was independent of any experience. That belief we suspect was some form of impetus toward his ’cogito ergo sum’.                  

Knowledge and experience are co-existing ‘necessary factors’

So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), therefore any ‘knowledge’ derived from experience will be incomplete.

Clearly it is the quality of ‘knowledge’ that one experiences (e.g., Archimedes) that leads to a common certainty of evidence realised through direct experience.

That quality of knowledge can be available when we observe directly the activity of drivers at traffic lights with the knowledge that it is a very common activity recognized internationally. In every case we can logically pronounce the premises to be true, therefore we have a conclusion that is also true - whether that conclusion is defined as Mutual Agreement, or Common Acceptance, it does not matter - they are mutual principles.

It is this form of logical knowledge of innate principles that is the precursor to knowledge of the Absolute logically defined within all reason for ‘what it is’ .

Where the basic premise is true that there is ‘Mutual Agreement’ between a multiplicity of drivers at traffic lights then we can with certainty conclude that the same principles exist Universally.

We can also draw concrete conclusions, and establish knowledge, that it is not ‘absolutely necessary’ to experience by observation the multiplicity of drivers conforming to their particular road code. We have already established that knowledge.

Knowledge and experience are not separate philosophical theories. One cannot be without the other..


Everyone has the potential to experience the Absolute paradoxically, in part or in whole.

Everything that is, must contain the properties of the Absolute, otherwise nothing could be.


To ask questions about human experience based solely and inevitably on our interpretation of ‘knowledge’, and co-existing with that, its particular meaning in human existence.

So long as we can only deal with our conscious interpretation as representing Reality then we derive functionally less meaning than we are entitled to.

When we see other humans consistently using levers to open crates then we can recognize a ‘social intelligence’ operating which equates to understanding that is not based on opinion, but is a clear expression of human activity that has correspondence.

All of the principles involved in that experience can coalesce to provide that form of Reality that requires no interpretation. It becomes recognizable knowledge. How we understand that knowledge is through the realisation and identification of the principles involved, which become immediately transparent.

The Absolute could be categorised as a knowledge experience that encompasses all and everything. Whatever is manifest is that measure (complete in itself) of the Whole with all its principles intact.


Where there are at least two actions that are identical we can reach a common-sense conclusion that a definitive principle is operating. When that corresponds with innate knowledge then we have the complete cycle.

The definition itself is language opening the door to an experience of Reality. No one can know in isolation. An imaginary ‘I’ restricts any experience of who “we are”,  and is not a necessary part of human experience.  

Explaining experience beyond imaginary thought processes requires a definitive language that deals with the principles of Reality itself.

Pure experience.

The world-wide disposition that has no grounding in Nature and Reality becomes captive to any mythical fear that  offers a target to give some form of direction or stability.

There is nothing more simple than to make Reality transparent - its evidence abounds. We can pronounce the principle properties that provide guidelines to its existence whereby the reality is made apparent.


= Expansion. =


To address concerns on ‘negativity’.

Negativity is in essence the inability to establish a measure of Reality.

Mechanistic processes of denial are the attempt to understand and make transparent that which is apparently unexplainable, and resolve a condition whose energy is driven toward finding that core of affirmation.

The evolutionary principle from all available evidence is that human beings as a species progress. This seems a paradoxical contradiction to the embedded proposition that we can never know the ‘truth’.

The consequence of such a traditional premise is that denial and negativity both hold paramount positions.

We are conditioned to accept the premise that there is in fact no premise that will enable us to go beyond presently accepted norms of experience.

We are conditioned to accept that the ‘truth’ is inexpressible.

The evolution of the human species is constantly subject to contemporary ingrained social habits, which give some kind of credence to that particular point of existence. Indirect conscious interpretation classifies itself as a solid perspective to govern and justify human activity, which in many historical ways has proved disastrous.                   

Our continued intention is to expose detrimental barriers to the realisation of ‘who we are’, and in that process establish a smoother, more realistic approach to ‘who we are’.

The Archimedes legacy.

When we establish knowledge of something that exists through a multiplicity of experience and evidence, then from every reasonable standard we can establish that it is true, ergo that which is true is Absolute.

The principle of leverage is well grounded in social intelligence, and our natural knowledge of that does not need erudite explanations of its presence, nor any ‘conscious interpretation’ to realise its existence, or its practice. Evolution eventually removes restrictive passages to direct experience, the very purpose of evolution.

The principle of leverage is not a matter of opinion, it is the realisation of actuality and our continued ‘more reasonable’ response each time the principle is applied.

Children learn to speak their language primarily through experience without any direct, or indirect conscious interpretation, and so, universally we ‘know’ the most powerful means to communicate. Were we to move 50 miles in any compass direction from the town we live in, there is a certain predictability that we will meet others who speak the same English language that we do. If in that experience we find that these premises we have drawn about our travels were true, then the conclusion we would come to in particular, is that when we communicate we make known what we know.

………………………………………………………….

                                        
'''Please note the date:'''

'''Oct 2005.'''

I am offering up this older material below to provide insight as to the progression of this work. There may well be some duplication to date. During this period my wife and I worked in collaboration to ensure an equality of experience.

= Stepping Stones 1. =
There is nothing other than what is – there is no hidden Reality that we need to seek, it embraces us at every turn.

The Archimedes experience is the pure experience of Ultimate Reality, which provides indisputable knowledge. Reality is the source of complete knowledge, it is the constant source that has provided us with all human development, from the writings of William Shakespeare, to the computer development of Bill Gates. What they have produced is now an evident part of our reality that we can engage in. We can experience ‘mutual agreement’ through epiphanies, insights, enlightenment , understanding, Eureka moments etc, they are all one and the same.

Implicit within the macrocosm is the microcosm – it cannot be otherwise. The more we conform within the microcosm the more we begin to appreciate that Reality contains everything, and that we can realise through experience its manifestation. Each Eureka moment is that personal point of experience that connects us with the Truth. The principle of leverage was always available, it took an Archimedes to explain it to us.

Each Eureka moment necessarily engages with the reality of complete knowledge, and utilises its share at that time. When we have complete knowledge of who we are in that personal moment, then we understand that these, egalitarian properties, are rightfully shared by everyone and that we have experienced that which is infinite. It does not mean that the process of evolution is over – it has only just begun. It does mean that we can no longer continue coasting through this existence in a near comatose state.

If there is a hypnotic fixation in holding the principles of Reality as being separate, and different, then the potential realisation of their immediate unity, and communion, becomes problematic. Knowledge, and experience are one and the same – they are not different!!

Experience = Immediate knowledge of basic reality that is factually correct, and that we can reasonably use.

Knowledge = Immediate experience of secure, and accurate information that is constantly stable, and sustains principles.

Reality = Complete Knowledge. As the microcosmic part of the total macrocosm we are immersed in reality. The real question should be, ‘how can one not know Reality, or ‘who we are’.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the bank, and deal with money transactions.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the supermarket and exchange money for goods.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can send our children to school to enhance their education.

Evident proof is validation of what is – it is not a matter of anyone’s opinion, nor is it an assumption of ours.

Neither do we assume, or offer any opinion, on the Universal Reality that there is ‘mutual agreement’ that we need air, food, and water to sustain us.

Evident proof is also the basis for the mechanics toward realisation of ‘complete knowledge ‘ of who we are. Reality can be realised through concentration on its basic principles.

We use language to express our understanding of who we are.It is relatively easy, it is reasonable, and it is responsible.

We convey through language our measure of intelligence, and to the best of our ability conform to the basic rule of communication – ‘we make known’

Implicit within that exercise is ‘mutual agreement’. We may differ in some specifics, but we meet the basic obligation of communication – ‘we make known’, and always we progress to some degree.

Simultaneity is one of the constant principles that we all share and they come from Here, Now, the Present, where they have always been. Everything is. Our being is always engaged in the present, and we each have an obligation to understand our relationship to what is.

The present is the only point of contact we can ever have with Reality.

To some degree or another, each one of us is directly connected to Reality (we do not have any choice in the matter), and we can potentially evaluate ‘what is’ through the utilisation, and examination of factual reality.

We are the microcosmic part of that Universal Macrocosm, and because we already have that innate information it is a matching process when we have a Eureka moment, an epiphany, an understanding beyond question. Nothing enters our minds - we already know! Everyone has innate knowledge of the principle of leverage. It requires correct examination of ‘what is’ for realisation to occur. It is then a relief to have ‘mutual agreement’ on the things we would wish to make transparent to others.

To use a traffic analogy, it is evident that there is ‘en masse’ mutual agreement when we know to drive off when the traffic light turns green. Mutual agreement is translated into people obeying traffic rules (otherwise chaos).

Two cars, two drivers, sitting directly alongside each other at traffic lights, discuss their understanding of their Road Code in this particular position, and what they should do.

When the light turns green there are a myriad of principles that apply when they drive off simultaneously. They have both demonstrated their ‘complete knowledge’ of the significance of the green light from this perspective.

There is Mutual Agreement.

There is Predictable Conformity.

There is Common Ground.

Each one complements the other.

They are both right.

One more remove:

From an outsider’s point of view – they both know! The green light could be categorised as a Eureka moment, it sets in play all the above principles, whether the drivers are aware of it or not. From the perspective of two outside objective observers who know the traffic rules, if asked, did the two drivers at the lights obey the rules – the answer would be yes, there would be mutual agreement. They have complete knowledge of this particular circumstance concerning drivers, and green lights.

Could it be that certain schools of thought are curtailed by a questionable refusal to recognize what is, and have a preference for creating a difficulty where none exists! No one can examine what isn’t! There is no such thing as ‘nothing’. Something is – what is it?

A Scottish engineer functions on the same principles as an Italian Pope. Because Archimedes was prominent as a mathematician, his realisation of the principle of leverage, and his understanding of the difference in water displacement between silver and gold was widely reported. This does not mean that realisation of ‘what is’ is an exclusive experience. As said previously Archimedes did not realise something new – it has always existed, and all forms of life would have utilised the leverage principle to some degree or another (watch a bird build a nest). At that time there were probably many thousands of people who had some understanding of the principle, but Archimedes was the one who made statements about it.

As in any Eureka moment, we can experience infinity and who we are. It is mutual agreement (an understanding) between the part, and the whole. It is when the principles are in unison Eureka!

Reality is there to be examined, and experienced, it is not separate from us, nor should we try to make it so.

= Stepping stones 2. =
Knowledge is not conditional by the activities of what may be called ‘thought’ or ‘consciousness processes’. Real knowledge is that which is available to all, and to be shared by all. It cannot be contained by the ‘experiencer’ and then not ‘known’ by the accident of experience. It is the actual innate experience itself which conclusively establishes the truth. It can only deal in the truth which is its modus operandi of dissemination.
For me to say that ‘everything is’, is a statement of fact which cannot be denied, and an intellectual dishonesty to attempt to deny the evidence by philosophical machinations. Hostility toward the truth leads inevitably toward attempted negation - looking for nothingness!

‘Being here’ demands its own recognition - attempting to deny it is simply perverse. Knowledge is the realisation of ‘what is’..
Rene Descartes ‘I think - therefore I am ‘did no service to human evolution, or education. It established in Western societies especially, the culture of individualism, with the precursor that so-called ‘thought’ was the inward evidence for existence, and for the following unfortunate claim that we have a ‘mind’, or to use the euphemism, a soul!

Experience is true knowledge. When that experience marries up with its innate counterpart then recognition is realised (cognition). In simple terms, a light goes on in the brain.

There can be no real knowledge without truth. All thought qualifies experience and attempts to reduce truth to near nothingness which is a widespread conditional activity. We cannot manufacture knowledge, or the principles which are its properties. No matter the amount of correct information anyone can ingest, it does not become knowledge until there is tripartite coalescence between inherent knowledge - ingested correct information - and ‘what is’. Then we truly recognize that which is Absolute. Within Nature we have the distinct privilege of evolving in a Universe that can only recognize the attributes of social cohesion. Knowledge is not anyone’s personal possession. Whatever measure of experience we may have of it, it is only available as a Universal sharing experience to be beneficially used.

Human activity whereby we witness people using tools for leverage, or drivers at traffic lights obeying the rules of the road, are observable markers that contain the properties for understanding our own reality. Unless seen for what they are, they are only mechanical platitudes with an equally mechanical response. We could rightly claim that that at least is some response, but of no real value.

The natural process that operates when we see that which is innate, overrides any erudite explanation from an academic base however intellectual its original source. ‘Thinking’ for oneself cannot make judgments about a ‘natural’ experience.

When we see human duplicate functions in operation then we are in communion, and at another level we recognize who we are.

When we actively see the activities of the human brain in action we are not dealing with any internal ‘will - o’ - the wisp’ that no one can ever experience. We exercise that prerogative (human activity) at every moment in time, but quite apparently without that focus of attention that denotes realistic recognition.

To seek identity in sectarian, or secular belief systems to overcome the contemporary feeling of loss of identity leads to the acceptance of anything that offers some form of stability. That is then used to strengthen that which is euphemistically addressed as the ’self’. To retain that security the acceptance of information transmitted throughout generations, is absorbed into the culture, and defended to the death against those who would question that belief system.

The greatest knowledge we can ever have is our own and it has the potential to transcend all else and provide insight into infinity.

The most tragic human condition is the lack of experience of identity in a multiplicity of identities in which we all share. The real problem is not one of ‘identity’, but a lack of ’communion’.

Whether we like it or not, whether we are aware of it or not, the principle of ’communion’ must always exist to some degree for evolution to proceed.

It is within the experience of that principle that we understand the fallaciousness of that much heralded ‘self’ which draws down so much energy in an attempt to establish itself as a reality.

Within positive language structure possibilities (no dichotomies), there should be the disposition toward the realisation that our relationships to cognize into ‘communion’ must be addressed as specifically dependent. Social attempts to be ‘independent’ are the very remove from reality and signify reduction attempts toward nothingness.

Adherence to, and the cultivation of faith and belief systems give little elbow room for any factual occurrence to be anything other than a comparison to the myths that are held.

The cultural and educational socialisation of generations of children must carry with it, its historical belief systems that overwhelm the natural instincts.

Observe an animal out of its natural habitat and locked in a cage for its entire life.

It would be a salutary exercise if we could dispense with the term ‘mind’ from our vocabulary and magnify the use of the word brain to promote a realistic discussion on ‘who we are’.

My action of levering open a wooden crate and knowledge of it is one and the same. Our remarkable brain functions like that, the purpose of a brain, the natural repository of innate knowledge.

The assertion of principles is critical to avoid all activity being submerged by questioning their very existence, and being unable to see directly.

It would be a rarity today, if anyone using a lever to pry open a wooden crate would have the same enormity of experience that Archimedes had, nor the need to make pronouncements about it. It has all been done prior to our awareness of its value with the accompanying data attached. Our brain knows the value of a lever and activates our body accordingly when needed.

It could be categorised as evolutionary transmission.

The observance of someone prying open a crate with a lever, or drivers conforming to the road code at traffic lights, is a function of the brain in action, not a mythical entity in a singular locality that denies its own senses. When the brain is not burdened by distorted belief systems it then has the potential to experience ’that which is’, which is always constant.

When we understand the function of a lever, or the presence of traffic lights, then we can activate the principles involved because we already know how!

The negative impact in the use of dichotomies in language lies in their distraction from the truth, as our brain processes the words we use in relation to Reality. The tendency to attempt to separate inherent truths through the words we use disrupts that natural correspondence necessary for identification.

A chair, is a chair, is a chair.

= Stepping stones 3. =
Where principles are concerned the constituent linkages in language are identity markers to that which is real - reference points. Without dichotomies there is no separation, or ambiguity between what we experience, and ‘what is’.

Philosophy in its attempt to address something through denial is an elementary confusion. To say that that is a chair, and then attempt to deny it invoking philosophical theorems concerning the human ability to experience it, is a severe contradiction on the existence of the object , and the observer.

When this form of contradiction is then taken as a constant, it then precludes any common-sense and definitive answer to the existence of a chair.

'''For philosophers, George Orwell’s ’to see what is in front of one’s nose needs a constant struggle’ would be apt.'''

Real concepts cannot exist in any mythology, therefore all that we experience is inevitably the truth that is there to beproperly categorised for what it is. The proper use of language in this context will identify whatever it is to correspond with present reality. Misuse of language (dichotomies and mythologies) leads only to the acceptance of a fractured state where nothing is whole and represents confusion. The dissipation of the supposed problem is never realised.

Fiction has been elevated to the status of an accepted reality. Very early evolutionary physical dangers allowed the development of fictions that offered some form of imaginary protection beyond limited physical ability. That contemporary humanity endorses the mythology of ‘I’ is testament to the psychological fear that still exists and requires its proper recognition.

Emphasis must be placed in the relationship between language and reality for understanding to proceed. The persistence of dichotomies has their own persistent confusion which then promotes a false reality through misleading information.

Microcosm and macrocosm are one and the same in a Universe where ‘everything is’. Isolated viewpoints are exactly that, and are unable to view the expanse in which we are encompassed.

We must learn to view reality through both ends of the same telescope. When we understand the extensive scope of ‘truth’, then we know that its values and properties do not change - which relates to ‘completeness’. Philosophical, ideological, and intellectual endeavour , try to shape the structure of ‘what is’ based on pre-dispositional knowledge, which can only ask the same questions, and look for the same answers.

Not to experience that which is absolute or whole is the normal result of the confusion of language which has no correspondence to that which is real.

To discuss with a philosopher the possibility that ’mind’ per se does not exist, and to dissolve it as a concept would place them in a realistic position, would indeed be a difficult proposition. The strength of that difficulty lies in another imaginary concept, that that ‘mind’ represents ’I’, and it is anathema to that fiction to consider its own demise!

= Stepping stones 4. =
There are no dichotomies.

Everything is, and everything that is, is complete, everything is an Absolute complete Reality. You are experiencing your measure of that reality. It cannot be otherwise that you are experiencing that measure of completeness. When we come to terms with it we have the innate capacity to see the Absolute in a grain of sand. That is knowledge. Belief in dichotomies is the mythical barrier to that particular experience - which is only denial, supported by erudite protestations that human construct dichotomies exist.

At a mechanical level Intelligence and Stupidity appear to be separate identifiable conditions, and they appear to be antagonistic. Stupidity is in Reality a measure of the Intelligence which is always constant. If someone was in a state of mythical utter and complete stupidity we would not attempt any form of emancipation from that condition.

We know that that is misguided and proceed with techniques to advance intelligence.

Consider the proposition that there are no dichotomies, and within that possibility all questions become irrelevant. Presuming that there are no dichotomies allows the process of establishing ‘necessary factors’ to proceed, and allows each measure of wholesomeness to be realised.

Experience is the criteria for knowledge.

Some Reality experiences were simply transposed into particular belief systems and elevated into a pseudo spiritual dimension, or a philosophical conundrum.

Where there is a belief in a divisive fiction (dichotomies) there is automatic mechanistic restriction to that which is Real.

There is a capacity beyond ego and intellect which can commune with ‘what is’, and recognize its properties. Reality is constant.

Within the accepted comparative framework there is the view of principles as having different divisive categories e.g., as above, Intelligence and Stupidity, and classify them within ‘thought’ structure as dichotomies and give credence to them as being an antagonistic reality.

The consequence of that, is, that one is always a remove from recognizing the structural properties of immediate existence.

Any construct of knowledge necessary to evaluate ’what is’ will address the properties (principles) that are the constituent constant markers available in that which is the microcosm and the macrocosm. That identity (the Absolute) is found in any sphere of Reality.Everything is - and everything that is, must be experienced for what it is, and not for what anyone denies it to be.

There is no mythical human construction that can deny ’what is”.

Everything is - without dichotomies. To repeat, we do not have the ability to create ‘nothingness’ - ‘that which is’ has no imaginary comparative human construct. To attempt to deal with such constructs, and give credence to them is always the denial of ‘what is’, and adherence to ‘thought’ processes whose only purpose is to cement that activity. Indeed realising that the concepts of dichotomies are human mythical constructs, denying true perspective, is the beginning of insight.

The dissipation of such processes through addressing the principles of Reality allows us the potential to experience directly ‘what is’, in simple terms -the truth!

Intelligence is a ‘necessary factor’. Addressing stupidity is a denial of reality at whatever level we find it.

Intelligence and Stupidity are not antagonistic, they are one and the same principle with measurable degrees of existence. Only from a comparative framework standpoint is credence given to any mythical form.

The above observation is not negating the process, it is questioning the markers which evolve into imaginary separation (trapped in a comparative framework mythology). That particular process can and does create a false mythical reality that appears divisive. We cannot exist within a divisive reality! Reality must be complete for us to recognize its existence.

Where there are no dichotomies within the premise that ‘everything is’, there exists no antagonistic position. The distinction between human constructs of positive and negative are matters of mythical perspective wherein no experience of the Absolute is available. It is because the human ’mind’ per se places its own construction on its immediate experience, and must have its particular interpretation based on what it considers ’knowledge’. There is a difference between ’mechanical knowledge’, and ’pure knowledge’.

From the mechanical knowledge standpoint which can only deal ‘in indirect conscious interpretation’, it is quite correct to say that that form of knowledge is incomplete, and it always will be.

Pure knowledge experienced via our brain knows no separation, nor antagonism, and is responsible for our ability to recognize the actions of others who may pry open wooden crates with a lever, or drive off uniformly at traffic lights. Within that cohesive activity it precludes ’a matter of opinion’ and by themselves can become subjects of a pure knowledge experience. To repeat, it is a form of ’communion’ with ’what is’, and available to all.

Where drivers at traffic lights universally conform to their particular road code, and where universally there is a language which identifies their activity as Mutual Agreement, or any other logical definition, we can concur with the common-sense conclusion that we have universally established that within language and common activity, there is indeed a truth formed.

The coalescence between universal language and universal activity are the logical constructs that create civilizations. There is a vast social network of common activity that solidifies the logic into an honest and persuasive conclusion that confirms innate common principles –knowledge.

= Stepping stones 5. =


The Art of making sense of everything.


How to understand principles.

# Principle. A fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a system of belief or behaviour or for a chain of reasoning.
# All principles are interdependent, interconnected, and infinite.
# Each one is dependent on the other two.

Examples of a principles template and how to define them without dichotomies.


Communication. Truth. Standard. Proof. Express. Contribute. Mutual. Direction. Advance. Comfort. Organize. Certain. Immediate. Interest. 

Improve. Present. Constructive. Gain. Trust. Progress. Source. Knowledge.

Basic. Original Reality. Awareness.Freedom. Purpose. Connect. Understand.

Support. Peace. Cause. Unity. Ability. Rights. Honest. Discover. Positive. Energy. Balance. Good. Courage. Willing.  Control. Use. Association.  Observe.

Reason. Easy. Wealth. Simple. Law. Increase. Order. Flow.Co-operation. Exact.

Quality. Accuracy. Strength. Responsible. Operating. Creative. Measure. Recognition. Accept. Constant. Obligation. Include. Dependence. Relationship. Value. Success. Principle. Equality. Stable. Share. Love. 

Sustenance. Action. Identity. Intelligence. Education. Secure. Facts. Agreement. Information. For. Rules.Clear. Yield.


Example:


Success = Securing facts 

               = Responsible co-operation

              = Constructive knowledge  

So success by definition is : Securing facts through constructive knowledge and cooperating  responsibly.

All definitions of success from your template are infinite. You will find your own suitable definition.            

==== There are no dichotomies! ====


Any principle is correctly defined by any two other principles. You create a new language of Absolutes. Using conjunctions you can write your own book.


The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232

Amen to that!


“One is not born, but rather becomes a woman”

Simone de Beauvoir.

“Time does not change us. It just unfolds us”

Max Frisch.

We experience ourselves our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us.

Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future.


= Who we are. =
  It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality for what it is..

  For anyone to say that ‘everything is’ is a simple linguistic absolute that no amount of ‘more reasonable’ requests (above) can deny. Those requests only appear to be governed by the difficulties of ‘mental complexities’, and embedded ideologies. To accept that ‘everything is’ as an absolute, is a realistic basis to establish any reality, and comprises the basis for reason to be activated. If there is ‘nothing’, nothing can be achieved. Within that which is Absolute there are no dichotomies. Therefore there are no antagonistic positions available. Everything that is, is a measure of the Absolute.  We are always in the present, everyone and everything. Instant elementary ‘knowledge’ which we all share, and must admit to. In being alive, we do not have the ability to not be here, and we do not have the ability to not know!

To have a problem in addressing what Truth and Knowledge are, to the point of denying their existence, then that problem exists well below the scale of Reality. To repeat knowledge is not the proprietary right of any individual, it is enshrined in the principle of agreement that we mutually exercise to establish its own reality.

The reality of experience is not, nor ever will be, a personal possession that we can have and hold. Its reality becomes more alive when we see the same activity being practised by others. Then we know we are sharing that reality, and that experience. We  cannot &quot;have&quot; the principles that exist, but when we undrestand them then we are obliged to use them with integrity. That form of integrity in any language, is an added foundation stone to any belief system

Mechanistic ‘I’ has no concept or understanding of ‘pure knowledge’. Only when we break free of the myth that some clarity becomes apparent, and we have the opportunity to engage with what is real.


Philosophy it appears to me is constrained by individual ‘thought’ processes, which (without experience) cannot escape from that individuality. Those ‘thought’ processes conjure up a human history of inflexible, and impossible propositions which only serve to protect that individuality.

Descartes ‘cogito ergo sum’ has compounded the difficulties by strengthening the incorrect premise of a false individuality.

‘I’ is a phantom consciousness much like a phantom pain experienced after a limb is amputated. The brain registers the pain signifying that something should be there. Likewise our brain has that same relationship with Nature and Reality. It is analogous to our brain dealing with a ‘phantom reality’ knowing that something is missing but is continuing to evolve to establish the whole. There exists a ‘phantom chasm’ between our brain and Reality and an understanding of its properties. We are robbed of real meaning.

Evidence, recognition, and the truth are the principles it uses to reform.

Within their structure is the meaning of reforms.

Nature does not impose any morality on us, the principles implied in morality are there for us to understand and use. Our brain has the capacity, once reality is correctly examined, to recognize ‘that which is’.

Once realised it becomes embedded.

That ‘phantom consciousness’ is an experience removed from its proper environment. It takes its proper place when we experience reality for ‘what it is’, which provides the totality of meaning.

True experience allows us entry to the quality of knowledge that is a continuous reality.

So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), any ‘knowledge’ derived from that experience will be incomplete.


That form of philosophical negative conclusion can come down to not believing that Reality exists (a chair is not a chair, is not a chair etc,), or that our experience of ourselves and others is real, and discount any other form of knowledge that threatens that belief.

There is an intellectual dishonesty in denying the existence of principles.

Hostility towards the truth leads inevitably to negativity. Being here demands, not denial, but the right to be recognized.


We are the recipients of a ubiquitous communication system – making known. We can only understand that which we know. We make known all the time.

Knowledge of Reality – Truth – the Absolute is a collective inclusive experience of the principles we share, and never the property of any individual. To ‘know’ ‘who we are’ is an inclusive experience of the principles involved. Never ‘cogito ergo sum’.  

Philosophers in investigating the nature of knowledge and the Universe, firmly established for themselves that the source of reason and logic was located in a mythical concept ‘the mind’. From the wrong basis evolved elaborate and metaphysical constructions which removed the investigations further, and further, from the truth.

To comprehend the material world, and give it credibility, the recognition of implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct a language that provides that form of recognition.

Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects is misguided by the injection of a mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it.

That erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound Reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion, is compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every human view available.

We cannot manufacture knowledge that leads to a mechanistic understanding of ‘what is’ , nor the principles which are its properties – however much dogma is practised. We can only aspire to relate to ‘necessary factors’ that are the implicit fundamentals of existence.

For me to use a lever to open a crate is a form of communion with Archimedes through the principle he enunciated. It is now not ‘necessary’ for me to go through the same experience as Archimedes to establish that ‘necessary factor’ or ‘principle’. It is now common-place, and common-sense to utilise the principle.

The extract below provides some explanation of the brain processes in action Universally, and coincides with any reasoning on the observance of the leverage principle, and the actions of motorists conforming to the Road Code wherever traffic lights exist.


''The right-to-left shift of mental control looked increasingly like a universal phenomenon, capturing the essence of every learning process on every time scale, from hours to years. An individual faced with a truly novel situation or problem tackles it mostly with the right hemisphere. But once the situation becomes familiar and is mastered, the dominant role of the left hemisphere becomes evident. It looked like the empowering patterns capturing the essence of the situations (or rather the whole class of similar situations) were, once formed, stored in the left hemisphere. (The Wisdom Paradox. Professor Elkhonon Goldberg. P202)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vandermeulen|first=Jo|date=2008-08|title=Verstand komt met de jaren|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf03077135|journal=Neuropraxis|volume=12|issue=4|pages=137–139|doi=10.1007/bf03077135|issn=1387-5817}}&lt;/ref&gt;''


= Limitations. =


However limited our view of connectedness is, or however tenuous the reality our experience is, ‘everything is’, and everything is connected. Innate knowledge and the fundamental nature of Man is the prior source of knowledge that seeks and identifies that connectedness.

Attempting to address what we don’t know is that mythical infinite regress toward that parallel mythical ‘nothingness’.

To always address what we know establishes Reality. To establish knowledge of principles, start from ‘we are here’. The natural principles within the diversity of human culture and activity when recognized as mutual ‘necessary factors’ will have the effect of enhancing and directing vital energy toward the very process of  the communion we seek, and the gradual penetration of a reality that always exists.

Knowledge of Reality is not ‘different’ in other locales. The fundamental principles are the same.

Addressing ‘what is’ instead of denying ‘what is’ is the basic construction of real knowledge. 

Within the structure of the Absolute we are all the same with a magnificent differential in our expression of the principles of necessity. That expression is our ongoing effort toward its own experience which gives it life and meaning.

That experience in turn exposes us to an immediate Reality that is in communion with the fundamental structure of our being.

All that we can contribute toward that is 50%, the other half is in our momentary relationship with Reality – then we know! That form of knowledge is always available through that form of experience, and it always comes in the form of confirmation which reforms.

Until that experience our prior condition appears mechanistic, without direction, or understanding.

Reality, life, is not mechanistic. We are the recipients of innate principles with the constant potential to experience those principles in action (Archimedes et al).

Dogmas, ideologies, are the restrictive practices used to blur the recognition of principles operating to a level that understanding of that common and constant activity is virtually denied. Our natural capital (principles) is degraded to the point that their factual evidence is reduced even to the point that they are categorised as a ‘perceptual illusion”.

We can trust facts 2+2=4. Simplicity has its own majesty.

Anything circumscribed by reason requires control of our emotions.

To comprehend the material world, bring it alive, and give it credibility, the recognition of its implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct the language that provides evidence of that Reality.

Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects, is misinformed by the injection of that mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it.

The erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion’, is paradoxically compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every other human view available, thus it then makes its own sense, form and justification to the illusion! The evident question we must ask, ‘how does a ‘mind’ conclude that ‘immaterialism’ exists universally? Surely it is a simple but massive contradiction in terms. If there is nothing there but ‘perceptual illusion’, how can you attribute it to other ‘minds’.

The oxymoronic effect of narcissism is that it is the very denial of ‘who we are’. Man is not composed of an overwhelming self-love. That mythical embedded belief cannot consider the possibility of underlying principles that are the real life force of Man in his relationship with Reality.

The truth of that, is that humankind (in spite of itself), evolves towards its own Reality.

The only human values that exist, lie in Man’s recognition of the principles involved that provide human direction.

Our ‘material brain’ is a product of Nature's evolutionary process, and has innate within it the same principles that exist in all matter.

That ‘which is’, is the truth, and our brain evolves to process that at every level, and we constantly manifest that in every action we take – whether we like it or not.

The fundamental similarities between human beings is that we are not only evidently human, but that we also function and construct societies that we recognize as beneficial to our immediate well-being. All social function is determined by our brain capacity and its ability to postulate the relationship it has with Universal principles.


= Illusion. =


Considering that we can contradict things is an illusion. We can never contradict the truth.

We do not have the ability to create proprietary constructs of reality. That ‘which is’, can only make its basic properties transparent to us through direct experience. Imaginary concepts must in the end conform to a measurable construct that we can identify.

Within the structure of any philosophical theory of ‘knowledge’ it must contain the basic elements of truth at all times, or there is nothing!!

To say that ‘everything is’ is motivated by pure reason experience as an objective, and subjective reality and as an axiomatic grammatical premise that no amount of mental acrobatics can deny. We can only deal with ‘something’, whatever it may be. There is no metaphysical construct that can provide evidence that ‘nothing’ exists, outside a mythical mind.

Explaining experience beyond ‘thought’ processes requires a definitive language that deals with the reality itself.

We all Know. It is innate. The ‘difference’ between us is only the measure of the knowledge that is made manifest, and that knowledge continually proliferates.

The ‘individual perspective’, and the illusory ‘I’ which dominates, is the barrier to any relation to ‘what is’, and the malady of never experiencing the truth directly!   

Truth, knowledge, agreement are the abundant and embedded Absolutes that form the structure of human evolution. That we constantly utilise and improve on their use is evidence of their reality, and the material transparency within every social structure. The survival and proliferation of such realities should be the evidence to establish that ‘that which is’ is Absolute. 

When we focus our ‘perspective’, opinion, or a hypothetical consideration of a space, time, or identity to question a Universally accepted fact, it is hardly a categorical argument to dismiss that which is true as nonsensical. Any denial that 2+2=4 is a fundamental truth hardly takes into account that the reality of such basics are vital to the success of higher mathematics.

Unless the basics are continually correct, and evidently so, then no correct solutions could evolve. We know that within any basic structural ‘use’ that the calculation is correct. We commonly accept its correctness as an embedded reality. 

All forms of lower or higher mathematics would have the axiomatic principle of ‘correctness’ as their basis to extend from. Also, they would have as an axiom that the reverse is true. The 2+2=4 is, in its reality, the epitome of balance and construction. The 2+2 reality forms its correct conclusion when the principles of mathematics are propounded and they conform to transparent truth and arrive at 4. Only when it ‘adds up’, does it become a truth that we all recognize. Our greatest ignorance is taking for granted the proliferation of such truths through an ideological blinkered perspective. Because truth takes a commonplace form it is no less fundamental. Unless there is correct knowledge as to the existence of fundamental truth, that ‘which is’, goes unrecognised. That form of truth must be applicable to all. Truth exists in everything – it is an evidential reality. Searching for an esoteric truth is chasing shadows. Every truth is a ‘necessary factor’, and fundamental to our existence.

Because of the imposed limited perspectives (via education, ideology, beliefs) that which is evidently true, and transparent, is delegated to a position of simple practicality with conditions placed on it which further deletes its substance, and we have the awful predilection of conforming to the attempted destruction of that which is true. Do we have a problem with seeing something, which is correct, as also being true?

All truths are fundamental. They are not subject to attempted denial because of any diminished realisation at any point in time. Where there is reasonable evidence of balance, equity, and agreement we can conclude that a truth exists. Once innate information of that truth becomes transparent, it becomes an embedded useful human utility that must have some measure of fundamental truth as their starting point.

From any common-sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’.  That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right.

When the reality of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things.

The dematerialization of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism.

A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance etc.  However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality.  


= Human representation.
When we understand the validity and existence of principles in all things, it is easy to understand that ideological dogmas are never the foundation for real knowledge, or that direct experience of ‘what is’. Our real perspective is not some individualistic experience that confines us, it is that expanse in which we exist that offers us the view of that expanse. Everyone has the potential to go beyond their ‘apparent’ human perspective limitations. Shifting our sense of perception toward that which is basic, paradoxically extends the experience of that which is true.

Let general knowledge be directed toward the performance that identifies the measure of principles that are enacted. Therein lies the production of knowledge that offers a sustainable growth of that vital universal aspect of knowledge, where, reason and truth, can prevail. Any correct definition is language itself, opening the door to that reality experience which is critical.

Only when we know and experience that the same reality (with all its principles intact) exists for all of us can we then recognize the mythical distinctions that are taken as being real.

The majestic experience of that reality goes well beyond historical beliefs.

Exploring simple ‘necessities’ is not based on any sacred text, but the privilege of recognizing a sensible evolutionary path through life. Whatever may be in the future, is implicit in the material world now, and it has always been so.</text>
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      <text bytes="158480" xml:space="preserve">= &lt;ref&gt;'''William Shakespeare''' (bapt. 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616&lt;/ref&gt;A message. =


What humanity needs is not any individual approach but a governance powerful body of excellence that has modern technology, knowledge, and freedom they can use to disseminate clear information. Clear information about a new language structure of absolutes beneficial to an International forum, and eventually to reach a Universal status.Its benefits reach toward conceptual language on a planet that speaks more than 7,000 languages.

No matter the language spoken the concepts of:

Air - Food - Water are recognised.

The overall development of conceptual language can only be beneficial and will be as appropriate to Absolutes definitions.

Reaching for the Stars might show us the way.

Universal Language of Absolutes. &quot;A very grand title but it took many years to explain its value&quot;


= Our history. =

Born in Scotland in 1927 left school at 14 years of age. Married at 21 years of age and we had two children. We emigrated to New Zealand in 1953 and lived there for approximately thirty years. During our stay there I did a Liberal Studies Course at Canterbury University Christchurch and graduated. We have since had ten books published through Google books on the subject matter at hand and my wife Jean Caldwell McMillan is the co-author to most of the work presented here. My wife Jean was an avid reader of many works on philosophy and psychology. She was influenced by the works of Erich Fromm. Jean died 9th of January 2011.

To refresh the original purpose of  our  earlier writings my wife and I  went on an odyssey  looking for any data, ancient or otherwise, on human consciousness, specifically related to Alzheimer’s disease.

Now at 95 years of age (well past my used by date) it may well be that I am a candidate with a focus on my own pending dementia. If so, then the theory and the method I now write about is holding it at bay. To address the health of my mind in this way could be the catalyst that retains its own functional activity.

The creation of a  semantic template is well documented below.

No semantic definition of absolutes or principles can be ill-defined.

They are always interconnected, interdependent and infinite.

Each configuration constructed by anyone has meaning particular to them, although its value is universal. That  is why it is never personal property!


[[File:JimNJean.png|center|thumb|228x228px|Jim and Jean]]


= The Beginning. =


&quot;The road's half traveled when you know the way&quot;


[[File:Tree lined path - geograph.org.uk - 2269906.jpg|center|thumb]]
Oxford dictionary definitions:

Principle: &quot;A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning&quot;.

Absolute: &quot; Complete - Entire - Perfect - Pure.

These particular dictionary given definitions offers us guidelines to ‘existing conditions’ necessary for complementary understanding, and experience.
We can only examine that which is real, basic evidence, that is fundamentally true, and we must ‘use’ it, to establish that which is reasonable.

The general consensus is that there are no Absolutes. The following material is set out to show the very reverse is true and that everything that is is Absolute.

Establish that there are no dichotomies that will leave the primary terms alone to create a semantic template.

There are no dichotomies. Mythical dichotomies distort Reality.

Everything is: The computer you use today has always existed, it is the arrangement of particles that have materialized it.

The subject matter &quot;Universal Language of Absolutes' is promoted to provide a new understanding of spoken language. This understanding was initially constructed by the cognitive experiences of both my wife and myself many years ago.

Just like the principle of a jigsaw puzzle, meaning lies significantly in the fact that all pieces of the puzzle are interdependent and interconnected. When completed they provide a picture of the whole.

We have endeavoured to produce a picture of the evolutionary process of language in human history because the evolution of language prefixes all modes of thought in human culture. The material directs the reader towards a new view that all that evolves is in a vertical direction, not the linear direction commonly understood.

Human consciousness is of itself the phenomenon of evolution and to recognize its existence is part of the process. Shakespeare expressed this succinctly through the voice of Juliet who proclaimed, “a rose by any other name- would smell as sweet.”

[[File:Comestible rose in the Laquenexy orchard garden, Moselle, France (01).jpg|thumb|center|237x237px]]

=== Conceptual language. ===
My wife and I recognized how profound the extension of this observation would mean conceptually. Of all the languages spoken on this planet, it would be fair to say that all of them would contain the properties of, air, food, and water conceptually, etc. This is a form of consciousness equality that is available to us all. It points to the reality of our constant relation to each other and our existence.

We can never exist in a world of individuality, but only in relation to the consciousness of one another. Consequently, that exceptional experience can only be shared superficially. We cannot ‘know’ any other life experiences other than our own introspection.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Einstein 1921 by F Schmutzer - restoration.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;&quot; ''Albert Einstein 1921. We experience our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us.&quot;''

''Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future,p.99''

Einstein came very close. In reality, every human being has a backpack from the day they were conceived. In the backpack every experience in

their mother’s womb is experienced. At birth and throughout their lives, everything that happens to them in life is registered and creates their personality.

That life with all its experiences can never be known to anyone else, consequently, we can never “know” another person. It creates equality of consciousness that we must understand. We can know details about a person, but that is all. That life is sacrosanct. Who we are really goes beyond normal human experience and into the realm of the Absolute.


Werner Karl Heisenberg (physicist).

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

As a young layman with no knowledge of Heisenberg but interested in principles it seemed to me that the Uncertainty Principle was just a contradiction in terms.

In later years I found that Heraclitus describes life as being in a state of flux a replica of the Uncertainty Principle which in fact can be defined as an absolute state.

Within the context of knowing who we are and the backpack we carry our life in, we can never know each individual life as that life experience is singularly their own and sacrosanct.

It now seems that the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle can fall into the category of being an Absolute.

Evolution proceeds in advance of our need to evolve. In our pure active state, we are.There is no static end (an abomination) - only beginning. As we cannot know what tomorrow will bring, living with expectations is rather futile. Nature has its own agenda.

 Zen Koan recorded 1228:

 'An instant realization sees endless time.

 Endless time is as one moment.

 When one comprehends the endless moment

 He, or she, realizes the person who is seeing it.'
We do not own Space.

We do not own Time

We do not own Energy

We do not own Matter                                                                                                  
[[File:Universum.jpg|center|thumb]]


&quot;What we call the beginning is often the end

And to make an end is to make a beginning.

The end is where we start from

We shall not cease from exploration

And the end of all our exploring

Will be to arrive where we started

And know the place for the first time&quot;

T.S Eliot

= Everything is in scale. =
The present moment is the point in which Eternity has placed us – we all live in that moment, and whether we like it or not, we exist in it, experience it, have knowledge of it, and we all share it, measure by measure.

There are no dichotomies. Illusion is a measure of Reality, as Stupidity is a measure of Intelligence

If one keeps measuring illusion it is an attempted downward spiral to nothingness.There is no opposite to Reality – that illusion is a measure of Reality.

There is no such thing as ‘nothing’ in the elemental construction of Homo sapiens. All the innate ‘something’s’ are the fundamentals of our being human and all our experiences.

The correct use, and understanding of who we are, is an extension therefrom.

Does it require any interpretation on anyones part to say ‘we are? Any attempted denial of that statement would be perverse use of the language, and delusional.

=== Try saying ‘we are not” ===
‘We are’ is the foundation of all affirmation, and within that spectrum, we can know, and be.

‘We are’ is self-evident Truth.

We can neither know, nor experience what isn’t. Eternity is the here and now, that is why it is possible to explain the experience of Eternity. Nothing is ever lost in Time. We are located  in a vast Universe.

‘twas a moment’s pause,-

All that took place within me came and went

As in a moment; yet with Time it dwells,

And grateful memory, as a thing divine.

Wordsworth Prelude, Book V111

We already know – the ''basic'' condition that must exist for us to re-cognise.

It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest.

Unless there was mutual identity we could not know anything. It is why we are urged to evacuate the Platonic cave. Sadly most prefer the shadows rather than confront who they are.

We already know – the basic condition that must exist for us to recognise.

It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest.

== Lost Shadows ==
[[File:People Shadow.JPG|left|thumb]]
The shadows move

Lost in confusion

Lost in despair

Imagination shrouds the real

Looking back

Looking forward

Is this the Centre?

James Brines.


= Basic Principles. =
We are all in the business of living and attempting to understand the principles involved in that human process up to the end of life. The implicit principles necessary for life eventually disappear and all measurable criteria pronounce a body to be devoid of life. Throughout historical agreement we know what that means, and we act accordingly on *common knowledge*. We know that dying is a necessary factor of life. It is a Natural law that if we live - we also die. Natural law is Universal, for us to *know* that a body lives; we also *know* that a body’s life will end. Albeit that reports tell us that today millions of people die of disease, starvation, wars, we of necessity accept that as the ongoing reality because again we are universally connected and know the results of such carnage. Because it is in our realm of common knowledge we have graveyards, crematoriums, undertakers, doctors who pronounce bodies to have died. We understand the consequences of leaving such bodies unburied, the diseases that would prevail. Again, please explore the definition of principle (Universal principle) and try to go to the limitations of the definition without using mythical dichotomies.


[[File:( A great picture of outer space ).jpg|center|thumb]]


Principle: A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning.


All of these questions are based on singularity (the Cartesian dogma) If Descartes had only introduced inclusion into his musings (they were taken as conservative singularity) he may have realized the difficulty of addressing thought as reality. He then may have quite easily concluded that universally - *We are!!*

That pronouncement is inclusive, and conclusive in every way, *we are - and we know!!*

Because my knowledge is not a private, personal piece of property concerning principles, but Universal (Archimedes et al), then that innate knowledge has completeness we can share. Whatever identical resonance we may be able to share (concerning completeness), that can only be accomplished by understanding the principles involved and their constant relationship to each of us. Clearly the plethora of present and past discoveries establishes the existence of that which is fundamentally true, and the foundation for law.

The principles are established, and always have been, we are in the business of making them transparent and complete.

However tenuous the link we are all connected through communication, the air we breathe, the ground we walk on, the universe we live in, the common principles we live by. We all must have sustenance to survive, or we will not live. (See above)

&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt;There is nothing else to experience.*

When we actively explore the reality of anything, all principles involved in that exploration are complementary, and honest, and we understand the wasteful divisive mythology that people attempt to attach to them.

We cannot */partially know/* the truth, it must be complete. Dichotomies attempt to deny the existence of truth, and are misleading.

How do we more reasonably completely know anything?

The complexity of language systems with contemporary usage requires new and creative structures to provide clear information. Internal and external reasoning capacities can only develop in concert with Man’s recognition of the principles that essentially form our lives. 

The inevitability of human consciousness rising beyond its historical beginnings posits a future outside our normal perceptions, and  a factual reality that points to the existence of new perceptions that are infinite.  

It is natural to know when we are no longer trapped in any mythical ideologies that gives credence to dichotomies that stifle the recognition of simple principles. 

There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed.*

Ask yourself - ‘how do you know to ask any questions at all?’

There is no hidden dimension or mystical world. The only philosophical reality is ‘that which is’. To access that we need a new structure to explore ‘knowledge’, a new transformational language. Real knowledge is not amassed information, nor is it the establishment of dogmas, isms, or mythical belief systems.

[[File:FAIR data principles.jpg|center|thumb]]


Basic principles are the source and foundation of all /*knowledge*/. Until that is recognized, extension from mythical sources only leads to a denial of one’s own senses. Trying to conceive of a contemporary world without principles is to posit a world without reason, or intelligence.

The principle of pure knowledge (Truth) could be said to exist in another dimension given the present state of human understanding. To progress that mistaken belief there would be strong support in the need for a comparative reality.

Curiously it seems that philosophy (the seeking of knowledge) constantly discounts any knowledge that does not come within the sphere of established philosophy, and the comparative reality dictum. That consequence profoundly distils the purity of any experience and alienates the observer in their confrontation of that which is real. The measure of that ‘comparative reality’ knowledge bounded by dichotomies is so restrictive that it lies in a mythical dimension where denial of its very purpose is the order of the day. Evidently it will not allow doubt to undermine its own denials.

A basic principle of Nature is /*knowledge*/ and it constantly communicates innately in every living structure. How to grow, develop, and disseminate.

Knowledge is reciprocal truth that depends on our relationship and the recognition of principles operating. Knowledge (unlike information) is not stored in an individual box; it is ubiquitously manifest in everything we do. Knowledge is the experience of a positive reality, and its true construction is a dependable source of secure information (not to be misused). We daily have the opportunity of witnessing ‘knowledge’ in action as expressed by the ‘the principles of knowledge’, namely the principles themselves.

The questions lie in a continuing mythical belief in a mystical unknown (the Cartesian stance) which because of its non-existence can never be known. It is a belief that is detrimental (because it attempts to deny all existing factual knowledge) to dealing with Nature and Reality and the fundamental necessity of our relationship with them.

Making that relationship transparent is our basic obligation and the ongoing evolutionary activity.

Although there is an obvious avoidance to address the definition of principle itself, it is a factor that must be paid attention to, to realize that ‘common knowledge’ is the only reality that exists. Amazingly although there is avoidance of principles - truth - reason etc, there is acceptance of the Cartesian dogma,. Paradoxically this determined acceptance of Descartes supports the reality of innate knowledge existing (I think - therefore I am) which establishes for him innate knowledge; however mistaken he is concerning the interpretation of his experience.

= Leverage. =
Long before I read of Archimedes and his various principle discoveries I was using the principle of leverage in a variety of ways, prying lids off boxes, moving articles with a lever well beyond my physical strength to do so without said lever, and I knew how to do it. Transferring that knowledge to a student or apprentice is relatively easy because innately they also /*know*/ how to do it.

Every aspect of human industry uses the principle in a myriad of ways because it is our obligation to constantly progress the principle and confirm the constant utilization of knowledge. We wholeheartedly adopted Archimedes principles (et al) because we recognized their fundamental utility. It is preposterous to question the widespread /*factual knowledge*/ of all principles, more especially so when we cannot escape their ubiquitous daily existence in all our lives - Nature and Reality do not lie.

[[File:Archimedes'-Lever.png|center|thumb]]
One may abstain from admitting their existence. To do so is simply attempting the impossible, and is devoid of all reason.

Real knowledge has been put into the realm of the mystical unknowable even to the point that knowledge practitioners go to the outer extremes and deny the gift of their natural senses. With their adherence to what they consider is knowledge they become captive automatons to any prescription for life that is expressed in that ’knowledge medium’, which then becomes the authority. When ’knowledge’ is addressed as having a collective source in Universal principles then we have the potential to experience its complete reality (microcosm - macrocosm) without any imaginary, or divisive comparative content. There is then a re-orientation process toward our true being and recognition of our own reality in relation to the natural processes we share. Real knowledge is elementary and Natural.

We know, because that which is knowable is constantly expressed by the principles involved. We all share those principles and can correctly infer the most simple and obvious truths. All social life functions by our adherence to the implicit laws operating within them. Seeking experimental contradiction to a fact of life offers us nothing but proof which is the establishing of ‘complete knowledge’ however ‘more reasonably’ one wishes to extend the exercise.

The construction of new philosophies must seek a mandate to fully explore the relationship between experience and innate knowledge as the foundation for pure knowledge to emerge. To repeat, knowledge or truth do not reside in any individual domain, nor are they the private possession of any human being.

We know, because ’knowledge’ is an innate natural possession that we constantly share - otherwise civilization could not exist.

== Knowledge: Evident facts about mutual standards that provide us with security. ==

We do not become human beings because we can ‘think’; we become more human because we learn to conform to the implicit principles in Nature and Reality. Denying them - denies our being.

It is natural to know. There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed.

Knowledge is an evolutionary process. Human beings developed from primitive innate instinctual knowledge to contemporary cultures. Some know more than others through experience, and make that knowledge transparent.

Insistence on how we can ’completely’ know is an ephemeral philosophical question that attempts to deny that we can have ’knowledge’ at all, as you understand it. Knowing that we ’know’ the inherent completeness of everything through the existence of principles, is the natural catalyst to make ’that which is’ transparent.

Heraclitus:

&quot;No man steps in the same river twice &quot;

He believed in the &quot;Unity of Opposites (Absolutes).

He cried for the needless unconsciousness of mankind..

“Exploration of a mythical dichotomy below for the purpose of establishing principles. Principles that are not a 'mind' construct, but the very essence of our being. Independence, is the curious and dangerous malady where humanity has lionized negative mythology in denial of its own reality.

The human fundamental reality has at its base the simple natural law that we are dependent beings. From conception, the human embryo is entirely dependent on the health and well-being of its mother to provide it adequate healthy sustenance to enable its entry into the world. That form of innate dependability the human species carries with it throughout its spectrum of life.

Every aspect of human activity is premised on the availability of air, food, and water without which the organism cannot survive (this would be an incontrovertible 'more reasonable' truism or an Absolute).

In a perverse way, that which is our natural state has become the target for what appears to be open defiance of the laws that govern our behavior.

When a basic premise is either used mistakenly, or deliberately, its consequences can be socially far reaching, for any deviation however far it is extended is a distortion of the truth, and a denial of who we are.

The erroneous conclusion through exercising responsibility that we can confer independence to our actions has gained a distorting and ubiquitous influence which paradoxically undermines the very responsibility practiced.

Within the context of being dependent we can correctly be responsible for our own actions but with the surety of knowledge that that responsibility is contingent on the measure of life giving forces available that we are dependent on.

The mythical dichotomy 'independence' connotes with the myth of separateness, division, alienation, and the force of these particular myths is expressed in wars, genocide, criminality. Alarmingly the mythological term has become a residual in our lexicon and is used more widely with acclaim than its true counterpart.

To uphold delusional 'independence' as a value to strive for erodes our human heritage by diverting useless energy toward a dubious goal, and consequences that leave us questioning our means of arrival. Sadly it is a loss of being with the paradoxical view that the energy expended will deliver up a personal reality.

The cult of independent individuality with its mythical ideology based on personal intimacy is now taken for granted, which then passes into the acceptance of the spurious dichotomy as a tangible reality. This in turn disposes the adherents to discredit the very essence of their being, and in the process dehumanizes many cultures. The presumption of independent individuality leading hopefully to a superior future is in fact counter-productive to the purpose, and leads eventually to corrupt power, and subsequently the invention of immoral policies that continue the negative spiral, which in the end has no ethical base to extend from.

The alienation from our substantial being creates inevitable tension anxiety, and the need to somehow relieve that anxiety with any artificial means available.

= Responsibility. =
Being responsible for any social activity would best be enacted with regard to the effect it will have (directly or indirectly) on the lives of those who are dependent on a beneficial outcome.

To recognize with some significance the basic structure of our being in turn significantly increases the measure of our understanding of human relationships.

Being dependent is not a mental construct choice - it is a state of being, and there can be no being-ness without at least one other being, there is then the possibility that the principle of true egalitarianism becomes the manifest reality. 

Being-ness can only be identified and expressed in relationship. 


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This is why the cult of 'independence' is eventually so socially destructive, as it creates that alienation which attempts to deny each real human need, and leads to a depravation of honesty. Human relationships between children and adults where independence is the accepted norm is severely undermined when the educational process predominantly teaches an unnatural form of living (either intentionally or unintentionally). The educational process is then reduced to the adoption of a fiction, which in turn puts at risk any educational program.

The effect of interpreting mythical dichotomies as described here is symptomatically ascribed to the existence of all other principles that govern life.

The construction of any ethological debate should not be premised on comparative perspectives, based on human thought, but rather on the issues that we can recognize as being universally compatible, therein lies the common denominator point of extension. 

The focus of attention on comparative perspectives denies justice to 'what is'. To contemplate the 'right or wrong' of any circumstance is a deviation from the truth. The correctness of any debate (however minute the finding), is the justifiable extension, and the only true trajectory we are morally obliged to travel. Truth is not defined, nor experienced by comparison, but by 'what we are'. An orange is to an orange, what an orange is to an orange.

To define correctly there should be careful and disciplined action toward establishing 'true factors' that we constantly use to promote reasonable standards.

= Time. =

In that moment of time, we have the potential to merge on an equal basis with the reality that exists, and to know what true interaction is. That is the point of 'direct experience'. 

It is then that we know the truth about ourselves and the beauty of this Universe which also reveals to us the folly of our present conditioning. In that experience, it becomes very clear that all so called cerebral activity has nothing to do with reality. The fundamental repository of our knowledge and relationship with life is our 

being-ness, which is not located inside a mental box to be analyzed, accepted, or discarded at will, but the very privileged natural gift of being.

What some scholars deal with is the appearance of life prescribed by the illusion of comparative perspective which functions on the basis of dichotomous ideology. It is in effect a denial of our humanity to conclude that all things that exist [from our perspective] exist only in the mind, that is, they are purely notional.

It compounds the denial of 'what is', and an extraordinary refusal to observe transparent life. It should be noted that there is ample contemporary exposure to the Cartesian doctrine, and in this regard, I would refer you to the works of Professor Gilbert Ryle, notably his publication The Concept of Mind.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=1977|title=Professor Gilbert Ryle|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mind/lxxxvi.341.1-s|journal=Mind|volume=LXXXVI|issue=341|pages=1–s-1|doi=10.1093/mind/lxxxvi.341.1-s|issn=0026-4423}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The heuristic principle applies throughout when establishing our connectedness with reality. It is only through our contact with reality that we can discover, and equate with the mutual structure of the principles that govern all existence.

Have already noted that it is also a peculiar form of arrogance that presumes that life is only a notional existence beyond the boundaries of the 'mind in a box' assertion. It would be foolish of anyone to assert that ice cream has a cold smooth satisfying texture and taste on a warm summers day unless they had actually experienced it, preferably on more than one occasion. For anyone who has never enjoyed that experience, it would be foolish of them to discount the very numerous accounts of such an experience that is available just because they had not been party to that event.

From a logical point of view, given the avowed experiences of ice cream eaters, we could reasonably ascertain the validity of each experience by documenting their separate opinions. Each participant would have 'direct experience' in the consumption of ice cream, which at that point in time has the potential for that participant to experience the full measure of that factual reality. We have the natural capacity to experience coldness, smoothness, which equates with the reality that exists, and the potential for those realities to unify.

It is not a question of how to get outside of our minds (mind in a box position); we are constantly outside our so-called minds performing acts of transparency throughout our entire existence. The belief that our constant engagement with reality can never be based on a rational acceptance of 'what is', is at the least, very sad.

The Platonic Cave shadows are a metaphor for the (mind in a box) syndrome.

[[File:An Illustration of The Allegory of the Cave, from Plato’s Republic.jpg|center|thumb]]


The need to reach simple, and obvious conclusions and accept them for the reality they are provides the opportunity to engage the complete reality of the moment. It is indeed going too far beyond the reality of the moment searching for philosophical profoundness which does not exist, that fails to establish the constant principles that always operate. Pure principles are not amorphous shadowy ideals; they are represented in everything that exists. The only way we can equate our inner knowledge of reality is through direct experience of its truth.
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Within that context then, life cannot take on a notional existence but is an existence that is very real, and that we continually share through our innate knowledge. That our so-called minds are defined by comparison - incompleteness - dualism would have extreme difficulty in pursuing the proposition that we are defined by our direct relationship with reality which is expressed in our innate ability to directly interact with 'what is'. The reality of interconnection, and interaction, are not idealistic concepts of a notional nature, but actual and consistent transparent realities. We do not live in a shadowy world that is hidden from our direct experience, but we are constantly engaged in the process of life, and we do not have the right, nor the choice, to deny it.

The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232

== Create your own semantic template. ==
That will consist of an alphabetical list of Absolutes that are all interdependent and interconnected. Their unifying construction creates a ‘new’ consciousness meaning.

That ‘meaning’ is yours specifically.

The greatest knowledge you can ever have is your own!

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That meaning also creates its own moral construction that cannot be misused . The semantic template is available to everyone, and its dissemination is our responsibility.

“Consider that the language structure, concepts, and definitions now in use no longer always deliver, accurate, reasonable, and responsible information. Indeed at times, they can be quite ambiguous.

The statement ‘mutual agreement’, and its physical manifestation in whatever form, is its own dialectic, and will carry within it all other principles necessary for the activity to proceed. Given the Socratic assertion that if something is true then it cannot lead to false consequences no matter how circular any argument may be.

Then extrapolating the statement into extended definitions must only lead to a better understanding of the inherent truths available. This can promote recognition of the underlying essence of all things, which can become more real than our conventional understanding of Reality.

There is a contemporary need to find new definitions, new paradigms to explore the concepts that govern our existence.


Examples of principles and how to define them without dichotomies, just add conjunctions to create any sentence.


Communication. Truth. Standard. Proof. Express. Contribute. Mutual. Direction. Advance. Comfort. Organize. Certain. Immediate. Interest. 

Improve. Present. Constructive. Gain. Trust. Progress. Source. Knowledge.

Basic. Original Reality. Awareness.Freedom. Purpose. Connect. Understand.

Support. Peace. Cause. Unity. Ability. Rights. Honest. Discover. Positive. Energy. Balance. Good. Courage. Willing.  Control. Use. Association.  Observe.

Reason. Easy. Wealth. Simple. Law. Increase. Order. Flow.Co-operation. Exact.

Quality. Accuracy. Strength. Responsible. Operating. Creative. Measure. Recognition. Accept. Constant. Obligation. Include. Dependence. Relationship. Value. Success. Principle. Equality. Stable. Share. Love. 

Sustenance. Action. Identity. Intelligence. Education. Secure. Facts. Agreement. Information. For. Rules.Clear. Yield.


Example:


Success = Securing facts through  responsible co-operation and using constructive knowledge to develop your success.

There are no dichotomies!

Any principle is correctly defined by any two other principles. You create a new language. Using conjunctions you can write your own book.


Where a circular argument is based on an untruth, then it cannot lead to a truth. The reverse of that is that when the truth is established, it cannot be denied.

Establishing ‘mutual agreement’ as a center from which we can reach out for extended knowledge in its ever-evolving radius, is not a limitation, or a stop, it is only a beginning!

When any concept is truly established the superficial exemplification ceases to dominate, and we can truly experience the apparent essence of ‘what is’.

Paradoxically to resource innate knowledge, we must recognize our profound ignorance of Nature, and Reality.

Completeness does not lie in individuality. This is an extreme form of monastic expectation. There can be no individuality (or completeness) unless there is at least one other individual. This is the true foundation of completeness.

Whenever we are privileged to experience that instantaneous essence of one other, then we know in that moment that we experience ourselves. It is complete complementation with the knowledge paradoxically that it is an endless process. There are many paradoxes we live within that strain our conventional views of what is ‘more reasonable’. Any true relationship experience is not based on a causality premise, but on an experience that is necessarily complementation.

Individuality in terms of completeness is a fundamental circular argument back to one, which in its form of denial excludes any form of reasonable argument to the contrary. It is a non sequitur, which denies the pressure of facts that are in abundance, despite the evidence of their reality.

To observe ‘mutual agreement’ is looking at things as they are.

True observation of ‘mutual agreement’ in action is observing essence transparency – it is knowing ‘who we are’. That form of recognition is essence duplication.

The proposition that we can observe the Truth may well be the highest attainment of Realities properties, for Truth is knowledge.

Consider the hypothesis of a human entity (an individual) being born in a black space with no other form of life in that environment.

How could there be Agreement?

How could there be Intelligence?

How could there be Understanding?

How could there be Recognition?

How could there be Love?

How could there be Law?

How could there be Reason?

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All of the above principles are the transparent manifestation of Nature and Realities properties that are constantly evolving. They are ethical imperatives, and we have developed the positive properties of language to establish them for our use.

We can only be defined through relationship principles for they offer us the best hope to recognize the factors that lead to complementation.

There is a fundamental need to grasp simple common-sense essentials.

The Here and Now is not a temporary transitional time phase that we move in and out of. It is a constant certainty that is essential to recognize, so that our focus of attention has a foundation.

Centrism can imply a fixation, which also implies vulnerability, which can be perfectly true if it does not lead to extension.

To understand who we are, it is essential that we recognize and become aware of the very principles that we operate from. They encapsulate all the measure of any human societies ethics, morals, and laws, which is a continuous evolutionary educational process within which the realization of its total essence is always available.

To use the doctrine that reason is a reliable tool to discover Truth – therefore ‘mutual agreement’ in the context ‘correct information’ translates to the Truth to reason!

Evolution is a constant dynamic process.

The human phenomena of ‘who we are’ is only understood in our union with each other, and ‘what is’. The paradox again is that there never is any separation. Separation is a mythical non-existent.

The principles that are our necessities have continuous expansion properties that as humans we are privileged to assist their propagation.

[[File:Making Scholarly Articles Findable- Towards Ensuring F of FAIR Data Principles, John Samuel, WikidatCon 2021.pdf|center|thumb]]
The human constellation in its evolutionary march must use these fundamental principles to ensure continuity.

To maintain coherence and consistency our source is centered in the principles and factors that we have interpreted from our association with Nature, and Reality.

Whatever we write that is of any consequence, or at any other time, is written with the hope that stronger interpreters than us overtake what we present.

To ‘see’ Reality as we have seen, and be intoxicated by it, as we have been, will ensure its progression.”

== Discovery ==
The consciousness whole is the sum of all its parts and experiences. As we are all on an evolutionary path, our life and knowledge hopefully develop in the right direction.

The exploration took us through a plethora of data and opinions about reality from authorities on science, religion, philosophy and metaphysics. Nowhere could we find a definitive conclusive argument, or agreement, that met our needs.

For us, the question came down to “Is there anything at all that provides some form of construction, and certainty?” Something that has its own inherent ethical standards.

The alternative proposition to that is a nihilistic “nothingness”. A pathological proposition that makes no sense.

Heraclitus’s “unity of opposites” seemed the most promising. Our understanding of that now made dichotomies a semantic illusion. If achieved in a mindful way it is the act of uniting them, providing a conscious correct experience of ‘what is’.

We live our lives with secondary knowledge that everything that is – is always interconnected and interdependent. Yet our illusory experience belies that form of knowledge.

It is here that we understood Heraclitus and his “unity of opposites”. Mentally uniting opposites replaces the existing illusion of their existence – there are no dichotomies!

[[File:Heraclitus, Johannes Moreelse.jpg|center|thumb]]
Once the illusion is gone a new solution manifests that is peculiar to the mindfulness operator, and belongs to a higher form of consciousness.

Heraclitus was known as “The Weeping Philosopher”.

He wept for the needless unconsciousness of mankind when the ‘unity of opposites” was always available.

He was also known as Heraclitus The Obscure.

A title we suspect that came about because the successful conclusion to uniting opposites and replacing the illusion, opened a door to a new dimension.

Semantic description at this time may not have been available.

This brings us to the ancient Yin and Yang symbol of the ‘unity of opposites’. As separate entities in Chinese philosophy, they are complementary, and in fusion they represent the whole. So as dichotomies they don’t exist.

[[File:Ying and Yang Street Art - panoramio.jpg|center|thumb]]


The whole is the elemental answer to any fusion of opposites, whatever that may be.

Symbolize a line as being infinite in the sense that any line can be categorised as being infinite. Apply an infinite number of points in any line. Intersect any line through any point by another line then we have a specific identifiable point at the intersection, which at that point in time has an infinite quality, yet constant and complete.

Any such point has Matter, Energy, Space, and Time, the epitome of the microcosm.

We may locate a Reality point that establishes the Truth. Conventional mechanical ‘thought processes’ deal with dichotomies that are based on a comparative perspective ideology, and consequently, skew any real experience of that which is real.

We must use correct ‘measuring sticks’ to secure proper standards, but from the point of view that there is a belief in dichotomies, it will always be a compelling argument that aspects of reality can be contradictory. The element of denial within human historical memory accumulates to establishing dichotomies as being real.

We are defined not by how ‘different’ we are, but by our commonality of existence. When we locate that Reality point we will then know that the definition in itself has a whole, and complete explanation of ‘reason” in all possible senses.

All the reality we can deal with is here, and now. There is no possibility that ‘infinite regress’ (an imagined reality) is any part of our immediate experience. Infinite regress through thought processes, deals with questionable imponderables. It is a descending spiral, which further removes one from reality, which only produces illusion, and correct meanings are always deferred. It is making a holy virtue out of complexity. The epitome of completeness is the active realization of the operational principle.

[[File:Brick house 09.jpg|center|thumb]]
Conclusion: A brick – a house. Each complete in themselves. A house is not composed of one single brick, but each brick in its composition is complete, and whole in itself in that it has matter, energy, space, and time. In that context, it is a microscopic whole which has implicit within it the macrocosmic whole, a house.

We cannot define that which isn’t. We constantly use negative dichotomous terms in language, which are in essence factually indefinable, and therefore non-existent, but they are used as though we can support a view as to their existence. At this time we constantly use mythical concepts as though they had real substance. That erroneous belief in turn diminishes that which is real and compounds the problem of recognition of Reality. The flat earth society no doubt had to be persuaded of the mythical nature of their beliefs. This dictates that we must research ‘that which is” to achieve an understanding that supports that reality.

Separation is the mythical measure we use in an attempt to justify the real identity of either ‘relationship’ or ‘completion’, but it has no substance in fact.That we are connected, that we are related, that we are communicating, that we agree that ‘mutual agreement’ exists, all of these factors fall into the category of ‘that which is. There is nothing that is real that is not immediately available to us, there is ‘mutual agreement’.

Attempting to view true relationships as having a necessary separation link, or dichotomy is a clear misunderstanding of the nature and completeness of all that we are related to.

== Connectedness. ==

A relationship is defined as we are by the measure of contact (especially homo sapiens) that is apparent. It would be true to say that I have a measure of relationship with everyone who reads this material. No matter how tenuous the link we have a measure of relationship with all life – we are related! Depending on the strength of that relationship defines ‘who we are’.

‘Who we are’ is not defined by any spurious separation from life, quite simply because we cannot be separated from it, we are engaged in it at every moment in time. Any attempt to establish ‘separation’ as a reality is an attempt to deny ‘who we are’, and another exercise in futility! Again artificial interioralisation of concepts or principles leads only to a denial of their external reality.

We are all connected by the very simple fact that we all exist on this planet. It is a very simple axiom that all life on this planet is supported by the conditional properties this planet provides. It is also a very simple, and more reasonable axiom to conclude that no matter how tenuous the link that all life in this regard has very concrete and definitive forms of relationship. We all must breathe, we all must eat, and we all must drink, and if you need any further certainty of ‘completion’ relationships, we certainly, all must die!


[[File:Universal Theories.jpg|center|thumb]]


To set in qualifications from the premise that there is a ‘separate mind’ (a kind of Platonic cave) to get outside of. This premise precludes either in part or in whole the evidence and experience of Nature, and Reality, within which our beingness is located. It would all be beyond our grasp if indeed our conventional concepts of consciousness was adhered to, which in effect attempts to deny us that direct ‘relationship’ to ‘what is’, and the completeness of that experience.

Knowing or being and solipsistic theories advise that we cannot truly know each others experience, nor can we penetrate others experience, but in the democratic recognition that we know and have our being in relationship, and the mutual, and natural convergence of everything there is. Homo sapiens (race, color, or creed aside) necessarily conduct themselves in ways that extend recognition, and understanding at every level, without the constant need of ‘completion’ recognition that is inherent in all our interrelated actions. 

The flat earth society eventually moved on to a realization that their visionary scope was shrunken, and severely limited. They were deprived of a planetary (never mind a universal) relationship that one can only imagine severely curtailed the very expansion of consciousness necessary for humanity to progress. We have evolved some little way because of our understanding of the natural relationship.

The centered in the mind condition - which connotes with the separation ideology - screams to be released from that mythology, and engage itself directly in real relationship with everything that is.

= Relationship. =


Separation is the mythical tool we attempt to use to maintain a false continuity of an imaginary individuality that does not exist.

The taking for granted conditional mythologies (the flat earth society) engage the victims in what can best be described as serious problems in recognizing the very limitations that restrict their development.

We must learn to view wholes, which equates with viewing ‘completeness’. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts, but the parts are not necessarily separate conceptual parts. We can ‘see’ the whole when we are able to identify the factors that constitute their existence as a complete reality.

That which is complete in Law = Agreements that produce secure and dependent outcomes.

We know in essence the concept of ‘completeness’, and we demonstrate the evidence in myriad ways. Each act is a microcosm of the whole – view from the other end of the telescope!

In the traffic analogy the driver, and all other drivers, conform to the law by driving off when the light turns green. There is an implicit agreement about the value of traffic laws, and traffic lights that control the flow of traffic. At that moment there is a complete relationship understanding of those values. The ‘complete’ or ‘wholesome’ activity of motorists waiting at traffic lights for the green signal to go, and they then move off, validates all the factors implicit within the properties of ‘mutual agreement’.


[[File:ParkStreetTraffic2.jpg|center|thumb]]


Whatever we communicate for the benefit of future generations should not be based on mythical assumptions, but should be based on necessary factors.
It is ordinary life that portrays all the dignity, honor, and the complementary wonder of the human species.

We are here – we are present – we are communicating.

We have an obligation (which we necessarily fulfill) to make transparent the basic principles that govern our existence.

That, which is factual, provides us with a correct motive for behavior, and we do a disservice to Reality when we attempt to deny it. We exist and live in a world where acts of ‘completeness’ expressed in one form as ‘mutual agreement’, are continually enacted.

It is the form of expression, and continuance of processes that we constantly use to arrive at reasonable solutions, and we employ factors that are necessary to provide us with a clear, and unambiguous understanding. They motivate reasonable behavior toward activity that we can accept as being a logical process.

== Natural Experience: ==
No form of life can exist in and of itself, it is brought into existence through a relationship with its own environment, or its species. The obvious egotistical monistic nature of oneness (if there was such an entity) could not leave any room for the realization of anything that might disturb its comfort zone. There is no real knowledge where any concentration is on the “I am” syndrome.

&quot;No man is an island, entire of itself;

Every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main.&quot;

- John Donne, 'No Man Is An Island, Meditation XVII - Devotion Upon Emergent Occasion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/40682518|title=&quot;No man is an island&quot; John Donne.|last=1572-1631.|first=Donne, John,|date=(1999 [printing])|publisher=Souvenir|isbn=0-285-62874-7|oclc=40682518}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Uros people residence on floating island, Lake Titicaca Peru.jpg|center|thumb]]
“We are’ is an inclusive affirmation that deals with “what is’. There is no constructive dialogue, no real understanding, without a relationship.

Based on personal experience, we are a distinct, and unique species born of Nature and Reality that has combined to provide us with the innate ability to recognize the very properties that created us, and utilize them through an evolutionary process toward ever-increasing transparency. That transparency can only become available through a matching process between innate knowledge, and the reality we share, a reality that is our heritage.

We like all other forms of life are the product of Nature, and subject to its laws, and principles. Necessity created a language that evaluated Reality, and provided us with guidelines to emulate its constant properties. The measure, and quality of knowledge is dependent on the realization of ‘what is’. The crux of correct knowledge is to know the base that we function from. The principles that are implicit within Nature, and Reality we have now translated through the evolved language systems with symbols and definitions that we now use to share the experience. When principles are fundamentally true and recognized for what they are, misguided belief systems will evaporate.

To ask what is the source of the principles we present is ipso facto to ask what is the source of Nature, and Reality, and we repeat, that is an exercise in futility, but that does not mean that we cannot recognize that which is natural to us, and express it, as best we can through language.

The experience of ‘who we are’ is the Ultimate transparency that transcends all doubt, or denial.

We can know with an understanding that is pure and indisputable, that is the motivational drive for evolutionary continuance.

To understand who we are we must address Nature, and Reality, and ask ‘what is’ Here, and Now, with an understanding of the dichotomies that exist in language.

The ‘Eureka’ moments, epiphanies, enlightenments, etc, are all evolutionary evidence of who we are, and when we can translate them into principles, and concepts, then the assertions of an Archimedes (and many others) are recognized, and properly used. Through Nature, and Reality we can establish what Truth is! Is it true to say that most people conform to the rules of the road? It would be more reasonable to assert that the answer is yes! Consequently, we can say that we have ‘Mutual agreement’, and ‘Co-operative Understanding’ as observable realities.

There is no conceptual source through Time, or history where there is an end. There is only ‘beginning’. Here and Now is always the ‘beginning’, and a more reasonable platform to explore than any exploration into the past concerning our true identity.

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Contemporary terms like Absolute, Complete, Positive we use to match our conditional understanding of ‘what is’. When we use contemporary conditional language to address concepts like Truth, Knowledge, Understanding, they are limited by the measure of our progression, but we use them all as stepping-stones. Language is a constantly evolving process.

When we agree that there is ‘some certainty’ and ‘limited knowledge’ you have agreed to the concepts of certainty and knowledge as factors that are part of our natural reality. All of us function within the framework of certainty, and knowledge, to some degree. Given that we agree to their existence, these are the factors that can lead us to the experience of ‘who we are’. They are a part of us that can lead us to recognition of ‘what is’, and make a transparent reality of the very things we do on a daily basis. We do not need absolute and certain knowledge to perform everyday tasks, but those performances are structured contemporarily because of our advanced understanding of the things we do, based on our own innate reality.

To honestly perceive the consistency of ‘what is’ (to be interdependent, and mutually connected) in interaction, can and does promote the visible reality of ‘who we are’. That visible evidence translates into the knowledge of our complete presence. We know with certainty that our beingness is of pure essence, and from that experience, we are obliged to formulate, as best we can, the structures that are responsible for making that transparent (witness the explosion of human progression, without the necessity in Time of experiencing fully ‘who we are’). To take a more reasonable stand please observe the multiplicity of human action where interdependence, and connection naturally proliferate. To realize that we are ‘interdependent, and mutually connected’ is the realization of a consistent fundamental truth – ‘what is’. Through identifying ‘what is’ as an internal reality we can make transparent the factors that are our natural construct. It is only through sharing this reality that we recognize it!
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These factors are not based on any ideology, belief systems, or opinions; they are composed of the Reality that is available to us all. We are unique in that we have the opportunity to be able to use their value in the manner that is implicit within their structure. That use is evidence of our understanding of Reality. What could have happened without the assertion that traffic lights are a safe way to control crossroads, or the assertion that the rules of the road are beneficial for our safety?

Any true experience, epiphany, enlightenment, etc, of ‘who we are’ provides fundamental, and indisputable knowledge of that Reality. Applying the recognized principles provided by Nature, and Reality consistently advances the evolutionary process, hence we have Science, Philosophy, Religion, Education, Art, and Law.

When there is a Pure Realization of who ‘we are’ through relationship recognition, it is unquestionably the recognition of the encapsulated, and innate principles we all share, and there is no place for the dissolving of another Real identity through that recognition. Indeed it is a privileged insight into the epitome of purity.

Nature and Reality can give us direction and guidance to our human existence, and we repeat, it is an exercise in futility to seek any cause to their beginnings.

We have proffered the concept of two as a basis from which human reality can be ‘experienced’. To recognize through, and equate with the true substance, and essence of one other is to automatically experience the totality of ‘who we are’ in full measure. This does not mean that the terms ‘totality’ and ‘full measure’ convey an ‘end’ to ‘what is’.

We have consistently offered recognizable facts (not assertions) that are part of our natural human activity, and give correct direction and meaning to our basic essence. We do function within the structure of ‘mutual agreement’, and we do communicate and ‘make known’ – basic obligations. These are evident simple examples of innate knowledge, and our understanding of ‘what is’ made transparent. To repeat we could not recognize anything without innate knowledge. All knowledge is a continual matching process 1 + 1 = 2. toward the realization of ‘who we are’ the development of language structures that correctly establish basic reality as it is, provides continuous knowledge that makes transparent the very nature of that reality.

It is vitally important to recognize that we have active communal agreements concerning the existence of basic principles and concepts that form the very foundation of our lives.

Constant change and movement in Space-Time - Energy - Matter are applicable absolutes to be recognised, which equates to evolution. There never will be a static property involved in the evolution advance. Evolution encompasses its own absolute properties to provide cognitive connection confirmation.

The evolution of conceptual language exists to provide natural equality and to promote cognition between language states. No matter the languages spoken the concepts of air - food- water is the same and can provide a gateway to explore the future dynamics of human relationships.
=== Knowing. ===
Knowing what all the truth is is not some miraculous state of perception. Nor is it a high academic achievement of amassed information. It is simply an objective common-sense view of ‘what is” and in reality what must be. It is what must be for life to function within the principles that exist that are its natural foundation.

We are always of necessity the living expression of a reality that must be experienced in the whole. Our recognition of the same principles operating universally is also our recognition of who we are. That proliferate ‘sameness’ is an evident easily recognizable identity.

When a child is afraid of an imaginary monster in the dark, we generally do not accuse them of being absurd, or that they are lying. Appeasement comes with an explanation of reality at that level which is truthful. An explanation, which the child can grow up with, and find comfort. It is simply introducing a child to a level of truth that is more real to them. In every instance, the only reality that ever exists is truth. However, distorted it may be expressed. One of the major distortions as the result of thought processes is to consider that we can manufacture something other than the reality that exists. The ‘fact’ that you recognize contradictory or absurd statements is that behind them there is a measure of truth. The habitual liar lives in a world in which he or she imagines that truth is something they can manufacture.
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Where human ‘thought’ constructs its reality in terms of dichotomies it can never deal with the truth because it continually makes those comparative perception judgments. Those judgments are always in question because again they cannot deal with reality as it is.

No matter how absurd or contradictory any statement is, that is the measure of truth expressed. Ergo whatever it is that is expressed, or made manifest, is the truth to some degree. Ergo everything that is, is the truth. It is our responsibility to recognize it for what it is.

It may be appropriate to review previous observations on dichotomies and gradient scale. Consistently we have contended that there are no dichotomies, which then properly puts each principle into the category of an absolute. To identify ‘truth’ as an absolute in that category then everything that is must have a measure of truth. It is a very simple and sensible approach to establish ‘what is’. It is the means of identifying a reality that must have truth as a base – whatever it is, and however nonsensical it may appear. All principles have an elementary gradient scale that we must use to identify knowledge that is honest.

That gradation scale knows no dichotomies. Dichotomies are always the imaginary properties of pseudo subjective reasoning. Necessary factors establish that gradient scale where only objective realities exist to furnish a healthy subjective reason with truth, and so we learn to apply the conjunction to address reality for what it is. Truth comes in an abundant variety of ways in its commonality – and therein lays its overall ‘complete’ power, despite any denial to the contrary.

Embedded knowledge as we see it is neither experience nor knowledge without principle content. A person may be well educated in all aspects of the geography of a beautiful South Sea island, but have no practical experience at all of its beauty. Being clever about a subject does not necessarily equate to an understanding of the subject. Nor should it lend itself to posing as adjudicators on a proposition preset we imagine by the same adjudicators, or essentially the same school of embedded thought processes.

Long before human evolution, the principle of leverage has always existed in all Nature (as have all other principles, wherever there is space – time – energy – matter). Our adaptation to the existence of principles has added to the sum total of ‘knowledge’ as we know it, including the concept of knowledge itself. That form of ‘knowledge’, and our ‘knowing’ is natural and not any personal or esoteric acquisition. Just as a fish knows what its natural habitat is, or a bird to fly in the air, the human species uses all available principles it recognizes to add to its knowledge (already said).

Any valid theory of knowledge must have as its base constructive definitive principles to support it, and it is evident that our accumulated common knowledge equates to our common experience. No matter how erudite or convoluted any argument may be, if in the end it is reduced to inane observations that have no factual basis in principle, then it is time to abandon them. Do try to consider the sort of ‘mind’ processes that offers us up a world that knows nothing but separation.

How can we possibly evaluate what ‘wholesomeness’ really is?

How can we possibly evaluate ‘who we are’?

How can there be any theory of knowledge without addressing Nature or our innate and biological relationship with it?

Any attempt to debate ‘who we are’ and the completeness of that concept must have some sense of reality on the real meaning of ‘completeness’, and some understanding of the principles that are the nucleus of human society. To wrap any argument around a non-existent concept that can never be realized is apropos to attaching oneself to a system of belief in things that do not exist. One can make ponderous and convoluted statements about those beliefs but in reality, they are morally and ethically misguided.

The ability to correlate correct definitions to the reality of life offers up that direct link to the truths that are common to us all. It corrects the presumptive notion that there can be ‘different’ perspectives on the same reality. There can be ‘differences’ but there can not be ‘different’ measuring sticks for the same reality. No matter the multiplicity of perspectives, they can never alter the core principle of ‘what is’.

Historically evolutionary progress can best be measured by the adoption of recognized principles. Reality at whatever level we find it can only be understood by addressing ‘what is’. Nothing can be understood by attempting to relegate it to a non-entity through questionable theories of ‘knowledge’, which in essence negate the very content of knowledge itself. The perpetuation of any theory of knowledge, which cannot recognize the principles that are its foundation, can only be a shadow of its own reality. Construct the ‘necessary factors’ around the skeleton and a body will take form

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If any particular theory of knowledge cannot identify simple truths, how can we possibly question how anyone ‘knows’?

A dichotomy is the human attempt to deny the existence of a whole reality of a principle. We have the principle of leverage and its necessary gradient scale.

Mutual agreements of a consistent reality, at a communal level, are a passive form of the Eureka moment, which recognizes fundamental principles that relates to truth. In every social structure, there are varying degrees of recognition, which determine social use. The mosaics of differences, which make up the rich pattern of life, are a testament to human creativity.

Principles offer up a form of predictability in which our brain forms knowledge through the process of interaction. The experience accumulated through each moment, forms exponentially in use, or becomes transparent immediately in a Eureka moment, in which we know. Real knowledge is through the constant interaction with natural principles, much more than the transference of divided embedded information. The problem we face is that ‘knowing’ or ‘how we know” is never a personal possession.

Any theory of knowledge no matter how in that respect, is true interaction. Peeling a potato and ‘knowing’ it, is rewarding enough!

All principles are the repository of pure erudite knowledge. We recognize Universal principles in play at all times in Nature and its by-product – human societies. The correlation between determined interdependence to objective reality requires our intellect to ‘honestly observe ‘what is’, and assimilate that subjectively. Then the equality of the external and the internal becomes a reality and we ‘know’.

Knowledge is the process of natural action, reaction, and interaction. It is nonsensical to ask how do we ‘know’.Every moment in time is complete because it must contain all the principles that form its nucleus. It can only be like that to facilitate the immediate experience of Eternity, or the wholesomeness of any of its principles. On the gradient scale of experience, we all exist somewhere on that scale. It is called life.

=== Relevant: ===


That which is relevant can be consistent with interconnectedness and a gradient scale of knowledge.

What it cannot do is confuse the relationship that correct gradient scales of principles have in reality.

[[File:Time is Relevant (5485513402).jpg|center|thumb|Time is Relevant]]
.

Hot and cold would be on a temperature scale.

Leverage could only be measured by its own scale.

The domestic cat is the same animal species as a wild lion.

The domestic dog is the same animal species as a wolf .

Gradient scales are the natural human mechanisms used to recognize constant principles. They ensure the human perspective is aligned correctly to identify ‘what is’. The distorted human perspective is the result of human thought processes unable to establish constants that must exist in each moment of time.

The problem with embedded information is that it becomes stultified and it can stifle healthy reaction. The injection of recognizable principles invigorates and brings new life that offers countless avenues for human energy to be released. More importantly, those energies are used to enhance the evolutionary process.

We are collectively gifted with the potential to elevate life itself. We can correctly use such information by transforming its content so that its inherent truth is made recognizable.

It would be impossible for life to function if it was composed of ‘different’ opposite realities.

All theories of knowledge are in essence interconnected and can only contain validity when the principles that are the coalescent mechanisms are recognized. The unification of the truth that must exist in any theory needs to be harvested and used to offer up a body of ‘knowledge’ that has commonality of meaning. The identification of principles, truth, knowledge, and their subsequent establishment can only be achieved through direct interaction with Nature and life.

Gifted with life we have an obligation to demonstrate its capacity to use every resource to sustain and nourish its own environment.

We all know through the constant natural process of action – re-action – interaction. Depending on the quality of that process, knowledge will take its appropriate place on the gradient scale. That we ‘know’ is natural. It is not some extraordinary esoteric attainment, posited by a body of theories that, by their very nature, look for difficulties where none exists.

Universal belief systems based on mythologies can have an entrenched view of good principles being established because of their beliefs. Indeed the perpetuation of the beliefs throughout history offers a dynamic that is counterproductive to the ‘realization’ of principles that are necessarily true. Principles used in this approximate way, paradoxically hold no real meaning, and in fact, impose unhealthy dysfunctionality.

When there is a critical change toward establishing correct principles, it is axiomatic that the diffusion of mythologies becomes an automatic process.

True interaction lies in the knowledge that correct action is its own reward

Any other interpretation is less than tangible.

The accuracy in interpreting basic principles, and the alternate knowledge implicit in the interpretation, will always establish the primary principle sought. Archimedes et al.

Truth can be found in the oddest places.

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Archimedes cognition on how to weigh metals in water through displacement.

=== Truth. ===
Language is the construct of human action and the word “truth” seems to hold pride of place by the power of its usage and the meanings it evokes. It is preferable if we could turn our attention to the unity of principles (including truth) that are the construct of every language we use. By uniting the principal terms we can elevate the meanings we desire. Reasonable constructs and the correct duality of established principles always lead toward meaning. It is the only form of meaning that leads to its own extension eg. how to weigh metals – how else could it be?
 All principles have reciprocal value one to the other. No foundation principle can stand alone. They can only exist in a union, one with the other, the source of reciprocity.
All absolutes are universal. There is no hierarchy beyond the meanings they evoke in their joint construction. The binary connotations, however, one may express them, provide a constant reality beyond conventional consciousness. That experience is the immediate reward through disciplined application of their use. That discipline takes the form in all human action (such as the bathing scene above) disposed toward the correct functionality of basic principles. The daily connections we make always include the distinct possibility of their recognition, when we make those connections in a mindful state. From any common sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’. That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right. When the realities of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things.

‘More reasonable’ seems to have the particular philosophical motivation, not toward simple, sensible, and reasonable evidence, but more likely toward that ‘immaterialism’ ideology, and continually seeking for an elusive protracted answer is hardly ‘more reasonable'. Since we are apparently confined to a human perspective, we must settle with the latter position: the apparent state of representation of the world. The de-materializing of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism. A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance, etc. However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality.
=== Truth and Reason. ===
The reason could easily be defined, and validated, as the correct application of common sense. More expressions of common sense can only endorse the completeness of any concept. A true experience of reality does not require endless explanations as to its ‘wholeness’. It just is.

Truth is in reality a network of implicit principles in which it is the predominant energy in each of them. They are identifiable by their interdependent nature (see network below) not the least of which is common sense. Dictionary given definitions of ‘truth’ place it in a very common sense acceptable category. One of which is ‘accuracy of representation’. Note how the two definitions in this paragraph coalesce.

The human drive toward recognizing and understanding the place of principles (constants) correlates to the energy we expend on questioning ‘who we are&quot;. The constant principles of action, reaction, interaction, are the automated natural impulse toward ‘establishing’ a human reality, and human identity. The process of evolving within that process has an egalitarian dynamic that powers it. In essence, it is a natural gift that we must accept. Each life and its identity contains all its personal experiences which can never be known to anyone else. In a sense, we can never “know” another person. Their life is sacrosanct. We can know a lot about them, and there it ends.

Truth is at the top of the gradient scale that measures the veracity of all things that are complete and related and paradoxically all reality is the truth. It gets back squarely to ‘who we are” and where we exist on that scale. To view gradient scales as having no truth to their structures is denying truth itself.

For the entire interconnected, interdependent network of principles, each of them has a gradient scale whereby each measure expresses truth in its own manner. All forms of leverage, from the minuscule to the lever that will move the world, are in of themselves, true and exact at that point. It is the only way we can recognize their existence, and use that complete truth at that time, to move up the scale. Time is the relative measuring stick that determines the amount of knowledge we can absorb. Consider the advanced extensions to the Archimedes principle of leverage throughout time.

                                                   Network scale example.
                                                           Truth

                                              Knowledge             Common sense
                              Responsibility                                        Reason
                Understanding                                                             Intelligence
All interdependent, and interconnected with all other principles and absolutes.
 No ‘thought processes’ or ‘mind’ constructs can create reality.
All we can ever do to gain knowledge is ‘act’ react’ and ‘interact’ within the confines of our immediate reality. The quality of that action is determined by the nature of available information. When there is freedom from embedded thought processes, there is a natural human ability to relate to the existence of truth as it is expressed in reality, and our brain records it accordingly. Thus, the principles of civilized societies evolve. Where there are predominant belief systems, the implicit energy will naturally direct itself toward human standards that blend all ethics together. That implicit energy will find its true home in the principles it seeks. The connected strength of those principles offers sanctity of experience that demands no sacrifice.

Everything that is, must of necessity, have a true comparative value (not a distorted dichotomy value) for honest recognition to be realized. which is to ‘know’.
All things are relative but only within their own true scale. It is the process by which we can identify reality, as it is. Principles cannot operate on any scale practicing negative discrimination.

Thus a healthy individual can be at the top of the scale and someone with various health issues can be near the bottom of the scale. But that is how Healthy they are.

There can be no relativity when ‘mind’ or ‘thought processes’ believe in mythical dichotomies. When human perception is distorted by such beliefs, they create a false reality and deny access to the true state.

Where there is a network of connected basic standards that are universal, then it is possible to use them and be nourished accordingly. The scale of natural human progression provides recognizable evidence that we are constantly developing. Reality is the direct and conclusive evidence of possibilities realized. Therefore, the reality is always the source of all possibilities where truth exists. When the truth is used as the universal measure of ‘what is&quot; there can be no discord as to its accuracy. It can only measure the principles that are implicit in everything there is, its natural milieu! Truth can only deal with ‘something’, it cannot measure an imaginative negative counterpart. Truth is the constant implicit property in every universal scale of principles. Thus, reality becomes transparent.

Have writ large on the value of distorted comparative perception judgments.

The standard of correct knowledge always carries with it, its own appraisal.

Where principles are concerned there is an obvious scale of identification (e.g., leverage and the numerous references) that is all-inclusive and provides us with evidence of its existence. We could say with some truth, that the industrial crane has more leverage than a child’s see-saw, but we cannot deny the truth at the lower level or the reason applied. Where principles are concerned, truth is not a possibility, it is a constant reality (e.g., leverage).

When mythological dichotomies are recognized and established for what they are, the process of ‘ironing’ them out and experiencing their constant reality will translate into the reality, which they are, and used accordingly. To evoke that new sense of reality, the mechanisms of ‘selective immaterialism’ need to be dismantled. Where human experience is presented with something it does not understand and is unable to appreciate the principles involved, the reaction can invoke a sense of fear. That condition can be a primary breeding ground to establish a language of dichotomies and put a selective name to something it does not deserve.

The diffusion of a false singular dichotomy into the natural healthy state of the common good puts responsibility into its proper place. Within the process of diffusion, there is the natural and equal absorption of our true reality. The transition between separation and inclusion will be a seamless process because it is our natural state.

Objectivity and Commonsense:
Explore the plethora of principles - truths - constants that are the mark and phenomena of Homo sapiens.

We cannot have any doubt about our existence in this present reality.

The truth of reality is and can be experienced wholly and completely by anyone at any point in time. All human progress is the result of such experiences, manifest in principles throughout time and their subsequent ‘use’ evolves exponentially. The overwhelming evidence is our reality, now.

A simple analogy of objectivity and commonsense. Somewhere in our early development, someone put the ingredients of a loaf of bread together, somehow baked it, and hey presto, the first experience of a loaf of bread. It is now a form of sustenance, which feeds billions of people. We no longer need to experience that ‘truth’ that ‘knowledge’. It is unnecessary because it is subjective assimilation and the act of external and internal activity.

Because ‘our’ brain functions in a manner that can identify the natural elements it exists in –space, time, energy, matter, we learn to ‘know’ and recognize ‘completely’ a child’s see-saw. Knowing is a natural evolutionary function. The quality of ‘knowing’ has its own natural determinants which of necessity contain the measure of principles required for universal recognition. An Archimedes insight (or anyone else’s) could not become a universal reality unless those determinants were in play. I know the very same way we all know – by experience via action, reaction, and interaction. Truth persists and what Archimedes experienced was true and complete. Any experience of any truth, principle, or constant can be as ‘complete’ within a grain of sand, or knowledge of a pyramid.

All experience of that nature is an experience in ‘time’, and when it is the truth, we use it accordingly.

There is no mechanical translation, or opinion of ‘necessary factors’ as they are constant universals. That, which is ‘complete’, is transparent universal knowledge e.g., the principle of leverage.

The precision of terms must include ‘necessary factors’. Necessary factors translate into a common universal language so there is no loss of meaning.

All truth – principles-constants – absolutes, that stands the test of time we use accordingly. Thus, human societies evolve, and we evolve without the necessity of having to re-experience any of the principles we recognize and establish. That simply would not be a ‘natural’ commonsense proposition and an entire waste of unnecessary energy. The truth of any principle at any point in time, and at that point in time, can be experienced completely by anyone. Whatever it may be if the principle is established – from then on, it will evolve. There are some misguided notions that ‘truth’ ‘knowledge’ and ‘experience’ have some secret value that is unattainable by ordinary experience. It is a ‘natural’ evolutionary reality that what we ‘know’ becomes useful. We have a mutual responsibility to recognize, use and honor the principles, which are the common property we share.


= Human consciousness. =


[[File:Lane past Coombshead Farm - geograph.org.uk - 589598.jpg|center|thumb|369x369px|&quot;The roads half travelled when you know the way&quot;]]

[[File:Sombrero Galaxy in infrared light (Hubble Space Telescope and Spitzer Space Telescope).jpg|center|300x300px]]

=== The Universe ===

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Space&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Time&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Energy&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Matter&lt;/big&gt;''


The human capacity to understand the question of sovereignty or ownership of Space - Time - Energy - or Matter can only be accepted when any basis of dispute includes two dispositions - human and spiritual indigenous ties throughtout history.

With the evolutionary appearance of indigenous peoples throughout this planet, their way of life should make it paramount that their existence be recognised as a natural law that has providence!

Their culture and way of life has its own identity in which Space - Time - Energy - Matter is expressed as they experience it.

That proof also lies in the existence of caves thousands of years old, and the existence their art and culture.


So the constructs defined below are a new approach to understanding the concept of ‘knowledge’ and its proper place in an evolutionary expanding universe.

Knowledge acquisition requires appropriate recognition through action, reaction, interaction, in which proper perception and comsciousnessvalues are applied. That form of construction requires the dismantling of previously embedded information. This requires a new direction to formulate a sound basis from which to extend.

Construction of an analytical methodology to establish a form of ‘knowledge’ that is best suited to distinguish in a contemporary reality. A reality that adequately conforms to common notions of that which is true, and can only exist without any false relation to that which does not exist. All science needs the certainty that established absolutes provide.

A pragmatic construction of real knowledge would propose that all reality expresses a form of evidence or proof and that the observer and the observed contain innate properties necessary to establish a foundational agreement. That form of agreement would necessarily function on the basis that everything that is – is truth.

Any other interpretation would be a disconnect from reality, and the interdependent correspondence that must exist for true recognition of any absolute. Controversy will always emerge when the discourse on bifurcation and the introduction of non-existent dichotomies are used as arguments to be explored.

Pragmatism would say that the human species would need basic properties to formulate any form of reliable epistemological analysis to explain and simplify the reality that forms their existence. That reality could well be recognized initially as the absolutes of space-time - energy-matter, through innate perceptual data that corresponds to an outward structure that is constantly evolving.

That which is absolute is the determinative factor in establishing the existence of truth. When a chair, is a chair, is a chair, its recognition is established when we ‘commonly’ apply subjective and objective measures to that which is truly external to that which is truly internal. That which does exist becomes ‘common’ knowledge, and accepted as being true. Thus, the distinction between a priori knowledge and a posteriori knowledge no longer exists.

Where there is consensus, everything is.

The formulation of absolute criteria that offers ‘simplicity’ as a tool to measure all and everything, dispenses with the confusion of ‘difficulties’ historical philosophies engage in. It also offers an observable synthesis that clarifies the confusion.

Within the combined properties of those absolutes then everything potentially would be. Everything that is by that definition is original, ipso facto, everything that has no false relationship, and therefore true (no dichotomies).

Given contemporary human development, it would be ‘common’ pragmatism to accept the proposition that we exist within the absolutes of space-time – energy-matter. Within those absolutes and their innate properties, it would also be pragmatic to assert that ‘everything then is’ (whatever everything may be). Pragmatism would also dictate that ‘everything that is, is its own form of truth, and must contain available constructs of meaning. Therefore knowledge and understanding would be obtainable to that common experience, and at whatever level that experience is activated it is in interdependent unison with the source.

The continuing establishment of basic absolute principles (their generalities and their specifics) forms our reason. 1+1= 2 is a ‘simple’ but true universal constant generality. That form of generality is used because we recognize the specific principles of a balanced equation that adds up and makes sense. Simple generalities with their inclusive specifics form the foundation of human reason and its constant evolution. Simplicity is the bane of a ‘mind’ that must have difficulties.


= Availability. =
The unifying feature that makes ‘knowledge’ available to us all, are the innate universal principles in all things. Archimedes established the principle of leverage. To paraphrase - ‘give me a lever, and I will move the world’. Once the law is established it can then be put to good use.

The principle of leverage is manifest in countless ways, and put to good use! The principle of leverage is a constant available to us all, and always has been.

Through his application Archimedes conveyed his insight in practical terms, and made aware of the principle and the laws governing it. We now use those laws. We no longer need to philosophise on its existence as a truth. Similarly whenever 2+2 = 4.  Whatever we use to make the equation – apples, oranges, bricks, the mathematical equation is a constant, and the principle of correctness applies. Here 2+2 =4 is empirical proof that the principle of correctness and agreement exist.

Principle, or law: ‘a fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning’.          

If it were otherwise we could not measure anything. That which appears abstract then, requires no implausible argument as to its non-existence.


Such is the nature of all universal principles, they exist whether the notion of a ‘mind’ can perceive their existence, or not. Because ‘thought’ does not create the reality of principles – universals- truth, it cannot from its mythical standpoint understand the simplicity of a Reality where ‘everything is’, nor the simple and factual conclusion – how could it be otherwise!

Where ‘everything is’ evidently encompasses the whole evolutionary dimension. It is not an ideological enclosed static that stultifies expansion of an unfolding Reality.

Any pure knowledge experience that ‘everything is’ ,(quite apart from the common-sense truth of the statement) is to experience the Absolute in any immediate part of anything that exists, which establishes its own truth forever.

To examine a road code of law with that knowledge, and view the actions of drivers at traffic lights, it is more than reasonable to conclude with some conviction that there is  to some degree, Agreement – Knowledge – Understanding, and Conformity to that code of law. It becomes a ‘more reasonable’ proposition within Reality to understand that that code of law is multiplied exponentially, and the principles practised,  wherever drivers, motorcars, and traffic lights exist.


It is the nature of the type of knowledge we are measuring that determines the measure of reason that can be applied to any given form of Reality. We can conclude that 2+2 = 4 is a reasonable mathematical calculation that contains the principles of Agreement – Understanding – Conformity. Given the accepted knowledge of these innate principles we can with more reason apply such a calculation Universally. Knowing is agreement with ‘what is’. Knowledge is not the attempted denial of any existing reality. That is a contradiction in terms.

Mechanistic observation is akin to viewing from the outside, a straw in a glass of water. The straw always looks bent, but when removed from the glass we realise it is straight.

To claim an experience of that which is Absolute, is not a claim of an experience from a higher domain, or an  isolated incident – it is common-place, numbered by just how many we are. Attempting to denigrate such experience is denying the everyday actions that contain the innate principles of a constant Reality. All life functions within the constraints of the laws that are the constructs of Nature and Reality. All life is an expression of the Absolute. It is when that expression is realised, not only in an instinctive sense, but in a real sense, that we penetrate reality beyond a comparative framework of mythology. To claim that you ‘know’ intrinsically what the principle of leverage is, or the principle behind the mathematical equation 2+2=4 is to claim experience of the Absolute.

The Absolute is not some abstract esoteric truth – it is that which is immediate. Whether in awareness or not, we constantly comply, to some degree, with the laws of a constant reality.

Therein lies the difficulty for a comparative framework mythology – the Absolute is everything!

= Basic Equation. =

However much the simplicity of the equation is, it contains the properties of correctness – balance – equality – mutual identity – meaning, which in its ‘simplicity’ presages all future mathematical equations. In that universal meaning, there is particular knowledge of consistent truth. That form of ‘simple’ consistency, creates its own natural equilibrium, and its ‘usefulness’ evolves exponentially up the reality scale. Here is where we need to give proper credence to ‘that which is’.

All generalities have profound and specific principles as their ‘common’ identity, which are absolute. Unless those components are recognized, both objectively and subjectively, they are reduced to a comparative value spectrum (using dichotomies) as a misguided ‘simplistic’ factor. Deductive reasoning is then deprived of all value, and leads to the inevitable spurious question ‘how do we know?

Given the above criteria to establish a correct basis for knowledge that is recognizable, and of a kind that can be used universally, ‘simplicity’ can be recognized as a tool that promotes its own established formula. That which we constantly use.

Everything is the truth with regard to the methodology. How that truth or generality is expressed denotes the measure of the principle that is at its core, and forms that measure of reasoning we enjoy. Fortunately, although the truth is an innate property, it is not a ‘personal’ property per se, nor is the ‘experience’ of its reality. Its natural evolution is progressive. In that progression we are in common, the beneficent recipients that ‘evidently’ conform to its constant existence.

Philosophical dissertations have become a monopolistic form of opinions that always seem to presume the ‘rightness’ of difficulties in establishing the source of our being, and are unable to put in ‘simple’ terms the question of ‘who we are’. There comes with that the denial of evidence that permeates human history, which establishes the principles of our ‘common’ reality. Those opinions carry with them a colossal library of questionable erudition that becomes embedded, using questionable values to support their argument.

The most distinguished opponent of such arguments (Ludwig Wittgenstein 1889-1951&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1203018418|title=Tractatus logico-philosophicus|last=author.|first=Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 1889-1951,|isbn=978-1-78527-656-9|oclc=1203018418}}&lt;/ref&gt;) proposed that language logic was a necessary tool to dismantle the convoluted ‘mind’ propositions that have permeated the philosophical hierarchy. Those ‘mind’ propositions only served to construct meaningless concepts as to ‘who we are’. Although he gained prominence in philosophical circles, his work was directed more toward academia.

In his Tractatus Logico – Philosophies he quotes: “The limits of my language mean the limits of my world - What cannot be shown cannot be said”, and “There can be no representation of the logic of facts”.

Having a belief in mystical truths that were inexpressible, his statements above are indicative of the embedded language of dichotomies. His form of ‘knowledge’ ‘philosophy’ gave (without question) the concept of ‘mind’ credence to formulate its own logic to clarify its own form of reasoning.

Wittgenstein, by not recognizing within the language the distortion that dichotomies create, was unable to approach the evident constructs of true meaning that lie within the interdependent relationship of absolutes, and their constant existence. Evidential reality is all there ever is. The ‘meaning’ or ‘knowledge’ that becomes evident in reality is ‘commonly’ accepted and used accordingly.

To repeat, the evidential reality is all there ever is. In that regard, the exponential drive toward ‘difficulties’ amassed a historical discourse of misinformation, which is used to address the very ‘difficulties’ created by spurious value systems. In effect, dealing with ‘nothingness’.

We have managed to turn ‘truth’ into a problem, into a difficulty, when the truth is simplicity itself. An oxymoron of gargantuan proportions.

This contemporary malady solidifies a diversion that discounts the reality of continuous progression. Progression in which ‘common sense’ is a motivating principle that promotes human evolution. The consistency of specific principles allows us to achieve correspondence.

Real knowledge is not a fabrication of convoluted prescriptions. It is the ‘coalescence’ of ‘what is’ to internal reality. That established, evolutionary progress is assured, and reality factors are recognized for what they are.

True meaning can best be attained by the interaction and interdependence of natural principles and so recognized as such. That meaning which contains all the specific components of reality is experienced as ‘true knowledge’, measure by measure by anyone.

That form of ‘experience’ is not a ‘mind’ process, but a very natural state of realization consistent with our level of action, reaction, and interaction.

A correct and pragmatically form of knowledge-seeking foundational answers to perennial questions would seek a direct passage to our ‘commonality’, the beacon that offers guidance. Consider the quantity and quality of knowledge we all pursue that has meaning and usefulness.

To posit the notion that there are no dichotomies is a cataclysmic proposition that seems nonsensical to established embedded constructs of knowledge. Constructs of knowledge that offer only confusion, and continually pose impossible questions, whose absence would provide clarity.

That absence of confusion would dispel and dismantle a reality of ‘mind’, which functions on its own selection of problems.

To address reality as having only absolute constructs dispels the confusion of duality and its inability to ‘use’ relativism in its proper fashion.

All general absolutes contain specific principles representing facts; the essential properties that confirm reality. This reference directs the observer to observe, and go beyond the restrictions of a ‘mind’ governed by dualism, monism, or any other spurious form of philosophy that distorts the very reality it exists in.

Where there are no dichotomies, all we can deal with is ‘what is’, and the logic of ‘necessary factors’ thus destroying the possible inclusion of anything described as a “paradox”.

= Pure Experience. =
To design a chair our brain requires to exercise the qualities and properties necessary for its manifestation e.g., strength, balance , design, functionality etc, etc.

A chair, is a chair, is a chair, the product of innate knowledge.  

If we did address any tentative agreement that ‘I’  is a ‘fiction’, could not our ‘conscious experience’ of that ‘fiction’ be just as fictitious. It would follow that whatever perception of Reality we experience must also be fiction.

Our contention, as always, has been that ’I think - therefore I am’ by Descartes is the greater fiction for reasons already explained.

To consider to whatever degree that we can function on the basis of a fictional ’I’ precludes any attempt to honestly address ’who we are’.


Saying that ‘conscious perspectives’ are limited and inconsistent with apparent reality are quite correct. It then brings into question the validity of ‘conscious perspectives’ to guide us toward ‘what is’.

The entangled fictional relationship between ‘mind’ ‘I’ ‘thought’ ‘consciousness’ impose formidable barriers to that which is evident.


Base observations on the construct and interpretation of what ‘knowledge’ is.

Human experience is limited by its mechanical interpretation of Reality, especially ‘cogito ergo sum’.

If everything that is, is its own measure of Reality (the differences) then everything must be measured, at whatever level, as being that part of the whole with all principles intact, making that measure available to be experienced as the Absolute. With absolutes there is no antagonism.

We cannot exist or experience anything without a Universal complementary source of identification.

It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality.

Not experiencing Reality as it is, is equivalent to not experiencing ‘who we are’, and is indeed the only human source and validity of truth, although Descartes held the erroneous belief that such knowledge was independent of any experience. That belief we suspect was some form of impetus toward his ’cogito ergo sum’.                  

Knowledge and experience are co-existing ‘necessary factors’

So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), therefore any ‘knowledge’ derived from experience will be incomplete.

Clearly it is the quality of ‘knowledge’ that one experiences (e.g., Archimedes) that leads to a common certainty of evidence realised through direct experience.

That quality of knowledge can be available when we observe directly the activity of drivers at traffic lights with the knowledge that it is a very common activity recognized internationally. In every case we can logically pronounce the premises to be true, therefore we have a conclusion that is also true - whether that conclusion is defined as Mutual Agreement, or Common Acceptance, it does not matter - they are mutual principles.

It is this form of logical knowledge of innate principles that is the precursor to knowledge of the Absolute logically defined within all reason for ‘what it is’ .

Where the basic premise is true that there is ‘Mutual Agreement’ between a multiplicity of drivers at traffic lights then we can with certainty conclude that the same principles exist Universally.

We can also draw concrete conclusions, and establish knowledge, that it is not ‘absolutely necessary’ to experience by observation the multiplicity of drivers conforming to their particular road code. We have already established that knowledge.

Knowledge and experience are not separate philosophical theories. One cannot be without the other..


Everyone has the potential to experience the Absolute paradoxically, in part or in whole.

Everything that is, must contain the properties of the Absolute, otherwise nothing could be.


To ask questions about human experience based solely and inevitably on our interpretation of ‘knowledge’, and co-existing with that, its particular meaning in human existence.

So long as we can only deal with our conscious interpretation as representing Reality then we derive functionally less meaning than we are entitled to.

When we see other humans consistently using levers to open crates then we can recognize a ‘social intelligence’ operating which equates to understanding that is not based on opinion, but is a clear expression of human activity that has correspondence.

All of the principles involved in that experience can coalesce to provide that form of Reality that requires no interpretation. It becomes recognizable knowledge. How we understand that knowledge is through the realisation and identification of the principles involved, which become immediately transparent.

The Absolute could be categorised as a knowledge experience that encompasses all and everything. Whatever is manifest is that measure (complete in itself) of the Whole with all its principles intact.


Where there are at least two actions that are identical we can reach a common-sense conclusion that a definitive principle is operating. When that corresponds with innate knowledge then we have the complete cycle.

The definition itself is language opening the door to an experience of Reality. No one can know in isolation. An imaginary ‘I’ restricts any experience of who “we are”,  and is not a necessary part of human experience.  

Explaining experience beyond imaginary thought processes requires a definitive language that deals with the principles of Reality itself.

Pure experience.

The world-wide disposition that has no grounding in Nature and Reality becomes captive to any mythical fear that  offers a target to give some form of direction or stability.

There is nothing more simple than to make Reality transparent - its evidence abounds. We can pronounce the principle properties that provide guidelines to its existence whereby the reality is made apparent.


= Expansion. =


To address concerns on ‘negativity’.

Negativity is in essence the inability to establish a measure of Reality.

Mechanistic processes of denial are the attempt to understand and make transparent that which is apparently unexplainable, and resolve a condition whose energy is driven toward finding that core of affirmation.

The evolutionary principle from all available evidence is that human beings as a species progress. This seems a paradoxical contradiction to the embedded proposition that we can never know the ‘truth’.

The consequence of such a traditional premise is that denial and negativity both hold paramount positions.

We are conditioned to accept the premise that there is in fact no premise that will enable us to go beyond presently accepted norms of experience.

We are conditioned to accept that the ‘truth’ is inexpressible.

The evolution of the human species is constantly subject to contemporary ingrained social habits, which give some kind of credence to that particular point of existence. Indirect conscious interpretation classifies itself as a solid perspective to govern and justify human activity, which in many historical ways has proved disastrous.                   

Our continued intention is to expose detrimental barriers to the realisation of ‘who we are’, and in that process establish a smoother, more realistic approach to ‘who we are’.

The Archimedes legacy.

When we establish knowledge of something that exists through a multiplicity of experience and evidence, then from every reasonable standard we can establish that it is true, ergo that which is true is Absolute.

The principle of leverage is well grounded in social intelligence, and our natural knowledge of that does not need erudite explanations of its presence, nor any ‘conscious interpretation’ to realise its existence, or its practice. Evolution eventually removes restrictive passages to direct experience, the very purpose of evolution.

The principle of leverage is not a matter of opinion, it is the realisation of actuality and our continued ‘more reasonable’ response each time the principle is applied.

Children learn to speak their language primarily through experience without any direct, or indirect conscious interpretation, and so, universally we ‘know’ the most powerful means to communicate. Were we to move 50 miles in any compass direction from the town we live in, there is a certain predictability that we will meet others who speak the same English language that we do. If in that experience we find that these premises we have drawn about our travels were true, then the conclusion we would come to in particular, is that when we communicate we make known what we know.

………………………………………………………….

                                        
'''Please note the date:'''

'''Oct 2005.'''

I am offering up this older material below to provide insight as to the progression of this work. There may well be some duplication to date. During this period my wife and I worked in collaboration to ensure an equality of experience.

= Stepping Stones 1. =
There is nothing other than what is – there is no hidden Reality that we need to seek, it embraces us at every turn.

The Archimedes experience is the pure experience of Ultimate Reality, which provides indisputable knowledge. Reality is the source of complete knowledge, it is the constant source that has provided us with all human development, from the writings of William Shakespeare, to the computer development of Bill Gates. What they have produced is now an evident part of our reality that we can engage in. We can experience ‘mutual agreement’ through epiphanies, insights, enlightenment , understanding, Eureka moments etc, they are all one and the same.

Implicit within the macrocosm is the microcosm – it cannot be otherwise. The more we conform within the microcosm the more we begin to appreciate that Reality contains everything, and that we can realise through experience its manifestation. Each Eureka moment is that personal point of experience that connects us with the Truth. The principle of leverage was always available, it took an Archimedes to explain it to us.

Each Eureka moment necessarily engages with the reality of complete knowledge, and utilises its share at that time. When we have complete knowledge of who we are in that personal moment, then we understand that these, egalitarian properties, are rightfully shared by everyone and that we have experienced that which is infinite. It does not mean that the process of evolution is over – it has only just begun. It does mean that we can no longer continue coasting through this existence in a near comatose state.

If there is a hypnotic fixation in holding the principles of Reality as being separate, and different, then the potential realisation of their immediate unity, and communion, becomes problematic. Knowledge, and experience are one and the same – they are not different!!

Experience = Immediate knowledge of basic reality that is factually correct, and that we can reasonably use.

Knowledge = Immediate experience of secure, and accurate information that is constantly stable, and sustains principles.

Reality = Complete Knowledge. As the microcosmic part of the total macrocosm we are immersed in reality. The real question should be, ‘how can one not know Reality, or ‘who we are’.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the bank, and deal with money transactions.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the supermarket and exchange money for goods.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can send our children to school to enhance their education.

Evident proof is validation of what is – it is not a matter of anyone’s opinion, nor is it an assumption of ours.

Neither do we assume, or offer any opinion, on the Universal Reality that there is ‘mutual agreement’ that we need air, food, and water to sustain us.

Evident proof is also the basis for the mechanics toward realisation of ‘complete knowledge ‘ of who we are. Reality can be realised through concentration on its basic principles.

We use language to express our understanding of who we are.It is relatively easy, it is reasonable, and it is responsible.

We convey through language our measure of intelligence, and to the best of our ability conform to the basic rule of communication – ‘we make known’

Implicit within that exercise is ‘mutual agreement’. We may differ in some specifics, but we meet the basic obligation of communication – ‘we make known’, and always we progress to some degree.

Simultaneity is one of the constant principles that we all share and they come from Here, Now, the Present, where they have always been. Everything is. Our being is always engaged in the present, and we each have an obligation to understand our relationship to what is.

The present is the only point of contact we can ever have with Reality.

To some degree or another, each one of us is directly connected to Reality (we do not have any choice in the matter), and we can potentially evaluate ‘what is’ through the utilisation, and examination of factual reality.

We are the microcosmic part of that Universal Macrocosm, and because we already have that innate information it is a matching process when we have a Eureka moment, an epiphany, an understanding beyond question. Nothing enters our minds - we already know! Everyone has innate knowledge of the principle of leverage. It requires correct examination of ‘what is’ for realisation to occur. It is then a relief to have ‘mutual agreement’ on the things we would wish to make transparent to others.

To use a traffic analogy, it is evident that there is ‘en masse’ mutual agreement when we know to drive off when the traffic light turns green. Mutual agreement is translated into people obeying traffic rules (otherwise chaos).

Two cars, two drivers, sitting directly alongside each other at traffic lights, discuss their understanding of their Road Code in this particular position, and what they should do.

When the light turns green there are a myriad of principles that apply when they drive off simultaneously. They have both demonstrated their ‘complete knowledge’ of the significance of the green light from this perspective.

There is Mutual Agreement.

There is Predictable Conformity.

There is Common Ground.

Each one complements the other.

They are both right.

One more remove:

From an outsider’s point of view – they both know! The green light could be categorised as a Eureka moment, it sets in play all the above principles, whether the drivers are aware of it or not. From the perspective of two outside objective observers who know the traffic rules, if asked, did the two drivers at the lights obey the rules – the answer would be yes, there would be mutual agreement. They have complete knowledge of this particular circumstance concerning drivers, and green lights.

Could it be that certain schools of thought are curtailed by a questionable refusal to recognize what is, and have a preference for creating a difficulty where none exists! No one can examine what isn’t! There is no such thing as ‘nothing’. Something is – what is it?

A Scottish engineer functions on the same principles as an Italian Pope. Because Archimedes was prominent as a mathematician, his realisation of the principle of leverage, and his understanding of the difference in water displacement between silver and gold was widely reported. This does not mean that realisation of ‘what is’ is an exclusive experience. As said previously Archimedes did not realise something new – it has always existed, and all forms of life would have utilised the leverage principle to some degree or another (watch a bird build a nest). At that time there were probably many thousands of people who had some understanding of the principle, but Archimedes was the one who made statements about it.

As in any Eureka moment, we can experience infinity and who we are. It is mutual agreement (an understanding) between the part, and the whole. It is when the principles are in unison Eureka!

Reality is there to be examined, and experienced, it is not separate from us, nor should we try to make it so.

= Stepping stones 2. =
Knowledge is not conditional by the activities of what may be called ‘thought’ or ‘consciousness processes’. Real knowledge is that which is available to all, and to be shared by all. It cannot be contained by the ‘experiencer’ and then not ‘known’ by the accident of experience. It is the actual innate experience itself which conclusively establishes the truth. It can only deal in the truth which is its modus operandi of dissemination.
For me to say that ‘everything is’, is a statement of fact which cannot be denied, and an intellectual dishonesty to attempt to deny the evidence by philosophical machinations. Hostility toward the truth leads inevitably toward attempted negation - looking for nothingness!

‘Being here’ demands its own recognition - attempting to deny it is simply perverse. Knowledge is the realisation of ‘what is’..
Rene Descartes ‘I think - therefore I am ‘did no service to human evolution, or education. It established in Western societies especially, the culture of individualism, with the precursor that so-called ‘thought’ was the inward evidence for existence, and for the following unfortunate claim that we have a ‘mind’, or to use the euphemism, a soul!

Experience is true knowledge. When that experience marries up with its innate counterpart then recognition is realised (cognition). In simple terms, a light goes on in the brain.

There can be no real knowledge without truth. All thought qualifies experience and attempts to reduce truth to near nothingness which is a widespread conditional activity. We cannot manufacture knowledge, or the principles which are its properties. No matter the amount of correct information anyone can ingest, it does not become knowledge until there is tripartite coalescence between inherent knowledge - ingested correct information - and ‘what is’. Then we truly recognize that which is Absolute. Within Nature we have the distinct privilege of evolving in a Universe that can only recognize the attributes of social cohesion. Knowledge is not anyone’s personal possession. Whatever measure of experience we may have of it, it is only available as a Universal sharing experience to be beneficially used.

Human activity whereby we witness people using tools for leverage, or drivers at traffic lights obeying the rules of the road, are observable markers that contain the properties for understanding our own reality. Unless seen for what they are, they are only mechanical platitudes with an equally mechanical response. We could rightly claim that that at least is some response, but of no real value.

The natural process that operates when we see that which is innate, overrides any erudite explanation from an academic base however intellectual its original source. ‘Thinking’ for oneself cannot make judgments about a ‘natural’ experience.

When we see human duplicate functions in operation then we are in communion, and at another level we recognize who we are.

When we actively see the activities of the human brain in action we are not dealing with any internal ‘will - o’ - the wisp’ that no one can ever experience. We exercise that prerogative (human activity) at every moment in time, but quite apparently without that focus of attention that denotes realistic recognition.

To seek identity in sectarian, or secular belief systems to overcome the contemporary feeling of loss of identity leads to the acceptance of anything that offers some form of stability. That is then used to strengthen that which is euphemistically addressed as the ’self’. To retain that security the acceptance of information transmitted throughout generations, is absorbed into the culture, and defended to the death against those who would question that belief system.

The greatest knowledge we can ever have is our own and it has the potential to transcend all else and provide insight into infinity.

The most tragic human condition is the lack of experience of identity in a multiplicity of identities in which we all share. The real problem is not one of ‘identity’, but a lack of ’communion’.

Whether we like it or not, whether we are aware of it or not, the principle of ’communion’ must always exist to some degree for evolution to proceed.

It is within the experience of that principle that we understand the fallaciousness of that much heralded ‘self’ which draws down so much energy in an attempt to establish itself as a reality.

Within positive language structure possibilities (no dichotomies), there should be the disposition toward the realisation that our relationships to cognize into ‘communion’ must be addressed as specifically dependent. Social attempts to be ‘independent’ are the very remove from reality and signify reduction attempts toward nothingness.

Adherence to, and the cultivation of faith and belief systems give little elbow room for any factual occurrence to be anything other than a comparison to the myths that are held.

The cultural and educational socialisation of generations of children must carry with it, its historical belief systems that overwhelm the natural instincts.

Observe an animal out of its natural habitat and locked in a cage for its entire life.

It would be a salutary exercise if we could dispense with the term ‘mind’ from our vocabulary and magnify the use of the word brain to promote a realistic discussion on ‘who we are’.

My action of levering open a wooden crate and knowledge of it is one and the same. Our remarkable brain functions like that, the purpose of a brain, the natural repository of innate knowledge.

The assertion of principles is critical to avoid all activity being submerged by questioning their very existence, and being unable to see directly.

It would be a rarity today, if anyone using a lever to pry open a wooden crate would have the same enormity of experience that Archimedes had, nor the need to make pronouncements about it. It has all been done prior to our awareness of its value with the accompanying data attached. Our brain knows the value of a lever and activates our body accordingly when needed.

It could be categorised as evolutionary transmission.

The observance of someone prying open a crate with a lever, or drivers conforming to the road code at traffic lights, is a function of the brain in action, not a mythical entity in a singular locality that denies its own senses. When the brain is not burdened by distorted belief systems it then has the potential to experience ’that which is’, which is always constant.

When we understand the function of a lever, or the presence of traffic lights, then we can activate the principles involved because we already know how!

The negative impact in the use of dichotomies in language lies in their distraction from the truth, as our brain processes the words we use in relation to Reality. The tendency to attempt to separate inherent truths through the words we use disrupts that natural correspondence necessary for identification.

A chair, is a chair, is a chair.

= Stepping stones 3. =
Where principles are concerned the constituent linkages in language are identity markers to that which is real - reference points. Without dichotomies there is no separation, or ambiguity between what we experience, and ‘what is’.

Philosophy in its attempt to address something through denial is an elementary confusion. To say that that is a chair, and then attempt to deny it invoking philosophical theorems concerning the human ability to experience it, is a severe contradiction on the existence of the object , and the observer.

When this form of contradiction is then taken as a constant, it then precludes any common-sense and definitive answer to the existence of a chair.

'''For philosophers, George Orwell’s ’to see what is in front of one’s nose needs a constant struggle’ would be apt.'''

Real concepts cannot exist in any mythology, therefore all that we experience is inevitably the truth that is there to beproperly categorised for what it is. The proper use of language in this context will identify whatever it is to correspond with present reality. Misuse of language (dichotomies and mythologies) leads only to the acceptance of a fractured state where nothing is whole and represents confusion. The dissipation of the supposed problem is never realised.

Fiction has been elevated to the status of an accepted reality. Very early evolutionary physical dangers allowed the development of fictions that offered some form of imaginary protection beyond limited physical ability. That contemporary humanity endorses the mythology of ‘I’ is testament to the psychological fear that still exists and requires its proper recognition.

Emphasis must be placed in the relationship between language and reality for understanding to proceed. The persistence of dichotomies has their own persistent confusion which then promotes a false reality through misleading information.

Microcosm and macrocosm are one and the same in a Universe where ‘everything is’. Isolated viewpoints are exactly that, and are unable to view the expanse in which we are encompassed.

We must learn to view reality through both ends of the same telescope. When we understand the extensive scope of ‘truth’, then we know that its values and properties do not change - which relates to ‘completeness’. Philosophical, ideological, and intellectual endeavour , try to shape the structure of ‘what is’ based on pre-dispositional knowledge, which can only ask the same questions, and look for the same answers.

Not to experience that which is absolute or whole is the normal result of the confusion of language which has no correspondence to that which is real.

To discuss with a philosopher the possibility that ’mind’ per se does not exist, and to dissolve it as a concept would place them in a realistic position, would indeed be a difficult proposition. The strength of that difficulty lies in another imaginary concept, that that ‘mind’ represents ’I’, and it is anathema to that fiction to consider its own demise!

= Stepping stones 4. =
There are no dichotomies.

Everything is, and everything that is, is complete, everything is an Absolute complete Reality. You are experiencing your measure of that reality. It cannot be otherwise that you are experiencing that measure of completeness. When we come to terms with it we have the innate capacity to see the Absolute in a grain of sand. That is knowledge. Belief in dichotomies is the mythical barrier to that particular experience - which is only denial, supported by erudite protestations that human construct dichotomies exist.

At a mechanical level Intelligence and Stupidity appear to be separate identifiable conditions, and they appear to be antagonistic. Stupidity is in Reality a measure of the Intelligence which is always constant. If someone was in a state of mythical utter and complete stupidity we would not attempt any form of emancipation from that condition.

We know that that is misguided and proceed with techniques to advance intelligence.

Consider the proposition that there are no dichotomies, and within that possibility all questions become irrelevant. Presuming that there are no dichotomies allows the process of establishing ‘necessary factors’ to proceed, and allows each measure of wholesomeness to be realised.

Experience is the criteria for knowledge.

Some Reality experiences were simply transposed into particular belief systems and elevated into a pseudo spiritual dimension, or a philosophical conundrum.

Where there is a belief in a divisive fiction (dichotomies) there is automatic mechanistic restriction to that which is Real.

There is a capacity beyond ego and intellect which can commune with ‘what is’, and recognize its properties. Reality is constant.

Within the accepted comparative framework there is the view of principles as having different divisive categories e.g., as above, Intelligence and Stupidity, and classify them within ‘thought’ structure as dichotomies and give credence to them as being an antagonistic reality.

The consequence of that, is, that one is always a remove from recognizing the structural properties of immediate existence.

Any construct of knowledge necessary to evaluate ’what is’ will address the properties (principles) that are the constituent constant markers available in that which is the microcosm and the macrocosm. That identity (the Absolute) is found in any sphere of Reality.Everything is - and everything that is, must be experienced for what it is, and not for what anyone denies it to be.

There is no mythical human construction that can deny ’what is”.

Everything is - without dichotomies. To repeat, we do not have the ability to create ‘nothingness’ - ‘that which is’ has no imaginary comparative human construct. To attempt to deal with such constructs, and give credence to them is always the denial of ‘what is’, and adherence to ‘thought’ processes whose only purpose is to cement that activity. Indeed realising that the concepts of dichotomies are human mythical constructs, denying true perspective, is the beginning of insight.

The dissipation of such processes through addressing the principles of Reality allows us the potential to experience directly ‘what is’, in simple terms -the truth!

Intelligence is a ‘necessary factor’. Addressing stupidity is a denial of reality at whatever level we find it.

Intelligence and Stupidity are not antagonistic, they are one and the same principle with measurable degrees of existence. Only from a comparative framework standpoint is credence given to any mythical form.

The above observation is not negating the process, it is questioning the markers which evolve into imaginary separation (trapped in a comparative framework mythology). That particular process can and does create a false mythical reality that appears divisive. We cannot exist within a divisive reality! Reality must be complete for us to recognize its existence.

Where there are no dichotomies within the premise that ‘everything is’, there exists no antagonistic position. The distinction between human constructs of positive and negative are matters of mythical perspective wherein no experience of the Absolute is available. It is because the human ’mind’ per se places its own construction on its immediate experience, and must have its particular interpretation based on what it considers ’knowledge’. There is a difference between ’mechanical knowledge’, and ’pure knowledge’.

From the mechanical knowledge standpoint which can only deal ‘in indirect conscious interpretation’, it is quite correct to say that that form of knowledge is incomplete, and it always will be.

Pure knowledge experienced via our brain knows no separation, nor antagonism, and is responsible for our ability to recognize the actions of others who may pry open wooden crates with a lever, or drive off uniformly at traffic lights. Within that cohesive activity it precludes ’a matter of opinion’ and by themselves can become subjects of a pure knowledge experience. To repeat, it is a form of ’communion’ with ’what is’, and available to all.

Where drivers at traffic lights universally conform to their particular road code, and where universally there is a language which identifies their activity as Mutual Agreement, or any other logical definition, we can concur with the common-sense conclusion that we have universally established that within language and common activity, there is indeed a truth formed.

The coalescence between universal language and universal activity are the logical constructs that create civilizations. There is a vast social network of common activity that solidifies the logic into an honest and persuasive conclusion that confirms innate common principles –knowledge.

= Stepping stones 5. =


The Art of making sense of everything.


How to understand principles.

# Principle. A fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a system of belief or behaviour or for a chain of reasoning.
# All principles are interdependent, interconnected, and infinite.
# Each one is dependent on the other two.

Examples of a principles template and how to define them without dichotomies.


Communication. Truth. Standard. Proof. Express. Contribute. Mutual. Direction. Advance. Comfort. Organize. Certain. Immediate. Interest. 

Improve. Present. Constructive. Gain. Trust. Progress. Source. Knowledge.

Basic. Original Reality. Awareness.Freedom. Purpose. Connect. Understand.

Support. Peace. Cause. Unity. Ability. Rights. Honest. Discover. Positive. Energy. Balance. Good. Courage. Willing.  Control. Use. Association.  Observe.

Reason. Easy. Wealth. Simple. Law. Increase. Order. Flow.Co-operation. Exact.

Quality. Accuracy. Strength. Responsible. Operating. Creative. Measure. Recognition. Accept. Constant. Obligation. Include. Dependence. Relationship. Value. Success. Principle. Equality. Stable. Share. Love. 

Sustenance. Action. Identity. Intelligence. Education. Secure. Facts. Agreement. Information. For. Rules.Clear. Yield.


Example:


Success = Securing facts 

               = Responsible co-operation

              = Constructive knowledge  

So success by definition is : Securing facts through constructive knowledge and cooperating  responsibly.

All definitions of success from your template are infinite. You will find your own suitable definition.            

==== There are no dichotomies! ====


Any principle is correctly defined by any two other principles. You create a new language of Absolutes. Using conjunctions you can write your own book.


The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232

Amen to that!


“One is not born, but rather becomes a woman”

Simone de Beauvoir.

“Time does not change us. It just unfolds us”

Max Frisch.

We experience ourselves our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us.

Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future.


= Who we are. =
  It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality for what it is..

  For anyone to say that ‘everything is’ is a simple linguistic absolute that no amount of ‘more reasonable’ requests (above) can deny. Those requests only appear to be governed by the difficulties of ‘mental complexities’, and embedded ideologies. To accept that ‘everything is’ as an absolute, is a realistic basis to establish any reality, and comprises the basis for reason to be activated. If there is ‘nothing’, nothing can be achieved. Within that which is Absolute there are no dichotomies. Therefore there are no antagonistic positions available. Everything that is, is a measure of the Absolute.  We are always in the present, everyone and everything. Instant elementary ‘knowledge’ which we all share, and must admit to. In being alive, we do not have the ability to not be here, and we do not have the ability to not know!

To have a problem in addressing what Truth and Knowledge are, to the point of denying their existence, then that problem exists well below the scale of Reality. To repeat knowledge is not the proprietary right of any individual, it is enshrined in the principle of agreement that we mutually exercise to establish its own reality.

The reality of experience is not, nor ever will be, a personal possession that we can have and hold. Its reality becomes more alive when we see the same activity being practised by others. Then we know we are sharing that reality, and that experience. We  cannot &quot;have&quot; the principles that exist, but when we undrestand them then we are obliged to use them with integrity. That form of integrity in any language, is an added foundation stone to any belief system

Mechanistic ‘I’ has no concept or understanding of ‘pure knowledge’. Only when we break free of the myth that some clarity becomes apparent, and we have the opportunity to engage with what is real.


Philosophy it appears to me is constrained by individual ‘thought’ processes, which (without experience) cannot escape from that individuality. Those ‘thought’ processes conjure up a human history of inflexible, and impossible propositions which only serve to protect that individuality.

Descartes ‘cogito ergo sum’ has compounded the difficulties by strengthening the incorrect premise of a false individuality.

‘I’ is a phantom consciousness much like a phantom pain experienced after a limb is amputated. The brain registers the pain signifying that something should be there. Likewise our brain has that same relationship with Nature and Reality. It is analogous to our brain dealing with a ‘phantom reality’ knowing that something is missing but is continuing to evolve to establish the whole. There exists a ‘phantom chasm’ between our brain and Reality and an understanding of its properties. We are robbed of real meaning.

Evidence, recognition, and the truth are the principles it uses to reform.

Within their structure is the meaning of reforms.

Nature does not impose any morality on us, the principles implied in morality are there for us to understand and use. Our brain has the capacity, once reality is correctly examined, to recognize ‘that which is’.

Once realised it becomes embedded.

That ‘phantom consciousness’ is an experience removed from its proper environment. It takes its proper place when we experience reality for ‘what it is’, which provides the totality of meaning.

True experience allows us entry to the quality of knowledge that is a continuous reality.

So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), any ‘knowledge’ derived from that experience will be incomplete.


That form of philosophical negative conclusion can come down to not believing that Reality exists (a chair is not a chair, is not a chair etc,), or that our experience of ourselves and others is real, and discount any other form of knowledge that threatens that belief.

There is an intellectual dishonesty in denying the existence of principles.

Hostility towards the truth leads inevitably to negativity. Being here demands, not denial, but the right to be recognized.


We are the recipients of a ubiquitous communication system – making known. We can only understand that which we know. We make known all the time.

Knowledge of Reality – Truth – the Absolute is a collective inclusive experience of the principles we share, and never the property of any individual. To ‘know’ ‘who we are’ is an inclusive experience of the principles involved. Never ‘cogito ergo sum’.  

Philosophers in investigating the nature of knowledge and the Universe, firmly established for themselves that the source of reason and logic was located in a mythical concept ‘the mind’. From the wrong basis evolved elaborate and metaphysical constructions which removed the investigations further, and further, from the truth.

To comprehend the material world, and give it credibility, the recognition of implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct a language that provides that form of recognition.

Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects is misguided by the injection of a mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it.

That erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound Reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion, is compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every human view available.

We cannot manufacture knowledge that leads to a mechanistic understanding of ‘what is’ , nor the principles which are its properties – however much dogma is practised. We can only aspire to relate to ‘necessary factors’ that are the implicit fundamentals of existence.

For me to use a lever to open a crate is a form of communion with Archimedes through the principle he enunciated. It is now not ‘necessary’ for me to go through the same experience as Archimedes to establish that ‘necessary factor’ or ‘principle’. It is now common-place, and common-sense to utilise the principle.

The extract below provides some explanation of the brain processes in action Universally, and coincides with any reasoning on the observance of the leverage principle, and the actions of motorists conforming to the Road Code wherever traffic lights exist.


''The right-to-left shift of mental control looked increasingly like a universal phenomenon, capturing the essence of every learning process on every time scale, from hours to years. An individual faced with a truly novel situation or problem tackles it mostly with the right hemisphere. But once the situation becomes familiar and is mastered, the dominant role of the left hemisphere becomes evident. It looked like the empowering patterns capturing the essence of the situations (or rather the whole class of similar situations) were, once formed, stored in the left hemisphere. (The Wisdom Paradox. Professor Elkhonon Goldberg. P202)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vandermeulen|first=Jo|date=2008-08|title=Verstand komt met de jaren|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf03077135|journal=Neuropraxis|volume=12|issue=4|pages=137–139|doi=10.1007/bf03077135|issn=1387-5817}}&lt;/ref&gt;''


= Limitations. =


However limited our view of connectedness is, or however tenuous the reality our experience is, ‘everything is’, and everything is connected. Innate knowledge and the fundamental nature of Man is the prior source of knowledge that seeks and identifies that connectedness.

Attempting to address what we don’t know is that mythical infinite regress toward that parallel mythical ‘nothingness’.

To always address what we know establishes Reality. To establish knowledge of principles, start from ‘we are here’. The natural principles within the diversity of human culture and activity when recognized as mutual ‘necessary factors’ will have the effect of enhancing and directing vital energy toward the very process of  the communion we seek, and the gradual penetration of a reality that always exists.

Knowledge of Reality is not ‘different’ in other locales. The fundamental principles are the same.

Addressing ‘what is’ instead of denying ‘what is’ is the basic construction of real knowledge. 

Within the structure of the Absolute we are all the same with a magnificent differential in our expression of the principles of necessity. That expression is our ongoing effort toward its own experience which gives it life and meaning.

That experience in turn exposes us to an immediate Reality that is in communion with the fundamental structure of our being.

All that we can contribute toward that is 50%, the other half is in our momentary relationship with Reality – then we know! That form of knowledge is always available through that form of experience, and it always comes in the form of confirmation which reforms.

Until that experience our prior condition appears mechanistic, without direction, or understanding.

Reality, life, is not mechanistic. We are the recipients of innate principles with the constant potential to experience those principles in action (Archimedes et al).

Dogmas, ideologies, are the restrictive practices used to blur the recognition of principles operating to a level that understanding of that common and constant activity is virtually denied. Our natural capital (principles) is degraded to the point that their factual evidence is reduced even to the point that they are categorised as a ‘perceptual illusion”.

We can trust facts 2+2=4. Simplicity has its own majesty.

Anything circumscribed by reason requires control of our emotions.

To comprehend the material world, bring it alive, and give it credibility, the recognition of its implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct the language that provides evidence of that Reality.

Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects, is misinformed by the injection of that mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it.

The erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion’, is paradoxically compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every other human view available, thus it then makes its own sense, form and justification to the illusion! The evident question we must ask, ‘how does a ‘mind’ conclude that ‘immaterialism’ exists universally? Surely it is a simple but massive contradiction in terms. If there is nothing there but ‘perceptual illusion’, how can you attribute it to other ‘minds’.

The oxymoronic effect of narcissism is that it is the very denial of ‘who we are’. Man is not composed of an overwhelming self-love. That mythical embedded belief cannot consider the possibility of underlying principles that are the real life force of Man in his relationship with Reality.

The truth of that, is that humankind (in spite of itself), evolves towards its own Reality.

The only human values that exist, lie in Man’s recognition of the principles involved that provide human direction.

Our ‘material brain’ is a product of Nature's evolutionary process, and has innate within it the same principles that exist in all matter.

That ‘which is’, is the truth, and our brain evolves to process that at every level, and we constantly manifest that in every action we take – whether we like it or not.

The fundamental similarities between human beings is that we are not only evidently human, but that we also function and construct societies that we recognize as beneficial to our immediate well-being. All social function is determined by our brain capacity and its ability to postulate the relationship it has with Universal principles.


= Illusion. =


Considering that we can contradict things is an illusion. We can never contradict the truth.

We do not have the ability to create proprietary constructs of reality. That ‘which is’, can only make its basic properties transparent to us through direct experience. Imaginary concepts must in the end conform to a measurable construct that we can identify.

Within the structure of any philosophical theory of ‘knowledge’ it must contain the basic elements of truth at all times, or there is nothing!!

To say that ‘everything is’ is motivated by pure reason experience as an objective, and subjective reality and as an axiomatic grammatical premise that no amount of mental acrobatics can deny. We can only deal with ‘something’, whatever it may be. There is no metaphysical construct that can provide evidence that ‘nothing’ exists, outside a mythical mind.

Explaining experience beyond ‘thought’ processes requires a definitive language that deals with the reality itself.

We all Know. It is innate. The ‘difference’ between us is only the measure of the knowledge that is made manifest, and that knowledge continually proliferates.

The ‘individual perspective’, and the illusory ‘I’ which dominates, is the barrier to any relation to ‘what is’, and the malady of never experiencing the truth directly!   

Truth, knowledge, agreement are the abundant and embedded Absolutes that form the structure of human evolution. That we constantly utilise and improve on their use is evidence of their reality, and the material transparency within every social structure. The survival and proliferation of such realities should be the evidence to establish that ‘that which is’ is Absolute. 

When we focus our ‘perspective’, opinion, or a hypothetical consideration of a space, time, or identity to question a Universally accepted fact, it is hardly a categorical argument to dismiss that which is true as nonsensical. Any denial that 2+2=4 is a fundamental truth hardly takes into account that the reality of such basics are vital to the success of higher mathematics.

Unless the basics are continually correct, and evidently so, then no correct solutions could evolve. We know that within any basic structural ‘use’ that the calculation is correct. We commonly accept its correctness as an embedded reality. 

All forms of lower or higher mathematics would have the axiomatic principle of ‘correctness’ as their basis to extend from. Also, they would have as an axiom that the reverse is true. The 2+2=4 is, in its reality, the epitome of balance and construction. The 2+2 reality forms its correct conclusion when the principles of mathematics are propounded and they conform to transparent truth and arrive at 4. Only when it ‘adds up’, does it become a truth that we all recognize. Our greatest ignorance is taking for granted the proliferation of such truths through an ideological blinkered perspective. Because truth takes a commonplace form it is no less fundamental. Unless there is correct knowledge as to the existence of fundamental truth, that ‘which is’, goes unrecognised. That form of truth must be applicable to all. Truth exists in everything – it is an evidential reality. Searching for an esoteric truth is chasing shadows. Every truth is a ‘necessary factor’, and fundamental to our existence.

Because of the imposed limited perspectives (via education, ideology, beliefs) that which is evidently true, and transparent, is delegated to a position of simple practicality with conditions placed on it which further deletes its substance, and we have the awful predilection of conforming to the attempted destruction of that which is true. Do we have a problem with seeing something, which is correct, as also being true?

All truths are fundamental. They are not subject to attempted denial because of any diminished realisation at any point in time. Where there is reasonable evidence of balance, equity, and agreement we can conclude that a truth exists. Once innate information of that truth becomes transparent, it becomes an embedded useful human utility that must have some measure of fundamental truth as their starting point.

From any common-sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’.  That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right.

When the reality of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things.

The dematerialization of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism.

A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance etc.  However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality.  


= Human representation.
When we understand the validity and existence of principles in all things, it is easy to understand that ideological dogmas are never the foundation for real knowledge, or that direct experience of ‘what is’. Our real perspective is not some individualistic experience that confines us, it is that expanse in which we exist that offers us the view of that expanse. Everyone has the potential to go beyond their ‘apparent’ human perspective limitations. Shifting our sense of perception toward that which is basic, paradoxically extends the experience of that which is true.

Let general knowledge be directed toward the performance that identifies the measure of principles that are enacted. Therein lies the production of knowledge that offers a sustainable growth of that vital universal aspect of knowledge, where, reason and truth, can prevail. Any correct definition is language itself, opening the door to that reality experience which is critical.

Only when we know and experience that the same reality (with all its principles intact) exists for all of us can we then recognize the mythical distinctions that are taken as being real.

The majestic experience of that reality goes well beyond historical beliefs.

Exploring simple ‘necessities’ is not based on any sacred text, but the privilege of recognizing a sensible evolutionary path through life. Whatever may be in the future, is implicit in the material world now, and it has always been so.</text>
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      <text bytes="158525" xml:space="preserve">= &lt;ref&gt;'''William Shakespeare''' (bapt. 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616&lt;/ref&gt;A message. =


What humanity needs is not any individual approach but a governance powerful body of excellence that has modern technology, knowledge, and freedom they can use to disseminate clear information. Clear information about a new language structure of absolutes beneficial to an International forum, and eventually to reach a Universal status.Its benefits reach toward conceptual language on a planet that speaks more than 7,000 languages.

No matter the language spoken the concepts of:

Air - Food - Water are recognised.

The overall development of conceptual language can only be beneficial and will be as appropriate to Absolutes definitions.

Reaching for the Stars might show us the way.

Universal Language of Absolutes. &quot;A very grand title but it took many years to explain its value&quot;


= Our history. =

Born in Scotland in 1927 left school at 14 years of age. Married at 21 years of age and we had two children. We emigrated to New Zealand in 1953 and lived there for approximately thirty years. During our stay there I did a Liberal Studies Course at Canterbury University Christchurch and graduated. We have since had ten books published through Google books on the subject matter at hand and my wife Jean Caldwell McMillan is the co-author to most of the work presented here. My wife Jean was an avid reader of many works on philosophy and psychology. She was influenced by the works of Erich Fromm. Jean died 9th of January 2011.

To refresh the original purpose of  our  earlier writings my wife and I  went on an odyssey  looking for any data, ancient or otherwise, on human consciousness, specifically related to Alzheimer’s disease.

Now at 95 years of age (well past my used by date) it may well be that I am a candidate with a focus on my own pending dementia. If so, then the theory and the method I now write about is holding it at bay. To address the health of my mind in this way could be the catalyst that retains its own functional activity.

The creation of a  semantic template is well documented below.

No semantic definition of absolutes or principles can be ill-defined.

They are always interconnected, interdependent and infinite.

Each configuration constructed by anyone has meaning particular to them, although its value is universal. That  is why it is never personal property!


[[File:JimNJean.png|center|thumb|228x228px|Jim and Jean]]


= The Beginning. =


&quot;The road's half traveled when you know the way&quot;


[[File:Tree lined path - geograph.org.uk - 2269906.jpg|center|thumb]]
Oxford dictionary definitions:

Principle: &quot;A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning&quot;.

Absolute: &quot; Complete - Entire - Perfect - Pure.

These particular dictionary given definitions offers us guidelines to ‘existing conditions’ necessary for complementary understanding, and experience.
We can only examine that which is real, basic evidence, that is fundamentally true, and we must ‘use’ it, to establish that which is reasonable.

The general consensus is that there are no Absolutes. The following material is set out to show the very reverse is true and that everything that is is Absolute.

Establish that there are no dichotomies that will leave the primary terms alone to create a semantic template.

There are no dichotomies. Mythical dichotomies distort Reality.

Everything is: The computer you use today has always existed, it is the arrangement of particles that have materialized it.

The subject matter &quot;Universal Language of Absolutes' is promoted to provide a new understanding of spoken language. This understanding was initially constructed by the cognitive experiences of both my wife and myself many years ago.

Just like the principle of a jigsaw puzzle, meaning lies significantly in the fact that all pieces of the puzzle are interdependent and interconnected. When completed they provide a picture of the whole.

We have endeavoured to produce a picture of the evolutionary process of language in human history because the evolution of language prefixes all modes of thought in human culture. The material directs the reader towards a new view that all that evolves is in a vertical direction, not the linear direction commonly understood.

Human consciousness is of itself the phenomenon of evolution and to recognize its existence is part of the process. Shakespeare expressed this succinctly through the voice of Juliet who proclaimed, “a rose by any other name- would smell as sweet.”

[[File:Comestible rose in the Laquenexy orchard garden, Moselle, France (01).jpg|thumb|center|237x237px]]

=== Conceptual language. ===
My wife and I recognized how profound the extension of this observation would mean conceptually. Of all the languages spoken on this planet, it would be fair to say that all of them would contain the properties of, air, food, and water conceptually, etc. This is a form of consciousness equality that is available to us all. It points to the reality of our constant relation to each other and our existence.

We can never exist in a world of individuality, but only in relation to the consciousness of one another. Consequently, that exceptional experience can only be shared superficially. We cannot ‘know’ any other life experiences other than our own introspection.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Einstein 1921 by F Schmutzer - restoration.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;&quot; ''Albert Einstein 1921. We experience our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us.&quot;''

''Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future,p.99''

Einstein came very close. In reality, every human being has a backpack from the day they were conceived. In the backpack every experience in

their mother’s womb is experienced. At birth and throughout their lives, everything that happens to them in life is registered and creates their personality.

That life with all its experiences can never be known to anyone else, consequently, we can never “know” another person. It creates equality of consciousness that we must understand. We can know details about a person, but that is all. That life is sacrosanct. Who we are really goes beyond normal human experience and into the realm of the Absolute.


Werner Karl Heisenberg (physicist).

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

As a young layman with no knowledge of Heisenberg but interested in principles it seemed to me that the Uncertainty Principle was just a contradiction in terms.

In later years I found that Heraclitus describes life as being in a state of flux a replica of the Uncertainty Principle which in fact can be defined as an absolute state.

Within the context of knowing who we are and the backpack we carry our life in, we can never know each individual life as that life experience is singularly their own and sacrosanct.

It now seems that the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle can fall into the category of being an Absolute.

Evolution proceeds in advance of our need to evolve. In our pure active state, we are.There is no static end (an abomination) - only beginning. As we cannot know what tomorrow will bring, living with expectations is rather futile. Nature has its own agenda.

 Zen Koan recorded 1228:

 'An instant realization sees endless time.

 Endless time is as one moment.

 When one comprehends the endless moment

 He, or she, realizes the person who is seeing it.'
We do not own Space.

We do not own Time

We do not own Energy

We do not own Matter                                                                                                  
[[File:Universum.jpg|center|thumb]]


&quot;What we call the beginning is often the end

And to make an end is to make a beginning.

The end is where we start from

We shall not cease from exploration

And the end of all our exploring

Will be to arrive where we started

And know the place for the first time&quot;

T.S Eliot

= Everything is in scale. =
The present moment is the point in which Eternity has placed us – we all live in that moment, and whether we like it or not, we exist in it, experience it, have knowledge of it, and we all share it, measure by measure.

There are no dichotomies. Illusion is a measure of Reality, as Stupidity is a measure of Intelligence

If one keeps measuring illusion it is an attempted downward spiral to nothingness.There is no opposite to Reality – that illusion is a measure of Reality.

There is no such thing as ‘nothing’ in the elemental construction of Homo sapiens. All the innate ‘something’s’ are the fundamentals of our being human and all our experiences.

The correct use, and understanding of who we are, is an extension therefrom.

Does it require any interpretation on anyones part to say ‘we are? Any attempted denial of that statement would be perverse use of the language, and delusional.

=== Try saying ‘we are not” ===
‘We are’ is the foundation of all affirmation, and within that spectrum, we can know, and be.

‘We are’ is self-evident Truth.

We can neither know, nor experience what isn’t. Eternity is the here and now, that is why it is possible to explain the experience of Eternity. Nothing is ever lost in Time. We are located  in a vast Universe.

‘twas a moment’s pause,-

All that took place within me came and went

As in a moment; yet with Time it dwells,

And grateful memory, as a thing divine.

Wordsworth Prelude, Book V111

We already know – the ''basic'' condition that must exist for us to re-cognise.

It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest.

Unless there was mutual identity we could not know anything. It is why we are urged to evacuate the Platonic cave. Sadly most prefer the shadows rather than confront who they are.

We already know – the basic condition that must exist for us to recognise.

It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest.

== Lost Shadows ==
[[File:People Shadow.JPG|left|thumb]]
The shadows move

Lost in confusion

Lost in despair

Imagination shrouds the real

Looking back

Looking forward

Is this the Centre?

James Brines.


= Basic Principles. =
We are all in the business of living and attempting to understand the principles involved in that human process up to the end of life. The implicit principles necessary for life eventually disappear and all measurable criteria pronounce a body to be devoid of life. Throughout historical agreement we know what that means, and we act accordingly on *common knowledge*. We know that dying is a necessary factor of life. It is a Natural law that if we live - we also die. Natural law is Universal, for us to *know* that a body lives; we also *know* that a body’s life will end. Albeit that reports tell us that today millions of people die of disease, starvation, wars, we of necessity accept that as the ongoing reality because again we are universally connected and know the results of such carnage. Because it is in our realm of common knowledge we have graveyards, crematoriums, undertakers, doctors who pronounce bodies to have died. We understand the consequences of leaving such bodies unburied, the diseases that would prevail. Again, please explore the definition of principle (Universal principle) and try to go to the limitations of the definition without using mythical dichotomies.


[[File:( A great picture of outer space ).jpg|center|thumb]]


Principle: A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning.


All of these questions are based on singularity (the Cartesian dogma) If Descartes had only introduced inclusion into his musings (they were taken as conservative singularity) he may have realized the difficulty of addressing thought as reality. He then may have quite easily concluded that universally - *We are!!*

That pronouncement is inclusive, and conclusive in every way, *we are - and we know!!*

Because my knowledge is not a private, personal piece of property concerning principles, but Universal (Archimedes et al), then that innate knowledge has completeness we can share. Whatever identical resonance we may be able to share (concerning completeness), that can only be accomplished by understanding the principles involved and their constant relationship to each of us. Clearly the plethora of present and past discoveries establishes the existence of that which is fundamentally true, and the foundation for law.

The principles are established, and always have been, we are in the business of making them transparent and complete.

However tenuous the link we are all connected through communication, the air we breathe, the ground we walk on, the universe we live in, the common principles we live by. We all must have sustenance to survive, or we will not live. (See above)

&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt;There is nothing else to experience.*

When we actively explore the reality of anything, all principles involved in that exploration are complementary, and honest, and we understand the wasteful divisive mythology that people attempt to attach to them.

We cannot */partially know/* the truth, it must be complete. Dichotomies attempt to deny the existence of truth, and are misleading.

How do we more reasonably completely know anything?

The complexity of language systems with contemporary usage requires new and creative structures to provide clear information. Internal and external reasoning capacities can only develop in concert with Man’s recognition of the principles that essentially form our lives. 

The inevitability of human consciousness rising beyond its historical beginnings posits a future outside our normal perceptions, and  a factual reality that points to the existence of new perceptions that are infinite.  

It is natural to know when we are no longer trapped in any mythical ideologies that gives credence to dichotomies that stifle the recognition of simple principles. 

There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed.*

Ask yourself - ‘how do you know to ask any questions at all?’

There is no hidden dimension or mystical world. The only philosophical reality is ‘that which is’. To access that we need a new structure to explore ‘knowledge’, a new transformational language. Real knowledge is not amassed information, nor is it the establishment of dogmas, isms, or mythical belief systems.

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Basic principles are the source and foundation of all /*knowledge*/. Until that is recognized, extension from mythical sources only leads to a denial of one’s own senses. Trying to conceive of a contemporary world without principles is to posit a world without reason, or intelligence.

The principle of pure knowledge (Truth) could be said to exist in another dimension given the present state of human understanding. To progress that mistaken belief there would be strong support in the need for a comparative reality.

Curiously it seems that philosophy (the seeking of knowledge) constantly discounts any knowledge that does not come within the sphere of established philosophy, and the comparative reality dictum. That consequence profoundly distils the purity of any experience and alienates the observer in their confrontation of that which is real. The measure of that ‘comparative reality’ knowledge bounded by dichotomies is so restrictive that it lies in a mythical dimension where denial of its very purpose is the order of the day. Evidently it will not allow doubt to undermine its own denials.

A basic principle of Nature is /*knowledge*/ and it constantly communicates innately in every living structure. How to grow, develop, and disseminate.

Knowledge is reciprocal truth that depends on our relationship and the recognition of principles operating. Knowledge (unlike information) is not stored in an individual box; it is ubiquitously manifest in everything we do. Knowledge is the experience of a positive reality, and its true construction is a dependable source of secure information (not to be misused). We daily have the opportunity of witnessing ‘knowledge’ in action as expressed by the ‘the principles of knowledge’, namely the principles themselves.

The questions lie in a continuing mythical belief in a mystical unknown (the Cartesian stance) which because of its non-existence can never be known. It is a belief that is detrimental (because it attempts to deny all existing factual knowledge) to dealing with Nature and Reality and the fundamental necessity of our relationship with them.

Making that relationship transparent is our basic obligation and the ongoing evolutionary activity.

Although there is an obvious avoidance to address the definition of principle itself, it is a factor that must be paid attention to, to realize that ‘common knowledge’ is the only reality that exists. Amazingly although there is avoidance of principles - truth - reason etc, there is acceptance of the Cartesian dogma,. Paradoxically this determined acceptance of Descartes supports the reality of innate knowledge existing (I think - therefore I am) which establishes for him innate knowledge; however mistaken he is concerning the interpretation of his experience.

= Leverage. =
Long before I read of Archimedes and his various principle discoveries I was using the principle of leverage in a variety of ways, prying lids off boxes, moving articles with a lever well beyond my physical strength to do so without said lever, and I knew how to do it. Transferring that knowledge to a student or apprentice is relatively easy because innately they also /*know*/ how to do it.

Every aspect of human industry uses the principle in a myriad of ways because it is our obligation to constantly progress the principle and confirm the constant utilization of knowledge. We wholeheartedly adopted Archimedes principles (et al) because we recognized their fundamental utility. It is preposterous to question the widespread /*factual knowledge*/ of all principles, more especially so when we cannot escape their ubiquitous daily existence in all our lives - Nature and Reality do not lie.

[[File:Archimedes'-Lever.png|center|thumb]]
One may abstain from admitting their existence. To do so is simply attempting the impossible, and is devoid of all reason.

Real knowledge has been put into the realm of the mystical unknowable even to the point that knowledge practitioners go to the outer extremes and deny the gift of their natural senses. With their adherence to what they consider is knowledge they become captive automatons to any prescription for life that is expressed in that ’knowledge medium’, which then becomes the authority. When ’knowledge’ is addressed as having a collective source in Universal principles then we have the potential to experience its complete reality (microcosm - macrocosm) without any imaginary, or divisive comparative content. There is then a re-orientation process toward our true being and recognition of our own reality in relation to the natural processes we share. Real knowledge is elementary and Natural.

We know, because that which is knowable is constantly expressed by the principles involved. We all share those principles and can correctly infer the most simple and obvious truths. All social life functions by our adherence to the implicit laws operating within them. Seeking experimental contradiction to a fact of life offers us nothing but proof which is the establishing of ‘complete knowledge’ however ‘more reasonably’ one wishes to extend the exercise.

The construction of new philosophies must seek a mandate to fully explore the relationship between experience and innate knowledge as the foundation for pure knowledge to emerge. To repeat, knowledge or truth do not reside in any individual domain, nor are they the private possession of any human being.

We know, because ’knowledge’ is an innate natural possession that we constantly share - otherwise civilization could not exist.

== Knowledge: Evident facts about mutual standards that provide us with security. ==

We do not become human beings because we can ‘think’; we become more human because we learn to conform to the implicit principles in Nature and Reality. Denying them - denies our being.

It is natural to know. There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed.

Knowledge is an evolutionary process. Human beings developed from primitive innate instinctual knowledge to contemporary cultures. Some know more than others through experience, and make that knowledge transparent.

Insistence on how we can ’completely’ know is an ephemeral philosophical question that attempts to deny that we can have ’knowledge’ at all, as you understand it. Knowing that we ’know’ the inherent completeness of everything through the existence of principles, is the natural catalyst to make ’that which is’ transparent.

Heraclitus:

&quot;No man steps in the same river twice &quot;

He believed in the &quot;Unity of Opposites (Absolutes).

He cried for the needless unconsciousness of mankind..

“Exploration of a mythical dichotomy below for the purpose of establishing principles. Principles that are not a 'mind' construct, but the very essence of our being. Independence, is the curious and dangerous malady where humanity has lionized negative mythology in denial of its own reality.

The human fundamental reality has at its base the simple natural law that we are dependent beings. From conception, the human embryo is entirely dependent on the health and well-being of its mother to provide it adequate healthy sustenance to enable its entry into the world. That form of innate dependability the human species carries with it throughout its spectrum of life.

Every aspect of human activity is premised on the availability of air, food, and water without which the organism cannot survive (this would be an incontrovertible 'more reasonable' truism or an Absolute).

In a perverse way, that which is our natural state has become the target for what appears to be open defiance of the laws that govern our behavior.

When a basic premise is either used mistakenly, or deliberately, its consequences can be socially far reaching, for any deviation however far it is extended is a distortion of the truth, and a denial of who we are.

The erroneous conclusion through exercising responsibility that we can confer independence to our actions has gained a distorting and ubiquitous influence which paradoxically undermines the very responsibility practiced.

Within the context of being dependent we can correctly be responsible for our own actions but with the surety of knowledge that that responsibility is contingent on the measure of life giving forces available that we are dependent on.

The mythical dichotomy 'independence' connotes with the myth of separateness, division, alienation, and the force of these particular myths is expressed in wars, genocide, criminality. Alarmingly the mythological term has become a residual in our lexicon and is used more widely with acclaim than its true counterpart.

To uphold delusional 'independence' as a value to strive for erodes our human heritage by diverting useless energy toward a dubious goal, and consequences that leave us questioning our means of arrival. Sadly it is a loss of being with the paradoxical view that the energy expended will deliver up a personal reality.

The cult of independent individuality with its mythical ideology based on personal intimacy is now taken for granted, which then passes into the acceptance of the spurious dichotomy as a tangible reality. This in turn disposes the adherents to discredit the very essence of their being, and in the process dehumanizes many cultures. The presumption of independent individuality leading hopefully to a superior future is in fact counter-productive to the purpose, and leads eventually to corrupt power, and subsequently the invention of immoral policies that continue the negative spiral, which in the end has no ethical base to extend from.

The alienation from our substantial being creates inevitable tension anxiety, and the need to somehow relieve that anxiety with any artificial means available.

= Responsibility. =
Being responsible for any social activity would best be enacted with regard to the effect it will have (directly or indirectly) on the lives of those who are dependent on a beneficial outcome.

To recognize with some significance the basic structure of our being in turn significantly increases the measure of our understanding of human relationships.

Being dependent is not a mental construct choice - it is a state of being, and there can be no being-ness without at least one other being, there is then the possibility that the principle of true egalitarianism becomes the manifest reality. 

Being-ness can only be identified and expressed in relationship. 


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This is why the cult of 'independence' is eventually so socially destructive, as it creates that alienation which attempts to deny each real human need, and leads to a depravation of honesty. Human relationships between children and adults where independence is the accepted norm is severely undermined when the educational process predominantly teaches an unnatural form of living (either intentionally or unintentionally). The educational process is then reduced to the adoption of a fiction, which in turn puts at risk any educational program.

The effect of interpreting mythical dichotomies as described here is symptomatically ascribed to the existence of all other principles that govern life.

The construction of any ethological debate should not be premised on comparative perspectives, based on human thought, but rather on the issues that we can recognize as being universally compatible, therein lies the common denominator point of extension. 

The focus of attention on comparative perspectives denies justice to 'what is'. To contemplate the 'right or wrong' of any circumstance is a deviation from the truth. The correctness of any debate (however minute the finding), is the justifiable extension, and the only true trajectory we are morally obliged to travel. Truth is not defined, nor experienced by comparison, but by 'what we are'. An orange is to an orange, what an orange is to an orange.

To define correctly there should be careful and disciplined action toward establishing 'true factors' that we constantly use to promote reasonable standards.

= Time. =

In that moment of time, we have the potential to merge on an equal basis with the reality that exists, and to know what true interaction is. That is the point of 'direct experience'. 

It is then that we know the truth about ourselves and the beauty of this Universe which also reveals to us the folly of our present conditioning. In that experience, it becomes very clear that all so called cerebral activity has nothing to do with reality. The fundamental repository of our knowledge and relationship with life is our 

being-ness, which is not located inside a mental box to be analyzed, accepted, or discarded at will, but the very privileged natural gift of being.

What some scholars deal with is the appearance of life prescribed by the illusion of comparative perspective which functions on the basis of dichotomous ideology. It is in effect a denial of our humanity to conclude that all things that exist [from our perspective] exist only in the mind, that is, they are purely notional.

It compounds the denial of 'what is', and an extraordinary refusal to observe transparent life. It should be noted that there is ample contemporary exposure to the Cartesian doctrine, and in this regard, I would refer you to the works of Professor Gilbert Ryle, notably his publication The Concept of Mind.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=1977|title=Professor Gilbert Ryle|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mind/lxxxvi.341.1-s|journal=Mind|volume=LXXXVI|issue=341|pages=1–s-1|doi=10.1093/mind/lxxxvi.341.1-s|issn=0026-4423}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The heuristic principle applies throughout when establishing our connectedness with reality. It is only through our contact with reality that we can discover, and equate with the mutual structure of the principles that govern all existence.

Have already noted that it is also a peculiar form of arrogance that presumes that life is only a notional existence beyond the boundaries of the 'mind in a box' assertion. It would be foolish of anyone to assert that ice cream has a cold smooth satisfying texture and taste on a warm summers day unless they had actually experienced it, preferably on more than one occasion. For anyone who has never enjoyed that experience, it would be foolish of them to discount the very numerous accounts of such an experience that is available just because they had not been party to that event.

From a logical point of view, given the avowed experiences of ice cream eaters, we could reasonably ascertain the validity of each experience by documenting their separate opinions. Each participant would have 'direct experience' in the consumption of ice cream, which at that point in time has the potential for that participant to experience the full measure of that factual reality. We have the natural capacity to experience coldness, smoothness, which equates with the reality that exists, and the potential for those realities to unify.

It is not a question of how to get outside of our minds (mind in a box position); we are constantly outside our so-called minds performing acts of transparency throughout our entire existence. The belief that our constant engagement with reality can never be based on a rational acceptance of 'what is', is at the least, very sad.

The Platonic Cave shadows are a metaphor for the (mind in a box) syndrome.

[[File:An Illustration of The Allegory of the Cave, from Plato’s Republic.jpg|center|thumb]]


The need to reach simple, and obvious conclusions and accept them for the reality they are provides the opportunity to engage the complete reality of the moment. It is indeed going too far beyond the reality of the moment searching for philosophical profoundness which does not exist, that fails to establish the constant principles that always operate. Pure principles are not amorphous shadowy ideals; they are represented in everything that exists. The only way we can equate our inner knowledge of reality is through direct experience of its truth.
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Within that context then, life cannot take on a notional existence but is an existence that is very real, and that we continually share through our innate knowledge. That our so-called minds are defined by comparison - incompleteness - dualism would have extreme difficulty in pursuing the proposition that we are defined by our direct relationship with reality which is expressed in our innate ability to directly interact with 'what is'. The reality of interconnection, and interaction, are not idealistic concepts of a notional nature, but actual and consistent transparent realities. We do not live in a shadowy world that is hidden from our direct experience, but we are constantly engaged in the process of life, and we do not have the right, nor the choice, to deny it.

The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232

== Create your own semantic template. ==
That will consist of an alphabetical list of Absolutes that are all interdependent and interconnected. Their unifying construction creates a ‘new’ consciousness meaning.

That ‘meaning’ is yours specifically.

The greatest knowledge you can ever have is your own!

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That meaning also creates its own moral construction that cannot be misused . The semantic template is available to everyone, and its dissemination is our responsibility.

“Consider that the language structure, concepts, and definitions now in use no longer always deliver, accurate, reasonable, and responsible information. Indeed at times, they can be quite ambiguous.

The statement ‘mutual agreement’, and its physical manifestation in whatever form, is its own dialectic, and will carry within it all other principles necessary for the activity to proceed. Given the Socratic assertion that if something is true then it cannot lead to false consequences no matter how circular any argument may be.

Then extrapolating the statement into extended definitions must only lead to a better understanding of the inherent truths available. This can promote recognition of the underlying essence of all things, which can become more real than our conventional understanding of Reality.

There is a contemporary need to find new definitions, new paradigms to explore the concepts that govern our existence.


Examples of principles and how to define them without dichotomies, just add conjunctions to create any sentence.


Communication. Truth. Standard. Proof. Express. Contribute. Mutual. Direction. Advance. Comfort. Organize. Certain. Immediate. Interest. 

Improve. Present. Constructive. Gain. Trust. Progress. Source. Knowledge.

Basic. Original Reality. Awareness.Freedom. Purpose. Connect. Understand.

Support. Peace. Cause. Unity. Ability. Rights. Honest. Discover. Positive. Energy. Balance. Good. Courage. Willing.  Control. Use. Association.  Observe.

Reason. Easy. Wealth. Simple. Law. Increase. Order. Flow.Co-operation. Exact.

Quality. Accuracy. Strength. Responsible. Operating. Creative. Measure. Recognition. Accept. Constant. Obligation. Include. Dependence. Relationship. Value. Success. Principle. Equality. Stable. Share. Love. 

Sustenance. Action. Identity. Intelligence. Education. Secure. Facts. Agreement. Information. For. Rules.Clear. Yield.


Example:


Success = Securing facts through  responsible co-operation and using constructive knowledge to develop your success.

There are no dichotomies!

Any principle is correctly defined by any two other principles. You create a new language. Using conjunctions you can write your own book.


Where a circular argument is based on an untruth, then it cannot lead to a truth. The reverse of that is that when the truth is established, it cannot be denied.

Establishing ‘mutual agreement’ as a center from which we can reach out for extended knowledge in its ever-evolving radius, is not a limitation, or a stop, it is only a beginning!

When any concept is truly established the superficial exemplification ceases to dominate, and we can truly experience the apparent essence of ‘what is’.

Paradoxically to resource innate knowledge, we must recognize our profound ignorance of Nature, and Reality.

Completeness does not lie in individuality. This is an extreme form of monastic expectation. There can be no individuality (or completeness) unless there is at least one other individual. This is the true foundation of completeness.

Whenever we are privileged to experience that instantaneous essence of one other, then we know in that moment that we experience ourselves. It is complete complementation with the knowledge paradoxically that it is an endless process. There are many paradoxes we live within that strain our conventional views of what is ‘more reasonable’. Any true relationship experience is not based on a causality premise, but on an experience that is necessarily complementation.

Individuality in terms of completeness is a fundamental circular argument back to one, which in its form of denial excludes any form of reasonable argument to the contrary. It is a non sequitur, which denies the pressure of facts that are in abundance, despite the evidence of their reality.

To observe ‘mutual agreement’ is looking at things as they are.

True observation of ‘mutual agreement’ in action is observing essence transparency – it is knowing ‘who we are’. That form of recognition is essence duplication.

The proposition that we can observe the Truth may well be the highest attainment of Realities properties, for Truth is knowledge.

Consider the hypothesis of a human entity (an individual) being born in a black space with no other form of life in that environment.

How could there be Agreement?

How could there be Intelligence?

How could there be Understanding?

How could there be Recognition?

How could there be Love?

How could there be Law?

How could there be Reason?

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All of the above principles are the transparent manifestation of Nature and Realities properties that are constantly evolving. They are ethical imperatives, and we have developed the positive properties of language to establish them for our use.

We can only be defined through relationship principles for they offer us the best hope to recognize the factors that lead to complementation.

There is a fundamental need to grasp simple common-sense essentials.

The Here and Now is not a temporary transitional time phase that we move in and out of. It is a constant certainty that is essential to recognize, so that our focus of attention has a foundation.

Centrism can imply a fixation, which also implies vulnerability, which can be perfectly true if it does not lead to extension.

To understand who we are, it is essential that we recognize and become aware of the very principles that we operate from. They encapsulate all the measure of any human societies ethics, morals, and laws, which is a continuous evolutionary educational process within which the realization of its total essence is always available.

To use the doctrine that reason is a reliable tool to discover Truth – therefore ‘mutual agreement’ in the context ‘correct information’ translates to the Truth to reason!

Evolution is a constant dynamic process.

The human phenomena of ‘who we are’ is only understood in our union with each other, and ‘what is’. The paradox again is that there never is any separation. Separation is a mythical non-existent.

The principles that are our necessities have continuous expansion properties that as humans we are privileged to assist their propagation.

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The human constellation in its evolutionary march must use these fundamental principles to ensure continuity.

To maintain coherence and consistency our source is centered in the principles and factors that we have interpreted from our association with Nature, and Reality.

Whatever we write that is of any consequence, or at any other time, is written with the hope that stronger interpreters than us overtake what we present.

To ‘see’ Reality as we have seen, and be intoxicated by it, as we have been, will ensure its progression.”

== Discovery ==
The consciousness whole is the sum of all its parts and experiences. As we are all on an evolutionary path, our life and knowledge hopefully develop in the right direction.

The exploration took us through a plethora of data and opinions about reality from authorities on science, religion, philosophy and metaphysics. Nowhere could we find a definitive conclusive argument, or agreement, that met our needs.

For us, the question came down to “Is there anything at all that provides some form of construction, and certainty?” Something that has its own inherent ethical standards.

The alternative proposition to that is a nihilistic “nothingness”. A pathological proposition that makes no sense.

Heraclitus’s “unity of opposites” seemed the most promising. Our understanding of that now made dichotomies a semantic illusion. If achieved in a mindful way it is the act of uniting them, providing a conscious correct experience of ‘what is’.

We live our lives with secondary knowledge that everything that is – is always interconnected and interdependent. Yet our illusory experience belies that form of knowledge.

It is here that we understood Heraclitus and his “unity of opposites”. Mentally uniting opposites replaces the existing illusion of their existence – there are no dichotomies!

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Once the illusion is gone a new solution manifests that is peculiar to the mindfulness operator, and belongs to a higher form of consciousness.

Heraclitus was known as “The Weeping Philosopher”.

He wept for the needless unconsciousness of mankind when the ‘unity of opposites” was always available.

He was also known as Heraclitus The Obscure.

A title we suspect that came about because the successful conclusion to uniting opposites and replacing the illusion, opened a door to a new dimension.

Semantic description at this time may not have been available.

This brings us to the ancient Yin and Yang symbol of the ‘unity of opposites’. As separate entities in Chinese philosophy, they are complementary, and in fusion they represent the whole. So as dichotomies they don’t exist.

[[File:Ying and Yang Street Art - panoramio.jpg|center|thumb]]


The whole is the elemental answer to any fusion of opposites, whatever that may be.

Symbolize a line as being infinite in the sense that any line can be categorised as being infinite. Apply an infinite number of points in any line. Intersect any line through any point by another line then we have a specific identifiable point at the intersection, which at that point in time has an infinite quality, yet constant and complete.

Any such point has Matter, Energy, Space, and Time, the epitome of the microcosm.

We may locate a Reality point that establishes the Truth. Conventional mechanical ‘thought processes’ deal with dichotomies that are based on a comparative perspective ideology, and consequently, skew any real experience of that which is real.

We must use correct ‘measuring sticks’ to secure proper standards, but from the point of view that there is a belief in dichotomies, it will always be a compelling argument that aspects of reality can be contradictory. The element of denial within human historical memory accumulates to establishing dichotomies as being real.

We are defined not by how ‘different’ we are, but by our commonality of existence. When we locate that Reality point we will then know that the definition in itself has a whole, and complete explanation of ‘reason” in all possible senses.

All the reality we can deal with is here, and now. There is no possibility that ‘infinite regress’ (an imagined reality) is any part of our immediate experience. Infinite regress through thought processes, deals with questionable imponderables. It is a descending spiral, which further removes one from reality, which only produces illusion, and correct meanings are always deferred. It is making a holy virtue out of complexity. The epitome of completeness is the active realization of the operational principle.

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Conclusion: A brick – a house. Each complete in themselves. A house is not composed of one single brick, but each brick in its composition is complete, and whole in itself in that it has matter, energy, space, and time. In that context, it is a microscopic whole which has implicit within it the macrocosmic whole, a house.

We cannot define that which isn’t. We constantly use negative dichotomous terms in language, which are in essence factually indefinable, and therefore non-existent, but they are used as though we can support a view as to their existence. At this time we constantly use mythical concepts as though they had real substance. That erroneous belief in turn diminishes that which is real and compounds the problem of recognition of Reality. The flat earth society no doubt had to be persuaded of the mythical nature of their beliefs. This dictates that we must research ‘that which is” to achieve an understanding that supports that reality.

Separation is the mythical measure we use in an attempt to justify the real identity of either ‘relationship’ or ‘completion’, but it has no substance in fact.That we are connected, that we are related, that we are communicating, that we agree that ‘mutual agreement’ exists, all of these factors fall into the category of ‘that which is. There is nothing that is real that is not immediately available to us, there is ‘mutual agreement’.

Attempting to view true relationships as having a necessary separation link, or dichotomy is a clear misunderstanding of the nature and completeness of all that we are related to.

== Connectedness. ==

A relationship is defined as we are by the measure of contact (especially homo sapiens) that is apparent. It would be true to say that I have a measure of relationship with everyone who reads this material. No matter how tenuous the link we have a measure of relationship with all life – we are related! Depending on the strength of that relationship defines ‘who we are’.

‘Who we are’ is not defined by any spurious separation from life, quite simply because we cannot be separated from it, we are engaged in it at every moment in time. Any attempt to establish ‘separation’ as a reality is an attempt to deny ‘who we are’, and another exercise in futility! Again artificial interioralisation of concepts or principles leads only to a denial of their external reality.

We are all connected by the very simple fact that we all exist on this planet. It is a very simple axiom that all life on this planet is supported by the conditional properties this planet provides. It is also a very simple, and more reasonable axiom to conclude that no matter how tenuous the link that all life in this regard has very concrete and definitive forms of relationship. We all must breathe, we all must eat, and we all must drink, and if you need any further certainty of ‘completion’ relationships, we certainly, all must die!


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To set in qualifications from the premise that there is a ‘separate mind’ (a kind of Platonic cave) to get outside of. This premise precludes either in part or in whole the evidence and experience of Nature, and Reality, within which our beingness is located. It would all be beyond our grasp if indeed our conventional concepts of consciousness was adhered to, which in effect attempts to deny us that direct ‘relationship’ to ‘what is’, and the completeness of that experience.

Knowing or being and solipsistic theories advise that we cannot truly know each others experience, nor can we penetrate others experience, but in the democratic recognition that we know and have our being in relationship, and the mutual, and natural convergence of everything there is. Homo sapiens (race, color, or creed aside) necessarily conduct themselves in ways that extend recognition, and understanding at every level, without the constant need of ‘completion’ recognition that is inherent in all our interrelated actions. 

The flat earth society eventually moved on to a realization that their visionary scope was shrunken, and severely limited. They were deprived of a planetary (never mind a universal) relationship that one can only imagine severely curtailed the very expansion of consciousness necessary for humanity to progress. We have evolved some little way because of our understanding of the natural relationship.

The centered in the mind condition - which connotes with the separation ideology - screams to be released from that mythology, and engage itself directly in real relationship with everything that is.

= Relationship. =


Separation is the mythical tool we attempt to use to maintain a false continuity of an imaginary individuality that does not exist.

The taking for granted conditional mythologies (the flat earth society) engage the victims in what can best be described as serious problems in recognizing the very limitations that restrict their development.

We must learn to view wholes, which equates with viewing ‘completeness’. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts, but the parts are not necessarily separate conceptual parts. We can ‘see’ the whole when we are able to identify the factors that constitute their existence as a complete reality.

That which is complete in Law = Agreements that produce secure and dependent outcomes.

We know in essence the concept of ‘completeness’, and we demonstrate the evidence in myriad ways. Each act is a microcosm of the whole – view from the other end of the telescope!

In the traffic analogy the driver, and all other drivers, conform to the law by driving off when the light turns green. There is an implicit agreement about the value of traffic laws, and traffic lights that control the flow of traffic. At that moment there is a complete relationship understanding of those values. The ‘complete’ or ‘wholesome’ activity of motorists waiting at traffic lights for the green signal to go, and they then move off, validates all the factors implicit within the properties of ‘mutual agreement’.


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Whatever we communicate for the benefit of future generations should not be based on mythical assumptions, but should be based on necessary factors.
It is ordinary life that portrays all the dignity, honor, and the complementary wonder of the human species.

We are here – we are present – we are communicating.

We have an obligation (which we necessarily fulfill) to make transparent the basic principles that govern our existence.

That, which is factual, provides us with a correct motive for behavior, and we do a disservice to Reality when we attempt to deny it. We exist and live in a world where acts of ‘completeness’ expressed in one form as ‘mutual agreement’, are continually enacted.

It is the form of expression, and continuance of processes that we constantly use to arrive at reasonable solutions, and we employ factors that are necessary to provide us with a clear, and unambiguous understanding. They motivate reasonable behavior toward activity that we can accept as being a logical process.

== Natural Experience: ==
No form of life can exist in and of itself, it is brought into existence through a relationship with its own environment, or its species. The obvious egotistical monistic nature of oneness (if there was such an entity) could not leave any room for the realization of anything that might disturb its comfort zone. There is no real knowledge where any concentration is on the “I am” syndrome.

&quot;No man is an island, entire of itself;

Every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main.&quot;

- John Donne, 'No Man Is An Island, Meditation XVII - Devotion Upon Emergent Occasion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/40682518|title=&quot;No man is an island&quot; John Donne.|last=1572-1631.|first=Donne, John,|date=(1999 [printing])|publisher=Souvenir|isbn=0-285-62874-7|oclc=40682518}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Uros people residence on floating island, Lake Titicaca Peru.jpg|center|thumb]]
“We are’ is an inclusive affirmation that deals with “what is’. There is no constructive dialogue, no real understanding, without a relationship.

Based on personal experience, we are a distinct, and unique species born of Nature and Reality that has combined to provide us with the innate ability to recognize the very properties that created us, and utilize them through an evolutionary process toward ever-increasing transparency. That transparency can only become available through a matching process between innate knowledge, and the reality we share, a reality that is our heritage.

We like all other forms of life are the product of Nature, and subject to its laws, and principles. Necessity created a language that evaluated Reality, and provided us with guidelines to emulate its constant properties. The measure, and quality of knowledge is dependent on the realization of ‘what is’. The crux of correct knowledge is to know the base that we function from. The principles that are implicit within Nature, and Reality we have now translated through the evolved language systems with symbols and definitions that we now use to share the experience. When principles are fundamentally true and recognized for what they are, misguided belief systems will evaporate.

To ask what is the source of the principles we present is ipso facto to ask what is the source of Nature, and Reality, and we repeat, that is an exercise in futility, but that does not mean that we cannot recognize that which is natural to us, and express it, as best we can through language.

The experience of ‘who we are’ is the Ultimate transparency that transcends all doubt, or denial.

We can know with an understanding that is pure and indisputable, that is the motivational drive for evolutionary continuance.

To understand who we are we must address Nature, and Reality, and ask ‘what is’ Here, and Now, with an understanding of the dichotomies that exist in language.

The ‘Eureka’ moments, epiphanies, enlightenments, etc, are all evolutionary evidence of who we are, and when we can translate them into principles, and concepts, then the assertions of an Archimedes (and many others) are recognized, and properly used. Through Nature, and Reality we can establish what Truth is! Is it true to say that most people conform to the rules of the road? It would be more reasonable to assert that the answer is yes! Consequently, we can say that we have ‘Mutual agreement’, and ‘Co-operative Understanding’ as observable realities.

There is no conceptual source through Time, or history where there is an end. There is only ‘beginning’. Here and Now is always the ‘beginning’, and a more reasonable platform to explore than any exploration into the past concerning our true identity.

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Contemporary terms like Absolute, Complete, Positive we use to match our conditional understanding of ‘what is’. When we use contemporary conditional language to address concepts like Truth, Knowledge, Understanding, they are limited by the measure of our progression, but we use them all as stepping-stones. Language is a constantly evolving process.

When we agree that there is ‘some certainty’ and ‘limited knowledge’ you have agreed to the concepts of certainty and knowledge as factors that are part of our natural reality. All of us function within the framework of certainty, and knowledge, to some degree. Given that we agree to their existence, these are the factors that can lead us to the experience of ‘who we are’. They are a part of us that can lead us to recognition of ‘what is’, and make a transparent reality of the very things we do on a daily basis. We do not need absolute and certain knowledge to perform everyday tasks, but those performances are structured contemporarily because of our advanced understanding of the things we do, based on our own innate reality.

To honestly perceive the consistency of ‘what is’ (to be interdependent, and mutually connected) in interaction, can and does promote the visible reality of ‘who we are’. That visible evidence translates into the knowledge of our complete presence. We know with certainty that our beingness is of pure essence, and from that experience, we are obliged to formulate, as best we can, the structures that are responsible for making that transparent (witness the explosion of human progression, without the necessity in Time of experiencing fully ‘who we are’). To take a more reasonable stand please observe the multiplicity of human action where interdependence, and connection naturally proliferate. To realize that we are ‘interdependent, and mutually connected’ is the realization of a consistent fundamental truth – ‘what is’. Through identifying ‘what is’ as an internal reality we can make transparent the factors that are our natural construct. It is only through sharing this reality that we recognize it!
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These factors are not based on any ideology, belief systems, or opinions; they are composed of the Reality that is available to us all. We are unique in that we have the opportunity to be able to use their value in the manner that is implicit within their structure. That use is evidence of our understanding of Reality. What could have happened without the assertion that traffic lights are a safe way to control crossroads, or the assertion that the rules of the road are beneficial for our safety?

Any true experience, epiphany, enlightenment, etc, of ‘who we are’ provides fundamental, and indisputable knowledge of that Reality. Applying the recognized principles provided by Nature, and Reality consistently advances the evolutionary process, hence we have Science, Philosophy, Religion, Education, Art, and Law.

When there is a Pure Realization of who ‘we are’ through relationship recognition, it is unquestionably the recognition of the encapsulated, and innate principles we all share, and there is no place for the dissolving of another Real identity through that recognition. Indeed it is a privileged insight into the epitome of purity.

Nature and Reality can give us direction and guidance to our human existence, and we repeat, it is an exercise in futility to seek any cause to their beginnings.

We have proffered the concept of two as a basis from which human reality can be ‘experienced’. To recognize through, and equate with the true substance, and essence of one other is to automatically experience the totality of ‘who we are’ in full measure. This does not mean that the terms ‘totality’ and ‘full measure’ convey an ‘end’ to ‘what is’.

We have consistently offered recognizable facts (not assertions) that are part of our natural human activity, and give correct direction and meaning to our basic essence. We do function within the structure of ‘mutual agreement’, and we do communicate and ‘make known’ – basic obligations. These are evident simple examples of innate knowledge, and our understanding of ‘what is’ made transparent. To repeat we could not recognize anything without innate knowledge. All knowledge is a continual matching process 1 + 1 = 2. toward the realization of ‘who we are’ the development of language structures that correctly establish basic reality as it is, provides continuous knowledge that makes transparent the very nature of that reality.

It is vitally important to recognize that we have active communal agreements concerning the existence of basic principles and concepts that form the very foundation of our lives.

Constant change and movement in Space-Time - Energy - Matter are applicable absolutes to be recognised, which equates to evolution. There never will be a static property involved in the evolution advance. Evolution encompasses its own absolute properties to provide cognitive connection confirmation.

The evolution of conceptual language exists to provide natural equality and to promote cognition between language states. No matter the languages spoken the concepts of air - food- water is the same and can provide a gateway to explore the future dynamics of human relationships.
=== Knowing. ===
Knowing what all the truth is is not some miraculous state of perception. Nor is it a high academic achievement of amassed information. It is simply an objective common-sense view of ‘what is” and in reality what must be. It is what must be for life to function within the principles that exist that are its natural foundation.

We are always of necessity the living expression of a reality that must be experienced in the whole. Our recognition of the same principles operating universally is also our recognition of who we are. That proliferate ‘sameness’ is an evident easily recognizable identity.

When a child is afraid of an imaginary monster in the dark, we generally do not accuse them of being absurd, or that they are lying. Appeasement comes with an explanation of reality at that level which is truthful. An explanation, which the child can grow up with, and find comfort. It is simply introducing a child to a level of truth that is more real to them. In every instance, the only reality that ever exists is truth. However, distorted it may be expressed. One of the major distortions as the result of thought processes is to consider that we can manufacture something other than the reality that exists. The ‘fact’ that you recognize contradictory or absurd statements is that behind them there is a measure of truth. The habitual liar lives in a world in which he or she imagines that truth is something they can manufacture.
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Where human ‘thought’ constructs its reality in terms of dichotomies it can never deal with the truth because it continually makes those comparative perception judgments. Those judgments are always in question because again they cannot deal with reality as it is.

No matter how absurd or contradictory any statement is, that is the measure of truth expressed. Ergo whatever it is that is expressed, or made manifest, is the truth to some degree. Ergo everything that is, is the truth. It is our responsibility to recognize it for what it is.

It may be appropriate to review previous observations on dichotomies and gradient scale. Consistently we have contended that there are no dichotomies, which then properly puts each principle into the category of an absolute. To identify ‘truth’ as an absolute in that category then everything that is must have a measure of truth. It is a very simple and sensible approach to establish ‘what is’. It is the means of identifying a reality that must have truth as a base – whatever it is, and however nonsensical it may appear. All principles have an elementary gradient scale that we must use to identify knowledge that is honest.

That gradation scale knows no dichotomies. Dichotomies are always the imaginary properties of pseudo subjective reasoning. Necessary factors establish that gradient scale where only objective realities exist to furnish a healthy subjective reason with truth, and so we learn to apply the conjunction to address reality for what it is. Truth comes in an abundant variety of ways in its commonality – and therein lays its overall ‘complete’ power, despite any denial to the contrary.

Embedded knowledge as we see it is neither experience nor knowledge without principle content. A person may be well educated in all aspects of the geography of a beautiful South Sea island, but have no practical experience at all of its beauty. Being clever about a subject does not necessarily equate to an understanding of the subject. Nor should it lend itself to posing as adjudicators on a proposition preset we imagine by the same adjudicators, or essentially the same school of embedded thought processes.

Long before human evolution, the principle of leverage has always existed in all Nature (as have all other principles, wherever there is space – time – energy – matter). Our adaptation to the existence of principles has added to the sum total of ‘knowledge’ as we know it, including the concept of knowledge itself. That form of ‘knowledge’, and our ‘knowing’ is natural and not any personal or esoteric acquisition. Just as a fish knows what its natural habitat is, or a bird to fly in the air, the human species uses all available principles it recognizes to add to its knowledge (already said).

Any valid theory of knowledge must have as its base constructive definitive principles to support it, and it is evident that our accumulated common knowledge equates to our common experience. No matter how erudite or convoluted any argument may be, if in the end it is reduced to inane observations that have no factual basis in principle, then it is time to abandon them. Do try to consider the sort of ‘mind’ processes that offers us up a world that knows nothing but separation.

How can we possibly evaluate what ‘wholesomeness’ really is?

How can we possibly evaluate ‘who we are’?

How can there be any theory of knowledge without addressing Nature or our innate and biological relationship with it?

Any attempt to debate ‘who we are’ and the completeness of that concept must have some sense of reality on the real meaning of ‘completeness’, and some understanding of the principles that are the nucleus of human society. To wrap any argument around a non-existent concept that can never be realized is apropos to attaching oneself to a system of belief in things that do not exist. One can make ponderous and convoluted statements about those beliefs but in reality, they are morally and ethically misguided.

The ability to correlate correct definitions to the reality of life offers up that direct link to the truths that are common to us all. It corrects the presumptive notion that there can be ‘different’ perspectives on the same reality. There can be ‘differences’ but there can not be ‘different’ measuring sticks for the same reality. No matter the multiplicity of perspectives, they can never alter the core principle of ‘what is’.

Historically evolutionary progress can best be measured by the adoption of recognized principles. Reality at whatever level we find it can only be understood by addressing ‘what is’. Nothing can be understood by attempting to relegate it to a non-entity through questionable theories of ‘knowledge’, which in essence negate the very content of knowledge itself. The perpetuation of any theory of knowledge, which cannot recognize the principles that are its foundation, can only be a shadow of its own reality. Construct the ‘necessary factors’ around the skeleton and a body will take form

[[File:Balinese food @ The Uma.jpg|center|thumb]]

If any particular theory of knowledge cannot identify simple truths, how can we possibly question how anyone ‘knows’?

A dichotomy is the human attempt to deny the existence of a whole reality of a principle. We have the principle of leverage and its necessary gradient scale.

Mutual agreements of a consistent reality, at a communal level, are a passive form of the Eureka moment, which recognizes fundamental principles that relates to truth. In every social structure, there are varying degrees of recognition, which determine social use. The mosaics of differences, which make up the rich pattern of life, are a testament to human creativity.

Principles offer up a form of predictability in which our brain forms knowledge through the process of interaction. The experience accumulated through each moment, forms exponentially in use, or becomes transparent immediately in a Eureka moment, in which we know. Real knowledge is through the constant interaction with natural principles, much more than the transference of divided embedded information. The problem we face is that ‘knowing’ or ‘how we know” is never a personal possession.

Any theory of knowledge no matter how in that respect, is true interaction. Peeling a potato and ‘knowing’ it, is rewarding enough!

All principles are the repository of pure erudite knowledge. We recognize Universal principles in play at all times in Nature and its by-product – human societies. The correlation between determined interdependence to objective reality requires our intellect to ‘honestly observe ‘what is’, and assimilate that subjectively. Then the equality of the external and the internal becomes a reality and we ‘know’.

Knowledge is the process of natural action, reaction, and interaction. It is nonsensical to ask how do we ‘know’.Every moment in time is complete because it must contain all the principles that form its nucleus. It can only be like that to facilitate the immediate experience of Eternity, or the wholesomeness of any of its principles. On the gradient scale of experience, we all exist somewhere on that scale. It is called life.

=== Relevant: ===


That which is relevant can be consistent with interconnectedness and a gradient scale of knowledge.

What it cannot do is confuse the relationship that correct gradient scales of principles have in reality.

[[File:Time is Relevant (5485513402).jpg|center|thumb|Time is Relevant]]
.

Hot and cold would be on a temperature scale.

Leverage could only be measured by its own scale.

The domestic cat is the same animal species as a wild lion.

The domestic dog is the same animal species as a wolf .

Gradient scales are the natural human mechanisms used to recognize constant principles. They ensure the human perspective is aligned correctly to identify ‘what is’. The distorted human perspective is the result of human thought processes unable to establish constants that must exist in each moment of time.

The problem with embedded information is that it becomes stultified and it can stifle healthy reaction. The injection of recognizable principles invigorates and brings new life that offers countless avenues for human energy to be released. More importantly, those energies are used to enhance the evolutionary process.

We are collectively gifted with the potential to elevate life itself. We can correctly use such information by transforming its content so that its inherent truth is made recognizable.

It would be impossible for life to function if it was composed of ‘different’ opposite realities.

All theories of knowledge are in essence interconnected and can only contain validity when the principles that are the coalescent mechanisms are recognized. The unification of the truth that must exist in any theory needs to be harvested and used to offer up a body of ‘knowledge’ that has commonality of meaning. The identification of principles, truth, knowledge, and their subsequent establishment can only be achieved through direct interaction with Nature and life.

Gifted with life we have an obligation to demonstrate its capacity to use every resource to sustain and nourish its own environment.

[[File:Beauty of nature 8.jpg|center|thumb]]
We all know through the constant natural process of action – re-action – interaction. Depending on the quality of that process, knowledge will take its appropriate place on the gradient scale. That we ‘know’ is natural. It is not some extraordinary esoteric attainment, posited by a body of theories that, by their very nature, look for difficulties where none exists.

Universal belief systems based on mythologies can have an entrenched view of good principles being established because of their beliefs. Indeed the perpetuation of the beliefs throughout history offers a dynamic that is counterproductive to the ‘realization’ of principles that are necessarily true. Principles used in this approximate way, paradoxically hold no real meaning, and in fact, impose unhealthy dysfunctionality.

When there is a critical change toward establishing correct principles, it is axiomatic that the diffusion of mythologies becomes an automatic process.

True interaction lies in the knowledge that correct action is its own reward

Any other interpretation is less than tangible.

The accuracy in interpreting basic principles, and the alternate knowledge implicit in the interpretation, will always establish the primary principle sought. Archimedes et al.

Truth can be found in the oddest places.

[[File:Archimede bain.jpg|center|thumb]]


Archimedes cognition on how to weigh metals in water through displacement.

=== Truth. ===
Language is the construct of human action and the word “truth” seems to hold pride of place by the power of its usage and the meanings it evokes. It is preferable if we could turn our attention to the unity of principles (including truth) that are the construct of every language we use. By uniting the principal terms we can elevate the meanings we desire. Reasonable constructs and the correct duality of established principles always lead toward meaning. It is the only form of meaning that leads to its own extension eg. how to weigh metals – how else could it be?
 All principles have reciprocal value one to the other. No foundation principle can stand alone. They can only exist in a union, one with the other, the source of reciprocity.
All absolutes are universal. There is no hierarchy beyond the meanings they evoke in their joint construction. The binary connotations, however, one may express them, provide a constant reality beyond conventional consciousness. That experience is the immediate reward through disciplined application of their use. That discipline takes the form in all human action (such as the bathing scene above) disposed toward the correct functionality of basic principles. The daily connections we make always include the distinct possibility of their recognition, when we make those connections in a mindful state. From any common sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’. That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right. When the realities of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things.

‘More reasonable’ seems to have the particular philosophical motivation, not toward simple, sensible, and reasonable evidence, but more likely toward that ‘immaterialism’ ideology, and continually seeking for an elusive protracted answer is hardly ‘more reasonable'. Since we are apparently confined to a human perspective, we must settle with the latter position: the apparent state of representation of the world. The de-materializing of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism. A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance, etc. However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality.
=== Truth and Reason. ===
The reason could easily be defined, and validated, as the correct application of common sense. More expressions of common sense can only endorse the completeness of any concept. A true experience of reality does not require endless explanations as to its ‘wholeness’. It just is.

Truth is in reality a network of implicit principles in which it is the predominant energy in each of them. They are identifiable by their interdependent nature (see network below) not the least of which is common sense. Dictionary given definitions of ‘truth’ place it in a very common sense acceptable category. One of which is ‘accuracy of representation’. Note how the two definitions in this paragraph coalesce.

The human drive toward recognizing and understanding the place of principles (constants) correlates to the energy we expend on questioning ‘who we are&quot;. The constant principles of action, reaction, interaction, are the automated natural impulse toward ‘establishing’ a human reality, and human identity. The process of evolving within that process has an egalitarian dynamic that powers it. In essence, it is a natural gift that we must accept. Each life and its identity contains all its personal experiences which can never be known to anyone else. In a sense, we can never “know” another person. Their life is sacrosanct. We can know a lot about them, and there it ends.

Truth is at the top of the gradient scale that measures the veracity of all things that are complete and related and paradoxically all reality is the truth. It gets back squarely to ‘who we are” and where we exist on that scale. To view gradient scales as having no truth to their structures is denying truth itself.

For the entire interconnected, interdependent network of principles, each of them has a gradient scale whereby each measure expresses truth in its own manner. All forms of leverage, from the minuscule to the lever that will move the world, are in of themselves, true and exact at that point. It is the only way we can recognize their existence, and use that complete truth at that time, to move up the scale. Time is the relative measuring stick that determines the amount of knowledge we can absorb. Consider the advanced extensions to the Archimedes principle of leverage throughout time.

                                                   Network scale example.
                                                           Truth

                                              Knowledge             Common sense
                              Responsibility                                        Reason
                Understanding                                                             Intelligence
All interdependent, and interconnected with all other principles and absolutes.
 No ‘thought processes’ or ‘mind’ constructs can create reality.
All we can ever do to gain knowledge is ‘act’ react’ and ‘interact’ within the confines of our immediate reality. The quality of that action is determined by the nature of available information. When there is freedom from embedded thought processes, there is a natural human ability to relate to the existence of truth as it is expressed in reality, and our brain records it accordingly. Thus, the principles of civilized societies evolve. Where there are predominant belief systems, the implicit energy will naturally direct itself toward human standards that blend all ethics together. That implicit energy will find its true home in the principles it seeks. The connected strength of those principles offers sanctity of experience that demands no sacrifice.

Everything that is, must of necessity, have a true comparative value (not a distorted dichotomy value) for honest recognition to be realized. which is to ‘know’.
All things are relative but only within their own true scale. It is the process by which we can identify reality, as it is. Principles cannot operate on any scale practicing negative discrimination.

Thus a healthy individual can be at the top of the scale and someone with various health issues can be near the bottom of the scale. But that is how Healthy they are.

There can be no relativity when ‘mind’ or ‘thought processes’ believe in mythical dichotomies. When human perception is distorted by such beliefs, they create a false reality and deny access to the true state.

Where there is a network of connected basic standards that are universal, then it is possible to use them and be nourished accordingly. The scale of natural human progression provides recognizable evidence that we are constantly developing. Reality is the direct and conclusive evidence of possibilities realized. Therefore, the reality is always the source of all possibilities where truth exists. When the truth is used as the universal measure of ‘what is&quot; there can be no discord as to its accuracy. It can only measure the principles that are implicit in everything there is, its natural milieu! Truth can only deal with ‘something’, it cannot measure an imaginative negative counterpart. Truth is the constant implicit property in every universal scale of principles. Thus, reality becomes transparent.

Have writ large on the value of distorted comparative perception judgments.

The standard of correct knowledge always carries with it, its own appraisal.

Where principles are concerned there is an obvious scale of identification (e.g., leverage and the numerous references) that is all-inclusive and provides us with evidence of its existence. We could say with some truth, that the industrial crane has more leverage than a child’s see-saw, but we cannot deny the truth at the lower level or the reason applied. Where principles are concerned, truth is not a possibility, it is a constant reality (e.g., leverage).

When mythological dichotomies are recognized and established for what they are, the process of ‘ironing’ them out and experiencing their constant reality will translate into the reality, which they are, and used accordingly. To evoke that new sense of reality, the mechanisms of ‘selective immaterialism’ need to be dismantled. Where human experience is presented with something it does not understand and is unable to appreciate the principles involved, the reaction can invoke a sense of fear. That condition can be a primary breeding ground to establish a language of dichotomies and put a selective name to something it does not deserve.

The diffusion of a false singular dichotomy into the natural healthy state of the common good puts responsibility into its proper place. Within the process of diffusion, there is the natural and equal absorption of our true reality. The transition between separation and inclusion will be a seamless process because it is our natural state.

Objectivity and Commonsense:
Explore the plethora of principles - truths - constants that are the mark and phenomena of Homo sapiens.

We cannot have any doubt about our existence in this present reality.

The truth of reality is and can be experienced wholly and completely by anyone at any point in time. All human progress is the result of such experiences, manifest in principles throughout time and their subsequent ‘use’ evolves exponentially. The overwhelming evidence is our reality, now.

A simple analogy of objectivity and commonsense. Somewhere in our early development, someone put the ingredients of a loaf of bread together, somehow baked it, and hey presto, the first experience of a loaf of bread. It is now a form of sustenance, which feeds billions of people. We no longer need to experience that ‘truth’ that ‘knowledge’. It is unnecessary because it is subjective assimilation and the act of external and internal activity.

Because ‘our’ brain functions in a manner that can identify the natural elements it exists in –space, time, energy, matter, we learn to ‘know’ and recognize ‘completely’ a child’s see-saw. Knowing is a natural evolutionary function. The quality of ‘knowing’ has its own natural determinants which of necessity contain the measure of principles required for universal recognition. An Archimedes insight (or anyone else’s) could not become a universal reality unless those determinants were in play. I know the very same way we all know – by experience via action, reaction, and interaction. Truth persists and what Archimedes experienced was true and complete. Any experience of any truth, principle, or constant can be as ‘complete’ within a grain of sand, or knowledge of a pyramid.

All experience of that nature is an experience in ‘time’, and when it is the truth, we use it accordingly.

There is no mechanical translation, or opinion of ‘necessary factors’ as they are constant universals. That, which is ‘complete’, is transparent universal knowledge e.g., the principle of leverage.

The precision of terms must include ‘necessary factors’. Necessary factors translate into a common universal language so there is no loss of meaning.

All truth – principles-constants – absolutes, that stands the test of time we use accordingly. Thus, human societies evolve, and we evolve without the necessity of having to re-experience any of the principles we recognize and establish. That simply would not be a ‘natural’ commonsense proposition and an entire waste of unnecessary energy. The truth of any principle at any point in time, and at that point in time, can be experienced completely by anyone. Whatever it may be if the principle is established – from then on, it will evolve. There are some misguided notions that ‘truth’ ‘knowledge’ and ‘experience’ have some secret value that is unattainable by ordinary experience. It is a ‘natural’ evolutionary reality that what we ‘know’ becomes useful. We have a mutual responsibility to recognize, use and honor the principles, which are the common property we share.


= Human consciousness. =


[[File:Lane past Coombshead Farm - geograph.org.uk - 589598.jpg|center|thumb|369x369px|&quot;The roads half travelled when you know the way&quot;]]

[[File:Sombrero Galaxy in infrared light (Hubble Space Telescope and Spitzer Space Telescope).jpg|center|300x300px]]

=== The Universe ===

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Space&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Time&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Energy&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Matter&lt;/big&gt;''


The human capacity to understand the question of sovereignty or ownership of Space - Time - Energy - or Matter can only be accepted when any basis of dispute includes two dispositions - human and spiritual indigenous ties throughtout history.

With the evolutionary appearance of indigenous peoples throughout this planet, their way of life should make it paramount that their existence be recognised as a natural law that has providence!

Their culture and way of life has its own identity in which Space - Time - Energy - Matter is expressed as they experience it.

That proof also lies in the existence of caves thousands of years old, and the existence their art and culture.


So the constructs defined below are a new approach to understanding the concept of ‘knowledge’ and its proper place in an evolutionary expanding universe.

Knowledge acquisition requires appropriate recognition through action, reaction, interaction, in which proper perception and comsciousnessvalues are applied. That form of construction requires the dismantling of previously embedded information. This requires a new direction to formulate a sound basis from which to extend.

Construction of an analytical methodology to establish a form of ‘knowledge’ that is best suited to distinguish in a contemporary reality. A reality that adequately conforms to common notions of that which is true, and can only exist without any false relation to that which does not exist. All science needs the certainty that established absolutes provide.

A pragmatic construction of real knowledge would propose that all reality expresses a form of evidence or proof and that the observer and the observed contain innate properties necessary to establish a foundational agreement. That form of agreement would necessarily function on the basis that everything that is – is truth.

Any other interpretation would be a disconnect from reality, and the interdependent correspondence that must exist for true recognition of any absolute. Controversy will always emerge when the discourse on bifurcation and the introduction of non-existent dichotomies are used as arguments to be explored.

Pragmatism would say that the human species would need basic properties to formulate any form of reliable epistemological analysis to explain and simplify the reality that forms their existence. That reality could well be recognized initially as the absolutes of space-time - energy-matter, through innate perceptual data that corresponds to an outward structure that is constantly evolving.

That which is absolute is the determinative factor in establishing the existence of truth. When a chair, is a chair, is a chair, its recognition is established when we ‘commonly’ apply subjective and objective measures to that which is truly external to that which is truly internal. That which does exist becomes ‘common’ knowledge, and accepted as being true. Thus, the distinction between a priori knowledge and a posteriori knowledge no longer exists.

Where there is consensus, everything is.

The formulation of absolute criteria that offers ‘simplicity’ as a tool to measure all and everything, dispenses with the confusion of ‘difficulties’ historical philosophies engage in. It also offers an observable synthesis that clarifies the confusion.

Within the combined properties of those absolutes then everything potentially would be. Everything that is by that definition is original, ipso facto, everything that has no false relationship, and therefore true (no dichotomies).

Given contemporary human development, it would be ‘common’ pragmatism to accept the proposition that we exist within the absolutes of space-time – energy-matter. Within those absolutes and their innate properties, it would also be pragmatic to assert that ‘everything then is’ (whatever everything may be). Pragmatism would also dictate that ‘everything that is, is its own form of truth, and must contain available constructs of meaning. Therefore knowledge and understanding would be obtainable to that common experience, and at whatever level that experience is activated it is in interdependent unison with the source.

The continuing establishment of basic absolute principles (their generalities and their specifics) forms our reason. 1+1= 2 is a ‘simple’ but true universal constant generality. That form of generality is used because we recognize the specific principles of a balanced equation that adds up and makes sense. Simple generalities with their inclusive specifics form the foundation of human reason and its constant evolution. Simplicity is the bane of a ‘mind’ that must have difficulties.


= Availability. =
The unifying feature that makes ‘knowledge’ available to us all, are the innate universal principles in all things. Archimedes established the principle of leverage. To paraphrase - ‘give me a lever, and I will move the world’. Once the law is established it can then be put to good use.

The principle of leverage is manifest in countless ways, and put to good use! The principle of leverage is a constant available to us all, and always has been.

Through his application Archimedes conveyed his insight in practical terms, and made aware of the principle and the laws governing it. We now use those laws. We no longer need to philosophise on its existence as a truth. Similarly whenever 2+2 = 4.  Whatever we use to make the equation – apples, oranges, bricks, the mathematical equation is a constant, and the principle of correctness applies. Here 2+2 =4 is empirical proof that the principle of correctness and agreement exist.

Principle, or law: ‘a fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning’.          

If it were otherwise we could not measure anything. That which appears abstract then, requires no implausible argument as to its non-existence.


Such is the nature of all universal principles, they exist whether the notion of a ‘mind’ can perceive their existence, or not. Because ‘thought’ does not create the reality of principles – universals- truth, it cannot from its mythical standpoint understand the simplicity of a Reality where ‘everything is’, nor the simple and factual conclusion – how could it be otherwise!

Where ‘everything is’ evidently encompasses the whole evolutionary dimension. It is not an ideological enclosed static that stultifies expansion of an unfolding Reality.

Any pure knowledge experience that ‘everything is’ ,(quite apart from the common-sense truth of the statement) is to experience the Absolute in any immediate part of anything that exists, which establishes its own truth forever.

To examine a road code of law with that knowledge, and view the actions of drivers at traffic lights, it is more than reasonable to conclude with some conviction that there is  to some degree, Agreement – Knowledge – Understanding, and Conformity to that code of law. It becomes a ‘more reasonable’ proposition within Reality to understand that that code of law is multiplied exponentially, and the principles practised,  wherever drivers, motorcars, and traffic lights exist.


It is the nature of the type of knowledge we are measuring that determines the measure of reason that can be applied to any given form of Reality. We can conclude that 2+2 = 4 is a reasonable mathematical calculation that contains the principles of Agreement – Understanding – Conformity. Given the accepted knowledge of these innate principles we can with more reason apply such a calculation Universally. Knowing is agreement with ‘what is’. Knowledge is not the attempted denial of any existing reality. That is a contradiction in terms.

Mechanistic observation is akin to viewing from the outside, a straw in a glass of water. The straw always looks bent, but when removed from the glass we realise it is straight.

To claim an experience of that which is Absolute, is not a claim of an experience from a higher domain, or an  isolated incident – it is common-place, numbered by just how many we are. Attempting to denigrate such experience is denying the everyday actions that contain the innate principles of a constant Reality. All life functions within the constraints of the laws that are the constructs of Nature and Reality. All life is an expression of the Absolute. It is when that expression is realised, not only in an instinctive sense, but in a real sense, that we penetrate reality beyond a comparative framework of mythology. To claim that you ‘know’ intrinsically what the principle of leverage is, or the principle behind the mathematical equation 2+2=4 is to claim experience of the Absolute.

The Absolute is not some abstract esoteric truth – it is that which is immediate. Whether in awareness or not, we constantly comply, to some degree, with the laws of a constant reality.

Therein lies the difficulty for a comparative framework mythology – the Absolute is everything!

= Basic Equation. =

However much the simplicity of the equation is, it contains the properties of correctness – balance – equality – mutual identity – meaning, which in its ‘simplicity’ presages all future mathematical equations. In that universal meaning, there is particular knowledge of consistent truth. That form of ‘simple’ consistency, creates its own natural equilibrium, and its ‘usefulness’ evolves exponentially up the reality scale. Here is where we need to give proper credence to ‘that which is’.

All generalities have profound and specific principles as their ‘common’ identity, which are absolute. Unless those components are recognized, both objectively and subjectively, they are reduced to a comparative value spectrum (using dichotomies) as a misguided ‘simplistic’ factor. Deductive reasoning is then deprived of all value, and leads to the inevitable spurious question ‘how do we know?

Given the above criteria to establish a correct basis for knowledge that is recognizable, and of a kind that can be used universally, ‘simplicity’ can be recognized as a tool that promotes its own established formula. That which we constantly use.

Everything is the truth with regard to the methodology. How that truth or generality is expressed denotes the measure of the principle that is at its core, and forms that measure of reasoning we enjoy. Fortunately, although the truth is an innate property, it is not a ‘personal’ property per se, nor is the ‘experience’ of its reality. Its natural evolution is progressive. In that progression we are in common, the beneficent recipients that ‘evidently’ conform to its constant existence.

Philosophical dissertations have become a monopolistic form of opinions that always seem to presume the ‘rightness’ of difficulties in establishing the source of our being, and are unable to put in ‘simple’ terms the question of ‘who we are’. There comes with that the denial of evidence that permeates human history, which establishes the principles of our ‘common’ reality. Those opinions carry with them a colossal library of questionable erudition that becomes embedded, using questionable values to support their argument.

The most distinguished opponent of such arguments (Ludwig Wittgenstein 1889-1951&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1203018418|title=Tractatus logico-philosophicus|last=author.|first=Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 1889-1951,|isbn=978-1-78527-656-9|oclc=1203018418}}&lt;/ref&gt;) proposed that language logic was a necessary tool to dismantle the convoluted ‘mind’ propositions that have permeated the philosophical hierarchy. Those ‘mind’ propositions only served to construct meaningless concepts as to ‘who we are’. Although he gained prominence in philosophical circles, his work was directed more toward academia.

In his Tractatus Logico – Philosophies he quotes: “The limits of my language mean the limits of my world - What cannot be shown cannot be said”, and “There can be no representation of the logic of facts”.

Having a belief in mystical truths that were inexpressible, his statements above are indicative of the embedded language of dichotomies. His form of ‘knowledge’ ‘philosophy’ gave (without question) the concept of ‘mind’ credence to formulate its own logic to clarify its own form of reasoning.

Wittgenstein, by not recognizing within the language the distortion that dichotomies create, was unable to approach the evident constructs of true meaning that lie within the interdependent relationship of absolutes, and their constant existence. Evidential reality is all there ever is. The ‘meaning’ or ‘knowledge’ that becomes evident in reality is ‘commonly’ accepted and used accordingly.

To repeat, the evidential reality is all there ever is. In that regard, the exponential drive toward ‘difficulties’ amassed a historical discourse of misinformation, which is used to address the very ‘difficulties’ created by spurious value systems. In effect, dealing with ‘nothingness’.

We have managed to turn ‘truth’ into a problem, into a difficulty, when the truth is simplicity itself. An oxymoron of gargantuan proportions.

This contemporary malady solidifies a diversion that discounts the reality of continuous progression. Progression in which ‘common sense’ is a motivating principle that promotes human evolution. The consistency of specific principles allows us to achieve correspondence.

Real knowledge is not a fabrication of convoluted prescriptions. It is the ‘coalescence’ of ‘what is’ to internal reality. That established, evolutionary progress is assured, and reality factors are recognized for what they are.

True meaning can best be attained by the interaction and interdependence of natural principles and so recognized as such. That meaning which contains all the specific components of reality is experienced as ‘true knowledge’, measure by measure by anyone.

That form of ‘experience’ is not a ‘mind’ process, but a very natural state of realization consistent with our level of action, reaction, and interaction.

A correct and pragmatically form of knowledge-seeking foundational answers to perennial questions would seek a direct passage to our ‘commonality’, the beacon that offers guidance. Consider the quantity and quality of knowledge we all pursue that has meaning and usefulness.

To posit the notion that there are no dichotomies is a cataclysmic proposition that seems nonsensical to established embedded constructs of knowledge. Constructs of knowledge that offer only confusion, and continually pose impossible questions, whose absence would provide clarity.

That absence of confusion would dispel and dismantle a reality of ‘mind’, which functions on its own selection of problems.

To address reality as having only absolute constructs dispels the confusion of duality and its inability to ‘use’ relativism in its proper fashion.

All general absolutes contain specific principles representing facts; the essential properties that confirm reality. This reference directs the observer to observe, and go beyond the restrictions of a ‘mind’ governed by dualism, monism, or any other spurious form of philosophy that distorts the very reality it exists in.

Where there are no dichotomies, all we can deal with is ‘what is’, and the logic of ‘necessary factors’ thus destroying the possible inclusion of anything described as a “paradox”.

= Pure Experience. =
To design a chair our brain requires to exercise the qualities and properties necessary for its manifestation e.g., strength, balance , design, functionality etc, etc.

A chair, is a chair, is a chair, the product of innate knowledge.  

If we did address any tentative agreement that ‘I’  is a ‘fiction’, could not our ‘conscious experience’ of that ‘fiction’ be just as fictitious. It would follow that whatever perception of Reality we experience must also be fiction.

Our contention, as always, has been that ’I think - therefore I am’ by Descartes is the greater fiction for reasons already explained.

To consider to whatever degree that we can function on the basis of a fictional ’I’ precludes any attempt to honestly address ’who we are’.


Saying that ‘conscious perspectives’ are limited and inconsistent with apparent reality are quite correct. It then brings into question the validity of ‘conscious perspectives’ to guide us toward ‘what is’.

The entangled fictional relationship between ‘mind’ ‘I’ ‘thought’ ‘consciousness’ impose formidable barriers to that which is evident.


Base observations on the construct and interpretation of what ‘knowledge’ is.

Human experience is limited by its mechanical interpretation of Reality, especially ‘cogito ergo sum’.

If everything that is, is its own measure of Reality (the differences) then everything must be measured, at whatever level, as being that part of the whole with all principles intact, making that measure available to be experienced as the Absolute. With absolutes there is no antagonism.

We cannot exist or experience anything without a Universal complementary source of identification.

It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality.

Not experiencing Reality as it is, is equivalent to not experiencing ‘who we are’, and is indeed the only human source and validity of truth, although Descartes held the erroneous belief that such knowledge was independent of any experience. That belief we suspect was some form of impetus toward his ’cogito ergo sum’.                  

Knowledge and experience are co-existing ‘necessary factors’

So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), therefore any ‘knowledge’ derived from experience will be incomplete.

Clearly it is the quality of ‘knowledge’ that one experiences (e.g., Archimedes) that leads to a common certainty of evidence realised through direct experience.

That quality of knowledge can be available when we observe directly the activity of drivers at traffic lights with the knowledge that it is a very common activity recognized internationally. In every case we can logically pronounce the premises to be true, therefore we have a conclusion that is also true - whether that conclusion is defined as Mutual Agreement, or Common Acceptance, it does not matter - they are mutual principles.

It is this form of logical knowledge of innate principles that is the precursor to knowledge of the Absolute logically defined within all reason for ‘what it is’ .

Where the basic premise is true that there is ‘Mutual Agreement’ between a multiplicity of drivers at traffic lights then we can with certainty conclude that the same principles exist Universally.

We can also draw concrete conclusions, and establish knowledge, that it is not ‘absolutely necessary’ to experience by observation the multiplicity of drivers conforming to their particular road code. We have already established that knowledge.

Knowledge and experience are not separate philosophical theories. One cannot be without the other..


Everyone has the potential to experience the Absolute paradoxically, in part or in whole.

Everything that is, must contain the properties of the Absolute, otherwise nothing could be.


To ask questions about human experience based solely and inevitably on our interpretation of ‘knowledge’, and co-existing with that, its particular meaning in human existence.

So long as we can only deal with our conscious interpretation as representing Reality then we derive functionally less meaning than we are entitled to.

When we see other humans consistently using levers to open crates then we can recognize a ‘social intelligence’ operating which equates to understanding that is not based on opinion, but is a clear expression of human activity that has correspondence.

All of the principles involved in that experience can coalesce to provide that form of Reality that requires no interpretation. It becomes recognizable knowledge. How we understand that knowledge is through the realisation and identification of the principles involved, which become immediately transparent.

The Absolute could be categorised as a knowledge experience that encompasses all and everything. Whatever is manifest is that measure (complete in itself) of the Whole with all its principles intact.


Where there are at least two actions that are identical we can reach a common-sense conclusion that a definitive principle is operating. When that corresponds with innate knowledge then we have the complete cycle.

The definition itself is language opening the door to an experience of Reality. No one can know in isolation. An imaginary ‘I’ restricts any experience of who “we are”,  and is not a necessary part of human experience.  

Explaining experience beyond imaginary thought processes requires a definitive language that deals with the principles of Reality itself.

Pure experience.

The world-wide disposition that has no grounding in Nature and Reality becomes captive to any mythical fear that  offers a target to give some form of direction or stability.

There is nothing more simple than to make Reality transparent - its evidence abounds. We can pronounce the principle properties that provide guidelines to its existence whereby the reality is made apparent.


= Expansion. =


To address concerns on ‘negativity’.

Negativity is in essence the inability to establish a measure of Reality.

Mechanistic processes of denial are the attempt to understand and make transparent that which is apparently unexplainable, and resolve a condition whose energy is driven toward finding that core of affirmation.

The evolutionary principle from all available evidence is that human beings as a species progress. This seems a paradoxical contradiction to the embedded proposition that we can never know the ‘truth’.

The consequence of such a traditional premise is that denial and negativity both hold paramount positions.

We are conditioned to accept the premise that there is in fact no premise that will enable us to go beyond presently accepted norms of experience.

We are conditioned to accept that the ‘truth’ is inexpressible.

The evolution of the human species is constantly subject to contemporary ingrained social habits, which give some kind of credence to that particular point of existence. Indirect conscious interpretation classifies itself as a solid perspective to govern and justify human activity, which in many historical ways has proved disastrous.                   

Our continued intention is to expose detrimental barriers to the realisation of ‘who we are’, and in that process establish a smoother, more realistic approach to ‘who we are’.

The Archimedes legacy.

When we establish knowledge of something that exists through a multiplicity of experience and evidence, then from every reasonable standard we can establish that it is true, ergo that which is true is Absolute.

The principle of leverage is well grounded in social intelligence, and our natural knowledge of that does not need erudite explanations of its presence, nor any ‘conscious interpretation’ to realise its existence, or its practice. Evolution eventually removes restrictive passages to direct experience, the very purpose of evolution.

The principle of leverage is not a matter of opinion, it is the realisation of actuality and our continued ‘more reasonable’ response each time the principle is applied.

Children learn to speak their language primarily through experience without any direct, or indirect conscious interpretation, and so, universally we ‘know’ the most powerful means to communicate. Were we to move 50 miles in any compass direction from the town we live in, there is a certain predictability that we will meet others who speak the same English language that we do. If in that experience we find that these premises we have drawn about our travels were true, then the conclusion we would come to in particular, is that when we communicate we make known what we know.

………………………………………………………….

                                        
'''Please note the date:'''

'''Oct 2005.'''

I am offering up this older material below to provide insight as to the progression of this work. There may well be some duplication to date. During this period my wife and I worked in collaboration to ensure an equality of experience.

= Stepping Stones 1. =
There is nothing other than what is – there is no hidden Reality that we need to seek, it embraces us at every turn.

The Archimedes experience is the pure experience of Ultimate Reality, which provides indisputable knowledge. Reality is the source of complete knowledge, it is the constant source that has provided us with all human development, from the writings of William Shakespeare, to the computer development of Bill Gates. What they have produced is now an evident part of our reality that we can engage in. We can experience ‘mutual agreement’ through epiphanies, insights, enlightenment , understanding, Eureka moments etc, they are all one and the same.

Implicit within the macrocosm is the microcosm – it cannot be otherwise. The more we conform within the microcosm the more we begin to appreciate that Reality contains everything, and that we can realise through experience its manifestation. Each Eureka moment is that personal point of experience that connects us with the Truth. The principle of leverage was always available, it took an Archimedes to explain it to us.

Each Eureka moment necessarily engages with the reality of complete knowledge, and utilises its share at that time. When we have complete knowledge of who we are in that personal moment, then we understand that these, egalitarian properties, are rightfully shared by everyone and that we have experienced that which is infinite. It does not mean that the process of evolution is over – it has only just begun. It does mean that we can no longer continue coasting through this existence in a near comatose state.

If there is a hypnotic fixation in holding the principles of Reality as being separate, and different, then the potential realisation of their immediate unity, and communion, becomes problematic. Knowledge, and experience are one and the same – they are not different!!

Experience = Immediate knowledge of basic reality that is factually correct, and that we can reasonably use.

Knowledge = Immediate experience of secure, and accurate information that is constantly stable, and sustains principles.

Reality = Complete Knowledge. As the microcosmic part of the total macrocosm we are immersed in reality. The real question should be, ‘how can one not know Reality, or ‘who we are’.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the bank, and deal with money transactions.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the supermarket and exchange money for goods.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can send our children to school to enhance their education.

Evident proof is validation of what is – it is not a matter of anyone’s opinion, nor is it an assumption of ours.

Neither do we assume, or offer any opinion, on the Universal Reality that there is ‘mutual agreement’ that we need air, food, and water to sustain us.

Evident proof is also the basis for the mechanics toward realisation of ‘complete knowledge ‘ of who we are. Reality can be realised through concentration on its basic principles.

We use language to express our understanding of who we are.It is relatively easy, it is reasonable, and it is responsible.

We convey through language our measure of intelligence, and to the best of our ability conform to the basic rule of communication – ‘we make known’

Implicit within that exercise is ‘mutual agreement’. We may differ in some specifics, but we meet the basic obligation of communication – ‘we make known’, and always we progress to some degree.

Simultaneity is one of the constant principles that we all share and they come from Here, Now, the Present, where they have always been. Everything is. Our being is always engaged in the present, and we each have an obligation to understand our relationship to what is.

The present is the only point of contact we can ever have with Reality.

To some degree or another, each one of us is directly connected to Reality (we do not have any choice in the matter), and we can potentially evaluate ‘what is’ through the utilisation, and examination of factual reality.

We are the microcosmic part of that Universal Macrocosm, and because we already have that innate information it is a matching process when we have a Eureka moment, an epiphany, an understanding beyond question. Nothing enters our minds - we already know! Everyone has innate knowledge of the principle of leverage. It requires correct examination of ‘what is’ for realisation to occur. It is then a relief to have ‘mutual agreement’ on the things we would wish to make transparent to others.

To use a traffic analogy, it is evident that there is ‘en masse’ mutual agreement when we know to drive off when the traffic light turns green. Mutual agreement is translated into people obeying traffic rules (otherwise chaos).

Two cars, two drivers, sitting directly alongside each other at traffic lights, discuss their understanding of their Road Code in this particular position, and what they should do.

When the light turns green there are a myriad of principles that apply when they drive off simultaneously. They have both demonstrated their ‘complete knowledge’ of the significance of the green light from this perspective.

There is Mutual Agreement.

There is Predictable Conformity.

There is Common Ground.

Each one complements the other.

They are both right.

One more remove:

From an outsider’s point of view – they both know! The green light could be categorised as a Eureka moment, it sets in play all the above principles, whether the drivers are aware of it or not. From the perspective of two outside objective observers who know the traffic rules, if asked, did the two drivers at the lights obey the rules – the answer would be yes, there would be mutual agreement. They have complete knowledge of this particular circumstance concerning drivers, and green lights.

Could it be that certain schools of thought are curtailed by a questionable refusal to recognize what is, and have a preference for creating a difficulty where none exists! No one can examine what isn’t! There is no such thing as ‘nothing’. Something is – what is it?

A Scottish engineer functions on the same principles as an Italian Pope. Because Archimedes was prominent as a mathematician, his realisation of the principle of leverage, and his understanding of the difference in water displacement between silver and gold was widely reported. This does not mean that realisation of ‘what is’ is an exclusive experience. As said previously Archimedes did not realise something new – it has always existed, and all forms of life would have utilised the leverage principle to some degree or another (watch a bird build a nest). At that time there were probably many thousands of people who had some understanding of the principle, but Archimedes was the one who made statements about it.

As in any Eureka moment, we can experience infinity and who we are. It is mutual agreement (an understanding) between the part, and the whole. It is when the principles are in unison Eureka!

Reality is there to be examined, and experienced, it is not separate from us, nor should we try to make it so.

= Stepping stones 2. =
Knowledge is not conditional by the activities of what may be called ‘thought’ or ‘consciousness processes’. Real knowledge is that which is available to all, and to be shared by all. It cannot be contained by the ‘experiencer’ and then not ‘known’ by the accident of experience. It is the actual innate experience itself which conclusively establishes the truth. It can only deal in the truth which is its modus operandi of dissemination.
For me to say that ‘everything is’, is a statement of fact which cannot be denied, and an intellectual dishonesty to attempt to deny the evidence by philosophical machinations. Hostility toward the truth leads inevitably toward attempted negation - looking for nothingness!

‘Being here’ demands its own recognition - attempting to deny it is simply perverse. Knowledge is the realisation of ‘what is’..
Rene Descartes ‘I think - therefore I am ‘did no service to human evolution, or education. It established in Western societies especially, the culture of individualism, with the precursor that so-called ‘thought’ was the inward evidence for existence, and for the following unfortunate claim that we have a ‘mind’, or to use the euphemism, a soul!

Experience is true knowledge. When that experience marries up with its innate counterpart then recognition is realised (cognition). In simple terms, a light goes on in the brain.

There can be no real knowledge without truth. All thought qualifies experience and attempts to reduce truth to near nothingness which is a widespread conditional activity. We cannot manufacture knowledge, or the principles which are its properties. No matter the amount of correct information anyone can ingest, it does not become knowledge until there is tripartite coalescence between inherent knowledge - ingested correct information - and ‘what is’. Then we truly recognize that which is Absolute. Within Nature we have the distinct privilege of evolving in a Universe that can only recognize the attributes of social cohesion. Knowledge is not anyone’s personal possession. Whatever measure of experience we may have of it, it is only available as a Universal sharing experience to be beneficially used.

Human activity whereby we witness people using tools for leverage, or drivers at traffic lights obeying the rules of the road, are observable markers that contain the properties for understanding our own reality. Unless seen for what they are, they are only mechanical platitudes with an equally mechanical response. We could rightly claim that that at least is some response, but of no real value.

The natural process that operates when we see that which is innate, overrides any erudite explanation from an academic base however intellectual its original source. ‘Thinking’ for oneself cannot make judgments about a ‘natural’ experience.

When we see human duplicate functions in operation then we are in communion, and at another level we recognize who we are.

When we actively see the activities of the human brain in action we are not dealing with any internal ‘will - o’ - the wisp’ that no one can ever experience. We exercise that prerogative (human activity) at every moment in time, but quite apparently without that focus of attention that denotes realistic recognition.

To seek identity in sectarian, or secular belief systems to overcome the contemporary feeling of loss of identity leads to the acceptance of anything that offers some form of stability. That is then used to strengthen that which is euphemistically addressed as the ’self’. To retain that security the acceptance of information transmitted throughout generations, is absorbed into the culture, and defended to the death against those who would question that belief system.

The greatest knowledge we can ever have is our own and it has the potential to transcend all else and provide insight into infinity.

The most tragic human condition is the lack of experience of identity in a multiplicity of identities in which we all share. The real problem is not one of ‘identity’, but a lack of ’communion’.

Whether we like it or not, whether we are aware of it or not, the principle of ’communion’ must always exist to some degree for evolution to proceed.

It is within the experience of that principle that we understand the fallaciousness of that much heralded ‘self’ which draws down so much energy in an attempt to establish itself as a reality.

Within positive language structure possibilities (no dichotomies), there should be the disposition toward the realisation that our relationships to cognize into ‘communion’ must be addressed as specifically dependent. Social attempts to be ‘independent’ are the very remove from reality and signify reduction attempts toward nothingness.

Adherence to, and the cultivation of faith and belief systems give little elbow room for any factual occurrence to be anything other than a comparison to the myths that are held.

The cultural and educational socialisation of generations of children must carry with it, its historical belief systems that overwhelm the natural instincts.

Observe an animal out of its natural habitat and locked in a cage for its entire life.

It would be a salutary exercise if we could dispense with the term ‘mind’ from our vocabulary and magnify the use of the word brain to promote a realistic discussion on ‘who we are’.

My action of levering open a wooden crate and knowledge of it is one and the same. Our remarkable brain functions like that, the purpose of a brain, the natural repository of innate knowledge.

The assertion of principles is critical to avoid all activity being submerged by questioning their very existence, and being unable to see directly.

It would be a rarity today, if anyone using a lever to pry open a wooden crate would have the same enormity of experience that Archimedes had, nor the need to make pronouncements about it. It has all been done prior to our awareness of its value with the accompanying data attached. Our brain knows the value of a lever and activates our body accordingly when needed.

It could be categorised as evolutionary transmission.

The observance of someone prying open a crate with a lever, or drivers conforming to the road code at traffic lights, is a function of the brain in action, not a mythical entity in a singular locality that denies its own senses. When the brain is not burdened by distorted belief systems it then has the potential to experience ’that which is’, which is always constant.

When we understand the function of a lever, or the presence of traffic lights, then we can activate the principles involved because we already know how!

The negative impact in the use of dichotomies in language lies in their distraction from the truth, as our brain processes the words we use in relation to Reality. The tendency to attempt to separate inherent truths through the words we use disrupts that natural correspondence necessary for identification.

A chair, is a chair, is a chair.

= Stepping stones 3. =
Where principles are concerned the constituent linkages in language are identity markers to that which is real - reference points. Without dichotomies there is no separation, or ambiguity between what we experience, and ‘what is’.

Philosophy in its attempt to address something through denial is an elementary confusion. To say that that is a chair, and then attempt to deny it invoking philosophical theorems concerning the human ability to experience it, is a severe contradiction on the existence of the object , and the observer.

When this form of contradiction is then taken as a constant, it then precludes any common-sense and definitive answer to the existence of a chair.

'''For philosophers, George Orwell’s ’to see what is in front of one’s nose needs a constant struggle’ would be apt.'''

Real concepts cannot exist in any mythology, therefore all that we experience is inevitably the truth that is there to beproperly categorised for what it is. The proper use of language in this context will identify whatever it is to correspond with present reality. Misuse of language (dichotomies and mythologies) leads only to the acceptance of a fractured state where nothing is whole and represents confusion. The dissipation of the supposed problem is never realised.

Fiction has been elevated to the status of an accepted reality. Very early evolutionary physical dangers allowed the development of fictions that offered some form of imaginary protection beyond limited physical ability. That contemporary humanity endorses the mythology of ‘I’ is testament to the psychological fear that still exists and requires its proper recognition.

Emphasis must be placed in the relationship between language and reality for understanding to proceed. The persistence of dichotomies has their own persistent confusion which then promotes a false reality through misleading information.

Microcosm and macrocosm are one and the same in a Universe where ‘everything is’. Isolated viewpoints are exactly that, and are unable to view the expanse in which we are encompassed.

We must learn to view reality through both ends of the same telescope. When we understand the extensive scope of ‘truth’, then we know that its values and properties do not change - which relates to ‘completeness’. Philosophical, ideological, and intellectual endeavour , try to shape the structure of ‘what is’ based on pre-dispositional knowledge, which can only ask the same questions, and look for the same answers.

Not to experience that which is absolute or whole is the normal result of the confusion of language which has no correspondence to that which is real.

To discuss with a philosopher the possibility that ’mind’ per se does not exist, and to dissolve it as a concept would place them in a realistic position, would indeed be a difficult proposition. The strength of that difficulty lies in another imaginary concept, that that ‘mind’ represents ’I’, and it is anathema to that fiction to consider its own demise!

= Stepping stones 4. =
There are no dichotomies.

Everything is, and everything that is, is complete, everything is an Absolute complete Reality. You are experiencing your measure of that reality. It cannot be otherwise that you are experiencing that measure of completeness. When we come to terms with it we have the innate capacity to see the Absolute in a grain of sand. That is knowledge. Belief in dichotomies is the mythical barrier to that particular experience - which is only denial, supported by erudite protestations that human construct dichotomies exist.

At a mechanical level Intelligence and Stupidity appear to be separate identifiable conditions, and they appear to be antagonistic. Stupidity is in Reality a measure of the Intelligence which is always constant. If someone was in a state of mythical utter and complete stupidity we would not attempt any form of emancipation from that condition.

We know that that is misguided and proceed with techniques to advance intelligence.

Consider the proposition that there are no dichotomies, and within that possibility all questions become irrelevant. Presuming that there are no dichotomies allows the process of establishing ‘necessary factors’ to proceed, and allows each measure of wholesomeness to be realised.

Experience is the criteria for knowledge.

Some Reality experiences were simply transposed into particular belief systems and elevated into a pseudo spiritual dimension, or a philosophical conundrum.

Where there is a belief in a divisive fiction (dichotomies) there is automatic mechanistic restriction to that which is Real.

There is a capacity beyond ego and intellect which can commune with ‘what is’, and recognize its properties. Reality is constant.

Within the accepted comparative framework there is the view of principles as having different divisive categories e.g., as above, Intelligence and Stupidity, and classify them within ‘thought’ structure as dichotomies and give credence to them as being an antagonistic reality.

The consequence of that, is, that one is always a remove from recognizing the structural properties of immediate existence.

Any construct of knowledge necessary to evaluate ’what is’ will address the properties (principles) that are the constituent constant markers available in that which is the microcosm and the macrocosm. That identity (the Absolute) is found in any sphere of Reality.Everything is - and everything that is, must be experienced for what it is, and not for what anyone denies it to be.

There is no mythical human construction that can deny ’what is”.

Everything is - without dichotomies. To repeat, we do not have the ability to create ‘nothingness’ - ‘that which is’ has no imaginary comparative human construct. To attempt to deal with such constructs, and give credence to them is always the denial of ‘what is’, and adherence to ‘thought’ processes whose only purpose is to cement that activity. Indeed realising that the concepts of dichotomies are human mythical constructs, denying true perspective, is the beginning of insight.

The dissipation of such processes through addressing the principles of Reality allows us the potential to experience directly ‘what is’, in simple terms -the truth!

Intelligence is a ‘necessary factor’. Addressing stupidity is a denial of reality at whatever level we find it.

Intelligence and Stupidity are not antagonistic, they are one and the same principle with measurable degrees of existence. Only from a comparative framework standpoint is credence given to any mythical form.

The above observation is not negating the process, it is questioning the markers which evolve into imaginary separation (trapped in a comparative framework mythology). That particular process can and does create a false mythical reality that appears divisive. We cannot exist within a divisive reality! Reality must be complete for us to recognize its existence.

Where there are no dichotomies within the premise that ‘everything is’, there exists no antagonistic position. The distinction between human constructs of positive and negative are matters of mythical perspective wherein no experience of the Absolute is available. It is because the human ’mind’ per se places its own construction on its immediate experience, and must have its particular interpretation based on what it considers ’knowledge’. There is a difference between ’mechanical knowledge’, and ’pure knowledge’.

From the mechanical knowledge standpoint which can only deal ‘in indirect conscious interpretation’, it is quite correct to say that that form of knowledge is incomplete, and it always will be.

Pure knowledge experienced via our brain knows no separation, nor antagonism, and is responsible for our ability to recognize the actions of others who may pry open wooden crates with a lever, or drive off uniformly at traffic lights. Within that cohesive activity it precludes ’a matter of opinion’ and by themselves can become subjects of a pure knowledge experience. To repeat, it is a form of ’communion’ with ’what is’, and available to all.

Where drivers at traffic lights universally conform to their particular road code, and where universally there is a language which identifies their activity as Mutual Agreement, or any other logical definition, we can concur with the common-sense conclusion that we have universally established that within language and common activity, there is indeed a truth formed.

The coalescence between universal language and universal activity are the logical constructs that create civilizations. There is a vast social network of common activity that solidifies the logic into an honest and persuasive conclusion that confirms innate common principles –knowledge.

= Stepping stones 5. =


The Art of making sense of everything.


How to understand principles.

# Principle. A fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a system of belief or behaviour or for a chain of reasoning.
# All principles are interdependent, interconnected, and infinite.
# Each one is dependent on the other two.

Examples of a principles template and how to define them without dichotomies.


Communication. Truth. Standard. Proof. Express. Contribute. Mutual. Direction. Advance. Comfort. Organize. Certain. Immediate. Interest. 

Improve. Present. Constructive. Gain. Trust. Progress. Source. Knowledge.

Basic. Original Reality. Awareness.Freedom. Purpose. Connect. Understand.

Support. Peace. Cause. Unity. Ability. Rights. Honest. Discover. Positive. Energy. Balance. Good. Courage. Willing.  Control. Use. Association.  Observe.

Reason. Easy. Wealth. Simple. Law. Increase. Order. Flow.Co-operation. Exact.

Quality. Accuracy. Strength. Responsible. Operating. Creative. Measure. Recognition. Accept. Constant. Obligation. Include. Dependence. Relationship. Value. Success. Principle. Equality. Stable. Share. Love. 

Sustenance. Action. Identity. Intelligence. Education. Secure. Facts. Agreement. Information. For. Rules.Clear. Yield.


Example:


Success = Securing facts 

               = Responsible co-operation

              = Constructive knowledge  

So success by definition is : Securing facts through constructive knowledge and cooperating  responsibly.

All definitions of success from your template are infinite. You will find your own suitable definition.            

==== There are no dichotomies! ====


Any principle is correctly defined by any two other principles. You create a new language of Absolutes. Using conjunctions you can write your own book.


The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232

Amen to that!


“One is not born, but rather becomes a woman”

Simone de Beauvoir.

“Time does not change us. It just unfolds us”

Max Frisch.

We experience ourselves our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us.

Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future.


= Who we are. =
  It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality for what it is..

  For anyone to say that ‘everything is’ is a simple linguistic absolute that no amount of ‘more reasonable’ requests (above) can deny. Those requests only appear to be governed by the difficulties of ‘mental complexities’, and embedded ideologies. To accept that ‘everything is’ as an absolute, is a realistic basis to establish any reality, and comprises the basis for reason to be activated. If there is ‘nothing’, nothing can be achieved. Within that which is Absolute there are no dichotomies. Therefore there are no antagonistic positions available. Everything that is, is a measure of the Absolute.  We are always in the present, everyone and everything. Instant elementary ‘knowledge’ which we all share, and must admit to. In being alive, we do not have the ability to not be here, and we do not have the ability to not know!

To have a problem in addressing what Truth and Knowledge are, to the point of denying their existence, then that problem exists well below the scale of Reality. To repeat knowledge is not the proprietary right of any individual, it is enshrined in the principle of agreement that we mutually exercise to establish its own reality.

The reality of experience is not, nor ever will be, a personal possession that we can have and hold. Its reality becomes more alive when we see the same activity being practised by others. Then we know we are sharing that reality, and that experience. We  cannot &quot;have&quot; the principles that exist, but when we undrestand them then we are obliged to use them with integrity. That form of integrity in any language, is an added foundation stone to any belief system

Mechanistic ‘I’ has no concept or understanding of ‘pure knowledge’. Only when we break free of the myth that some clarity becomes apparent, and we have the opportunity to engage with what is real.


Philosophy it appears to me is constrained by individual ‘thought’ processes, which (without experience) cannot escape from that individuality. Those ‘thought’ processes conjure up a human history of inflexible, and impossible propositions which only serve to protect that individuality.

Descartes ‘cogito ergo sum’ has compounded the difficulties by strengthening the incorrect premise of a false individuality.

‘I’ is a phantom consciousness much like a phantom pain experienced after a limb is amputated. The brain registers the pain signifying that something should be there. Likewise our brain has that same relationship with Nature and Reality. It is analogous to our brain dealing with a ‘phantom reality’ knowing that something is missing but is continuing to evolve to establish the whole. There exists a ‘phantom chasm’ between our brain and Reality and an understanding of its properties. We are robbed of real meaning.

Evidence, recognition, and the truth are the principles it uses to reform.

Within their structure is the meaning of reforms.

Nature does not impose any morality on us, the principles implied in morality are there for us to understand and use. Our brain has the capacity, once reality is correctly examined, to recognize ‘that which is’.

Once realised it becomes embedded.

That ‘phantom consciousness’ is an experience removed from its proper environment. It takes its proper place when we experience reality for ‘what it is’, which provides the totality of meaning.

True experience allows us entry to the quality of knowledge that is a continuous reality.

So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), any ‘knowledge’ derived from that experience will be incomplete.


That form of philosophical negative conclusion can come down to not believing that Reality exists (a chair is not a chair, is not a chair etc,), or that our experience of ourselves and others is real, and discount any other form of knowledge that threatens that belief.

There is an intellectual dishonesty in denying the existence of principles.

Hostility towards the truth leads inevitably to negativity. Being here demands, not denial, but the right to be recognized.


We are the recipients of a ubiquitous communication system – making known. We can only understand that which we know. We make known all the time.

Knowledge of Reality – Truth – the Absolute is a collective inclusive experience of the principles we share, and never the property of any individual. To ‘know’ ‘who we are’ is an inclusive experience of the principles involved. Never ‘cogito ergo sum’.  

Philosophers in investigating the nature of knowledge and the Universe, firmly established for themselves that the source of reason and logic was located in a mythical concept ‘the mind’. From the wrong basis evolved elaborate and metaphysical constructions which removed the investigations further, and further, from the truth.

To comprehend the material world, and give it credibility, the recognition of implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct a language that provides that form of recognition.

Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects is misguided by the injection of a mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it.

That erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound Reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion, is compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every human view available.

We cannot manufacture knowledge that leads to a mechanistic understanding of ‘what is’ , nor the principles which are its properties – however much dogma is practised. We can only aspire to relate to ‘necessary factors’ that are the implicit fundamentals of existence.

For me to use a lever to open a crate is a form of communion with Archimedes through the principle he enunciated. It is now not ‘necessary’ for me to go through the same experience as Archimedes to establish that ‘necessary factor’ or ‘principle’. It is now common-place, and common-sense to utilise the principle.

The extract below provides some explanation of the brain processes in action Universally, and coincides with any reasoning on the observance of the leverage principle, and the actions of motorists conforming to the Road Code wherever traffic lights exist.


''The right-to-left shift of mental control looked increasingly like a universal phenomenon, capturing the essence of every learning process on every time scale, from hours to years. An individual faced with a truly novel situation or problem tackles it mostly with the right hemisphere. But once the situation becomes familiar and is mastered, the dominant role of the left hemisphere becomes evident. It looked like the empowering patterns capturing the essence of the situations (or rather the whole class of similar situations) were, once formed, stored in the left hemisphere. (The Wisdom Paradox. Professor Elkhonon Goldberg. P202)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vandermeulen|first=Jo|date=2008-08|title=Verstand komt met de jaren|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf03077135|journal=Neuropraxis|volume=12|issue=4|pages=137–139|doi=10.1007/bf03077135|issn=1387-5817}}&lt;/ref&gt;''


= Limitations. =


However limited our view of connectedness is, or however tenuous the reality our experience is, ‘everything is’, and everything is connected. Innate knowledge and the fundamental nature of Man is the prior source of knowledge that seeks and identifies that connectedness.

Attempting to address what we don’t know is that mythical infinite regress toward that parallel mythical ‘nothingness’.

To always address what we know establishes Reality. To establish knowledge of principles, start from ‘we are here’. The natural principles within the diversity of human culture and activity when recognized as mutual ‘necessary factors’ will have the effect of enhancing and directing vital energy toward the very process of  the communion we seek, and the gradual penetration of a reality that always exists.

Knowledge of Reality is not ‘different’ in other locales. The fundamental principles are the same.

Addressing ‘what is’ instead of denying ‘what is’ is the basic construction of real knowledge. 

Within the structure of the Absolute we are all the same with a magnificent differential in our expression of the principles of necessity. That expression is our ongoing effort toward its own experience which gives it life and meaning.

That experience in turn exposes us to an immediate Reality that is in communion with the fundamental structure of our being.

All that we can contribute toward that is 50%, the other half is in our momentary relationship with Reality – then we know! That form of knowledge is always available through that form of experience, and it always comes in the form of confirmation which reforms.

Until that experience our prior condition appears mechanistic, without direction, or understanding.

Reality, life, is not mechanistic. We are the recipients of innate principles with the constant potential to experience those principles in action (Archimedes et al).

Dogmas, ideologies, are the restrictive practices used to blur the recognition of principles operating to a level that understanding of that common and constant activity is virtually denied. Our natural capital (principles) is degraded to the point that their factual evidence is reduced even to the point that they are categorised as a ‘perceptual illusion”.

We can trust facts 2+2=4. Simplicity has its own majesty.

Anything circumscribed by reason requires control of our emotions.

To comprehend the material world, bring it alive, and give it credibility, the recognition of its implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct the language that provides evidence of that Reality.

Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects, is misinformed by the injection of that mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it.

The erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion’, is paradoxically compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every other human view available, thus it then makes its own sense, form and justification to the illusion! The evident question we must ask, ‘how does a ‘mind’ conclude that ‘immaterialism’ exists universally? Surely it is a simple but massive contradiction in terms. If there is nothing there but ‘perceptual illusion’, how can you attribute it to other ‘minds’.

The oxymoronic effect of narcissism is that it is the very denial of ‘who we are’. Man is not composed of an overwhelming self-love. That mythical embedded belief cannot consider the possibility of underlying principles that are the real life force of Man in his relationship with Reality.

The truth of that, is that humankind (in spite of itself), evolves towards its own Reality.

The only human values that exist, lie in Man’s recognition of the principles involved that provide human direction.

Our ‘material brain’ is a product of Nature's evolutionary process, and has innate within it the same principles that exist in all matter.

That ‘which is’, is the truth, and our brain evolves to process that at every level, and we constantly manifest that in every action we take – whether we like it or not.

The fundamental similarities between human beings is that we are not only evidently human, but that we also function and construct societies that we recognize as beneficial to our immediate well-being. All social function is determined by our brain capacity and its ability to postulate the relationship it has with Universal principles.


= Illusion. =


Considering that we can contradict things is an illusion. We can never contradict the truth.

We do not have the ability to create proprietary constructs of reality. That ‘which is’, can only make its basic properties transparent to us through direct experience. Imaginary concepts must in the end conform to a measurable construct that we can identify.

Within the structure of any philosophical theory of ‘knowledge’ it must contain the basic elements of truth at all times, or there is nothing!!

To say that ‘everything is’ is motivated by pure reason experience as an objective, and subjective reality and as an axiomatic grammatical premise that no amount of mental acrobatics can deny. We can only deal with ‘something’, whatever it may be. There is no metaphysical construct that can provide evidence that ‘nothing’ exists, outside a mythical mind.

Explaining experience beyond ‘thought’ processes requires a definitive language that deals with the reality itself.

We all Know. It is innate. The ‘difference’ between us is only the measure of the knowledge that is made manifest, and that knowledge continually proliferates.

The ‘individual perspective’, and the illusory ‘I’ which dominates, is the barrier to any relation to ‘what is’, and the malady of never experiencing the truth directly!   

Truth, knowledge, agreement are the abundant and embedded Absolutes that form the structure of human evolution. That we constantly utilise and improve on their use is evidence of their reality, and the material transparency within every social structure. The survival and proliferation of such realities should be the evidence to establish that ‘that which is’ is Absolute. 

When we focus our ‘perspective’, opinion, or a hypothetical consideration of a space, time, or identity to question a Universally accepted fact, it is hardly a categorical argument to dismiss that which is true as nonsensical. Any denial that 2+2=4 is a fundamental truth hardly takes into account that the reality of such basics are vital to the success of higher mathematics.

Unless the basics are continually correct, and evidently so, then no correct solutions could evolve. We know that within any basic structural ‘use’ that the calculation is correct. We commonly accept its correctness as an embedded reality. 

All forms of lower or higher mathematics would have the axiomatic principle of ‘correctness’ as their basis to extend from. Also, they would have as an axiom that the reverse is true. The 2+2=4 is, in its reality, the epitome of balance and construction. The 2+2 reality forms its correct conclusion when the principles of mathematics are propounded and they conform to transparent truth and arrive at 4. Only when it ‘adds up’, does it become a truth that we all recognize. Our greatest ignorance is taking for granted the proliferation of such truths through an ideological blinkered perspective. Because truth takes a commonplace form it is no less fundamental. Unless there is correct knowledge as to the existence of fundamental truth, that ‘which is’, goes unrecognised. That form of truth must be applicable to all. Truth exists in everything – it is an evidential reality. Searching for an esoteric truth is chasing shadows. Every truth is a ‘necessary factor’, and fundamental to our existence.

Because of the imposed limited perspectives (via education, ideology, beliefs) that which is evidently true, and transparent, is delegated to a position of simple practicality with conditions placed on it which further deletes its substance, and we have the awful predilection of conforming to the attempted destruction of that which is true. Do we have a problem with seeing something, which is correct, as also being true?

All truths are fundamental. They are not subject to attempted denial because of any diminished realisation at any point in time. Where there is reasonable evidence of balance, equity, and agreement we can conclude that a truth exists. Once innate information of that truth becomes transparent, it becomes an embedded useful human utility that must have some measure of fundamental truth as their starting point.

From any common-sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’.  That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right.

When the reality of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things.

The dematerialization of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism.

A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance etc.  However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality.  


= Human representation.
When we understand the validity and existence of principles in all things, it is easy to understand that ideological dogmas are never the foundation for real knowledge, or that direct experience of ‘what is’. Our real perspective is not some individualistic experience that confines us, it is that expanse in which we exist that offers us the view of that expanse. Everyone has the potential to go beyond their ‘apparent’ human perspective limitations. Shifting our sense of perception toward that which is basic, paradoxically extends the experience of that which is true.

Let general knowledge be directed toward the performance that identifies the measure of principles that are enacted. Therein lies the production of knowledge that offers a sustainable growth of that vital universal aspect of knowledge, where, reason and truth, can prevail. Any correct definition is language itself, opening the door to that reality experience which is critical.

Only when we know and experience that the same reality (with all its principles intact) exists for all of us can we then recognize the mythical distinctions that are taken as being real.

The majestic experience of that reality goes well beyond historical beliefs.

Exploring simple ‘necessities’ is not based on any sacred text, but the privilege of recognizing a sensible evolutionary path through life. Whatever may be in the future, is implicit in the material world now, and it has always been so.</text>
      <sha1>4dq915gxryec1qi6t9ubk2r08mo4gj5</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Draft:Sing free/Consonant intervals list (ear training)</title>
    <ns>118</ns>
    <id>285225</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2417913</id>
      <parentid>2410852</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:26:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Guy vandegrift moved page [[Sing free/Consonant intervals list (ear training)]] to [[Draft:Sing free/Consonant intervals list (ear training)]] without leaving a redirect</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15709" xml:space="preserve">TO DO
#Finish this page and post wiki sisterlink at [[w:List_of_pitch_intervals#List]]
#Record sister link but also mention need to change to ogg files of saw versus sine
#Go back to the audacity study of the perfect fifth (original files lost) using python to generate the signals.  I believe it was a 4 second signal with a drum to illustrate the beats.  It should also include the tritone, I think.

__TOC__
[[Draft:Sing_free/The_physics_of_music#new]] |  [[w:List_of_pitch_intervals#List]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
! cents
! name
|-
| 0
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | P1 (unison)
|-
| 100
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | S (semitone)
|-
| 200
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | T (tone)
|-
| 300
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | m3 (minor third)
|-
| 400
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | M3 (major third)
|-
| 500
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | P4 (fourth)
|-
| 600
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | TT (tritone)
|-
| 700
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | P5 (fifth)
|-
| 800
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | m6 (minor sixth)
|-
| 900
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | M6 (major sixth)
|-
| 1000
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | m7 (minor seventh)
|-
| 1100
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | M7 (major seventh)
|-
| 1200
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | P8 (octave)
|}
==table==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-size:90%; float:right; clear:right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;&quot;
|-
! Column || Legend
|-
| TET || bgcolor=&quot;#ffff78&quot; | '''12'''-tone equal temperament (12-tet, etc.).
|-
| rowspan=&quot;8&quot; | Limit || bgcolor=&quot;#EFCFCF&quot; | '''3'''-limit intonation, or ''Pythagorean''.
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CFEFCF&quot; | '''5'''-limit &quot;just&quot; intonation, or ''just''.
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CFEFEF&quot; | '''7'''-limit intonation, or ''septimal''.
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-size:100%;text-align:center;&quot;
|+style=&quot;background: black; color:white&quot;| Important musical intervals
! Cents || Note || Ratio ||Factors || Name || Play
!
|-
| {{right|294.13 }} ||  style = &quot;background: blue; color:white&quot;; rowspan=4 | '''m3'''
| 32 : 27 || 2&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; : 3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; ||  Pythagorean minor third || {{audio|help=no|Pythagorean minor third on C.mid|play}}
|&amp;minus;5.87
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFF78&quot;;
| '''300'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;3/12&lt;/sup&gt;''' || '''2&lt;sup&gt;1/4&lt;/sup&gt;''' || '''Equal-tempered minor third''' || {{audio|help=no|Minor third on C.mid|play}}
|'''0'''
|-
| {{right|301.85 }} 
| 25 : 21|| 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; : 3×7 ||Quasi-equal-tempered minor third||{{audio|help=no|Second septimal minor third on C.mid|play}}
|1.85
|-
| {{right|315.64 }} 
| 6 : 5 || 2×3 : 5 || Just minor third || {{audio|help=no|Just minor third on C.mid|play}}
|15.64
|-
| {{right|386.31 }} ||  style=&quot;background: red; color:white&quot;; rowspan = 5    | '''TBA'''
| 5 : 4 || 5 : 2&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;|| Just major third || {{audio|help=no|Just major third on C.mid|play}}
|&amp;minus;13.69
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFF78&quot;;
| '''400'''
|  2&lt;sup&gt;4/12&lt;/sup&gt; || 2&lt;sup&gt;1/3&lt;/sup&gt; || Equal-tempered major third || {{audio|help=no|Major third on C.mid|play}}
|'''0'''
|-
| {{right|407.82 }} 
|  81 : 64 || 3&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; : 2&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; ||  Pythagorean major third || {{audio|help=no|Pythagorean major third on C.mid|play}}
|7.82
|-
| {{right|427.37 }} 
|  32 : 25 || 2&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; : 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; ||  Just diminished fourth || {{audio|help=no|Just diminished fourth on C.mid|play}}
|27.37
|-
| {{right|435.08 }} 
|  9 : 7 || 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; : 7 ||Septimal major third || {{audio|help=no|Septimal major third on C.mid|play}}
|35.08
|-
| {{right|498.04 }} ||  style=&quot;background: blue; color:white&quot;; rowspan = 3    | '''TBA'''
|  4 : 3 || 2&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; : 3 ||  Pythagorean perfect fourth || {{audio|help=no|Just perfect fourth on C.mid|play}}
|&amp;minus;1.96
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFF78&quot;;
| '''500''' 
|  2&lt;sup&gt;5/12&lt;/sup&gt; || &amp;nbsp; || Equal-tempered fourth || {{audio|help=no|Perfect fourth on C.mid|play}}
|'''0'''
|-
| {{right|519.55 }} 
|  27 : 20 || 3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; : 2&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×5 ||  5-limit wolf fourth || {{audio|help=no|Wolf fourth on C.mid|play}}
|19.55
|-
| {{right|568.72 }} ||  style=&quot;background: red; color:white&quot;; rowspan = 7    | '''TBA'''
|  25 : 18 || 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; : 2×3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; ||  Just augmented fourth||{{audio|help=no|Classic augmented fourth on C.mid|play}}
|&amp;minus;31.28
|-
| {{right|582.51 }} 
|  7 : 5 || 7 : 5 || Lesser septimal tritone || {{audio|help=no|Lesser septimal tritone on C.mid|play}}
|&amp;minus;17.49
|-
| {{right|590.22 }} 
|  45 : 32 || 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×5 : 2&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;|| Just augmented fourth||{{audio|help=no|Just augmented fourth on C.mid|play}}
|&amp;minus;9.78
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFF78&quot;;
| '''600''' 
|  2&lt;sup&gt;6/12&lt;/sup&gt; || 2&lt;sup&gt;1/2&lt;/sup&gt;={{radic|2}} || Equal-tempered tritone || {{audio|help=no|Tritone on C.mid|play}}
|'''0'''
|-
| {{right|609.78 }} 
|  64 : 45 || 2&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; : 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×5 ||  Just tritone||{{audio|help=no|Just tritone on C.mid|play}}
|9.78
|-
| {{right|617.49 }} 
|  10 : 7 || 2×5 : 7 || Greater septimal tritone || {{audio|help=no|Greater septimal tritone on C.mid|play}}
|17.49
|-
| {{right|631.28 }} 
|  36 : 25 || 2&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; : 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; ||  Just diminished fifth || {{audio|help=no|Just diminished fifth on C.mid|play}}
|31.28
|-
| {{right|680.45 }} ||  style=&quot;background: blue; color:white&quot;; rowspan = 3    | '''TBA'''
|  40 : 27 || 2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;×5 : 3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;|| 5-limit wolf fifth || {{audio|help=no|Wolf fifth on C.mid|play}}
|&amp;minus;19.55
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFF78&quot;;
| '''700'''
|  2&lt;sup&gt;7/12&lt;/sup&gt; || 2&lt;sup&gt;7/12&lt;/sup&gt; || Equal-tempered perfect fifth || {{audio|help=no|Perfect fifth on C.mid|play}}
|'''0'''
|-
| {{right|701.96 }}
|  3 : 2 || 3 : 2 || Perfect fifth || {{audio|help=no|Just perfect fifth on C.mid|play}}
|1.96
|-
| {{right|764.92 }}  ||  style=&quot;background: red; color:white&quot;; rowspan = 5    | '''TBA'''
|  14 : 9 || 2×7 : 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;|| Septimal minor sixth || {{audio|help=no|Septimal minor sixth on C.mid|play}}
|&amp;minus;35.08;
|-
| {{right|772.63 }} 
| 25 : 16 || 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; : 2&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; ||  Just augmented fifth || {{audio|help=no|Just augmented fifth on C.mid|play}} }}
|&amp;minus;27.37
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFF78&quot;;
| '''800'''
|  2&lt;sup&gt;8/12&lt;/sup&gt; || 2&lt;sup&gt;2/3&lt;/sup&gt; || Equal-tempered minor sixth || {{audio|help=no|Minor sixth on C.mid|play}}
|'''0'''
|-
| {{right|813.69 }} 
|  8 : 5 || 2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; : 5 ||  Just minor sixth || {{audio|help=no|Just minor sixth on C.mid|play}}
|13.69
|-
| {{right|835.19 }} 
|  81 : 50 || 3&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; : 2×5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; ||  Acute minor sixth||{{audio|help=no|Acute minor sixth on C.mid|play}}
|35.19
|-
| {{right|884.36 }}  ||  style=&quot;background: blue; color:white&quot;; rowspan = 4    | '''TBA'''
|  5 : 3 || 5 : 3 || Just major sixth || {{audio|help=no|Just major sixth on C.mid|play}}
|&amp;minus;15.64
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFF78&quot;;
| '''900'''
|  2&lt;sup&gt;9/12&lt;/sup&gt; || 2&lt;sup&gt;3/4&lt;/sup&gt; || Equal-tempered major sixth || {{audio|help=no|Dim seventh on C.mid|play}}
|'''0'''
|-
| {{right|905.87 }} 
|  27 : 16 || 3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; : 2&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; ||  Pythagorean major sixth || {{audio|help=no|Pythagorean major sixth on C.mid|play}}
|5.87
|-
| {{right|933.13 }} 
|  12 : 7 || 2&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×3 : 7 || Septimal major sixth || {{audio|help=no|Septimal major sixth on C.mid|play}}
|33.13
|-
| {{right|968.83 }}  ||  style=&quot;background: red; color:white&quot;; rowspan = 4    | '''TBA'''
|  7 : 4 || 7 : 2&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;|| Septimal minor seventh || {{audio|help=no|Harmonic seventh on C.mid|play}}
|&amp;minus;31.17
|-
| {{right|996.09}} 
|  16 : 9 || 2&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; : 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; ||  Pythagorean minor seventh || {{audio|help=no|Lesser just minor seventh on C.mid|play}}
|&amp;minus;3.91
|-
| {{right|1000.00}} 
|  2&lt;sup&gt;10/12&lt;/sup&gt; || 2&lt;sup&gt;5/6&lt;/sup&gt; || Equal-tempered minor seventh || {{audio|help=no|Minor seventh on C.mid|play}}
|'''0'''
|-
| {{right|1017.60}} 
|  9 : 5 || 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; : 5 ||  Greater just minor seventh || {{audio|help=no|Greater just minor seventh on C.mid|play}}
|17.60
|}

==b==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-size:90%; float:right; clear:right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;&quot;
|-
! Column || Legend
|-
| TET || bgcolor=&quot;#ffff78&quot; | '''12'''-tone equal temperament (12-tet, etc.).
|-
| rowspan=&quot;8&quot; | Limit || bgcolor=&quot;#EFCFCF&quot; | '''3'''-limit intonation, or ''Pythagorean''.
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CFEFCF&quot; | '''5'''-limit &quot;just&quot; intonation, or ''just''.
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CFEFEF&quot; | '''7'''-limit intonation, or ''septimal''.
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-size:100%;text-align:center;&quot;
|+style=&quot;background: black; color:white&quot;| Important musical intervals
! Cents || Note || Ratio ||Factors || Name || Play
|-
| {{right|294.13 }} ||  style = &quot;background: blue; color:white&quot;; rowspan=4 | '''m3'''
| 32 : 27 || 2&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; : 3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; ||  Pythagorean minor third || {{audio|help=no|Pythagorean minor third on C.mid|play}}
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFF78&quot;;
| '''300'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;3/12&lt;/sup&gt;''' || '''2&lt;sup&gt;1/4&lt;/sup&gt;''' || '''Equal-tempered minor third''' || {{audio|help=no|Minor third on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|301.85 }} 
| 25 : 21|| 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; : 3×7 ||Quasi-equal-tempered minor third||{{audio|help=no|Second septimal minor third on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|315.64 }} 
| 6 : 5 || 2×3 : 5 || Just minor third || {{audio|help=no|Just minor third on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|386.31 }} ||  style=&quot;background: red; color:white&quot;; rowspan = 5    | '''TBA'''
| 5 : 4 || 5 : 2&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;|| Just major third || {{audio|help=no|Just major third on C.mid|play}}
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFF78&quot;;
| '''400'''
|  2&lt;sup&gt;4/12&lt;/sup&gt; || 2&lt;sup&gt;1/3&lt;/sup&gt; || Equal-tempered major third || {{audio|help=no|Major third on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|407.82 }} 
|  81 : 64 || 3&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; : 2&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; ||  Pythagorean major third || {{audio|help=no|Pythagorean major third on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|427.37 }} 
|  32 : 25 || 2&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; : 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; ||  Just diminished fourth || {{audio|help=no|Just diminished fourth on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|435.08 }} 
|  9 : 7 || 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; : 7 ||Septimal major third || {{audio|help=no|Septimal major third on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|498.04 }} ||  style=&quot;background: blue; color:white&quot;; rowspan = 3    | '''TBA'''
|  4 : 3 || 2&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; : 3 ||  Pythagorean perfect fourth || {{audio|help=no|Just perfect fourth on C.mid|play}}
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFF78&quot;;
| '''500''' 
|  2&lt;sup&gt;5/12&lt;/sup&gt; || &amp;nbsp; || Equal-tempered fourth || {{audio|help=no|Perfect fourth on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|519.55 }} 
|  27 : 20 || 3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; : 2&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×5 ||  5-limit wolf fourth || {{audio|help=no|Wolf fourth on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|568.72 }} ||  style=&quot;background: red; color:white&quot;; rowspan = 7    | '''TBA'''
|  25 : 18 || 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; : 2×3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; ||  Just augmented fourth||{{audio|help=no|Classic augmented fourth on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|582.51 }} 
|  7 : 5 || 7 : 5 || Lesser septimal tritone || {{audio|help=no|Lesser septimal tritone on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|590.22 }} 
|  45 : 32 || 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×5 : 2&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;|| Just augmented fourth||{{audio|help=no|Just augmented fourth on C.mid|play}}
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFF78&quot;;
| '''600''' 
|  2&lt;sup&gt;6/12&lt;/sup&gt; || 2&lt;sup&gt;1/2&lt;/sup&gt;={{radic|2}} || Equal-tempered tritone || {{audio|help=no|Tritone on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|609.78 }} 
|  64 : 45 || 2&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; : 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×5 ||  Just tritone||{{audio|help=no|Just tritone on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|617.49 }} 
|  10 : 7 || 2×5 : 7 || Greater septimal tritone || {{audio|help=no|Greater septimal tritone on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|631.28 }} 
|  36 : 25 || 2&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; : 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; ||  Just diminished fifth || {{audio|help=no|Just diminished fifth on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|680.45 }} ||  style=&quot;background: blue; color:white&quot;; rowspan = 3    | '''TBA'''
|  40 : 27 || 2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;×5 : 3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;|| 5-limit wolf fifth || {{audio|help=no|Wolf fifth on C.mid|play}}
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFF78&quot;;
| '''700'''
|  2&lt;sup&gt;7/12&lt;/sup&gt; || 2&lt;sup&gt;7/12&lt;/sup&gt; || Equal-tempered perfect fifth || {{audio|help=no|Perfect fifth on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|701.96 }}
|  3 : 2 || 3 : 2 || Perfect fifth || {{audio|help=no|Just perfect fifth on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|764.92 }}  ||  style=&quot;background: red; color:white&quot;; rowspan = 5    | '''TBA'''
|  14 : 9 || 2×7 : 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;|| Septimal minor sixth || {{audio|help=no|Septimal minor sixth on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|772.63 }} 
| 25 : 16 || 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; : 2&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; ||  Just augmented fifth || {{audio|help=no|Just augmented fifth on C.mid|play}} }}
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFF78&quot;;
| '''800'''
|  2&lt;sup&gt;8/12&lt;/sup&gt; || 2&lt;sup&gt;2/3&lt;/sup&gt; || Equal-tempered minor sixth || {{audio|help=no|Minor sixth on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|813.69 }} 
|  8 : 5 || 2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; : 5 ||  Just minor sixth || {{audio|help=no|Just minor sixth on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|835.19 }} 
|  81 : 50 || 3&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; : 2×5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; ||  Acute minor sixth||{{audio|help=no|Acute minor sixth on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|884.36 }}  ||  style=&quot;background: blue; color:white&quot;; rowspan = 4    | '''TBA'''
|  5 : 3 || 5 : 3 || Just major sixth || {{audio|help=no|Just major sixth on C.mid|play}}
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFF78&quot;;
| '''900'''
|  2&lt;sup&gt;9/12&lt;/sup&gt; || 2&lt;sup&gt;3/4&lt;/sup&gt; || Equal-tempered major sixth || {{audio|help=no|Dim seventh on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|905.87 }} 
|  27 : 16 || 3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; : 2&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; ||  Pythagorean major sixth || {{audio|help=no|Pythagorean major sixth on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|933.13 }} 
|  12 : 7 || 2&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×3 : 7 || Septimal major sixth || {{audio|help=no|Septimal major sixth on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|968.83 }}  ||  style=&quot;background: red; color:white&quot;; rowspan = 4    | '''TBA'''
|  7 : 4 || 7 : 2&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;|| Septimal minor seventh || {{audio|help=no|Harmonic seventh on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|996.09}} 
|  16 : 9 || 2&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; : 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; ||  Pythagorean minor seventh || {{audio|help=no|Lesser just minor seventh on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|1000.00}} 
|  2&lt;sup&gt;10/12&lt;/sup&gt; || 2&lt;sup&gt;5/6&lt;/sup&gt; || Equal-tempered minor seventh || {{audio|help=no|Minor seventh on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|1017.60}} 
|  9 : 5 || 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; : 5 ||  Greater just minor seventh || {{audio|help=no|Greater just minor seventh on C.mid|play}}
|}

==must add NO==
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|
|-
|
|-
| {{right|90.22 }} ||  256 : 243 || 2&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; : 3&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; ||Pythagorean [[minor second]] || {{audio|help=no|Pythagorean minor semitone on C.mid|play}} 
|-
| {{right|100.00 }} || 2&lt;sup&gt;1/12&lt;/sup&gt; || 2&lt;sup&gt;1/12&lt;/sup&gt; || Equal-tempered [[minor second]] ||{{audio|help=no|Minor second on C.mid|play}}
|-
| {{right|111.73}} ||16 : 15 || 2&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; : 3×5 || [[Just minor second]] || {{audio|help=no|Just diatonic semitone on C.mid|play}} 
|-
| {{right|119.44 }} || 15 : 14 || 3×5 : 2×7 || [[Septimal diatonic semitone]] ||{{audio|help=no|Septimal diatonic semitone on C.mid|play}} 
|-
|
|-
| {{right|500.00 }} || 2&lt;sup&gt;5/12&lt;/sup&gt; || 2&lt;sup&gt;5/12&lt;/sup&gt; || Equal-tempered [[perfect fourth]]||{{audio|help=no|Perfect fourth on C.mid|play}}
|-
| 
|-
|}

==original==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-size:90%; float:right; clear:right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;&quot;
|-
! Column || Legend
|-
| TET || bgcolor=&quot;#EFCFCF&quot; | '''X'''-tone equal temperament (12-tet, etc.).
|-
| rowspan=&quot;8&quot; | Limit || bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFCF&quot; | '''3'''-limit intonation, or ''Pythagorean''.
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CFEFCF&quot; | '''5'''-limit &quot;just&quot; intonation, or ''just''.
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CFEFEF&quot; | '''7'''-limit intonation, or ''septimal''.
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CFCFEF&quot; | '''11'''-limit intonation, or ''undecimal''.
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#DFCFEF&quot; | '''13'''-limit intonation, or ''tridecimal''.
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#DFDFDF&quot; | '''17'''-limit intonation, or ''septendecimal''.
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CFCFCF&quot; | '''19'''-limit intonation, or ''novendecimal''.
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#BC8F8F&quot; | '''H'''igher limits&lt;!--23 and greater--&gt;.
|-
| M || bgcolor=&quot;#CFFFAF&quot; | '''M'''eantone temperament or tuning.
|-
| S || '''S'''uperparticular ratio (no separate color code).
|}</text>
      <sha1>b5z71l7mpl0tqugu5xw63wh8yjewcr9</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:U3216256</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285229</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418177</id>
      <parentid>2417755</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T07:21:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3216256</username>
        <id>2942574</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Social contributions */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5940" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hello everyone, 

My name is [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/view/view.php?t=rufMvX4S27FDnj9lZR85 Ebony] and I am a second year Bachelor of Science in Psychology student at the ''University of Canberra''. I am excited to contribute to the 2022 [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|Motivation and Emotion]] Book. As a first-generation University student, I am passionate about education and bringing awareness to issues that first-generation students face. 

== Hobbies ==
University related:

* [https://clubs.canberra.edu.au/Clubs/CLSS CLSS Treasurer]
* UCPS President (2021)

Other hobbies:

* Knitting/Crocheting
* Baking 
* Reading - Mostly fiction, such as novels by Terry Pratchett, Neil Gaiman, and A. A. Milne ([https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1333202.The_Red_House_Mystery The Red House Mystery]).

== The book chapter I am working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment: What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed?]]

== Social contributions ==

# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Work_and_flow&amp;diff=2411657&amp;oldid=2411646 13:29, 4 August 2022: Suggested multiple resources that could be used for the Work and Flow chapter]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation+and+emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FTime+Management&amp;date-range-to=&amp;tagfilter=&amp;action=history 13:39, 4 August 2022: Added the Motivation and Emotion quick start template to the Time Management chapter]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Time_and_motivation&amp;action=history 13:44, 4 August 2022: Added the Motivation and Emotion quick start template to the Time and Motivation chapter]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Wave_metaphor_for_emotion&amp;oldid=2412979 13:58, 10 August 2022: Added the Motivation and Emotion quick start template to the Wave metaphor for emotion chapter]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Suffering_as_emotion&amp;oldid=2412994 14:02, 10 August 2022: Added the Motivation and Emotion quick start template to the Suffering as emotion chapter]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Kindness_motivation&amp;action=history 10:06, 17 August 2022: Added the Motivation and Emotion quick start template to the Kindness motivation chapter]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Kindness_motivation&amp;action=history 10:15, 17 August 2022: Suggested multiple resources that could be used for the Kindness motivation chapter (discussion page)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Psychological_distress&amp;action=history 19:00, 18 August 2022: Suggested multiple resources that could be used for the Psychological distress chapter (discussion page)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FPsychological_distress&amp;action=historysubmit&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2416094&amp;oldid=2413286 19:08, 18 August 2022: Added title and subtitle to Psychological distress chapter]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FAcademic_help-seeking&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2416096&amp;oldid=2415946 19:12, 18 August 2022: Added title and subtitle to Academic help-seeking chapter]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FCognitive_dissonance_reduction&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2416439&amp;oldid=2416437 15:00, 19 August 2022: Added the Motivation and Emotion quick start template to the Cognitive dissonance reduction chapter]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FCognitive_dissonance_reduction&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2416439&amp;oldid=2416437 15:01, 19 August 2022: Added title and subtitle to Cognitive dissonance reduction chapter]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FCreative_arts_and_trauma&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2416441&amp;oldid=2360767 15:05, 19 August 2022: Added the Motivation and Emotion quick start template to the Creative arts and trauma chapter]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FSelf-esteem_and_culture&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2416443&amp;oldid=2364684 15:13, 19 August 2022: Suggested multiple resources that could be used for the Self-esteem and culture chapter (discussion page)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Fully_functioning_person&amp;action=history 10:25, 20 August 2022: Suggested multiple resources that could be useful for the Carl Rogers section in the Fully functioning person chapter (discussion page)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FBehavioural_economics_and_motivation&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2417748&amp;oldid=2417474 16:54, 23 August 2022: Added 'citation needed' clarification template to the introduction of Behavioural economics and motivation chapter]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FBeneficence_as_a_psychological_need&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2417751&amp;oldid=2416013 16:58, 23 August 2022: Added 'citation needed' clarification template to various parts of Beneficence as a psychological need chapter]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FWindow_of_tolerance&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2417754&amp;oldid=2417715 17:09, 23 August 2022: Added clarification templates to various parts of the Window to tolerance chapter]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Reward_system,_motivation,_and_emotion&amp;action=history 17:20, 24 August 2022: Suggested multiple resources that could be useful for the Reward systems, motivation, and emotion chapter]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>User:U943292</title>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-23T23:01:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U943292</username>
        <id>2946502</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>can't create a password protected page to work on - so stupid!</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="589" xml:space="preserve">== Useful links / things to know whilst I'm creating my book chapter ==
Get images via https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page

== About me ==
Psychology undergrad at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra].

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Self-efficacy and academic achievement|Self-efficacy and Academic Achievement]] for ''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]''

== Social contributions ==
Stay Tuned

== My (Mahara) Portfolio ==


[https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/user/view.php?id=55346 Kate Carloff Portfolio]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2418092</id>
      <parentid>2417981</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:58:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U943292</username>
        <id>2946502</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Social contributions */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="960" xml:space="preserve">== Useful links / things to know whilst I'm creating my book chapter ==
Get images via https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page

== About me ==
Psychology undergrad at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra].

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Self-efficacy and academic achievement|Self-efficacy and Academic Achievement]] for ''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]''

== Social contributions ==
24/08/22 - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FWindow_of_tolerance#Social_Contribution_-_Two_suggestions_/_ideas Commenced a discussion on how AUD may apply to a particular theory]

24/08/22 -[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/11508/discussion_topics/222476 Recommendation left on 7124 Discussion Post Page (Canvas)] . 

== My (Mahara) Portfolio ==


[https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/user/view.php?id=55346 Kate Carloff Portfolio]</text>
      <sha1>jerc9zgakfz26c6kel7seij33x4vvy2</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>C language in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>285380</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2417920</id>
      <parentid>2417389</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:56:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Handling Series of Data */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9802" xml:space="preserve">=== Introduction ===
* Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]])

=== Handling Repetition ===
* Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling a Big Work ===
* Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling Series of Data ===

==== Background ==== 
* Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]])
 
==== Basics ====
* Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.A.20220823.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Pointers ([[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.A.20180726.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.A.20220823.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20220418.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.11.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]])

==== Applications ==== 
* Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series1App.Array.1.A.20220823.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.Series7.AppPoint.1.A.20200424.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.Series3App.ArrayPointer.1.A.2022024.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]])

==== Examples ==== 
* Spreadsheet Example Programs
:: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]])

=== Handling Various Kinds of Data ===
* Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling Low Level Operations ===
* Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Declarations ===
* Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]])
* Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]])
* Scope 


=== Class Notes ===

* TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]])
* Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library
* Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements
* Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers
* Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts
* Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops
* Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control
* Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions
* Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope
* Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion
* Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions
* Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications
* Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions
* Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications
* Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) 
* Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2)
* Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO
* Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions
* Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications
* Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum
* Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List 
* Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing
* Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/

== '''Old Materials '''==

until 201201
* Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]])
* Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]])
* Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]])
* Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]])
 
&lt;br&gt;

until 201107
* Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]])
* Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]])
* Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]])


go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ]

[[Category:C programming]]

&lt;/br&gt;</text>
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* [[m:Meta:GUS2Wiki/Script|GUS2Wiki]]
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Death drive</title>
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      <text bytes="7172" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Death drive:&lt;br&gt;What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
&quot;'''life consists in a negotiation between the life and death drives, which must form arrangements with one another in order to coexist in the one organism&quot; (reference better,''' http://www.minerva.mic.ul.ie/vol9/Freud.html)

- what is the death drive? 

* Aggression (Karbelnig, 2020)
* Risky behaviour
* Reliving trauma
* self-destructiveness 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}}
'''Case Study'''

rewrite the below into a case study:

&quot;This dynamic constellation is prevalent
in the case of patients presenting severe self-mutilating behavior. One patient
successively cut off segments of fingers of her hands and severed major nerves
in one arm: she presented the syndrome of malignant narcissism, and her
psychoanalytic psychotherapy was carried out, in part, during extended
hospitalizations. She was not psychotic at any point. In the transference, the
identification with an extreme aggressive and incestuous paternal image was a
dominant element. It is difficult to understand this development from a
position of ordinary common sense, but there are patients who relentlessly
provoke the analyst until the analyst succumbs to an uncontainable negative
countertransference reaction&quot;(Kernberg, 2009)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}This chapter covers the motivational factors that relate to the death drive. It also discusses it's history, the most important people, psychopathology and if the death drive can be negotiated. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the death drive and how was it created?
* Who historically theorised about the death drive? 
* Can the death drive be negotiated?
* How can we think about the death drive in everyday life?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==History==
[[File:The death.png|thumb|Figure. 1 Grim Reaper otherwise known as Death]]

* How was the death drive originally coined? 
* What theories use this?
* Who were the influential people that theorised about the death drive:

==== Sigmund Freud ====
* [[w: Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]
* Eros / Thanatos:
* Eros is the drive of life, love, creativity, and sexuality, self-satisfaction, and species preservation. 
* Thanatos, from the Greek word for &quot;death&quot; is the drive of aggression, sadism, destruction, violence, and death.
* Repetition compulsion / pleasure principle (Black, 2006)
* &quot;The goal of life is death&quot; (Freud, 1920)
* Metapsychological dimension. Speculative-philosophical / theoretical-intuitive construct (Armengou, 2009)

==== Jacques Lacan ====
* [[w: Jacques Lacan|Jacques Lacan]]
* Nostalgia
* Narcissism 
* Symbolic Order
* Death drive as an ethical stance that must be accepted to disrupt the superego bond (Cho, 2006)

==== Gilles Deleuze ====
* [[w: Gilles Deleuze|Gilles Deleuze]]
* speculative philosophy (McNulty, 2017)

==== Arthur Schopenhauer ====
* [[w: Arthur Schopenhauer|Arthur Schopenhauer]]
* existence is driven by the will to live (Baptista et al., 2019)

==Psychoanalysis? (Maybe think of a better heading for this)==
biological/environmental? 

=== Psychopathology ===
* Suicide
* Masochism and death drive (Armengou, 2009) (sadism?)
* Destructive and self-destructive developments in group processes and their social implications (Kernberg, 2009)
* Negative therapeutic reaction (Kernberg, 2009)

=== Theory ===

* pleasure principle

=== Treatment ===

* historical treatment - mental asylums
* therapy? 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}}
'''Case Study'''

rewrite the below into a case study

&quot;Steven Miller examines the drive that pushes the legendary high-wire walker Philippe Petit to dedicate years of his life to the seemingly impossible quest of traversing a wire suspended between the twin towers of the World Trade Center, which he ultimately accomplished in 1974. While Petit’s quest might seem to be death driven in the most conventional sense of the term—an inane risking of life without purpose or utility—Miller argues that Petit’s act is no mere stunt but a work of art whose beauty makes the audience forget the proximity of death by offering an “aesthetic presentation of limitless freedom.” He reminds us that the death drive is not merely a drive to mortality and inanimacy but is intimately bound up in what is most alive and free in human experience (McNulty, 2017)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== How can we negotiate the death drive? ==

* Link this to the theory and treatment above.

* can treatment and therapy help? 

* can we go from Thanatos to Eros?

* do life changes make a difference? 
* '''link a case study of where someone has negotiated against suicide as an example.''' 
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Is Eros or Thanatos the greek word for death?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Eros
+ Thanatos

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Answers to focus questions:'''
* What is the death drive and how was it created?
* Who historically theorised about the death drive? 
* Can the death drive be negotiated?
* How can we think about the death drive in everyday life?
*Take home messages?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Death and emotion|Death and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2014)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Death anxiety|Death anxiety]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w: death drive|Death drive]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w: psychoanalysis|Psychoanalysis]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w: sigmund freud|Sigmund Freud]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w: Suicide|Suicide]] (Wikipedia)
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Armengou, F. G.-C. (2009). The death drive: Conceptual analysis and relevance in the Spanish psychoanalytic community1. 90(2), 263-289. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-8315.2008.00121.x

Baptista, T., Aldana, E., &amp; Abramson, C. I. (2019). Arthur Schopenhauer and the Current Conception of the Origin of Species: What Did the Philosopher Anticipate? SAGE Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019837467

Black, D. (2006). Mapping a Detour: Why did Freud speak of a death drive? British Journal of Psychotherapy, 18, 185-198. 10.1111/j.1752-0118.2001.tb00020.x

Cho, D. (2006). Thanatos and Civilization: Lacan, Marcuse, and the Death Drive. Policy Futures in Education, 4(1), 18–30. https://doi.org/10.2304/pfie.2006.4.1.18

Freud, S. (1920). Beyond the Pleasure Principle, S.E., 18. London: Hogarth.

Karbelnig, A. M. (2021). Laying the death drive to rest. International Forum of Psychoanalysis, 1-11. 10.1080/0803706X.2021.1905179

Kernberg, O. (2009). The concept of the death drive: A clinical perspective. The International journal of psycho-analysis, 90, 1009-1023. 10.1111/j.1745-8315.2009.00187.x

McNulty, T. (2017). Introductory Note: Constructing the Death Drive. differences, 28(2), 1-4. 10.1215/10407391-4151716 %J differences
}}
==External links==
* [https://www.ted.com/talks/matthew_helmers_unbreakable_barriers_and_the_death_drive Unbreakable Barriers and the Death Drive] (Matthew Helmers, TEDxRansomEvergladesSchool, YouTube, 7.24 minutes)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=viYtgC5cL0E&amp;ab_channel=ToddMcGowan Death Drive] (YouTube video)
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__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]]

* Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002)

* Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. (Reeve, 2018; Izard, 2010) Reference Figure 1
* Overview of what the chapter explores
* Note on emotion research (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017)

   {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a).
* Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999).
* Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017).
* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related; where outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred, and person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a\ person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regret Regret] is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). &quot;Regret stems from bad decisions&quot; (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). 

'''Anger'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger Anger] is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). 

'''Disillusionment'''
: [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disillusionment Disillusionment] is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment.

  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}


Test yourself:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Person-related disappointment
- Outcome-related disappointment

{Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Person-related disappointment
+ Outcome-related disappointment
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== What causes disappointment? ==
* Disappointment occurs when expectations are not met (Chua et al., 2009). 
* The two major theories of disappointment will be discussed. 
* The brain regions that have shown to be important in decision making/disappointment will be discussed.

=== Theories of disappointment ===

* The two major theories of disappointment are Bell's theory of disappointment and Loomes and Sudgen's theory of disappointment (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b). 
* Both theories are similar (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b). Loomes and Sugden's theory came about due to their research and theory of regret (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).

==== Bell's theory of disappointment (1985) ====

* &quot;Disappointment... is a psychological reaction to an outcome that does not match up with expectations&quot; (Bell, 1985, p.1).
* Disappointment is based on probability/math and there is a specific formula that can predict it (Bell, 1985).
* van Dijk and van der Pligt (1997) conducted five experiments which confirmed Bell's theory; where the experience of disappointment is primarily determined by by the probability of the outcome. It is theorised that individuals who experience disappointment focus on the features of the situation which caused the disappointment - one of the features could be the probability with which the disappointing outcome occurred (van Dijk &amp; van der Pligt, 1997). 

==== Loomes and Sugden's theory of disappointment (1986) ====

* &quot;When considering any uncertain prospect, an individual forms some ''prior expectation''... if that consequence falls short of the prior expectation... the individual... experiences some degree of disappointment&quot; (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986, p.271).
* Disappointment can be mapped out with mathematical formula but is more robust than basic probability - there are other factors that contribute to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* Loomes and Sugden (1986) acknowledge that they share the same 'basic intuition' about disappointment as Bell (1985), but they model it differently. They later acknowledge that their theories are in fact similar, but credit Bell (1985) with the 'basic' idea of disappointment which their theory builds upon (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987). &quot;It is suggested that if an individual chooses some action... [they] form some prior expectation about that action. ...After the uncertainty is resolved, the individual experiences one particular consequence, which may be better or worse than the prior expectation&quot;, with worse leading to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987). 
=== Neuropsychology of disappointment ===

* Multiple brain regions have shown to be important to disappointment and decision making, namely the anterior insula, and various regions of the prefrontal cortex (Chua et al., 2009: Mohr et al., 2010: Kalat, 2019). 

* Some of the brain regions that are active during disappointment are also active during regret (Chua et al., 2009).

==== Subcortical structure: Anterior insula ====
[[File:Insula structure.png|alt=Structure of the three sections of the insula|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Insula]]
* When individuals experience disappointment their anterior insula is activated (Chua et al., 2009). See figure 2.
* The anterior insula is active in the presence of potential loss and is a part of the brain known for processing emotions such as disappointment (Mohr et al., 2010).

==== Cortical structure: Prefrontal cortex ====
[[File:Prefrontal cortex (left) animation.gif|alt=Rotating skull containing left Prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is highlighted |thumb|''Figure 3.'' Left hemisphere prefrontal cortex]]
[[File:Cortical midline structures.png|thumb|''Figure 4.'' Brain image highlighting various cortical regions, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC), and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC/MOPFC).]]
* prefrontal cortex - middle 'zone': &lt;u&gt;emotional reactions&lt;/u&gt;, cognitive control, and working memory (Kalat, 2019).
* prefrontal cortex - anterior (front): decision making, evaluating which course will provide the best outcome, probability of achieving a good outcome (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - see figure 3. 
* The ventromedial prefrontal cortex [VMPFC] learns what choices are more beneficial for the individual and adjusts decision making accordingly (Kalat, 2019). It also monitors confidence in one's decisions (Kalat, 2019). Individuals with damage to their VMPFC tend to make impulsive decisions based on probability, rather than making considered decisions based on reality (Kalat, 2019).
*Orbitofrontal cortex [OFC]- responds to information from the VMPFC based on how the expected reward compares to other possible choices (Kalat, 2019). The OFC changes and updates the expected outcomes of actions based on current circumstances (Kalat, 2019).
*When individuals experience disappointment their  dorsomedial prefrontal cortex [DMPFC] is activated (Chua et al., 2009).
*See figure 4 for VMPFC, OFC, and DMPFC.


Insert Quiz on brain regions and how they contribute to decision-making/disappointment OR insert table with brain region - what it does - how it contributes to disappointment. Or both.

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003). The ventromedial prefrontal cortex monitors how confident you should be about a decision (Kalat, 2019). 
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]], therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can be managed by successfully living up to expectations; where individuals intensify their efforts to attain a certain outcome so as not to experience disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 

=== The benefits of disappointment ===

* Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns &amp; Druckman, 2014). 
* Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others (Johnson &amp; Connelly, 2014).
* Disappointment (from yourself or others) can lead you to work harder in the future or work harder 'now' to avoid disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000).

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

* Disappointment doesn't feel good! It can involve feelings of powerlessness and wanting to do nothing (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 
* Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012).
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can lead to other negative emotions, such as anger (van Dijk et al., 1999). 


Insert quiz on managing disappointment. 

==Conclusion==

* Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment.
* Restate the causes of disappointment. Go over the theories of disappointment.
* Restate how disappointment can be managed.
* Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it.

== See also ==
* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bell, D. E. (1985). Disappointment in decision making under uncertainty. ''Operations Research, 33''(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.33.1.1 

Chua, Gonzalez, R., Taylor, S. F., Welsh, R. C., &amp; Liberzon, I. (2009). Decision-related loss: Regret and disappointment. ''NeuroImage, 47''(4), 2031–2040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.006 

Clancy, A., Vince, R., &amp; Gabriel, Y. (2012). That unwanted feeling: A psychodynamic study of disappointment in organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x 

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an optimist nor a pessimist be: Mistaken expectations lower well-being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577

Izard, C. E. (2010). The many meanings/aspects of emotion: Definitions, functions, activation, and regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661

Johnson, G., &amp; Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 

Kalat, J. W. (2019). ''Biological psychology'' (13th ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Cengage

Lelieveld, G. J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., &amp; Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1986). Disappointment and dynamic consistency in choice under uncertainty. ''The Review of Economic Studies, 53''(2), 271–282. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297651 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1987). Testing for regret and disappointment in choice under uncertainty. ''The Economic Journal (London), 97'', 118–129. https://doi.org/10.2307/3038234 

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: A prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764

Olekalns, M., &amp; Druckman, D. (2014). With feeling: How emotions shape negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 

Mohr, P. N. C., Biele, G., &amp; Heekeren, H. R. (2010). Neural processing of risk. ''The Journal of Neuroscience, 30''(19), 6613–6619. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0003-10.2010

Ramachandran, V.S., &amp; Jalal, B. (2017). The evolutionary psychology of envy and jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 

Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1997). The impact of probability and magnitude of outcome on disappointment and elation. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69''(3), 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1997.2688 

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not having what you want versus having what you do not want: The impact of type of negative outcome on the experience of disappointment and related emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1998a). The experience of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2000). On bad decisions and disconfirmed expectancies: The psychology of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 14''(4), 521–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999300402781 

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., van der Pligt, J., Manstead, A. S. ., van Empelen, P., &amp; Reinderman, D. (1998b). Emotional reactions to the outcomes of decisions: The role of counterfactual thought in the experience of regret and disappointment. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 75''(2), 117–141. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2784
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE Feeling all the feels: Crash course psychology #25] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i47_jiCsBMs 2-Minute Neuroscience: Prefrontal Cortex] (YouTube)</text>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]]

* Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002)

* Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. (Reeve, 2018; Izard, 2010) Reference Figure 1
* Overview of what the chapter explores
* Note on emotion research (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017)

   {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a).
* Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999).
* Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017).
* The major theories of disappointment will be discussed.
* The types of disappointment will be discussed.

=== Theories of disappointment ===
* The two major theories of disappointment are Bell's theory of disappointment and Loomes and Sudgen's theory of disappointment (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b).
* Both theories are similar (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b). Loomes and Sugden's theory came about due to their research and theory of regret (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).

==== Bell's theory of disappointment (1985) ====

* &quot;Disappointment... is a psychological reaction to an outcome that does not match up with expectations&quot; (Bell, 1985, p.1).
* Disappointment is based on probability/math and there is a specific formula that can predict it (Bell, 1985).
* van Dijk and van der Pligt (1997) conducted five experiments which confirmed Bell's theory; where the experience of disappointment is primarily determined by by the probability of the outcome. It is theorised that individuals who experience disappointment focus on the features of the situation which caused the disappointment - one of the features could be the probability with which the disappointing outcome occurred (van Dijk &amp; van der Pligt, 1997).

==== Loomes and Sugden's theory of disappointment (1986) ====

* &quot;When considering any uncertain prospect, an individual forms some ''prior expectation''... if that consequence falls short of the prior expectation... the individual... experiences some degree of disappointment&quot; (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986, p.271).
* Disappointment can be mapped out with mathematical formula but is more robust than basic probability - there are other factors that contribute to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* Loomes and Sugden (1986) acknowledge that they share the same 'basic intuition' about disappointment as Bell (1985), but they model it differently. They later acknowledge that their theories are in fact similar, but credit Bell (1985) with the 'basic' idea of disappointment which their theory builds upon (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987). &quot;It is suggested that if an individual chooses some action... [they] form some prior expectation about that action. ...After the uncertainty is resolved, the individual experiences one particular consequence, which may be better or worse than the prior expectation&quot;, with worse leading to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987).

=== Types of disappointment ===

* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related. 
* Outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
* Person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
*

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regret Regret] is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). &quot;Regret stems from bad decisions&quot; (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). 

'''Anger'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger Anger] is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). 

'''Disillusionment'''
: [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disillusionment Disillusionment] is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment.

  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}


Test yourself:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Person-related disappointment
- Outcome-related disappointment

{Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Person-related disappointment
+ Outcome-related disappointment
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== What causes disappointment? ==
* Disappointment occurs when expectations are not met (Chua et al., 2009). 
* Neuropsychology of disappointment: Multiple brain regions have shown to be important to disappointment and decision making, namely the anterior insula, and various regions of the prefrontal cortex (Chua et al., 2009: Mohr et al., 2010: Kalat, 2019).
* The brain regions that have shown to be important in decision making/disappointment will be discussed.

* Some of the brain regions that are active during disappointment are also active during regret (Chua et al., 2009).

=== Subcortical structure: Anterior insula ===
[[File:Insula structure.png|alt=Structure of the three sections of the insula|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Insula]]
* When individuals experience disappointment their anterior insula is activated (Chua et al., 2009). See figure 2.
* The anterior insula is active in the presence of potential loss and is a part of the brain known for processing emotions such as disappointment (Mohr et al., 2010).

=== Cortical structure: Prefrontal cortex ===
[[File:Prefrontal cortex (left) animation.gif|alt=Rotating skull containing left Prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is highlighted |thumb|''Figure 3.'' Left hemisphere prefrontal cortex]]
[[File:Cortical midline structures.png|thumb|''Figure 4.'' Brain image highlighting various cortical regions, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC), and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC/MOPFC).]]
* Prefrontal cortex - middle 'zone': &lt;u&gt;emotional reactions&lt;/u&gt;, cognitive control, and working memory (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - anterior (front): decision making, evaluating which course will provide the best outcome, probability of achieving a good outcome (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - see figure 3. 
* The ventromedial prefrontal cortex [VMPFC] learns what choices are more beneficial for the individual and adjusts decision making accordingly (Kalat, 2019). It also monitors confidence in one's decisions (Kalat, 2019). Individuals with damage to their VMPFC tend to make impulsive decisions based on probability, rather than making considered decisions based on reality (Kalat, 2019).
*Orbitofrontal cortex [OFC]- responds to information from the VMPFC based on how the expected reward compares to other possible choices (Kalat, 2019). The OFC changes and updates the expected outcomes of actions based on current circumstances (Kalat, 2019).
*When individuals experience disappointment their dorsomedial prefrontal cortex [DMPFC] is activated (Chua et al., 2009).
*See figure 4 for VMPFC, OFC, and DMPFC.
Insert Quiz on brain regions and how they contribute to decision-making/disappointment OR insert table with brain region - what it does - how it contributes to disappointment. Or both.

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003). The ventromedial prefrontal cortex monitors how confident you should be about a decision (Kalat, 2019). 
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]], therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can be managed by successfully living up to expectations; where individuals intensify their efforts to attain a certain outcome so as not to experience disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 

=== The benefits of disappointment ===

* Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns &amp; Druckman, 2014). 
* Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others (Johnson &amp; Connelly, 2014).
* Disappointment (from yourself or others) can lead you to work harder in the future or work harder 'now' to avoid disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000).

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

* Disappointment doesn't feel good! It can involve feelings of powerlessness and wanting to do nothing (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 
* Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012).
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can lead to other negative emotions, such as anger (van Dijk et al., 1999). 


Insert quiz on managing disappointment. 

==Conclusion==

* Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment.
* Restate the causes of disappointment. Go over the theories of disappointment.
* Restate how disappointment can be managed.
* Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it.

== See also ==
* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bell, D. E. (1985). Disappointment in decision making under uncertainty. ''Operations Research, 33''(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.33.1.1 

Chua, Gonzalez, R., Taylor, S. F., Welsh, R. C., &amp; Liberzon, I. (2009). Decision-related loss: Regret and disappointment. ''NeuroImage, 47''(4), 2031–2040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.006 

Clancy, A., Vince, R., &amp; Gabriel, Y. (2012). That unwanted feeling: A psychodynamic study of disappointment in organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x 

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an optimist nor a pessimist be: Mistaken expectations lower well-being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577

Izard, C. E. (2010). The many meanings/aspects of emotion: Definitions, functions, activation, and regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661

Johnson, G., &amp; Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 

Kalat, J. W. (2019). ''Biological psychology'' (13th ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Cengage

Lelieveld, G. J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., &amp; Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1986). Disappointment and dynamic consistency in choice under uncertainty. ''The Review of Economic Studies, 53''(2), 271–282. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297651 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1987). Testing for regret and disappointment in choice under uncertainty. ''The Economic Journal (London), 97'', 118–129. https://doi.org/10.2307/3038234 

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: A prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764

Olekalns, M., &amp; Druckman, D. (2014). With feeling: How emotions shape negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 

Mohr, P. N. C., Biele, G., &amp; Heekeren, H. R. (2010). Neural processing of risk. ''The Journal of Neuroscience, 30''(19), 6613–6619. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0003-10.2010

Ramachandran, V.S., &amp; Jalal, B. (2017). The evolutionary psychology of envy and jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 

Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1997). The impact of probability and magnitude of outcome on disappointment and elation. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69''(3), 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1997.2688 

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not having what you want versus having what you do not want: The impact of type of negative outcome on the experience of disappointment and related emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1998a). The experience of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2000). On bad decisions and disconfirmed expectancies: The psychology of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 14''(4), 521–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999300402781 

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., van der Pligt, J., Manstead, A. S. ., van Empelen, P., &amp; Reinderman, D. (1998b). Emotional reactions to the outcomes of decisions: The role of counterfactual thought in the experience of regret and disappointment. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 75''(2), 117–141. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2784
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE Feeling all the feels: Crash course psychology #25] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i47_jiCsBMs 2-Minute Neuroscience: Prefrontal Cortex] (YouTube)</text>
      <sha1>2047tazghgxkpks2tkbwpdzk1m5u1o2</sha1>
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      <id>2418034</id>
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        <id>2942574</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Types of disappointment */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="15863" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Disappointment&lt;br&gt;What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]]

* Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002)

* Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. (Reeve, 2018; Izard, 2010) Reference Figure 1
* Overview of what the chapter explores
* Note on emotion research (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017)

   {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a).
* Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999).
* Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017).
* The major theories of disappointment will be discussed.
* The types of disappointment will be discussed.

=== Theories of disappointment ===
* The two major theories of disappointment are Bell's theory of disappointment and Loomes and Sudgen's theory of disappointment (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b).
* Both theories are similar (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b). Loomes and Sugden's theory came about due to their research and theory of regret (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).

==== Bell's theory of disappointment (1985) ====

* &quot;Disappointment... is a psychological reaction to an outcome that does not match up with expectations&quot; (Bell, 1985, p.1).
* Disappointment is based on probability/math and there is a specific formula that can predict it (Bell, 1985).
* van Dijk and van der Pligt (1997) conducted five experiments which confirmed Bell's theory; where the experience of disappointment is primarily determined by by the probability of the outcome. It is theorised that individuals who experience disappointment focus on the features of the situation which caused the disappointment - one of the features could be the probability with which the disappointing outcome occurred (van Dijk &amp; van der Pligt, 1997).

==== Loomes and Sugden's theory of disappointment (1986) ====

* &quot;When considering any uncertain prospect, an individual forms some ''prior expectation''... if that consequence falls short of the prior expectation... the individual... experiences some degree of disappointment&quot; (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986, p.271).
* Disappointment can be mapped out with mathematical formula but is more robust than basic probability - there are other factors that contribute to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* Loomes and Sugden (1986) acknowledge that they share the same 'basic intuition' about disappointment as Bell (1985), but they model it differently. They later acknowledge that their theories are in fact similar, but credit Bell (1985) with the 'basic' idea of disappointment which their theory builds upon (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987). &quot;It is suggested that if an individual chooses some action... [they] form some prior expectation about that action. ...After the uncertainty is resolved, the individual experiences one particular consequence, which may be better or worse than the prior expectation&quot;, with worse leading to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987).

=== Types of disappointment ===

* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related. 
* Outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
* Person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
*Disappointment in organisations: Position 1: I am disappointing, Position 2: I am disappointed, Position 3: I disappoint (Clancy et al., 2012). 

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regret Regret] is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). &quot;Regret stems from bad decisions&quot; (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). 

'''Anger'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger Anger] is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). 

'''Disillusionment'''
: [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disillusionment Disillusionment] is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment.

  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}


Test yourself:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Person-related disappointment
- Outcome-related disappointment

{Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Person-related disappointment
+ Outcome-related disappointment
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== What causes disappointment? ==
* Disappointment occurs when expectations are not met (Chua et al., 2009). 
* Neuropsychology of disappointment: Multiple brain regions have shown to be important to disappointment and decision making, namely the anterior insula, and various regions of the prefrontal cortex (Chua et al., 2009: Mohr et al., 2010: Kalat, 2019).
* The brain regions that have shown to be important in decision making/disappointment will be discussed.

* Some of the brain regions that are active during disappointment are also active during regret (Chua et al., 2009).

=== Subcortical structure: Anterior insula ===
[[File:Insula structure.png|alt=Structure of the three sections of the insula|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Insula]]
* When individuals experience disappointment their anterior insula is activated (Chua et al., 2009). See figure 2.
* The anterior insula is active in the presence of potential loss and is a part of the brain known for processing emotions such as disappointment (Mohr et al., 2010).

=== Cortical structure: Prefrontal cortex ===
[[File:Prefrontal cortex (left) animation.gif|alt=Rotating skull containing left Prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is highlighted |thumb|''Figure 3.'' Left hemisphere prefrontal cortex]]
[[File:Cortical midline structures.png|thumb|''Figure 4.'' Brain image highlighting various cortical regions, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC), and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC/MOPFC).]]
* Prefrontal cortex - middle 'zone': &lt;u&gt;emotional reactions&lt;/u&gt;, cognitive control, and working memory (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - anterior (front): decision making, evaluating which course will provide the best outcome, probability of achieving a good outcome (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - see figure 3. 
* The ventromedial prefrontal cortex [VMPFC] learns what choices are more beneficial for the individual and adjusts decision making accordingly (Kalat, 2019). It also monitors confidence in one's decisions (Kalat, 2019). Individuals with damage to their VMPFC tend to make impulsive decisions based on probability, rather than making considered decisions based on reality (Kalat, 2019).
*Orbitofrontal cortex [OFC]- responds to information from the VMPFC based on how the expected reward compares to other possible choices (Kalat, 2019). The OFC changes and updates the expected outcomes of actions based on current circumstances (Kalat, 2019).
*When individuals experience disappointment their dorsomedial prefrontal cortex [DMPFC] is activated (Chua et al., 2009).
*See figure 4 for VMPFC, OFC, and DMPFC.
Insert Quiz on brain regions and how they contribute to decision-making/disappointment OR insert table with brain region - what it does - how it contributes to disappointment. Or both.

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003). The ventromedial prefrontal cortex monitors how confident you should be about a decision (Kalat, 2019). 
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]], therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can be managed by successfully living up to expectations; where individuals intensify their efforts to attain a certain outcome so as not to experience disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 

=== The benefits of disappointment ===

* Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns &amp; Druckman, 2014). 
* Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others (Johnson &amp; Connelly, 2014).
* Disappointment (from yourself or others) can lead you to work harder in the future or work harder 'now' to avoid disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000).

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

* Disappointment doesn't feel good! It can involve feelings of powerlessness and wanting to do nothing (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 
* Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012).
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can lead to other negative emotions, such as anger (van Dijk et al., 1999). 


Insert quiz on managing disappointment. 

==Conclusion==

* Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment.
* Restate the causes of disappointment. Go over the theories of disappointment.
* Restate how disappointment can be managed.
* Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it.

== See also ==
* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bell, D. E. (1985). Disappointment in decision making under uncertainty. ''Operations Research, 33''(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.33.1.1 

Chua, Gonzalez, R., Taylor, S. F., Welsh, R. C., &amp; Liberzon, I. (2009). Decision-related loss: Regret and disappointment. ''NeuroImage, 47''(4), 2031–2040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.006 

Clancy, A., Vince, R., &amp; Gabriel, Y. (2012). That unwanted feeling: A psychodynamic study of disappointment in organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x 

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an optimist nor a pessimist be: Mistaken expectations lower well-being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577

Izard, C. E. (2010). The many meanings/aspects of emotion: Definitions, functions, activation, and regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661

Johnson, G., &amp; Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 

Kalat, J. W. (2019). ''Biological psychology'' (13th ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Cengage

Lelieveld, G. J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., &amp; Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1986). Disappointment and dynamic consistency in choice under uncertainty. ''The Review of Economic Studies, 53''(2), 271–282. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297651 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1987). Testing for regret and disappointment in choice under uncertainty. ''The Economic Journal (London), 97'', 118–129. https://doi.org/10.2307/3038234 

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: A prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764

Olekalns, M., &amp; Druckman, D. (2014). With feeling: How emotions shape negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 

Mohr, P. N. C., Biele, G., &amp; Heekeren, H. R. (2010). Neural processing of risk. ''The Journal of Neuroscience, 30''(19), 6613–6619. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0003-10.2010

Ramachandran, V.S., &amp; Jalal, B. (2017). The evolutionary psychology of envy and jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 

Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1997). The impact of probability and magnitude of outcome on disappointment and elation. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69''(3), 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1997.2688 

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not having what you want versus having what you do not want: The impact of type of negative outcome on the experience of disappointment and related emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1998a). The experience of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2000). On bad decisions and disconfirmed expectancies: The psychology of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 14''(4), 521–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999300402781 

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., van der Pligt, J., Manstead, A. S. ., van Empelen, P., &amp; Reinderman, D. (1998b). Emotional reactions to the outcomes of decisions: The role of counterfactual thought in the experience of regret and disappointment. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 75''(2), 117–141. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2784
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE Feeling all the feels: Crash course psychology #25] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i47_jiCsBMs 2-Minute Neuroscience: Prefrontal Cortex] (YouTube)</text>
      <sha1>e4dyczartby3z7oloq5uuqbokbtge8o</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2418036</id>
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        <username>U3216256</username>
        <id>2942574</id>
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      <text bytes="16041" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Disappointment&lt;br&gt;What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]]

* Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002)

* Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. (Reeve, 2018; Izard, 2010) Reference Figure 1
* Overview of what the chapter explores
* Note on emotion research (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017)

   {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a).
* Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999).
* Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017).
* The major theories of disappointment will be discussed.
* The types of disappointment will be discussed.

=== Theories of disappointment ===
* The two major theories of disappointment are Bell's theory of disappointment and Loomes and Sudgen's theory of disappointment (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b).
* Both theories are similar (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b). Loomes and Sugden's theory came about due to their research and theory of regret (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* A key assumption is that decision makers anticipate emotions and take them into account when making a decision (Zeleenberg et al., 2000; Zeleenberg et al., 1998b). 

==== Bell's theory of disappointment (1985) ====

* &quot;Disappointment... is a psychological reaction to an outcome that does not match up with expectations&quot; (Bell, 1985, p.1).
* Disappointment is based on probability/math and there is a specific formula that can predict it (Bell, 1985).
* van Dijk and van der Pligt (1997) conducted five experiments which confirmed Bell's theory; where the experience of disappointment is primarily determined by by the probability of the outcome. It is theorised that individuals who experience disappointment focus on the features of the situation which caused the disappointment - one of the features could be the probability with which the disappointing outcome occurred (van Dijk &amp; van der Pligt, 1997).

==== Loomes and Sugden's theory of disappointment (1986) ====

* &quot;When considering any uncertain prospect, an individual forms some ''prior expectation''... if that consequence falls short of the prior expectation... the individual... experiences some degree of disappointment&quot; (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986, p.271).
* Disappointment can be mapped out with mathematical formula but is more robust than basic probability - there are other factors that contribute to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* Loomes and Sugden (1986) acknowledge that they share the same 'basic intuition' about disappointment as Bell (1985), but they model it differently. They later acknowledge that their theories are in fact similar, but credit Bell (1985) with the 'basic' idea of disappointment which their theory builds upon (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987). &quot;It is suggested that if an individual chooses some action... [they] form some prior expectation about that action. ...After the uncertainty is resolved, the individual experiences one particular consequence, which may be better or worse than the prior expectation&quot;, with worse leading to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987).

=== Types of disappointment ===

* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related. 
* Outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
* Person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
*Disappointment in organisations: Position 1: I am disappointing, Position 2: I am disappointed, Position 3: I disappoint (Clancy et al., 2012). 

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regret Regret] is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). &quot;Regret stems from bad decisions&quot; (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). 

'''Anger'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger Anger] is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). 

'''Disillusionment'''
: [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disillusionment Disillusionment] is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment.

  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}


Test yourself:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Person-related disappointment
- Outcome-related disappointment

{Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Person-related disappointment
+ Outcome-related disappointment
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== What causes disappointment? ==
* Disappointment occurs when expectations are not met (Chua et al., 2009). 
* Neuropsychology of disappointment: Multiple brain regions have shown to be important to disappointment and decision making, namely the anterior insula, and various regions of the prefrontal cortex (Chua et al., 2009: Mohr et al., 2010: Kalat, 2019).
* The brain regions that have shown to be important in decision making/disappointment will be discussed.

* Some of the brain regions that are active during disappointment are also active during regret (Chua et al., 2009).

=== Subcortical structure: Anterior insula ===
[[File:Insula structure.png|alt=Structure of the three sections of the insula|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Insula]]
* When individuals experience disappointment their anterior insula is activated (Chua et al., 2009). See figure 2.
* The anterior insula is active in the presence of potential loss and is a part of the brain known for processing emotions such as disappointment (Mohr et al., 2010).
* One more

=== Cortical structure: Prefrontal cortex ===
[[File:Prefrontal cortex (left) animation.gif|alt=Rotating skull containing left Prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is highlighted |thumb|''Figure 3.'' Left hemisphere prefrontal cortex]]
[[File:Cortical midline structures.png|thumb|''Figure 4.'' Brain image highlighting various cortical regions, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC), and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC/MOPFC).]]
* Prefrontal cortex - middle 'zone': &lt;u&gt;emotional reactions&lt;/u&gt;, cognitive control, and working memory (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - anterior (front): decision making, evaluating which course will provide the best outcome, probability of achieving a good outcome (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - see figure 3. 
* The ventromedial prefrontal cortex [VMPFC] learns what choices are more beneficial for the individual and adjusts decision making accordingly (Kalat, 2019). It also monitors confidence in one's decisions (Kalat, 2019). Individuals with damage to their VMPFC tend to make impulsive decisions based on probability, rather than making considered decisions based on reality (Kalat, 2019).
*Orbitofrontal cortex [OFC]- responds to information from the VMPFC based on how the expected reward compares to other possible choices (Kalat, 2019). The OFC changes and updates the expected outcomes of actions based on current circumstances (Kalat, 2019).
*When individuals experience disappointment their dorsomedial prefrontal cortex [DMPFC] is activated (Chua et al., 2009).
*See figure 4 for VMPFC, OFC, and DMPFC.
Insert Quiz on brain regions and how they contribute to decision-making/disappointment OR insert table with brain region - what it does - how it contributes to disappointment. Or both.

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003). The ventromedial prefrontal cortex monitors how confident you should be about a decision (Kalat, 2019). 
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]], therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can be managed by successfully living up to expectations; where individuals intensify their efforts to attain a certain outcome so as not to experience disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 

=== The benefits of disappointment ===

* Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns &amp; Druckman, 2014). 
* Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others (Johnson &amp; Connelly, 2014).
* Disappointment (from yourself or others) can lead you to work harder in the future or work harder 'now' to avoid disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000).

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

* Disappointment doesn't feel good! It can involve feelings of powerlessness and wanting to do nothing (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 
* Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012).
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can lead to other negative emotions, such as anger (van Dijk et al., 1999). 


Insert quiz on managing disappointment. 

==Conclusion==

* Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment.
* Restate the causes of disappointment. Go over the theories of disappointment.
* Restate how disappointment can be managed.
* Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it.

== See also ==
* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bell, D. E. (1985). Disappointment in decision making under uncertainty. ''Operations Research, 33''(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.33.1.1 

Chua, Gonzalez, R., Taylor, S. F., Welsh, R. C., &amp; Liberzon, I. (2009). Decision-related loss: Regret and disappointment. ''NeuroImage, 47''(4), 2031–2040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.006 

Clancy, A., Vince, R., &amp; Gabriel, Y. (2012). That unwanted feeling: A psychodynamic study of disappointment in organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x 

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an optimist nor a pessimist be: Mistaken expectations lower well-being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577

Izard, C. E. (2010). The many meanings/aspects of emotion: Definitions, functions, activation, and regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661

Johnson, G., &amp; Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 

Kalat, J. W. (2019). ''Biological psychology'' (13th ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Cengage

Lelieveld, G. J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., &amp; Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1986). Disappointment and dynamic consistency in choice under uncertainty. ''The Review of Economic Studies, 53''(2), 271–282. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297651 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1987). Testing for regret and disappointment in choice under uncertainty. ''The Economic Journal (London), 97'', 118–129. https://doi.org/10.2307/3038234 

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: A prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764

Olekalns, M., &amp; Druckman, D. (2014). With feeling: How emotions shape negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 

Mohr, P. N. C., Biele, G., &amp; Heekeren, H. R. (2010). Neural processing of risk. ''The Journal of Neuroscience, 30''(19), 6613–6619. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0003-10.2010

Ramachandran, V.S., &amp; Jalal, B. (2017). The evolutionary psychology of envy and jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 

Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1997). The impact of probability and magnitude of outcome on disappointment and elation. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69''(3), 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1997.2688 

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not having what you want versus having what you do not want: The impact of type of negative outcome on the experience of disappointment and related emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1998a). The experience of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2000). On bad decisions and disconfirmed expectancies: The psychology of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 14''(4), 521–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999300402781 

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., van der Pligt, J., Manstead, A. S. ., van Empelen, P., &amp; Reinderman, D. (1998b). Emotional reactions to the outcomes of decisions: The role of counterfactual thought in the experience of regret and disappointment. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 75''(2), 117–141. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2784
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE Feeling all the feels: Crash course psychology #25] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i47_jiCsBMs 2-Minute Neuroscience: Prefrontal Cortex] (YouTube)</text>
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      <text bytes="16200" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Disappointment&lt;br&gt;What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]]

* Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002)

* Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. (Reeve, 2018; Izard, 2010) Reference Figure 1
* Overview of what the chapter explores
* Note on emotion research (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017)

   {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a).
* Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999).
* Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017).
* The major theories of disappointment will be discussed.
* The types of disappointment will be discussed.

=== Theories of disappointment ===
* The two major theories of disappointment are Bell's theory of disappointment and Loomes and Sudgen's theory of disappointment (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b).
* Both theories are similar (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b). Loomes and Sugden's theory came about due to their research and theory of regret (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* A key assumption is that decision makers anticipate emotions and take them into account when making a decision (Zeleenberg et al., 2000; Zeleenberg et al., 1998b). 

==== Bell's theory of disappointment (1985) ====

* &quot;Disappointment... is a psychological reaction to an outcome that does not match up with expectations&quot; (Bell, 1985, p.1).
* Disappointment is based on probability/math and there is a specific formula that can predict it (Bell, 1985).
* van Dijk and van der Pligt (1997) conducted five experiments which confirmed Bell's theory; where the experience of disappointment is primarily determined by by the probability of the outcome. It is theorised that individuals who experience disappointment focus on the features of the situation which caused the disappointment - one of the features could be the probability with which the disappointing outcome occurred (van Dijk &amp; van der Pligt, 1997).

==== Loomes and Sugden's theory of disappointment (1986) ====

* &quot;When considering any uncertain prospect, an individual forms some ''prior expectation''... if that consequence falls short of the prior expectation... the individual... experiences some degree of disappointment&quot; (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986, p.271).
* Disappointment can be mapped out with mathematical formula but is more robust than basic probability - there are other factors that contribute to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* Loomes and Sugden (1986) acknowledge that they share the same 'basic intuition' about disappointment as Bell (1985), but they model it differently. They later acknowledge that their theories are in fact similar, but credit Bell (1985) with the 'basic' idea of disappointment which their theory builds upon (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987). &quot;It is suggested that if an individual chooses some action... [they] form some prior expectation about that action. ...After the uncertainty is resolved, the individual experiences one particular consequence, which may be better or worse than the prior expectation&quot;, with worse leading to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987).

=== Types of disappointment ===

* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related. 
* Outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
* Person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
*Disappointment in organisations: Position 1: I am disappointing, Position 2: I am disappointed, Position 3: I disappoint (Clancy et al., 2012). 

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regret Regret] is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). &quot;Regret stems from bad decisions&quot; (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). 

'''Anger'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger Anger] is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). 

'''Disillusionment'''
: [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disillusionment Disillusionment] is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment.

  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}


Test yourself:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Person-related disappointment
- Outcome-related disappointment

{Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Person-related disappointment
+ Outcome-related disappointment
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== What causes disappointment? ==
* Disappointment occurs when expectations are not met (Chua et al., 2009). 
* Neuropsychology of disappointment: Multiple brain regions have shown to be important to disappointment and decision making, namely the anterior insula, and various regions of the prefrontal cortex (Chua et al., 2009: Mohr et al., 2010: Kalat, 2019).
* The brain regions that have shown to be important in decision making/disappointment will be discussed.

* Some of the brain regions that are active during disappointment are also active during regret (Chua et al., 2009).

=== Cortical structure: Anterior insula (cortex) ===
[[File:Insula structure.png|alt=Structure of the three sections of the insula|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Insula]]
* The insula has been labeled as a 'subcortical' and 'cortical' structure by Reeve (2018, p.55; p.59).
* Processes and learns about risk/uncertainty (Reeve, 2018).
* When individuals experience disappointment their anterior insula is activated (Chua et al., 2009). See figure 2.
* The anterior insula is active in the presence of potential loss and is a part of the brain known for processing emotions such as disappointment (Mohr et al., 2010).

=== Cortical structure: Prefrontal cortex ===
[[File:Prefrontal cortex (left) animation.gif|alt=Rotating skull containing left Prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is highlighted |thumb|''Figure 3.'' Left hemisphere prefrontal cortex]]
[[File:Cortical midline structures.png|thumb|''Figure 4.'' Brain image highlighting various cortical regions, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC), and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC/MOPFC).]]
* Prefrontal cortex - middle 'zone': &lt;u&gt;emotional reactions&lt;/u&gt;, cognitive control, and working memory (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - anterior (front): decision making, evaluating which course will provide the best outcome, probability of achieving a good outcome (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - see figure 3. 
* The ventromedial prefrontal cortex [VMPFC] learns what choices are more beneficial for the individual and adjusts decision making accordingly (Kalat, 2019). It also monitors confidence in one's decisions (Kalat, 2019). Individuals with damage to their VMPFC tend to make impulsive decisions based on probability, rather than making considered decisions based on reality (Kalat, 2019).
*Orbitofrontal cortex [OFC]- responds to information from the VMPFC based on how the expected reward compares to other possible choices (Kalat, 2019). The OFC changes and updates the expected outcomes of actions based on current circumstances (Kalat, 2019).
*When individuals experience disappointment their dorsomedial prefrontal cortex [DMPFC] is activated (Chua et al., 2009).
*See figure 4 for VMPFC, OFC, and DMPFC.
Insert Quiz on brain regions and how they contribute to decision-making/disappointment OR insert table with brain region - what it does - how it contributes to disappointment. Or both.

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003). The ventromedial prefrontal cortex monitors how confident you should be about a decision (Kalat, 2019). 
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]], therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can be managed by successfully living up to expectations; where individuals intensify their efforts to attain a certain outcome so as not to experience disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 

=== The benefits of disappointment ===

* Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns &amp; Druckman, 2014). 
* Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others (Johnson &amp; Connelly, 2014).
* Disappointment (from yourself or others) can lead you to work harder in the future or work harder 'now' to avoid disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000).

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

* Disappointment doesn't feel good! It can involve feelings of powerlessness and wanting to do nothing (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 
* Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012).
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can lead to other negative emotions, such as anger (van Dijk et al., 1999). 


Insert quiz on managing disappointment. 

==Conclusion==

* Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment.
* Restate the causes of disappointment. Go over the theories of disappointment.
* Restate how disappointment can be managed.
* Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it.

== See also ==
* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bell, D. E. (1985). Disappointment in decision making under uncertainty. ''Operations Research, 33''(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.33.1.1 

Chua, Gonzalez, R., Taylor, S. F., Welsh, R. C., &amp; Liberzon, I. (2009). Decision-related loss: Regret and disappointment. ''NeuroImage, 47''(4), 2031–2040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.006 

Clancy, A., Vince, R., &amp; Gabriel, Y. (2012). That unwanted feeling: A psychodynamic study of disappointment in organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x 

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an optimist nor a pessimist be: Mistaken expectations lower well-being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577

Izard, C. E. (2010). The many meanings/aspects of emotion: Definitions, functions, activation, and regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661

Johnson, G., &amp; Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 

Kalat, J. W. (2019). ''Biological psychology'' (13th ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Cengage

Lelieveld, G. J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., &amp; Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1986). Disappointment and dynamic consistency in choice under uncertainty. ''The Review of Economic Studies, 53''(2), 271–282. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297651 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1987). Testing for regret and disappointment in choice under uncertainty. ''The Economic Journal (London), 97'', 118–129. https://doi.org/10.2307/3038234 

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: A prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764

Olekalns, M., &amp; Druckman, D. (2014). With feeling: How emotions shape negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 

Mohr, P. N. C., Biele, G., &amp; Heekeren, H. R. (2010). Neural processing of risk. ''The Journal of Neuroscience, 30''(19), 6613–6619. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0003-10.2010

Ramachandran, V.S., &amp; Jalal, B. (2017). The evolutionary psychology of envy and jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 

Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1997). The impact of probability and magnitude of outcome on disappointment and elation. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69''(3), 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1997.2688 

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not having what you want versus having what you do not want: The impact of type of negative outcome on the experience of disappointment and related emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1998a). The experience of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2000). On bad decisions and disconfirmed expectancies: The psychology of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 14''(4), 521–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999300402781 

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., van der Pligt, J., Manstead, A. S. ., van Empelen, P., &amp; Reinderman, D. (1998b). Emotional reactions to the outcomes of decisions: The role of counterfactual thought in the experience of regret and disappointment. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 75''(2), 117–141. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2784
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE Feeling all the feels: Crash course psychology #25] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i47_jiCsBMs 2-Minute Neuroscience: Prefrontal Cortex] (YouTube)</text>
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        <id>2942574</id>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]]

* Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002)

* Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. (Reeve, 2018; Izard, 2010) Reference Figure 1
* Overview of what the chapter explores
* Note on emotion research (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017)

   {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a).
* Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999).
* Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017).
* The major theories of disappointment will be discussed.
* The types of disappointment will be discussed.

=== Theories of disappointment ===
* The two major theories of disappointment are Bell's theory of disappointment and Loomes and Sudgen's theory of disappointment (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b).
* Both theories are similar (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b). Loomes and Sugden's theory came about due to their research and theory of regret (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* A key assumption is that decision makers anticipate emotions and take them into account when making a decision (Zeleenberg et al., 2000; Zeleenberg et al., 1998b). 

==== Bell's theory of disappointment (1985) ====

* &quot;Disappointment... is a psychological reaction to an outcome that does not match up with expectations&quot; (Bell, 1985, p.1).
* Disappointment is based on probability/math and there is a specific formula that can predict it (Bell, 1985).
* van Dijk and van der Pligt (1997) conducted five experiments which confirmed Bell's theory; where the experience of disappointment is primarily determined by by the probability of the outcome. It is theorised that individuals who experience disappointment focus on the features of the situation which caused the disappointment - one of the features could be the probability with which the disappointing outcome occurred (van Dijk &amp; van der Pligt, 1997).

==== Loomes and Sugden's theory of disappointment (1986) ====

* &quot;When considering any uncertain prospect, an individual forms some ''prior expectation''... if that consequence falls short of the prior expectation... the individual... experiences some degree of disappointment&quot; (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986, p.271).
* Disappointment can be mapped out with mathematical formula but is more robust than basic probability - there are other factors that contribute to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* Loomes and Sugden (1986) acknowledge that they share the same 'basic intuition' about disappointment as Bell (1985), but they model it differently. They later acknowledge that their theories are in fact similar, but credit Bell (1985) with the 'basic' idea of disappointment which their theory builds upon (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987). &quot;It is suggested that if an individual chooses some action... [they] form some prior expectation about that action. ...After the uncertainty is resolved, the individual experiences one particular consequence, which may be better or worse than the prior expectation&quot;, with worse leading to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987).

=== Types of disappointment ===

* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related. 
* Outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
* Person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
*Disappointment in organisations: Position 1: I am disappointing, Position 2: I am disappointed, Position 3: I disappoint (Clancy et al., 2012). 

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regret Regret] is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). &quot;Regret stems from bad decisions&quot; (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). 

'''Anger'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger Anger] is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). 

'''Disillusionment'''
: [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disillusionment Disillusionment] is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment.

  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}


Test yourself:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Person-related disappointment
- Outcome-related disappointment

{Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Person-related disappointment
+ Outcome-related disappointment
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== What causes disappointment? ==
* Disappointment occurs when expectations are not met (Chua et al., 2009). 
* Neuropsychology of disappointment: Multiple brain regions have shown to be important to disappointment and decision making, namely the anterior insula, and various regions of the prefrontal cortex (Chua et al., 2009: Mohr et al., 2010: Kalat, 2019).
* The brain regions that have shown to be important in decision making/disappointment will be discussed.

* Some of the brain regions that are active during disappointment are also active during regret (Chua et al., 2009).

=== Cortical structure: Anterior insula (cortex) ===
[[File:Insula structure.png|alt=Structure of the three sections of the insula|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Insula]]
* The insula has been labeled as a 'subcortical' and 'cortical' structure by Reeve (2018), as the anterior region is more aligned with the cortical brain and the posterior region is more aligned with the subcortical brain.
* Processes and learns about risk/uncertainty (Reeve, 2018).
* When individuals experience disappointment their anterior insula is activated (Chua et al., 2009). See figure 2.
* The anterior insula is active in the presence of potential loss and is a part of the brain known for processing emotions such as disappointment (Mohr et al., 2010).

=== Cortical structure: Prefrontal cortex ===
[[File:Prefrontal cortex (left) animation.gif|alt=Rotating skull containing left Prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is highlighted |thumb|''Figure 3.'' Left hemisphere prefrontal cortex]]
[[File:Cortical midline structures.png|thumb|''Figure 4.'' Brain image highlighting various cortical regions, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC), and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC/MOPFC).]]
* Prefrontal cortex - middle 'zone': &lt;u&gt;emotional reactions&lt;/u&gt;, cognitive control, and working memory (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - anterior (front): decision making, evaluating which course will provide the best outcome, probability of achieving a good outcome (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - see figure 3. 
* The ventromedial prefrontal cortex [VMPFC] learns what choices are more beneficial for the individual and adjusts decision making accordingly (Kalat, 2019). It also monitors confidence in one's decisions (Kalat, 2019). Individuals with damage to their VMPFC tend to make impulsive decisions based on probability, rather than making considered decisions based on reality (Kalat, 2019).
*Orbitofrontal cortex [OFC]- responds to information from the VMPFC based on how the expected reward compares to other possible choices (Kalat, 2019). The OFC changes and updates the expected outcomes of actions based on current circumstances (Kalat, 2019).
*When individuals experience disappointment their dorsomedial prefrontal cortex [DMPFC] is activated (Chua et al., 2009).
*See figure 4 for VMPFC, OFC, and DMPFC.
Insert Quiz on brain regions and how they contribute to decision-making/disappointment OR insert table with brain region - what it does - how it contributes to disappointment. Or both.

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003). The ventromedial prefrontal cortex monitors how confident you should be about a decision (Kalat, 2019). 
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]], therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can be managed by successfully living up to expectations; where individuals intensify their efforts to attain a certain outcome so as not to experience disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 

=== The benefits of disappointment ===

* Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns &amp; Druckman, 2014). 
* Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others (Johnson &amp; Connelly, 2014).
* Disappointment (from yourself or others) can lead you to work harder in the future or work harder 'now' to avoid disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000).

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

* Disappointment doesn't feel good! It can involve feelings of powerlessness and wanting to do nothing (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 
* Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012).
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can lead to other negative emotions, such as anger (van Dijk et al., 1999). 


Insert quiz on managing disappointment. 

==Conclusion==

* Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment.
* Restate the causes of disappointment. Go over the theories of disappointment.
* Restate how disappointment can be managed.
* Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it.

== See also ==
* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bell, D. E. (1985). Disappointment in decision making under uncertainty. ''Operations Research, 33''(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.33.1.1 

Chua, Gonzalez, R., Taylor, S. F., Welsh, R. C., &amp; Liberzon, I. (2009). Decision-related loss: Regret and disappointment. ''NeuroImage, 47''(4), 2031–2040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.006 

Clancy, A., Vince, R., &amp; Gabriel, Y. (2012). That unwanted feeling: A psychodynamic study of disappointment in organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x 

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an optimist nor a pessimist be: Mistaken expectations lower well-being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577

Izard, C. E. (2010). The many meanings/aspects of emotion: Definitions, functions, activation, and regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661

Johnson, G., &amp; Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 

Kalat, J. W. (2019). ''Biological psychology'' (13th ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Cengage

Lelieveld, G. J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., &amp; Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1986). Disappointment and dynamic consistency in choice under uncertainty. ''The Review of Economic Studies, 53''(2), 271–282. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297651 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1987). Testing for regret and disappointment in choice under uncertainty. ''The Economic Journal (London), 97'', 118–129. https://doi.org/10.2307/3038234 

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: A prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764

Olekalns, M., &amp; Druckman, D. (2014). With feeling: How emotions shape negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 

Mohr, P. N. C., Biele, G., &amp; Heekeren, H. R. (2010). Neural processing of risk. ''The Journal of Neuroscience, 30''(19), 6613–6619. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0003-10.2010

Ramachandran, V.S., &amp; Jalal, B. (2017). The evolutionary psychology of envy and jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 

Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1997). The impact of probability and magnitude of outcome on disappointment and elation. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69''(3), 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1997.2688 

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not having what you want versus having what you do not want: The impact of type of negative outcome on the experience of disappointment and related emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1998a). The experience of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2000). On bad decisions and disconfirmed expectancies: The psychology of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 14''(4), 521–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999300402781 

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., van der Pligt, J., Manstead, A. S. ., van Empelen, P., &amp; Reinderman, D. (1998b). Emotional reactions to the outcomes of decisions: The role of counterfactual thought in the experience of regret and disappointment. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 75''(2), 117–141. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2784
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE Feeling all the feels: Crash course psychology #25] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i47_jiCsBMs 2-Minute Neuroscience: Prefrontal Cortex] (YouTube)</text>
      <sha1>oqzqga2goc0wuc03skll9xfs06goslr</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418047</id>
      <parentid>2418043</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:01:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3216256</username>
        <id>2942574</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cortical structure: Anterior insula (cortex) */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="16280" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Disappointment&lt;br&gt;What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]]

* Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002)

* Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. (Reeve, 2018; Izard, 2010) Reference Figure 1
* Overview of what the chapter explores
* Note on emotion research (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017)

   {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a).
* Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999).
* Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017).
* The major theories of disappointment will be discussed.
* The types of disappointment will be discussed.

=== Theories of disappointment ===
* The two major theories of disappointment are Bell's theory of disappointment and Loomes and Sudgen's theory of disappointment (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b).
* Both theories are similar (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b). Loomes and Sugden's theory came about due to their research and theory of regret (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* A key assumption is that decision makers anticipate emotions and take them into account when making a decision (Zeleenberg et al., 2000; Zeleenberg et al., 1998b). 

==== Bell's theory of disappointment (1985) ====

* &quot;Disappointment... is a psychological reaction to an outcome that does not match up with expectations&quot; (Bell, 1985, p.1).
* Disappointment is based on probability/math and there is a specific formula that can predict it (Bell, 1985).
* van Dijk and van der Pligt (1997) conducted five experiments which confirmed Bell's theory; where the experience of disappointment is primarily determined by by the probability of the outcome. It is theorised that individuals who experience disappointment focus on the features of the situation which caused the disappointment - one of the features could be the probability with which the disappointing outcome occurred (van Dijk &amp; van der Pligt, 1997).

==== Loomes and Sugden's theory of disappointment (1986) ====

* &quot;When considering any uncertain prospect, an individual forms some ''prior expectation''... if that consequence falls short of the prior expectation... the individual... experiences some degree of disappointment&quot; (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986, p.271).
* Disappointment can be mapped out with mathematical formula but is more robust than basic probability - there are other factors that contribute to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* Loomes and Sugden (1986) acknowledge that they share the same 'basic intuition' about disappointment as Bell (1985), but they model it differently. They later acknowledge that their theories are in fact similar, but credit Bell (1985) with the 'basic' idea of disappointment which their theory builds upon (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987). &quot;It is suggested that if an individual chooses some action... [they] form some prior expectation about that action. ...After the uncertainty is resolved, the individual experiences one particular consequence, which may be better or worse than the prior expectation&quot;, with worse leading to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987).

=== Types of disappointment ===

* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related. 
* Outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
* Person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
*Disappointment in organisations: Position 1: I am disappointing, Position 2: I am disappointed, Position 3: I disappoint (Clancy et al., 2012). 

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regret Regret] is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). &quot;Regret stems from bad decisions&quot; (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). 

'''Anger'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger Anger] is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). 

'''Disillusionment'''
: [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disillusionment Disillusionment] is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment.

  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}


Test yourself:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Person-related disappointment
- Outcome-related disappointment

{Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Person-related disappointment
+ Outcome-related disappointment
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== What causes disappointment? ==
* Disappointment occurs when expectations are not met (Chua et al., 2009). 
* Neuropsychology of disappointment: Multiple brain regions have shown to be important to disappointment and decision making, namely the anterior insula, and various regions of the prefrontal cortex (Chua et al., 2009: Mohr et al., 2010: Kalat, 2019).
* The brain regions that have shown to be important in decision making/disappointment will be discussed.

* Some of the brain regions that are active during disappointment are also active during regret (Chua et al., 2009).

=== Anterior insula (cortex) ===
[[File:Insula structure.png|alt=Structure of the three sections of the insula|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Insula]]
* The insula has been labeled as a 'subcortical' and 'cortical' structure by Reeve (2018), as the anterior region is more aligned with the cortical brain and the posterior region is more aligned with the subcortical brain.
* Processes and learns about risk/uncertainty (Reeve, 2018).
* When individuals experience disappointment their anterior insula is activated (Chua et al., 2009). See figure 2.
* The anterior insula is active in the presence of potential loss and is a part of the brain known for processing emotions such as disappointment (Mohr et al., 2010).

=== Prefrontal cortex ===
[[File:Prefrontal cortex (left) animation.gif|alt=Rotating skull containing left Prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is highlighted |thumb|''Figure 3.'' Left hemisphere prefrontal cortex]]
[[File:Cortical midline structures.png|thumb|''Figure 4.'' Brain image highlighting various cortical regions, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC), and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC/MOPFC).]]
* Prefrontal cortex - middle 'zone': &lt;u&gt;emotional reactions&lt;/u&gt;, cognitive control, and working memory (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - anterior (front): decision making, evaluating which course will provide the best outcome, probability of achieving a good outcome (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - see figure 3. 
* The ventromedial prefrontal cortex [VMPFC] learns what choices are more beneficial for the individual and adjusts decision making accordingly (Kalat, 2019). It also monitors confidence in one's decisions (Kalat, 2019). Individuals with damage to their VMPFC tend to make impulsive decisions based on probability, rather than making considered decisions based on reality (Kalat, 2019).
*Orbitofrontal cortex [OFC]- responds to information from the VMPFC based on how the expected reward compares to other possible choices (Kalat, 2019). The OFC changes and updates the expected outcomes of actions based on current circumstances (Kalat, 2019).
*When individuals experience disappointment their dorsomedial prefrontal cortex [DMPFC] is activated (Chua et al., 2009).
*See figure 4 for VMPFC, OFC, and DMPFC.
Insert Quiz on brain regions and how they contribute to decision-making/disappointment OR insert table with brain region - what it does - how it contributes to disappointment. Or both.

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003). The ventromedial prefrontal cortex monitors how confident you should be about a decision (Kalat, 2019). 
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]], therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can be managed by successfully living up to expectations; where individuals intensify their efforts to attain a certain outcome so as not to experience disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 

=== The benefits of disappointment ===

* Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns &amp; Druckman, 2014). 
* Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others (Johnson &amp; Connelly, 2014).
* Disappointment (from yourself or others) can lead you to work harder in the future or work harder 'now' to avoid disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000).

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

* Disappointment doesn't feel good! It can involve feelings of powerlessness and wanting to do nothing (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 
* Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012).
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can lead to other negative emotions, such as anger (van Dijk et al., 1999). 


Insert quiz on managing disappointment. 

==Conclusion==

* Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment.
* Restate the causes of disappointment. Go over the theories of disappointment.
* Restate how disappointment can be managed.
* Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it.

== See also ==
* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bell, D. E. (1985). Disappointment in decision making under uncertainty. ''Operations Research, 33''(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.33.1.1 

Chua, Gonzalez, R., Taylor, S. F., Welsh, R. C., &amp; Liberzon, I. (2009). Decision-related loss: Regret and disappointment. ''NeuroImage, 47''(4), 2031–2040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.006 

Clancy, A., Vince, R., &amp; Gabriel, Y. (2012). That unwanted feeling: A psychodynamic study of disappointment in organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x 

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an optimist nor a pessimist be: Mistaken expectations lower well-being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577

Izard, C. E. (2010). The many meanings/aspects of emotion: Definitions, functions, activation, and regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661

Johnson, G., &amp; Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 

Kalat, J. W. (2019). ''Biological psychology'' (13th ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Cengage

Lelieveld, G. J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., &amp; Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1986). Disappointment and dynamic consistency in choice under uncertainty. ''The Review of Economic Studies, 53''(2), 271–282. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297651 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1987). Testing for regret and disappointment in choice under uncertainty. ''The Economic Journal (London), 97'', 118–129. https://doi.org/10.2307/3038234 

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: A prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764

Olekalns, M., &amp; Druckman, D. (2014). With feeling: How emotions shape negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 

Mohr, P. N. C., Biele, G., &amp; Heekeren, H. R. (2010). Neural processing of risk. ''The Journal of Neuroscience, 30''(19), 6613–6619. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0003-10.2010

Ramachandran, V.S., &amp; Jalal, B. (2017). The evolutionary psychology of envy and jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 

Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1997). The impact of probability and magnitude of outcome on disappointment and elation. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69''(3), 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1997.2688 

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not having what you want versus having what you do not want: The impact of type of negative outcome on the experience of disappointment and related emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1998a). The experience of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2000). On bad decisions and disconfirmed expectancies: The psychology of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 14''(4), 521–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999300402781 

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., van der Pligt, J., Manstead, A. S. ., van Empelen, P., &amp; Reinderman, D. (1998b). Emotional reactions to the outcomes of decisions: The role of counterfactual thought in the experience of regret and disappointment. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 75''(2), 117–141. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2784
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE Feeling all the feels: Crash course psychology #25] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i47_jiCsBMs 2-Minute Neuroscience: Prefrontal Cortex] (YouTube)</text>
      <sha1>4ru1xw7ecmt6i3u974udcpsbfbrrm1z</sha1>
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      <comment>Case study on types of disappointment</comment>
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      <text bytes="16291" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Disappointment&lt;br&gt;What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]]

* Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002)

* Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. (Reeve, 2018; Izard, 2010) Reference Figure 1
* Overview of what the chapter explores
* Note on emotion research (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017)

   {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a).
* Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999).
* Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017).
* The major theories of disappointment will be discussed.
* The types of disappointment will be discussed.

=== Theories of disappointment ===
* The two major theories of disappointment are Bell's theory of disappointment and Loomes and Sudgen's theory of disappointment (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b).
* Both theories are similar (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b). Loomes and Sugden's theory came about due to their research and theory of regret (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* A key assumption is that decision makers anticipate emotions and take them into account when making a decision (Zeleenberg et al., 2000; Zeleenberg et al., 1998b). 

==== Bell's theory of disappointment (1985) ====

* &quot;Disappointment... is a psychological reaction to an outcome that does not match up with expectations&quot; (Bell, 1985, p.1).
* Disappointment is based on probability/math and there is a specific formula that can predict it (Bell, 1985).
* van Dijk and van der Pligt (1997) conducted five experiments which confirmed Bell's theory; where the experience of disappointment is primarily determined by by the probability of the outcome. It is theorised that individuals who experience disappointment focus on the features of the situation which caused the disappointment - one of the features could be the probability with which the disappointing outcome occurred (van Dijk &amp; van der Pligt, 1997).

==== Loomes and Sugden's theory of disappointment (1986) ====

* &quot;When considering any uncertain prospect, an individual forms some ''prior expectation''... if that consequence falls short of the prior expectation... the individual... experiences some degree of disappointment&quot; (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986, p.271).
* Disappointment can be mapped out with mathematical formula but is more robust than basic probability - there are other factors that contribute to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* Loomes and Sugden (1986) acknowledge that they share the same 'basic intuition' about disappointment as Bell (1985), but they model it differently. They later acknowledge that their theories are in fact similar, but credit Bell (1985) with the 'basic' idea of disappointment which their theory builds upon (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987). &quot;It is suggested that if an individual chooses some action... [they] form some prior expectation about that action. ...After the uncertainty is resolved, the individual experiences one particular consequence, which may be better or worse than the prior expectation&quot;, with worse leading to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987).

=== Types of disappointment ===

* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related. 
* Outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
* Person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
*Case study: Disappointment in organisations: Position 1: I am disappointing, Position 2: I am disappointed, Position 3: I disappoint (Clancy et al., 2012).

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regret Regret] is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). &quot;Regret stems from bad decisions&quot; (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). 

'''Anger'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger Anger] is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). 

'''Disillusionment'''
: [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disillusionment Disillusionment] is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment.

  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}


Test yourself:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Person-related disappointment
- Outcome-related disappointment

{Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Person-related disappointment
+ Outcome-related disappointment
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== What causes disappointment? ==
* Disappointment occurs when expectations are not met (Chua et al., 2009). 
* Neuropsychology of disappointment: Multiple brain regions have shown to be important to disappointment and decision making, namely the anterior insula, and various regions of the prefrontal cortex (Chua et al., 2009: Mohr et al., 2010: Kalat, 2019).
* The brain regions that have shown to be important in decision making/disappointment will be discussed.

* Some of the brain regions that are active during disappointment are also active during regret (Chua et al., 2009).

=== Anterior insula (cortex) ===
[[File:Insula structure.png|alt=Structure of the three sections of the insula|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Insula]]
* The insula has been labeled as a 'subcortical' and 'cortical' structure by Reeve (2018), as the anterior region is more aligned with the cortical brain and the posterior region is more aligned with the subcortical brain.
* Processes and learns about risk/uncertainty (Reeve, 2018).
* When individuals experience disappointment their anterior insula is activated (Chua et al., 2009). See figure 2.
* The anterior insula is active in the presence of potential loss and is a part of the brain known for processing emotions such as disappointment (Mohr et al., 2010).

=== Prefrontal cortex ===
[[File:Prefrontal cortex (left) animation.gif|alt=Rotating skull containing left Prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is highlighted |thumb|''Figure 3.'' Left hemisphere prefrontal cortex]]
[[File:Cortical midline structures.png|thumb|''Figure 4.'' Brain image highlighting various cortical regions, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC), and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC/MOPFC).]]
* Prefrontal cortex - middle 'zone': &lt;u&gt;emotional reactions&lt;/u&gt;, cognitive control, and working memory (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - anterior (front): decision making, evaluating which course will provide the best outcome, probability of achieving a good outcome (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - see figure 3. 
* The ventromedial prefrontal cortex [VMPFC] learns what choices are more beneficial for the individual and adjusts decision making accordingly (Kalat, 2019). It also monitors confidence in one's decisions (Kalat, 2019). Individuals with damage to their VMPFC tend to make impulsive decisions based on probability, rather than making considered decisions based on reality (Kalat, 2019).
*Orbitofrontal cortex [OFC]- responds to information from the VMPFC based on how the expected reward compares to other possible choices (Kalat, 2019). The OFC changes and updates the expected outcomes of actions based on current circumstances (Kalat, 2019).
*When individuals experience disappointment their dorsomedial prefrontal cortex [DMPFC] is activated (Chua et al., 2009).
*See figure 4 for VMPFC, OFC, and DMPFC.
Insert Quiz on brain regions and how they contribute to decision-making/disappointment OR insert table with brain region - what it does - how it contributes to disappointment. Or both.

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003). The ventromedial prefrontal cortex monitors how confident you should be about a decision (Kalat, 2019). 
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]], therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can be managed by successfully living up to expectations; where individuals intensify their efforts to attain a certain outcome so as not to experience disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 

=== The benefits of disappointment ===

* Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns &amp; Druckman, 2014). 
* Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others (Johnson &amp; Connelly, 2014).
* Disappointment (from yourself or others) can lead you to work harder in the future or work harder 'now' to avoid disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000).

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

* Disappointment doesn't feel good! It can involve feelings of powerlessness and wanting to do nothing (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 
* Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012).
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can lead to other negative emotions, such as anger (van Dijk et al., 1999). 


Insert quiz on managing disappointment. 

==Conclusion==

* Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment.
* Restate the causes of disappointment. Go over the theories of disappointment.
* Restate how disappointment can be managed.
* Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it.

== See also ==
* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bell, D. E. (1985). Disappointment in decision making under uncertainty. ''Operations Research, 33''(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.33.1.1 

Chua, Gonzalez, R., Taylor, S. F., Welsh, R. C., &amp; Liberzon, I. (2009). Decision-related loss: Regret and disappointment. ''NeuroImage, 47''(4), 2031–2040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.006 

Clancy, A., Vince, R., &amp; Gabriel, Y. (2012). That unwanted feeling: A psychodynamic study of disappointment in organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x 

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an optimist nor a pessimist be: Mistaken expectations lower well-being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577

Izard, C. E. (2010). The many meanings/aspects of emotion: Definitions, functions, activation, and regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661

Johnson, G., &amp; Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 

Kalat, J. W. (2019). ''Biological psychology'' (13th ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Cengage

Lelieveld, G. J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., &amp; Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1986). Disappointment and dynamic consistency in choice under uncertainty. ''The Review of Economic Studies, 53''(2), 271–282. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297651 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1987). Testing for regret and disappointment in choice under uncertainty. ''The Economic Journal (London), 97'', 118–129. https://doi.org/10.2307/3038234 

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: A prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764

Olekalns, M., &amp; Druckman, D. (2014). With feeling: How emotions shape negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 

Mohr, P. N. C., Biele, G., &amp; Heekeren, H. R. (2010). Neural processing of risk. ''The Journal of Neuroscience, 30''(19), 6613–6619. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0003-10.2010

Ramachandran, V.S., &amp; Jalal, B. (2017). The evolutionary psychology of envy and jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 

Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1997). The impact of probability and magnitude of outcome on disappointment and elation. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69''(3), 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1997.2688 

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not having what you want versus having what you do not want: The impact of type of negative outcome on the experience of disappointment and related emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1998a). The experience of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2000). On bad decisions and disconfirmed expectancies: The psychology of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 14''(4), 521–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999300402781 

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., van der Pligt, J., Manstead, A. S. ., van Empelen, P., &amp; Reinderman, D. (1998b). Emotional reactions to the outcomes of decisions: The role of counterfactual thought in the experience of regret and disappointment. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 75''(2), 117–141. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2784
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE Feeling all the feels: Crash course psychology #25] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i47_jiCsBMs 2-Minute Neuroscience: Prefrontal Cortex] (YouTube)</text>
      <sha1>1mo63k0disgtkef57wzl3l84vwfg7fx</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2418065</id>
      <parentid>2418050</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:27:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3216256</username>
        <id>2942574</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* What is disappointment? */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="17020" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Disappointment&lt;br&gt;What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]]

* Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002)

* Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. (Reeve, 2018; Izard, 2010) Reference Figure 1
* Overview of what the chapter explores
* Note on emotion research (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017)

   {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a).
* Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999).
* Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017).
* The types of disappointment will be discussed.

*

=== Types of disappointment ===

* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related. 
* Outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
* Person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
*Case study: Disappointment in organisations: Position 1: I am disappointing, Position 2: I am disappointed, Position 3: I disappoint (Clancy et al., 2012).

=== Emotions similar to disappointment ===

* [[wikipedia:Regret|Regret]] is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). &quot;Regret stems from bad decisions&quot; (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a).
* [[wikipedia:Anger|Anger]] is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999).
* [[wiktionary:disillusionment|Disillusionment]] is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment.


{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regret Regret] is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). &quot;Regret stems from bad decisions&quot; (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). 

'''Anger'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger Anger] is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). 

'''Disillusionment'''
: [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disillusionment Disillusionment] is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment.

  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}


Test yourself:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Person-related disappointment
- Outcome-related disappointment

{Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Person-related disappointment
+ Outcome-related disappointment
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Theories of disappointment ==
*The two major theories of disappointment are Bell's theory of disappointment and Loomes and Sudgen's theory of disappointment (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b).
* Both theories are similar (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b). Loomes and Sugden's theory came about due to their research and theory of regret (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* A key assumption is that decision makers anticipate emotions and take them into account when making a decision (Zeleenberg et al., 2000; Zeleenberg et al., 1998b).

=== Bell's theory of disappointment (1985) ===
* &quot;Disappointment... is a psychological reaction to an outcome that does not match up with expectations&quot; (Bell, 1985, p.1).
* Disappointment is based on probability/math and there is a specific formula that can predict it (Bell, 1985).
* van Dijk and van der Pligt (1997) conducted five experiments which confirmed Bell's theory; where the experience of disappointment is primarily determined by by the probability of the outcome. It is theorised that individuals who experience disappointment focus on the features of the situation which caused the disappointment - one of the features could be the probability with which the disappointing outcome occurred (van Dijk &amp; van der Pligt, 1997).

=== Loomes and Sugden's theory of disappointment (1986) ===
* &quot;When considering any uncertain prospect, an individual forms some ''prior expectation''... if that consequence falls short of the prior expectation... the individual... experiences some degree of disappointment&quot; (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986, p.271).
* Disappointment can be mapped out with mathematical formula but is more robust than basic probability - there are other factors that contribute to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* Loomes and Sugden (1986) acknowledge that they share the same 'basic intuition' about disappointment as Bell (1985), but they model it differently. They later acknowledge that their theories are in fact similar, but credit Bell (1985) with the 'basic' idea of disappointment which their theory builds upon (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987). &quot;It is suggested that if an individual chooses some action... [they] form some prior expectation about that action. ...After the uncertainty is resolved, the individual experiences one particular consequence, which may be better or worse than the prior expectation&quot;, with worse leading to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987).

== What causes disappointment? ==
* Disappointment occurs when expectations are not met (Chua et al., 2009). 
* Neuropsychology of disappointment: Multiple brain regions have shown to be important to disappointment and decision making, namely the anterior insula, and various regions of the prefrontal cortex (Chua et al., 2009: Mohr et al., 2010: Kalat, 2019).
* The brain regions that have shown to be important in decision making/disappointment will be discussed.

* Some of the brain regions that are active during disappointment are also active during regret (Chua et al., 2009).

=== Anterior insula (cortex) ===
[[File:Insula structure.png|alt=Structure of the three sections of the insula|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Insula]]
* The insula has been labeled as a 'subcortical' and 'cortical' structure by Reeve (2018), as the anterior region is more aligned with the cortical brain and the posterior region is more aligned with the subcortical brain.
* Processes and learns about risk/uncertainty (Reeve, 2018).
* When individuals experience disappointment their anterior insula is activated (Chua et al., 2009). See figure 2.
* The anterior insula is active in the presence of potential loss and is a part of the brain known for processing emotions such as disappointment (Mohr et al., 2010).

=== Prefrontal cortex ===
[[File:Prefrontal cortex (left) animation.gif|alt=Rotating skull containing left Prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is highlighted |thumb|''Figure 3.'' Left hemisphere prefrontal cortex]]
[[File:Cortical midline structures.png|thumb|''Figure 4.'' Brain image highlighting various cortical regions, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC), and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC/MOPFC).]]
* Prefrontal cortex - middle 'zone': &lt;u&gt;emotional reactions&lt;/u&gt;, cognitive control, and working memory (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - anterior (front): decision making, evaluating which course will provide the best outcome, probability of achieving a good outcome (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - see figure 3. 
* The ventromedial prefrontal cortex [VMPFC] learns what choices are more beneficial for the individual and adjusts decision making accordingly (Kalat, 2019). It also monitors confidence in one's decisions (Kalat, 2019). Individuals with damage to their VMPFC tend to make impulsive decisions based on probability, rather than making considered decisions based on reality (Kalat, 2019).
*Orbitofrontal cortex [OFC]- responds to information from the VMPFC based on how the expected reward compares to other possible choices (Kalat, 2019). The OFC changes and updates the expected outcomes of actions based on current circumstances (Kalat, 2019).
*When individuals experience disappointment their dorsomedial prefrontal cortex [DMPFC] is activated (Chua et al., 2009).
*See figure 4 for VMPFC, OFC, and DMPFC.
Insert Quiz on brain regions and how they contribute to decision-making/disappointment OR insert table with brain region - what it does - how it contributes to disappointment. Or both.

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003). The ventromedial prefrontal cortex monitors how confident you should be about a decision (Kalat, 2019). 
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]], therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can be managed by successfully living up to expectations; where individuals intensify their efforts to attain a certain outcome so as not to experience disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 

=== The benefits of disappointment ===

* Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns &amp; Druckman, 2014). 
* Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others (Johnson &amp; Connelly, 2014).
* Disappointment (from yourself or others) can lead you to work harder in the future or work harder 'now' to avoid disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000).

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

* Disappointment doesn't feel good! It can involve feelings of powerlessness and wanting to do nothing (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 
* Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012).
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can lead to other negative emotions, such as anger (van Dijk et al., 1999). 


Insert quiz on managing disappointment. 

==Conclusion==

* Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment.
* Restate the causes of disappointment. Go over the theories of disappointment.
* Restate how disappointment can be managed.
* Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it.

== See also ==
* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bell, D. E. (1985). Disappointment in decision making under uncertainty. ''Operations Research, 33''(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.33.1.1 

Chua, Gonzalez, R., Taylor, S. F., Welsh, R. C., &amp; Liberzon, I. (2009). Decision-related loss: Regret and disappointment. ''NeuroImage, 47''(4), 2031–2040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.006 

Clancy, A., Vince, R., &amp; Gabriel, Y. (2012). That unwanted feeling: A psychodynamic study of disappointment in organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x 

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an optimist nor a pessimist be: Mistaken expectations lower well-being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577

Izard, C. E. (2010). The many meanings/aspects of emotion: Definitions, functions, activation, and regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661

Johnson, G., &amp; Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 

Kalat, J. W. (2019). ''Biological psychology'' (13th ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Cengage

Lelieveld, G. J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., &amp; Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1986). Disappointment and dynamic consistency in choice under uncertainty. ''The Review of Economic Studies, 53''(2), 271–282. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297651 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1987). Testing for regret and disappointment in choice under uncertainty. ''The Economic Journal (London), 97'', 118–129. https://doi.org/10.2307/3038234 

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: A prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764

Olekalns, M., &amp; Druckman, D. (2014). With feeling: How emotions shape negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 

Mohr, P. N. C., Biele, G., &amp; Heekeren, H. R. (2010). Neural processing of risk. ''The Journal of Neuroscience, 30''(19), 6613–6619. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0003-10.2010

Ramachandran, V.S., &amp; Jalal, B. (2017). The evolutionary psychology of envy and jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 

Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1997). The impact of probability and magnitude of outcome on disappointment and elation. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69''(3), 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1997.2688 

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not having what you want versus having what you do not want: The impact of type of negative outcome on the experience of disappointment and related emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1998a). The experience of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2000). On bad decisions and disconfirmed expectancies: The psychology of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 14''(4), 521–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999300402781 

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., van der Pligt, J., Manstead, A. S. ., van Empelen, P., &amp; Reinderman, D. (1998b). Emotional reactions to the outcomes of decisions: The role of counterfactual thought in the experience of regret and disappointment. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 75''(2), 117–141. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2784
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE Feeling all the feels: Crash course psychology #25] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i47_jiCsBMs 2-Minute Neuroscience: Prefrontal Cortex] (YouTube)</text>
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      <text bytes="17069" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Disappointment&lt;br&gt;What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]]

* Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002)

* Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. (Reeve, 2018; Izard, 2010) Reference Figure 1
* Overview of what the chapter explores
* Note on emotion research (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017)

   {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What are the major theories of disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a).
* Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999).
* Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017).
* The types of disappointment will be discussed.

*

=== Types of disappointment ===

* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related. 
* Outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
* Person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
*Case study: Disappointment in organisations: Position 1: I am disappointing, Position 2: I am disappointed, Position 3: I disappoint (Clancy et al., 2012).

=== Emotions similar to disappointment ===

* [[wikipedia:Regret|Regret]] is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). &quot;Regret stems from bad decisions&quot; (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a).
* [[wikipedia:Anger|Anger]] is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999).
* [[wiktionary:disillusionment|Disillusionment]] is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment.


{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regret Regret] is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). &quot;Regret stems from bad decisions&quot; (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). 

'''Anger'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger Anger] is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). 

'''Disillusionment'''
: [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disillusionment Disillusionment] is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment.

  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}


Test yourself:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Person-related disappointment
- Outcome-related disappointment

{Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Person-related disappointment
+ Outcome-related disappointment
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Theories of disappointment ==
*The two major theories of disappointment are Bell's theory of disappointment and Loomes and Sudgen's theory of disappointment (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b).
* Both theories are similar (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b). Loomes and Sugden's theory came about due to their research and theory of regret (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* A key assumption is that decision makers anticipate emotions and take them into account when making a decision (Zeleenberg et al., 2000; Zeleenberg et al., 1998b).

=== Bell's theory of disappointment (1985) ===
* &quot;Disappointment... is a psychological reaction to an outcome that does not match up with expectations&quot; (Bell, 1985, p.1).
* Disappointment is based on probability/math and there is a specific formula that can predict it (Bell, 1985).
* van Dijk and van der Pligt (1997) conducted five experiments which confirmed Bell's theory; where the experience of disappointment is primarily determined by by the probability of the outcome. It is theorised that individuals who experience disappointment focus on the features of the situation which caused the disappointment - one of the features could be the probability with which the disappointing outcome occurred (van Dijk &amp; van der Pligt, 1997).

=== Loomes and Sugden's theory of disappointment (1986) ===
* &quot;When considering any uncertain prospect, an individual forms some ''prior expectation''... if that consequence falls short of the prior expectation... the individual... experiences some degree of disappointment&quot; (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986, p.271).
* Disappointment can be mapped out with mathematical formula but is more robust than basic probability - there are other factors that contribute to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* Loomes and Sugden (1986) acknowledge that they share the same 'basic intuition' about disappointment as Bell (1985), but they model it differently. They later acknowledge that their theories are in fact similar, but credit Bell (1985) with the 'basic' idea of disappointment which their theory builds upon (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987). &quot;It is suggested that if an individual chooses some action... [they] form some prior expectation about that action. ...After the uncertainty is resolved, the individual experiences one particular consequence, which may be better or worse than the prior expectation&quot;, with worse leading to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987).

== What causes disappointment? ==
* Disappointment occurs when expectations are not met (Chua et al., 2009). 
* Neuropsychology of disappointment: Multiple brain regions have shown to be important to disappointment and decision making, namely the anterior insula, and various regions of the prefrontal cortex (Chua et al., 2009: Mohr et al., 2010: Kalat, 2019).
* The brain regions that have shown to be important in decision making/disappointment will be discussed.

* Some of the brain regions that are active during disappointment are also active during regret (Chua et al., 2009).

=== Anterior insula (cortex) ===
[[File:Insula structure.png|alt=Structure of the three sections of the insula|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Insula]]
* The insula has been labeled as a 'subcortical' and 'cortical' structure by Reeve (2018), as the anterior region is more aligned with the cortical brain and the posterior region is more aligned with the subcortical brain.
* Processes and learns about risk/uncertainty (Reeve, 2018).
* When individuals experience disappointment their anterior insula is activated (Chua et al., 2009). See figure 2.
* The anterior insula is active in the presence of potential loss and is a part of the brain known for processing emotions such as disappointment (Mohr et al., 2010).

=== Prefrontal cortex ===
[[File:Prefrontal cortex (left) animation.gif|alt=Rotating skull containing left Prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is highlighted |thumb|''Figure 3.'' Left hemisphere prefrontal cortex]]
[[File:Cortical midline structures.png|thumb|''Figure 4.'' Brain image highlighting various cortical regions, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC), and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC/MOPFC).]]
* Prefrontal cortex - middle 'zone': &lt;u&gt;emotional reactions&lt;/u&gt;, cognitive control, and working memory (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - anterior (front): decision making, evaluating which course will provide the best outcome, probability of achieving a good outcome (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - see figure 3. 
* The ventromedial prefrontal cortex [VMPFC] learns what choices are more beneficial for the individual and adjusts decision making accordingly (Kalat, 2019). It also monitors confidence in one's decisions (Kalat, 2019). Individuals with damage to their VMPFC tend to make impulsive decisions based on probability, rather than making considered decisions based on reality (Kalat, 2019).
*Orbitofrontal cortex [OFC]- responds to information from the VMPFC based on how the expected reward compares to other possible choices (Kalat, 2019). The OFC changes and updates the expected outcomes of actions based on current circumstances (Kalat, 2019).
*When individuals experience disappointment their dorsomedial prefrontal cortex [DMPFC] is activated (Chua et al., 2009).
*See figure 4 for VMPFC, OFC, and DMPFC.
Insert Quiz on brain regions and how they contribute to decision-making/disappointment OR insert table with brain region - what it does - how it contributes to disappointment. Or both.

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003). The ventromedial prefrontal cortex monitors how confident you should be about a decision (Kalat, 2019). 
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]], therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can be managed by successfully living up to expectations; where individuals intensify their efforts to attain a certain outcome so as not to experience disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 

=== The benefits of disappointment ===

* Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns &amp; Druckman, 2014). 
* Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others (Johnson &amp; Connelly, 2014).
* Disappointment (from yourself or others) can lead you to work harder in the future or work harder 'now' to avoid disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000).

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

* Disappointment doesn't feel good! It can involve feelings of powerlessness and wanting to do nothing (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 
* Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012).
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can lead to other negative emotions, such as anger (van Dijk et al., 1999). 


Insert quiz on managing disappointment. 

==Conclusion==

* Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment.
* Restate the causes of disappointment. Go over the theories of disappointment.
* Restate how disappointment can be managed.
* Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it.

== See also ==
* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bell, D. E. (1985). Disappointment in decision making under uncertainty. ''Operations Research, 33''(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.33.1.1 

Chua, Gonzalez, R., Taylor, S. F., Welsh, R. C., &amp; Liberzon, I. (2009). Decision-related loss: Regret and disappointment. ''NeuroImage, 47''(4), 2031–2040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.006 

Clancy, A., Vince, R., &amp; Gabriel, Y. (2012). That unwanted feeling: A psychodynamic study of disappointment in organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x 

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an optimist nor a pessimist be: Mistaken expectations lower well-being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577

Izard, C. E. (2010). The many meanings/aspects of emotion: Definitions, functions, activation, and regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661

Johnson, G., &amp; Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 

Kalat, J. W. (2019). ''Biological psychology'' (13th ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Cengage

Lelieveld, G. J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., &amp; Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1986). Disappointment and dynamic consistency in choice under uncertainty. ''The Review of Economic Studies, 53''(2), 271–282. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297651 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1987). Testing for regret and disappointment in choice under uncertainty. ''The Economic Journal (London), 97'', 118–129. https://doi.org/10.2307/3038234 

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: A prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764

Olekalns, M., &amp; Druckman, D. (2014). With feeling: How emotions shape negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 

Mohr, P. N. C., Biele, G., &amp; Heekeren, H. R. (2010). Neural processing of risk. ''The Journal of Neuroscience, 30''(19), 6613–6619. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0003-10.2010

Ramachandran, V.S., &amp; Jalal, B. (2017). The evolutionary psychology of envy and jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 

Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1997). The impact of probability and magnitude of outcome on disappointment and elation. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69''(3), 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1997.2688 

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not having what you want versus having what you do not want: The impact of type of negative outcome on the experience of disappointment and related emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1998a). The experience of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2000). On bad decisions and disconfirmed expectancies: The psychology of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 14''(4), 521–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999300402781 

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., van der Pligt, J., Manstead, A. S. ., van Empelen, P., &amp; Reinderman, D. (1998b). Emotional reactions to the outcomes of decisions: The role of counterfactual thought in the experience of regret and disappointment. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 75''(2), 117–141. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2784
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE Feeling all the feels: Crash course psychology #25] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i47_jiCsBMs 2-Minute Neuroscience: Prefrontal Cortex] (YouTube)</text>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]]

* Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002)

* Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. (Reeve, 2018; Izard, 2010) Reference Figure 1
* Overview of what the chapter explores
* Note on emotion research (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017)

   {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What are the major theories of disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a).
* Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999).
* Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017).
* The types of disappointment will be discussed.

*

=== Types of disappointment ===

* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related. 
* Outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
* Person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
*Case study: Disappointment in organisations: Position 1: I am disappointing, Position 2: I am disappointed, Position 3: I disappoint (Clancy et al., 2012).

=== Emotions similar to disappointment ===

* [[wikipedia:Regret|Regret]] is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). &quot;Regret stems from bad decisions&quot; (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a).
* [[wikipedia:Anger|Anger]] is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999).
* [[wiktionary:disillusionment|Disillusionment]] is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment.


{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regret Regret] is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). &quot;Regret stems from bad decisions&quot; (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). 

'''Anger'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger Anger] is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). 

'''Disillusionment'''
: [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disillusionment Disillusionment] is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment.

  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}


Test yourself:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Person-related disappointment
- Outcome-related disappointment

{Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Person-related disappointment
+ Outcome-related disappointment
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Theories of disappointment ==
*The two major theories of disappointment are Bell's theory of disappointment and Loomes and Sudgen's theory of disappointment (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b).
* Both theories are similar (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b). Loomes and Sugden's theory came about due to their research and theory of regret (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* A key assumption is that decision makers anticipate emotions and take them into account when making a decision (Zeleenberg et al., 2000; Zeleenberg et al., 1998b).
* There may have been a rivalry between the theorists. 

=== Bell's theory of disappointment (1985) ===
* &quot;Disappointment... is a psychological reaction to an outcome that does not match up with expectations&quot; (Bell, 1985, p.1).
* Disappointment is based on probability/math and there is a specific formula that can predict it (Bell, 1985).
* van Dijk and van der Pligt (1997) conducted five experiments which confirmed Bell's theory; where the experience of disappointment is primarily determined by by the probability of the outcome. It is theorised that individuals who experience disappointment focus on the features of the situation which caused the disappointment - one of the features could be the probability with which the disappointing outcome occurred (van Dijk &amp; van der Pligt, 1997).

=== Loomes and Sugden's theory of disappointment (1986) ===
* &quot;When considering any uncertain prospect, an individual forms some ''prior expectation''... if that consequence falls short of the prior expectation... the individual... experiences some degree of disappointment&quot; (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986, p.271).
* Disappointment can be mapped out with mathematical formula but is more robust than basic probability - there are other factors that contribute to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* Loomes and Sugden (1986) acknowledge that they share the same 'basic intuition' about disappointment as Bell (1985), but they model it differently. They later acknowledge that their theories are in fact similar, but credit Bell (1985) with the 'basic' idea of disappointment which their theory builds upon (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987). &quot;It is suggested that if an individual chooses some action... [they] form some prior expectation about that action. ...After the uncertainty is resolved, the individual experiences one particular consequence, which may be better or worse than the prior expectation&quot;, with worse leading to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987).

== What causes disappointment? ==
* Disappointment occurs when expectations are not met (Chua et al., 2009). 
* Neuropsychology of disappointment: Multiple brain regions have shown to be important to disappointment and decision making, namely the anterior insula, and various regions of the prefrontal cortex (Chua et al., 2009: Mohr et al., 2010: Kalat, 2019).
* The brain regions that have shown to be important in decision making/disappointment will be discussed.

* Some of the brain regions that are active during disappointment are also active during regret (Chua et al., 2009).

=== Anterior insula (cortex) ===
[[File:Insula structure.png|alt=Structure of the three sections of the insula|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Insula]]
* The insula has been labeled as a 'subcortical' and 'cortical' structure by Reeve (2018), as the anterior region is more aligned with the cortical brain and the posterior region is more aligned with the subcortical brain.
* Processes and learns about risk/uncertainty (Reeve, 2018).
* When individuals experience disappointment their anterior insula is activated (Chua et al., 2009). See figure 2.
* The anterior insula is active in the presence of potential loss and is a part of the brain known for processing emotions such as disappointment (Mohr et al., 2010).

=== Prefrontal cortex ===
[[File:Prefrontal cortex (left) animation.gif|alt=Rotating skull containing left Prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is highlighted |thumb|''Figure 3.'' Left hemisphere prefrontal cortex]]
[[File:Cortical midline structures.png|thumb|''Figure 4.'' Brain image highlighting various cortical regions, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC), and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC/MOPFC).]]
* Prefrontal cortex - middle 'zone': &lt;u&gt;emotional reactions&lt;/u&gt;, cognitive control, and working memory (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - anterior (front): decision making, evaluating which course will provide the best outcome, probability of achieving a good outcome (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - see figure 3. 
* The ventromedial prefrontal cortex [VMPFC] learns what choices are more beneficial for the individual and adjusts decision making accordingly (Kalat, 2019). It also monitors confidence in one's decisions (Kalat, 2019). Individuals with damage to their VMPFC tend to make impulsive decisions based on probability, rather than making considered decisions based on reality (Kalat, 2019).
*Orbitofrontal cortex [OFC]- responds to information from the VMPFC based on how the expected reward compares to other possible choices (Kalat, 2019). The OFC changes and updates the expected outcomes of actions based on current circumstances (Kalat, 2019).
*When individuals experience disappointment their dorsomedial prefrontal cortex [DMPFC] is activated (Chua et al., 2009).
*See figure 4 for VMPFC, OFC, and DMPFC.
Insert Quiz on brain regions and how they contribute to decision-making/disappointment OR insert table with brain region - what it does - how it contributes to disappointment. Or both.

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003). The ventromedial prefrontal cortex monitors how confident you should be about a decision (Kalat, 2019). 
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]], therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can be managed by successfully living up to expectations; where individuals intensify their efforts to attain a certain outcome so as not to experience disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 

=== The benefits of disappointment ===

* Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns &amp; Druckman, 2014). 
* Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others (Johnson &amp; Connelly, 2014).
* Disappointment (from yourself or others) can lead you to work harder in the future or work harder 'now' to avoid disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000).

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

* Disappointment doesn't feel good! It can involve feelings of powerlessness and wanting to do nothing (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 
* Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012).
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can lead to other negative emotions, such as anger (van Dijk et al., 1999). 


Insert quiz on managing disappointment. 

==Conclusion==

* Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment.
* Restate the causes of disappointment. Go over the theories of disappointment.
* Restate how disappointment can be managed.
* Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it.

== See also ==
* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bell, D. E. (1985). Disappointment in decision making under uncertainty. ''Operations Research, 33''(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.33.1.1 

Chua, Gonzalez, R., Taylor, S. F., Welsh, R. C., &amp; Liberzon, I. (2009). Decision-related loss: Regret and disappointment. ''NeuroImage, 47''(4), 2031–2040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.006 

Clancy, A., Vince, R., &amp; Gabriel, Y. (2012). That unwanted feeling: A psychodynamic study of disappointment in organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x 

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an optimist nor a pessimist be: Mistaken expectations lower well-being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577

Izard, C. E. (2010). The many meanings/aspects of emotion: Definitions, functions, activation, and regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661

Johnson, G., &amp; Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 

Kalat, J. W. (2019). ''Biological psychology'' (13th ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Cengage

Lelieveld, G. J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., &amp; Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1986). Disappointment and dynamic consistency in choice under uncertainty. ''The Review of Economic Studies, 53''(2), 271–282. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297651 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1987). Testing for regret and disappointment in choice under uncertainty. ''The Economic Journal (London), 97'', 118–129. https://doi.org/10.2307/3038234 

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: A prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764

Olekalns, M., &amp; Druckman, D. (2014). With feeling: How emotions shape negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 

Mohr, P. N. C., Biele, G., &amp; Heekeren, H. R. (2010). Neural processing of risk. ''The Journal of Neuroscience, 30''(19), 6613–6619. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0003-10.2010

Ramachandran, V.S., &amp; Jalal, B. (2017). The evolutionary psychology of envy and jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 

Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1997). The impact of probability and magnitude of outcome on disappointment and elation. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69''(3), 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1997.2688 

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not having what you want versus having what you do not want: The impact of type of negative outcome on the experience of disappointment and related emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1998a). The experience of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2000). On bad decisions and disconfirmed expectancies: The psychology of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 14''(4), 521–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999300402781 

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., van der Pligt, J., Manstead, A. S. ., van Empelen, P., &amp; Reinderman, D. (1998b). Emotional reactions to the outcomes of decisions: The role of counterfactual thought in the experience of regret and disappointment. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 75''(2), 117–141. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2784
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE Feeling all the feels: Crash course psychology #25] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i47_jiCsBMs 2-Minute Neuroscience: Prefrontal Cortex] (YouTube)</text>
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        <id>2942574</id>
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      <comment>Theories of disappointment - mentioned to ass quiz</comment>
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      <text bytes="17173" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Disappointment&lt;br&gt;What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]]

* Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002)

* Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. (Reeve, 2018; Izard, 2010) Reference Figure 1
* Overview of what the chapter explores
* Note on emotion research (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017)

   {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What are the major theories of disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a).
* Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999).
* Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017).
* The types of disappointment will be discussed.

*

=== Types of disappointment ===

* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related. 
* Outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
* Person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
*Case study: Disappointment in organisations: Position 1: I am disappointing, Position 2: I am disappointed, Position 3: I disappoint (Clancy et al., 2012).

=== Emotions similar to disappointment ===

* [[wikipedia:Regret|Regret]] is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). &quot;Regret stems from bad decisions&quot; (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a).
* [[wikipedia:Anger|Anger]] is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999).
* [[wiktionary:disillusionment|Disillusionment]] is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment.


{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regret Regret] is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). &quot;Regret stems from bad decisions&quot; (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). 

'''Anger'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger Anger] is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). 

'''Disillusionment'''
: [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disillusionment Disillusionment] is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment.

  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}


Test yourself:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Person-related disappointment
- Outcome-related disappointment

{Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Person-related disappointment
+ Outcome-related disappointment
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Theories of disappointment ==
*The two major theories of disappointment are Bell's theory of disappointment and Loomes and Sudgen's theory of disappointment (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b).
* Both theories are similar (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b). Loomes and Sugden's theory came about due to their research and theory of regret (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* A key assumption is that decision makers anticipate emotions and take them into account when making a decision (Zeleenberg et al., 2000; Zeleenberg et al., 1998b).
* There may have been a rivalry between the theorists. 

=== Bell's theory of disappointment (1985) ===
* &quot;Disappointment... is a psychological reaction to an outcome that does not match up with expectations&quot; (Bell, 1985, p.1).
* Disappointment is based on probability/math and there is a specific formula that can predict it (Bell, 1985).
* van Dijk and van der Pligt (1997) conducted five experiments which confirmed Bell's theory; where the experience of disappointment is primarily determined by by the probability of the outcome. It is theorised that individuals who experience disappointment focus on the features of the situation which caused the disappointment - one of the features could be the probability with which the disappointing outcome occurred (van Dijk &amp; van der Pligt, 1997).

=== Loomes and Sugden's theory of disappointment (1986) ===
* &quot;When considering any uncertain prospect, an individual forms some ''prior expectation''... if that consequence falls short of the prior expectation... the individual... experiences some degree of disappointment&quot; (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986, p.271).
* Disappointment can be mapped out with mathematical formula but is more robust than basic probability - there are other factors that contribute to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* Loomes and Sugden (1986) acknowledge that they share the same 'basic intuition' about disappointment as Bell (1985), but they model it differently. They later acknowledge that their theories are in fact similar, but credit Bell (1985) with the 'basic' idea of disappointment which their theory builds upon (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987). &quot;It is suggested that if an individual chooses some action... [they] form some prior expectation about that action. ...After the uncertainty is resolved, the individual experiences one particular consequence, which may be better or worse than the prior expectation&quot;, with worse leading to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987).


Insert quiz on the theories of disappointment

== What causes disappointment? ==
* Disappointment occurs when expectations are not met (Chua et al., 2009). 
* Neuropsychology of disappointment: Multiple brain regions have shown to be important to disappointment and decision making, namely the anterior insula, and various regions of the prefrontal cortex (Chua et al., 2009: Mohr et al., 2010: Kalat, 2019).
* The brain regions that have shown to be important in decision making/disappointment will be discussed.

* Some of the brain regions that are active during disappointment are also active during regret (Chua et al., 2009).

=== Anterior insula (cortex) ===
[[File:Insula structure.png|alt=Structure of the three sections of the insula|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Insula]]
* The insula has been labeled as a 'subcortical' and 'cortical' structure by Reeve (2018), as the anterior region is more aligned with the cortical brain and the posterior region is more aligned with the subcortical brain.
* Processes and learns about risk/uncertainty (Reeve, 2018).
* When individuals experience disappointment their anterior insula is activated (Chua et al., 2009). See figure 2.
* The anterior insula is active in the presence of potential loss and is a part of the brain known for processing emotions such as disappointment (Mohr et al., 2010).

=== Prefrontal cortex ===
[[File:Prefrontal cortex (left) animation.gif|alt=Rotating skull containing left Prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is highlighted |thumb|''Figure 3.'' Left hemisphere prefrontal cortex]]
[[File:Cortical midline structures.png|thumb|''Figure 4.'' Brain image highlighting various cortical regions, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC), and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC/MOPFC).]]
* Prefrontal cortex - middle 'zone': &lt;u&gt;emotional reactions&lt;/u&gt;, cognitive control, and working memory (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - anterior (front): decision making, evaluating which course will provide the best outcome, probability of achieving a good outcome (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - see figure 3. 
* The ventromedial prefrontal cortex [VMPFC] learns what choices are more beneficial for the individual and adjusts decision making accordingly (Kalat, 2019). It also monitors confidence in one's decisions (Kalat, 2019). Individuals with damage to their VMPFC tend to make impulsive decisions based on probability, rather than making considered decisions based on reality (Kalat, 2019).
*Orbitofrontal cortex [OFC]- responds to information from the VMPFC based on how the expected reward compares to other possible choices (Kalat, 2019). The OFC changes and updates the expected outcomes of actions based on current circumstances (Kalat, 2019).
*When individuals experience disappointment their dorsomedial prefrontal cortex [DMPFC] is activated (Chua et al., 2009).
*See figure 4 for VMPFC, OFC, and DMPFC.
Insert Quiz on brain regions and how they contribute to decision-making/disappointment OR insert table with brain region - what it does - how it contributes to disappointment. Or both.

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003). The ventromedial prefrontal cortex monitors how confident you should be about a decision (Kalat, 2019). 
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]], therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can be managed by successfully living up to expectations; where individuals intensify their efforts to attain a certain outcome so as not to experience disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 

=== The benefits of disappointment ===

* Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns &amp; Druckman, 2014). 
* Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others (Johnson &amp; Connelly, 2014).
* Disappointment (from yourself or others) can lead you to work harder in the future or work harder 'now' to avoid disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000).

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

* Disappointment doesn't feel good! It can involve feelings of powerlessness and wanting to do nothing (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 
* Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012).
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can lead to other negative emotions, such as anger (van Dijk et al., 1999). 


Insert quiz on managing disappointment. 

==Conclusion==

* Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment.
* Restate the causes of disappointment. Go over the theories of disappointment.
* Restate how disappointment can be managed.
* Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it.

== See also ==
* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bell, D. E. (1985). Disappointment in decision making under uncertainty. ''Operations Research, 33''(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.33.1.1 

Chua, Gonzalez, R., Taylor, S. F., Welsh, R. C., &amp; Liberzon, I. (2009). Decision-related loss: Regret and disappointment. ''NeuroImage, 47''(4), 2031–2040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.006 

Clancy, A., Vince, R., &amp; Gabriel, Y. (2012). That unwanted feeling: A psychodynamic study of disappointment in organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x 

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an optimist nor a pessimist be: Mistaken expectations lower well-being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577

Izard, C. E. (2010). The many meanings/aspects of emotion: Definitions, functions, activation, and regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661

Johnson, G., &amp; Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 

Kalat, J. W. (2019). ''Biological psychology'' (13th ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Cengage

Lelieveld, G. J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., &amp; Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1986). Disappointment and dynamic consistency in choice under uncertainty. ''The Review of Economic Studies, 53''(2), 271–282. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297651 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1987). Testing for regret and disappointment in choice under uncertainty. ''The Economic Journal (London), 97'', 118–129. https://doi.org/10.2307/3038234 

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: A prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764

Olekalns, M., &amp; Druckman, D. (2014). With feeling: How emotions shape negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 

Mohr, P. N. C., Biele, G., &amp; Heekeren, H. R. (2010). Neural processing of risk. ''The Journal of Neuroscience, 30''(19), 6613–6619. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0003-10.2010

Ramachandran, V.S., &amp; Jalal, B. (2017). The evolutionary psychology of envy and jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 

Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1997). The impact of probability and magnitude of outcome on disappointment and elation. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69''(3), 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1997.2688 

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not having what you want versus having what you do not want: The impact of type of negative outcome on the experience of disappointment and related emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1998a). The experience of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2000). On bad decisions and disconfirmed expectancies: The psychology of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 14''(4), 521–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999300402781 

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., van der Pligt, J., Manstead, A. S. ., van Empelen, P., &amp; Reinderman, D. (1998b). Emotional reactions to the outcomes of decisions: The role of counterfactual thought in the experience of regret and disappointment. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 75''(2), 117–141. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2784
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE Feeling all the feels: Crash course psychology #25] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i47_jiCsBMs 2-Minute Neuroscience: Prefrontal Cortex] (YouTube)</text>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]]

* Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002)

* Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. (Reeve, 2018; Izard, 2010) Reference Figure 1
* Overview of what the chapter explores
* Note on emotion research (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017)

   {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What are the major theories of disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a).
* Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999).
* Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran &amp; Jalal, 2017).
* The types of disappointment will be discussed.

*

=== Types of disappointment ===

* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related. 
* Outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
* Person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).
*Case study: Disappointment in organisations: Position 1: I am disappointing, Position 2: I am disappointed, Position 3: I disappoint (Clancy et al., 2012).

=== Emotions similar to disappointment ===

* [[wikipedia:Regret|Regret]] is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). &quot;Regret stems from bad decisions&quot; (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a).
* [[wikipedia:Anger|Anger]] is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999).
* [[wiktionary:disillusionment|Disillusionment]] is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment.


{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regret Regret] is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). &quot;Regret stems from bad decisions&quot; (Zeelenberg et al., 1998a). 

'''Anger'''
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger Anger] is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). 

'''Disillusionment'''
: [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disillusionment Disillusionment] is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment.

  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}


Test yourself:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Person-related disappointment
- Outcome-related disappointment

{Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Person-related disappointment
+ Outcome-related disappointment
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Theories of disappointment ==
*The two major theories of disappointment are Bell's theory of disappointment and Loomes and Sudgen's theory of disappointment (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b).
* Both theories are similar (Zeelenberg et al., 2000; Zeelenberg et al., 1998b). Loomes and Sugden's theory came about due to their research and theory of regret (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* A key assumption is that decision makers anticipate emotions and take them into account when making a decision (Zeleenberg et al., 2000; Zeleenberg et al., 1998b).
* There may have been a rivalry between the theorists. 

=== Bell's theory of disappointment (1985) ===
* &quot;Disappointment... is a psychological reaction to an outcome that does not match up with expectations&quot; (Bell, 1985, p.1).
* Disappointment is based on probability/math and there is a specific formula that can predict it (Bell, 1985).
* van Dijk and van der Pligt (1997) conducted five experiments which confirmed Bell's theory; where the experience of disappointment is primarily determined by by the probability of the outcome. It is theorised that individuals who experience disappointment focus on the features of the situation which caused the disappointment - one of the features could be the probability with which the disappointing outcome occurred (van Dijk &amp; van der Pligt, 1997).

=== Loomes and Sugden's theory of disappointment (1986) ===
* &quot;When considering any uncertain prospect, an individual forms some ''prior expectation''... if that consequence falls short of the prior expectation... the individual... experiences some degree of disappointment&quot; (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986, p.271).
* Disappointment can be mapped out with mathematical formula but is more robust than basic probability - there are other factors that contribute to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1986).
* Loomes and Sugden (1986) acknowledge that they share the same 'basic intuition' about disappointment as Bell (1985), but they model it differently. They later acknowledge that their theories are in fact similar, but credit Bell (1985) with the 'basic' idea of disappointment which their theory builds upon (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987). &quot;It is suggested that if an individual chooses some action... [they] form some prior expectation about that action. ...After the uncertainty is resolved, the individual experiences one particular consequence, which may be better or worse than the prior expectation&quot;, with worse leading to disappointment (Loomes &amp; Sugden, 1987).


Insert quiz on the theories of disappointment

== What causes disappointment? ==
* Disappointment occurs when expectations are not met (Chua et al., 2009). 
* Neuropsychology of disappointment: Multiple brain regions have shown to be important to disappointment and decision making, namely the anterior insula, and various regions of the prefrontal cortex (Chua et al., 2009: Mohr et al., 2010: Kalat, 2019).
* The brain regions that have shown to be important in decision making/disappointment will be discussed.

* Some of the brain regions that are active during disappointment are also active during regret (Chua et al., 2009).

=== Anterior insula (cortex) ===
[[File:Insula structure.png|alt=Structure of the three sections of the insula|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Insula]]
* The insula has been labeled as a 'subcortical' and 'cortical' structure by Reeve (2018), as the anterior region is more aligned with the cortical brain and the posterior region is more aligned with the subcortical brain.
* Processes and learns about risk/uncertainty (Reeve, 2018).
* When individuals experience disappointment their anterior insula is activated (Chua et al., 2009). See figure 2.
* The anterior insula is active in the presence of potential loss and is a part of the brain known for processing emotions such as disappointment (Mohr et al., 2010).

=== Prefrontal cortex ===
[[File:Prefrontal cortex (left) animation.gif|alt=Rotating skull containing left Prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is highlighted |thumb|''Figure 3.'' Left hemisphere prefrontal cortex]]
[[File:Cortical midline structures.png|thumb|''Figure 4.'' Brain image highlighting various cortical regions, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC), and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC/MOPFC).]]
* Prefrontal cortex - middle 'zone': &lt;u&gt;emotional reactions&lt;/u&gt;, cognitive control, and working memory (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - anterior (front): decision making, evaluating which course will provide the best outcome, probability of achieving a good outcome (Kalat, 2019).
* Prefrontal cortex - see figure 3. 
* The ventromedial prefrontal cortex [VMPFC] learns what choices are more beneficial for the individual and adjusts decision making accordingly (Kalat, 2019). It also monitors confidence in one's decisions (Kalat, 2019). Individuals with damage to their VMPFC tend to make impulsive decisions based on probability, rather than making considered decisions based on reality (Kalat, 2019).
*Orbitofrontal cortex [OFC]- responds to information from the VMPFC based on how the expected reward compares to other possible choices (Kalat, 2019). The OFC changes and updates the expected outcomes of actions based on current circumstances (Kalat, 2019).
*When individuals experience disappointment their dorsomedial prefrontal cortex [DMPFC] is activated (Chua et al., 2009).
*See figure 4 for VMPFC, OFC, and DMPFC.
Insert Quiz on brain regions and how they contribute to decision-making/disappointment OR insert table with brain region - what it does - how it contributes to disappointment. Or both.

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003). The ventromedial prefrontal cortex monitors how confident you should be about a decision (Kalat, 2019). 
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]], therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can be managed by successfully living up to expectations; where individuals intensify their efforts to attain a certain outcome so as not to experience disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 

=== The benefits of disappointment ===

* Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns &amp; Druckman, 2014). 
* Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others (Johnson &amp; Connelly, 2014).
* Disappointment (from yourself or others) can lead you to work harder in the future or work harder 'now' to avoid disappointment (Zeleenberg et al., 2000).

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

* Disappointment doesn't feel good! It can involve feelings of powerlessness and wanting to do nothing (Zeleenberg et al., 2000). 
* Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012).
* Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021).
* Disappointment can lead to other negative emotions, such as anger (van Dijk et al., 1999). 


Insert quiz on managing disappointment. 

- Turn benefits and downsides of disappointment into a table  

==Conclusion==

* Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment.
* Restate the causes of disappointment. Go over the theories of disappointment.
* Restate how disappointment can be managed.
* Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it.

== See also ==
* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bell, D. E. (1985). Disappointment in decision making under uncertainty. ''Operations Research, 33''(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.33.1.1 

Chua, Gonzalez, R., Taylor, S. F., Welsh, R. C., &amp; Liberzon, I. (2009). Decision-related loss: Regret and disappointment. ''NeuroImage, 47''(4), 2031–2040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.006 

Clancy, A., Vince, R., &amp; Gabriel, Y. (2012). That unwanted feeling: A psychodynamic study of disappointment in organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x 

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an optimist nor a pessimist be: Mistaken expectations lower well-being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577

Izard, C. E. (2010). The many meanings/aspects of emotion: Definitions, functions, activation, and regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661

Johnson, G., &amp; Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 

Kalat, J. W. (2019). ''Biological psychology'' (13th ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Cengage

Lelieveld, G. J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., &amp; Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1986). Disappointment and dynamic consistency in choice under uncertainty. ''The Review of Economic Studies, 53''(2), 271–282. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297651 

Loomes, G., &amp; Sugden, R. (1987). Testing for regret and disappointment in choice under uncertainty. ''The Economic Journal (London), 97'', 118–129. https://doi.org/10.2307/3038234 

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: A prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764

Olekalns, M., &amp; Druckman, D. (2014). With feeling: How emotions shape negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 

Mohr, P. N. C., Biele, G., &amp; Heekeren, H. R. (2010). Neural processing of risk. ''The Journal of Neuroscience, 30''(19), 6613–6619. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0003-10.2010

Ramachandran, V.S., &amp; Jalal, B. (2017). The evolutionary psychology of envy and jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 

Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1997). The impact of probability and magnitude of outcome on disappointment and elation. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69''(3), 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1997.2688 

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not having what you want versus having what you do not want: The impact of type of negative outcome on the experience of disappointment and related emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (1998a). The experience of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2000). On bad decisions and disconfirmed expectancies: The psychology of regret and disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 14''(4), 521–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999300402781 

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., van der Pligt, J., Manstead, A. S. ., van Empelen, P., &amp; Reinderman, D. (1998b). Emotional reactions to the outcomes of decisions: The role of counterfactual thought in the experience of regret and disappointment. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 75''(2), 117–141. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2784
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE Feeling all the feels: Crash course psychology #25] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i47_jiCsBMs 2-Minute Neuroscience: Prefrontal Cortex] (YouTube)</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
The window of tolerance describes an optimal zone of arousal from which we can process stimuli and function effectively{{citation needed}}. This allows us to regulate our emotions when facing distress and to self-soothe when we begin to feel overwhelmed.

* Cite effective nervous system functioning
* What does it mean to function effectively
* Identify the physiology behind the polyvagal theory?

When we fall outside of this zone we may experience [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. dysregulation]. This can be a warning sign that we are not functioning as effectively as we could be but are not quite yet out of control. If our circumstances decline, or we do not take action to expand our window of tolerance, we may lapse into a state of hyper arousal or hypo arousal. In these states we experience 

* Cite ineffective nervous system functioning
* Fight or flight response (sympathetic)
* Freeze response (parasympathetic)


This template provides tips for topic development. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the author guidelines.

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the exact wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Thought-provoking questions'''
* What does it feel like when I am within my window of tolerance?
* Have I ever experienced a state of arousal (hyper or hypo)? 
* How do I recognise when I am becoming dysregulated?
* What can I do to expand my window of tolerance?
&lt;i&gt;Keep these questions in mind as you read through this chapter.&lt;/i&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Window of tolerance ==

* Define the window of tolerance
* Optimal zone of arousal
* Feeling present in the moment
* Ability to self-soothe and regulate emotions
{{expand}}

* Include a window of tolerance quiz
** What does it feel like?
*** Chaotic and confusing
*** Capable and calm
*** Present in the moment
*** Stuck in survival mode

== Dysregulation ==

* Define dysregulation
* Identify citations for neuroscientific explanations of dysregulation
* Explain symptoms of emotional dysregulation
* Include a dysregulation quiz
** What does it feel like?
* OR include a case study
** Sam is beginning to fall out of their window of tolerance
** They are feeling increasingly more irritable, anxious, agitated as time goes on
** They notice they have little tolerance for disruptions
** They are starting to feel overwhelmed

== Arousal ==

* Briefly define arousal
* Identify how it comes to be
* Identify peer-reviewed, evidence-based research on the neuroscience behind arousal
* Explain the basic differences between the two forms of arousal
** In terms of overwhelmed and underwhelmed

=== Hyper arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hyper arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it

=== Hypo arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hyper arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it

== Case study ==

* Utilise feature boxes in this section
* Use an example of someone with lived-experience of trauma
* This will help to explain how trauma impacts our window of tolerance
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Case study
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Application ==

* Identify how the window of tolerance can be applied in practice
* Who may benefit from this concept?
* How can they benefit?

=== Psychotherapy ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in psychotherapeutic practices?
* Who is involved?
** Psychologists
** Counsellors
** Social Workers
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Psychoeducation ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in psychoeducational practices?
* Who is involved?
** Mental health workers
** Disability support workers
** Allied health professionals
** Teachers/Educators
** General Practitioners
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Self-awareness ===

* Self education 
* Self validation
* How can the window of tolerance be applied in self healing practices?
** Distributing this information to the general public
** Access for all
* Who is involved?
** People seeking additional support
** People seeking information on their experiences
** People looking to improve their self awareness
** People who are trying to better understand themselves/their experiences
** People who are trying to change their behaviours
* What are the benefits?
** Are there benefits for people being able to access this information?
** Provides a deeper understanding of how and why we behave the way we do
** Validates the experience of dysregulation
** Opens up the opportunity for behaviour change
* Are there any risks?
{{summarise}}
== Learning features ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. What is dysregulation?] (verywellmind.com)
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>nn3mhcdoiab7p85lyueoj963g6j1hin</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418126</id>
      <parentid>2418049</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T06:06:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3223109</username>
        <id>2947538</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */ Updated overview and references</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13248" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Window of tolerance:&lt;br&gt;What is the window of tolerance and how can it be applied? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
The window of tolerance is an explanatory component of emotion regulation. It describes an optimal zone of emotional arousal from which we can process stimuli and function effectively (Siegal, 2020). Effective functioning allows us to regulate our emotions when facing distress and to take action when our autonomic nervous system increases in activity/begins to respond to feelings of overwhelm.

* Cite effective nervous system functioning
* What does it mean to function effectively
* Identify the physiology behind the polyvagal theory?

When we fall outside of this zone we may experience [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. dysregulation]. This can be a warning sign that we are not functioning effectively, and that our autonomic nervous system is beginning to experience an increase in arousal intensity. As a result of this increase, cognitions and behaviours may become disrupted. To maintain effective functioning we aim to expand, or stay within the boundaries of, our optimal zone of arousal - the window of tolerance.  

Siegal (2020) hypothesises that arousal intensity is expressed in two ways: 1. Hyper arousal (sympathetic nervous system activation, fight or flight response); 2. Hypo arousal (parasympathetic nervous system activation, freeze response).  

* Cite ineffective nervous system functioning
* Expand on Fight or flight response (sympathetic)
* Expand on Freeze response (parasympathetic)


This template provides tips for topic development. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the author guidelines.

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the exact wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Thought-provoking questions'''
* What does it feel like when I am within my window of tolerance?
* Have I ever experienced a state of arousal (hyper or hypo)? 
* How do I recognise when I am becoming dysregulated?
* What can I do to expand my window of tolerance?
&lt;i&gt;Keep these questions in mind as you read through this chapter.&lt;/i&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Window of tolerance ==

* Define the window of tolerance
* Optimal zone of arousal
* Feeling present in the moment
* Ability to self-soothe and regulate emotions
{{expand}}

* Include a window of tolerance quiz
** What does it feel like?
*** Chaotic and confusing
*** Capable and calm
*** Present in the moment
*** Stuck in survival mode

== Dysregulation ==

* Define dysregulation
* Identify citations for neuroscientific explanations of dysregulation
* Explain symptoms of emotional dysregulation
* Include a dysregulation quiz
** What does it feel like?
* OR include a case study
** Sam is beginning to fall out of their window of tolerance
** They are feeling increasingly more irritable, anxious, agitated as time goes on
** They notice they have little tolerance for disruptions
** They are starting to feel overwhelmed

== Arousal ==

* Briefly define arousal
* Identify how it comes to be
* Identify peer-reviewed, evidence-based research on the neuroscience behind arousal
* Explain the basic differences between the two forms of arousal
** In terms of overwhelmed and underwhelmed

=== Hyper arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hyper arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it

=== Hypo arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hyper arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it

== Case study ==

* Utilise feature boxes in this section
* Use an example of someone with lived-experience of trauma
* This will help to explain how trauma impacts our window of tolerance
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Case study
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Application ==

* Identify how the window of tolerance can be applied in practice
* Who may benefit from this concept?
* How can they benefit?

=== Psychotherapy ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in psychotherapeutic practices?
* Who is involved?
** Psychologists
** Counsellors
** Social Workers
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Psychoeducation ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in psychoeducational practices?
* Who is involved?
** Mental health workers
** Disability support workers
** Allied health professionals
** Teachers/Educators
** General Practitioners
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Self-awareness ===

* Self education 
* Self validation
* How can the window of tolerance be applied in self healing practices?
** Distributing this information to the general public
** Access for all
* Who is involved?
** People seeking additional support
** People seeking information on their experiences
** People looking to improve their self awareness
** People who are trying to better understand themselves/their experiences
** People who are trying to change their behaviours
* What are the benefits?
** Are there benefits for people being able to access this information?
** Provides a deeper understanding of how and why we behave the way we do
** Validates the experience of dysregulation
** Opens up the opportunity for behaviour change
* Are there any risks?
{{summarise}}
== Learning features ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
Seigal, D. J. (2020) ''The developing mind (3rd edition): How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are.'' Guilford Publications.


List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. What is dysregulation?] (verywellmind.com)
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>8hvpttp70r47v5f44iv88vbvbff3y3r</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418145</id>
      <parentid>2418126</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T06:39:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3223109</username>
        <id>2947538</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */ Embedded and captioned a figure (Figure 1)</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13969" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Window of tolerance:&lt;br&gt;What is the window of tolerance and how can it be applied? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Dan Seigel Quote.png|thumb|Figure 1. Direct quote by Dr. Dan Siegel (Siegal, 2020, p343) discussing the consequences of emotional arousal moving outside of our optimal zone or window of tolerance. ]]
The window of tolerance is an explanatory component of emotion regulation. It describes an optimal zone of emotional arousal from which we can process stimuli and function effectively (Siegel, 2020). Effective functioning allows us to regulate our emotions when facing distress; it also allows us to take action when our autonomic nervous system increases in activity in response to a potential threat or traumatic experience (Corrigan, et al. 2010).

* Cite effective nervous system functioning
* What does it mean to function effectively
* Expand on the physiology behind autonomic nervous system function?

When we fall outside of this zone we may experience [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. dysregulation]. This can be a warning sign that we are not functioning effectively, and that our autonomic nervous system is beginning to experience an increase in arousal intensity. As a result of this increase, cognitions and behaviours may become disrupted (see Figure 1). To maintain effective functioning we aim to expand, or stay within the boundaries of, our optimal zone of arousal - the window of tolerance.  

Siegel (2020) hypothesises that arousal intensity is expressed in two ways: 1. Hyper arousal (sympathetic nervous system activation, fight or flight response); 2. Hypo arousal (parasympathetic nervous system activation, freeze response).  

* Discuss Siegal's perspective on arousal intensity
* Expand on Fight or flight response (sympathetic)
* Expand on Freeze response (parasympathetic)


This template provides tips for topic development. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the author guidelines.

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the exact wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Thought-provoking questions'''
* What does it feel like when I am within my window of tolerance?
* Have I ever experienced a state of arousal (hyper or hypo)? 
* How do I recognise when I am becoming dysregulated?
* What can I do to expand my window of tolerance?
&lt;i&gt;Keep these questions in mind as you read through this chapter.&lt;/i&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Window of tolerance ==

* Define the window of tolerance
* Optimal zone of arousal
* Feeling present in the moment
* Ability to self-soothe and regulate emotions
{{expand}}

* Include a window of tolerance quiz
** What does it feel like?
*** Chaotic and confusing
*** Capable and calm
*** Present in the moment
*** Stuck in survival mode

== Dysregulation ==

* Define dysregulation
* Identify citations for neuroscientific explanations of dysregulation
* Explain symptoms of emotional dysregulation
* Include a dysregulation quiz
** What does it feel like?
* OR include a case study
** Sam is beginning to fall out of their window of tolerance
** They are feeling increasingly more irritable, anxious, agitated as time goes on
** They notice they have little tolerance for disruptions
** They are starting to feel overwhelmed

== Arousal ==

* Briefly define arousal
* Identify how it comes to be
* Identify peer-reviewed, evidence-based research on the neuroscience behind arousal
* Explain the basic differences between the two forms of arousal
** In terms of overwhelmed and underwhelmed

=== Hyper arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hyper arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it

=== Hypo arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hyper arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it

== Case study ==

* Utilise feature boxes in this section
* Use an example of someone with lived-experience of trauma
* This will help to explain how trauma impacts our window of tolerance
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Case study
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Application ==

* Identify how the window of tolerance can be applied in practice
* Who may benefit from this concept?
* How can they benefit?

=== Psychotherapy ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in psychotherapeutic practices?
* Who is involved?
** Psychologists
** Counsellors
** Social Workers
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Psychoeducation ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in psychoeducational practices?
* Who is involved?
** Mental health workers
** Disability support workers
** Allied health professionals
** Teachers/Educators
** General Practitioners
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Self-awareness ===

* Self education 
* Self validation
* How can the window of tolerance be applied in self healing practices?
** Distributing this information to the general public
** Access for all
* Who is involved?
** People seeking additional support
** People seeking information on their experiences
** People looking to improve their self awareness
** People who are trying to better understand themselves/their experiences
** People who are trying to change their behaviours
* What are the benefits?
** Are there benefits for people being able to access this information?
** Provides a deeper understanding of how and why we behave the way we do
** Validates the experience of dysregulation
** Opens up the opportunity for behaviour change
* Are there any risks?
{{summarise}}
== Learning features ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
Corrigan, F. M., Fisher, J. J., Nutt, D. (2010) Autonomic dysregulation and the Window of Tolerance model of the effects of complex emotional trauma. ''Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford)'', ''25''(1), 17–25. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881109354930&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Seigel, D. J. (2020) ''The developing mind (3rd edition): How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are.'' Guilford Publications.

Seigel, D. J. (2020) ''The developing mind (3rd edition): How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are.'' p343. Guilford Publications.


List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. What is dysregulation?] (verywellmind.com)
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>8p89a0deyphmg3hferrwa053ow9cqlj</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418147</id>
      <parentid>2418145</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T06:47:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3223109</username>
        <id>2947538</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */ Internal link to wikipedia - emotional dysregulation</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="14034" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Window of tolerance:&lt;br&gt;What is the window of tolerance and how can it be applied? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Dan Seigel Quote.png|thumb|Figure 1. Direct quote by Dr. Dan Siegel (Siegal, 2020, p343) discussing the consequences of emotional arousal moving outside of our optimal zone or window of tolerance. ]]
The window of tolerance is an explanatory component of emotion regulation. It describes an optimal zone of emotional arousal from which we can process stimuli and function effectively (Siegel, 2020). Effective functioning allows us to regulate our emotions when facing distress; it also allows us to take action when our autonomic nervous system increases in activity in response to a potential threat or traumatic experience (Corrigan, et al. 2010).

* Cite effective nervous system functioning
* What does it mean to function effectively
* Expand on the physiology behind autonomic nervous system function?

When we fall outside of this zone we may experience [[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]] or [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. dysregulation]. This can be a warning sign that we are not functioning effectively, and that our autonomic nervous system is beginning to experience an increase in arousal intensity. As a result of this increase, cognitions and behaviours may become disrupted (see Figure 1). To maintain effective functioning we aim to expand, or stay within the boundaries of, our optimal zone of arousal - the window of tolerance.  

Siegel (2020) hypothesises that arousal intensity is expressed in two ways: 1. Hyper arousal (sympathetic nervous system activation, fight or flight response); 2. Hypo arousal (parasympathetic nervous system activation, freeze response).  

* Discuss Siegal's perspective on arousal intensity
* Expand on Fight or flight response (sympathetic)
* Expand on Freeze response (parasympathetic)


This template provides tips for topic development. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the author guidelines.

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the exact wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Thought-provoking questions'''
* What does it feel like when I am within my window of tolerance?
* Have I ever experienced a state of arousal (hyper or hypo)? 
* How do I recognise when I am becoming dysregulated?
* What can I do to expand my window of tolerance?
&lt;i&gt;Keep these questions in mind as you read through this chapter.&lt;/i&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Window of tolerance ==

* Define the window of tolerance
* Optimal zone of arousal
* Feeling present in the moment
* Ability to self-soothe and regulate emotions
{{expand}}

* Include a window of tolerance quiz
** What does it feel like?
*** Chaotic and confusing
*** Capable and calm
*** Present in the moment
*** Stuck in survival mode

== Dysregulation ==

* Define dysregulation
* Identify citations for neuroscientific explanations of dysregulation
* Explain symptoms of emotional dysregulation
* Include a dysregulation quiz
** What does it feel like?
* OR include a case study
** Sam is beginning to fall out of their window of tolerance
** They are feeling increasingly more irritable, anxious, agitated as time goes on
** They notice they have little tolerance for disruptions
** They are starting to feel overwhelmed

== Arousal ==

* Briefly define arousal
* Identify how it comes to be
* Identify peer-reviewed, evidence-based research on the neuroscience behind arousal
* Explain the basic differences between the two forms of arousal
** In terms of overwhelmed and underwhelmed

=== Hyper arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hyper arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it

=== Hypo arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hyper arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it

== Case study ==

* Utilise feature boxes in this section
* Use an example of someone with lived-experience of trauma
* This will help to explain how trauma impacts our window of tolerance
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Case study
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Application ==

* Identify how the window of tolerance can be applied in practice
* Who may benefit from this concept?
* How can they benefit?

=== Psychotherapy ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in psychotherapeutic practices?
* Who is involved?
** Psychologists
** Counsellors
** Social Workers
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Psychoeducation ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in psychoeducational practices?
* Who is involved?
** Mental health workers
** Disability support workers
** Allied health professionals
** Teachers/Educators
** General Practitioners
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Self-awareness ===

* Self education 
* Self validation
* How can the window of tolerance be applied in self healing practices?
** Distributing this information to the general public
** Access for all
* Who is involved?
** People seeking additional support
** People seeking information on their experiences
** People looking to improve their self awareness
** People who are trying to better understand themselves/their experiences
** People who are trying to change their behaviours
* What are the benefits?
** Are there benefits for people being able to access this information?
** Provides a deeper understanding of how and why we behave the way we do
** Validates the experience of dysregulation
** Opens up the opportunity for behaviour change
* Are there any risks?
{{summarise}}
== Learning features ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
Corrigan, F. M., Fisher, J. J., Nutt, D. (2010) Autonomic dysregulation and the Window of Tolerance model of the effects of complex emotional trauma. ''Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford)'', ''25''(1), 17–25. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881109354930&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Seigel, D. J. (2020) ''The developing mind (3rd edition): How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are.'' Guilford Publications.

Seigel, D. J. (2020) ''The developing mind (3rd edition): How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are.'' p343. Guilford Publications.


List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. What is dysregulation?] (verywellmind.com)
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>h1p3ld4j95j7qn8qaktgyqtqz94owjs</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418163</id>
      <parentid>2418147</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T07:08:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3223109</username>
        <id>2947538</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */ Added external links to wikipedia</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13549" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Window of tolerance:&lt;br&gt;What is the window of tolerance and how can it be applied? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Dan Seigel Quote.png|thumb|Figure 1. Direct quote by Dr. Dan Siegel (Siegal, 2020, p343) discussing the consequences of arousal moving outside of our window of tolerance. ]]
The window of tolerance is an explanatory component of [[Emotional self-regulation|emotion regulation]]. It describes an optimal zone of [[wikipedia:Arousal|emotional arousal]] from which we can process stimuli and function effectively (Siegel, 2020). Effective functioning allows us to regulate our emotions when facing distress; it also allows us to take action when our [[wikipedia:Autonomic_nervous_system|autonomic nervous system]] increases in activity in response to a potential threat or traumatic experience (Corrigan, et al. 2010).

* Expand on emotion regulation
* What does it mean to function effectively
* Expand on the physiology behind autonomic nervous system function?

When we fall outside of this zone we may experience ([[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]] or) [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. dysregulation]. This can be a warning sign that we are not functioning effectively, and that our autonomic nervous system is beginning to experience an increase in arousal intensity. Siegel (2020) acknowledges that arousal intensity is expressed in two ways: 1. Hyper arousal ([[wikipedia:Sympathetic_nervous_system|sympathetic nervous system activation]], [[wikipedia:Fight-or-flight_response|fight or flight response]]); 2. Hypo arousal ([[wikipedia:Parasympathetic_nervous_system|parasympathetic nervous system activation]], freeze response). As a result of this increased arousal intensity, cognitions and behaviours may become disrupted (see Figure 1). To maintain effective functioning we aim to expand, or stay within the boundaries of, our optimal zone of arousal - the window of tolerance.  

* Discuss Siegal's perspective on arousal intensity
* Expand on fight or flight response (sympathetic)
* Expand on freeze response (parasympathetic)
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Thought-provoking questions'''
* What does it feel like when I am within my window of tolerance?
* Have I ever experienced a state of arousal (hyper or hypo)? 
* How do I recognise when I am becoming dysregulated?
* What can I do to expand my window of tolerance?
&lt;i&gt;Keep these questions in mind as you read through this chapter.&lt;/i&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Window of tolerance ==

* Define the window of tolerance
* Optimal zone of arousal
* Feeling present in the moment
* Ability to self-soothe and regulate emotions
{{expand}}

* Include a window of tolerance quiz
** What does it feel like?
*** Chaotic and confusing
*** Capable and calm
*** Present in the moment
*** Stuck in survival mode

== Dysregulation ==

* Define dysregulation
* Identify citations for neuroscientific explanations of dysregulation
* Explain symptoms of emotional dysregulation
* Include a dysregulation quiz
** What does it feel like?
* OR include a case study
** Sam is beginning to fall out of their window of tolerance
** They are feeling increasingly more irritable, anxious, agitated as time goes on
** They notice they have little tolerance for disruptions
** They are starting to feel overwhelmed

== Arousal ==

* Briefly define arousal
* Identify how it comes to be
* Identify peer-reviewed, evidence-based research on the neuroscience behind arousal
* Explain the basic differences between the two forms of arousal
** In terms of overwhelmed and underwhelmed

=== Hyper arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hyper arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it

=== Hypo arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hyper arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it

== Case study ==

* Utilise feature boxes in this section
* Use an example of someone with lived-experience of trauma
* This will help to explain how trauma impacts our window of tolerance
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Case study
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Application ==

* Identify how the window of tolerance can be applied in practice
* Who may benefit from this concept?
* How can they benefit?

=== Psychotherapy ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in psychotherapeutic practices?
* Who is involved?
** Psychologists
** Counsellors
** Social Workers
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Psychoeducation ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in psychoeducational practices?
* Who is involved?
** Mental health workers
** Disability support workers
** Allied health professionals
** Teachers/Educators
** General Practitioners
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Self-awareness ===

* Self education 
* Self validation
* How can the window of tolerance be applied in self healing practices?
** Distributing this information to the general public
** Access for all
* Who is involved?
** People seeking additional support
** People seeking information on their experiences
** People looking to improve their self awareness
** People who are trying to better understand themselves/their experiences
** People who are trying to change their behaviours
* What are the benefits?
** Are there benefits for people being able to access this information?
** Provides a deeper understanding of how and why we behave the way we do
** Validates the experience of dysregulation
** Opens up the opportunity for behaviour change
* Are there any risks?
{{summarise}}
== Learning features ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Emotional self-regulation]]

Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
Corrigan, F. M., Fisher, J. J., Nutt, D. (2010) Autonomic dysregulation and the Window of Tolerance model of the effects of complex emotional trauma. ''Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford)'', ''25''(1), 17–25. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881109354930&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Seigel, D. J. (2020) ''The developing mind (3rd edition): How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are.'' Guilford Publications.

Seigel, D. J. (2020) ''The developing mind (3rd edition): How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are.'' p343. Guilford Publications.


List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
*[[wikipedia:Arousal|Arousal]] (wikipedia.org)
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. What is dysregulation?] (verywellmind.com)
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>mibls2uk1jyyx5fsxpc8y7v0naoq9wp</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418172</id>
      <parentid>2418163</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T07:19:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3223109</username>
        <id>2947538</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */ Updated internal wiki links</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13800" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Window of tolerance:&lt;br&gt;What is the window of tolerance and how can it be applied? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Dan Seigel Quote.png|thumb|Figure 1. Direct quote by Dr. Dan Siegel (Siegal, 2020, p343) discussing the consequences of arousal moving outside of our window of tolerance. ]]
The window of tolerance is an explanatory component of [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|emotion regulation]]. It describes an optimal zone of [[wikipedia:Arousal|emotional arousal]] from which we can process stimuli and function effectively (Siegel, 2020). Effective functioning allows us to regulate our emotions when facing distress; it also allows us to take action when our [[wikipedia:Autonomic_nervous_system|autonomic nervous system]] increases in activity in response to a potential threat or traumatic experience (Corrigan, et al. 2010).

* Expand on emotion regulation
* What does it mean to function effectively
* Expand on the physiology behind autonomic nervous system function?

When we fall outside of this zone we may experience ([[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]] or) [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. dysregulation]. This can be a warning sign that we are not functioning effectively, and that our autonomic nervous system is beginning to experience an increase in arousal intensity. Siegel (2020) acknowledges that arousal intensity is expressed in two ways: 1. Hyper arousal ([[wikipedia:Sympathetic_nervous_system|sympathetic nervous system activation]], [[wikipedia:Fight-or-flight_response|fight or flight response]]); 2. Hypo arousal ([[wikipedia:Parasympathetic_nervous_system|parasympathetic nervous system activation]], freeze response). As a result of this increased arousal intensity, cognitions and behaviours may become disrupted (see Figure 1). To maintain effective functioning we aim to expand, or stay within the boundaries of, our optimal zone of arousal - the window of tolerance.  

* Discuss Siegal's perspective on arousal intensity
* Expand on fight or flight response (sympathetic)
* Expand on freeze response (parasympathetic)
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Thought-provoking questions'''
* What does it feel like when I am within my window of tolerance?
* Have I ever experienced a state of arousal (hyper or hypo)? 
* How do I recognise when I am becoming dysregulated?
* What can I do to expand my window of tolerance?
&lt;i&gt;Keep these questions in mind as you read through this chapter.&lt;/i&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Window of tolerance ==

* Define the window of tolerance
* Optimal zone of arousal
* Feeling present in the moment
* Ability to self-soothe and regulate emotions
{{expand}}

* Include a window of tolerance quiz
** What does it feel like?
*** Chaotic and confusing
*** Capable and calm
*** Present in the moment
*** Stuck in survival mode

== Dysregulation ==

* Define dysregulation
* Identify citations for neuroscientific explanations of dysregulation
* Explain symptoms of emotional dysregulation
* Include a dysregulation quiz
** What does it feel like?
* OR include a case study
** Sam is beginning to fall out of their window of tolerance
** They are feeling increasingly more irritable, anxious, agitated as time goes on
** They notice they have little tolerance for disruptions
** They are starting to feel overwhelmed

== Arousal ==

* Briefly define arousal
* Identify how it comes to be
* Identify peer-reviewed, evidence-based research on the neuroscience behind arousal
* Explain the basic differences between the two forms of arousal
** In terms of overwhelmed and underwhelmed

=== Hyper arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hyper arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it

=== Hypo arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hyper arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it

== Case study ==

* Utilise feature boxes in this section
* Use an example of someone with lived-experience of trauma
* This will help to explain how trauma impacts our window of tolerance
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Case study
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Application ==

* Identify how the window of tolerance can be applied in practice
* Who may benefit from this concept?
* How can they benefit?

=== Psychotherapy ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in psychotherapeutic practices?
* Who is involved?
** Psychologists
** Counsellors
** Social Workers
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Psychoeducation ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in psychoeducational practices?
* Who is involved?
** Mental health workers
** Disability support workers
** Allied health professionals
** Teachers/Educators
** General Practitioners
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Self-awareness ===

* Self education 
* Self validation
* How can the window of tolerance be applied in self healing practices?
** Distributing this information to the general public
** Access for all
* Who is involved?
** People seeking additional support
** People seeking information on their experiences
** People looking to improve their self awareness
** People who are trying to better understand themselves/their experiences
** People who are trying to change their behaviours
* What are the benefits?
** Are there benefits for people being able to access this information?
** Provides a deeper understanding of how and why we behave the way we do
** Validates the experience of dysregulation
** Opens up the opportunity for behaviour change
* Are there any risks?
{{summarise}}
== Learning features ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Emotional self-regulation]]

Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
Corrigan, F. M., Fisher, J. J., Nutt, D. (2010) Autonomic dysregulation and the Window of Tolerance model of the effects of complex emotional trauma. ''Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford)'', ''25''(1), 17–25. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881109354930&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Seigel, D. J. (2020) ''The developing mind (3rd edition): How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are.'' Guilford Publications.

Seigel, D. J. (2020) ''The developing mind (3rd edition): How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are.'' p343. Guilford Publications.


List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==Resources==

=== Internal links ===
*[[wikipedia:Arousal|Arousal]] (wikipedia.org)
*[[wikipedia:Autonomic_nervous_system|Autonomic nervous system]] (wikipedia.org)
*[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (wikipedia.org)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|Emotion self-regulation]] (wikiversity.org)
* [[wikipedia:Sympathetic_nervous_system|Sympathetic nervous system]] (wikipedia.org)
*

=== External links ===
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. What is dysregulation?] (verywellmind.com)
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>9leli7bivcouqe4r6mdf1892n8a6bel</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418183</id>
      <parentid>2418172</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T07:35:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3223109</username>
        <id>2947538</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Internal links */ Updated internal links throughout</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13752" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Window of tolerance:&lt;br&gt;What is the window of tolerance and how can it be applied? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Dan Seigel Quote.png|thumb|Figure 1. Direct quote by Dr. Dan Siegel (Siegal, 2020, p343) discussing the consequences of arousal moving outside of our window of tolerance. ]]
The window of tolerance is an explanatory component of [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|emotion regulation]]. It describes an optimal zone of [[wikipedia:Arousal|emotional arousal]] from which we can process stimuli and function effectively (Siegel, 2020). Effective functioning allows us to regulate our emotions when facing distress; it also allows us to take action when our [[wikipedia:Autonomic_nervous_system|autonomic nervous system]] increases in activity in response to a potential threat or traumatic experience (Corrigan, et al. 2010).

* Expand on emotion regulation
* What does it mean to function effectively
* Expand on the physiology behind autonomic nervous system function?

When we fall outside of this zone we may experience ([[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]] or) [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. dysregulation]. This can be a warning sign that we are not functioning effectively, and that our autonomic nervous system is beginning to experience an increase in arousal intensity. Siegel (2020) acknowledges that arousal intensity is expressed in two ways: 1. Hyper arousal ([[wikipedia:Sympathetic_nervous_system|sympathetic nervous system activation]], [[wikipedia:Fight-or-flight_response|fight or flight response]]); 2. Hypo arousal ([[wikipedia:Parasympathetic_nervous_system|parasympathetic nervous system activation]], freeze response). As a result of this increased arousal intensity, cognitions and behaviours may become disrupted (see Figure 1). To maintain effective functioning we aim to expand, or stay within the boundaries of, our optimal zone of arousal - the window of tolerance.  

* Discuss Siegal's perspective on arousal intensity
* Expand on fight or flight response (sympathetic)
* Expand on freeze response (parasympathetic)
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Thought-provoking questions'''
* What does it feel like when I am within my window of tolerance?
* Have I ever experienced a state of arousal (hyper or hypo)? 
* How do I recognise when I am becoming dysregulated?
* What can I do to expand my window of tolerance?
&lt;i&gt;Keep these questions in mind as you read through this chapter.&lt;/i&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Window of tolerance ==

* Expanded definition of the window of tolerance
* Optimal zone of arousal
* Feeling present in the moment
* Ability to self-soothe and regulate emotions
{{expand}}

* Include a window of tolerance quiz
** What does it feel like?
*** Chaotic and confusing
*** Capable and calm
*** Present in the moment
*** Stuck in survival mode

== Dysregulation ==

* Define dysregulation
* Identify citations for neuroscientific explanations of dysregulation
* Explain symptoms of emotional dysregulation
* Include a dysregulation quiz
** What does it feel like?
* OR include a case study
** Sam is beginning to fall out of their window of tolerance
** They are feeling increasingly more irritable, anxious, agitated as time goes on
** They notice they have little tolerance for disruptions
** They are starting to feel overwhelmed

== Arousal ==

* Briefly define arousal
* Identify how it comes to be
* Identify peer-reviewed, evidence-based research on the neuroscience behind arousal
* Explain the basic differences between the two forms of arousal
** In terms of overwhelmed and underwhelmed

=== Hyper arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hyper arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it

=== Hypo arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hyper arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Case study
* Utilise feature boxes in this section
* Use an example of someone with lived-experience of trauma
* This will help to explain how trauma impacts our window of tolerance
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Application ==

* Identify how the window of tolerance can be applied in practice
* Who may benefit from this concept?
* How can they benefit?

=== Psychotherapy ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|psychotherapeutic]] practices?
* Who is involved?
** Psychologists
** Counsellors
** Social Workers
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Psychoeducation ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in [[wikipedia:Psychoeducation|psychoeducational]] practices?
* Who is involved?
** Mental health workers
** Disability support workers
** Allied health professionals
** Teachers/Educators
** General Practitioners
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Self-awareness ===

* Self education 
* Self validation
* How can the window of tolerance be applied in [[wikipedia:Self-healing|self healing]] practices?
** Distributing this information to the general public
** Access for all
* Who is involved?
** People seeking additional support
** People seeking information on their experiences
** People looking to improve their self awareness
** People who are trying to better understand themselves/their experiences
** People who are trying to change their behaviours
* What are the benefits?
** Are there benefits for people being able to access this information?
** Provides a deeper understanding of how and why we behave the way we do
** Validates the experience of dysregulation
** Opens up the opportunity for behaviour change
* Are there any risks?
{{summarise}}
== Learning features ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Affect regulation theory|Affect regulation theory]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Book chapter, 2013)

*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
Corrigan, F. M., Fisher, J. J., Nutt, D. (2010) Autonomic dysregulation and the Window of Tolerance model of the effects of complex emotional trauma. ''Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford)'', ''25''(1), 17–25. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881109354930&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Seigel, D. J. (2020) ''The developing mind (3rd edition): How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are.'' Guilford Publications.

Seigel, D. J. (2020) ''The developing mind (3rd edition): How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are.'' p343. Guilford Publications.


List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==Resources==

=== Internal links ===
*[[wikipedia:Arousal|Arousal]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Autonomic_nervous_system|Autonomic nervous system]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|Emotion self-regulation]] (Book chapter, 2013)
* [[wikipedia:Fight-or-flight_response|Fight or flight response]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Parasympathetic_nervous_system|Parasympathetic nervous system]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|Psychotherapy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Psychoeducation|Psychoeducation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Self-healing|Self-healing]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Sympathetic_nervous_system|Sympathetic nervous system]] (Wikipedia)
*

=== External links ===
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. What is dysregulation?] (verywellmind.com)
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Dan Seigel Quote.png|thumb|Figure 1. Direct quote by Dr. Dan Siegel (Siegal, 2020, p343) discussing the consequences of arousal moving outside of our window of tolerance. ]]
The window of tolerance is an explanatory component of [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|emotion regulation]]. It describes an optimal zone of [[wikipedia:Arousal|emotional arousal]] from which we can process stimuli and function effectively (Siegel, 2020). Effective functioning allows us to regulate our emotions when facing distress; it also allows us to take action when our [[wikipedia:Autonomic_nervous_system|autonomic nervous system]] increases in activity in response to a potential threat or traumatic experience (Corrigan, et al. 2010).

* Expand on emotion regulation
* What does it mean to function effectively
* Expand on the physiology behind autonomic nervous system function?

When we fall outside of this zone we may experience ([[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]] or) [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. dysregulation]. This can be a warning sign that we are not functioning effectively, and that our autonomic nervous system is beginning to experience an increase in arousal intensity. Siegel (2020) acknowledges that arousal intensity is expressed in two ways: 1. Hyper arousal ([[wikipedia:Sympathetic_nervous_system|sympathetic nervous system activation]], [[wikipedia:Fight-or-flight_response|fight or flight response]]); 2. Hypo arousal ([[wikipedia:Parasympathetic_nervous_system|parasympathetic nervous system activation]], freeze response). As a result of this increased arousal intensity, cognitions and behaviours may become disrupted (see Figure 1). To maintain effective functioning we aim to expand, or stay within the boundaries of, our optimal zone of arousal - the window of tolerance.  

* Discuss Siegal's perspective on arousal intensity
* Expand on fight or flight response (sympathetic)
* Expand on freeze response (parasympathetic)
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Thought-provoking questions'''
* What does it feel like when I am within my window of tolerance?
* Have I ever experienced a state of arousal (hyper or hypo)? 
* How do I recognise when I am becoming dysregulated?
* What can I do to expand my window of tolerance?
&lt;i&gt;Keep these questions in mind as you read through this chapter.&lt;/i&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Window of tolerance ==

* Expanded definition of the window of tolerance
* Optimal zone of arousal
* Feeling present in the moment
* Ability to self-soothe and regulate emotions
{{expand}}

* Include a window of tolerance quiz
** What does it feel like?
*** Chaotic and confusing
*** Capable and calm
*** Present in the moment
*** Stuck in survival mode

== Dysregulation ==

* Define dysregulation
* Identify citations for neuroscientific explanations of dysregulation
* Explain symptoms of emotional dysregulation
* Include a dysregulation quiz
** What does it feel like?
* OR include a case study
** Sam is beginning to fall out of their window of tolerance
** They are feeling increasingly more irritable, anxious, agitated as time goes on
** They notice they have little tolerance for disruptions
** They are starting to feel overwhelmed

== Arousal ==

* Briefly define arousal
* Identify how it comes to be
* Identify peer-reviewed, evidence-based research on the neuroscience behind arousal
* Explain the basic differences between the two forms of arousal
** In terms of overwhelmed and underwhelmed

=== Hyper arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hyper arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it

=== Hypo arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hyper arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Case study
* Utilise feature boxes in this section
* Use an example of someone with lived-experience of trauma
* This will help to explain how trauma impacts our window of tolerance
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Application ==

* Identify how the window of tolerance can be applied in practice
* Who may benefit from this concept?
* How can they benefit?

=== Psychotherapy ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|psychotherapeutic]] practices?
* Who is involved?
** Psychologists
** Counsellors
** Social Workers
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Psychoeducation ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in [[wikipedia:Psychoeducation|psychoeducational]] practices?
* Who is involved?
** Mental health workers
** Disability support workers
** Allied health professionals
** Teachers/Educators
** General Practitioners
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Self-help ===

* Self healing
* Self education
* Self validation
* How can the window of tolerance be applied in [[wikipedia:Self-healing|self healing]] practices?
** Distributing this information to the general public
** Access for all
* Who is involved?
** People seeking additional support
** People seeking information on their experiences
** People looking to improve their self awareness
** People who are trying to better understand themselves/their experiences
** People who are trying to change their behaviours
* What are the benefits?
** Are there benefits for people being able to access this information?
** Provides a deeper understanding of how and why we behave the way we do
** Validates the experience of dysregulation
** Opens up the opportunity for behaviour change
* Are there any risks?
{{summarise}}
== Learning features ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Affect regulation theory|Affect regulation theory]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Book chapter, 2013)

*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Corrigan, F. M., Fisher, J. J., Nutt, D. (2010) Autonomic dysregulation and the Window of Tolerance model of the effects of complex emotional trauma. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 25(1), 17–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881109354930

Seigel, D. J. (2020) The developing mind (3rd edition): How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are. Guilford Publications.

Seigel, D. J. (2020) The developing mind (3rd edition): How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are. p343. Guilford Publications.
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==Resources==

=== Internal links ===
*[[wikipedia:Arousal|Arousal]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Autonomic_nervous_system|Autonomic nervous system]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|Emotion self-regulation]] (Book chapter, 2013)
* [[wikipedia:Fight-or-flight_response|Fight or flight response]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Parasympathetic_nervous_system|Parasympathetic nervous system]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|Psychotherapy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Psychoeducation|Psychoeducation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Self-healing|Self-healing]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Sympathetic_nervous_system|Sympathetic nervous system]] (Wikipedia)
*

=== External links ===
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. What is dysregulation?] (verywellmind.com)
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>eey93ntslcptpnxkwkyx7wuoavd2cjj</sha1>
    </revision>
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      <contributor>
        <username>U3223109</username>
        <id>2947538</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Bullet point updates, things to do/to remember</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="12233" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Window of tolerance:&lt;br&gt;What is the window of tolerance and how can it be applied? }}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Dan Seigel Quote.png|thumb|Figure 1. Direct quote by Dr. Dan Siegel (Siegal, 2020, p343) discussing the consequences of arousal moving outside of our window of tolerance. ]]
The window of tolerance is an explanatory component of [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|emotion regulation]]. It describes an optimal zone of [[wikipedia:Arousal|emotional arousal]] from which we can process stimuli and function effectively (Siegel, 2020). Effective functioning allows us to regulate our emotions when facing distress; it also allows us to take action when our [[wikipedia:Autonomic_nervous_system|autonomic nervous system]] increases in activity in response to a potential threat or traumatic experience (Corrigan, et al. 2010).

* Expand on emotion regulation
* What does it mean to function effectively
* Expand on the physiology behind autonomic nervous system function?

When we fall outside of this zone we may experience ([[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]] or) [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. dysregulation]. This can be a warning sign that we are not functioning effectively, and that our autonomic nervous system is beginning to experience an increase in arousal intensity. Siegel (2020) acknowledges that arousal intensity is expressed in two ways: 1. Hyper arousal ([[wikipedia:Sympathetic_nervous_system|sympathetic nervous system activation]], [[wikipedia:Fight-or-flight_response|fight or flight response]]); 2. Hypo arousal ([[wikipedia:Parasympathetic_nervous_system|parasympathetic nervous system activation]], freeze response). As a result of this increased arousal intensity, cognitions and behaviours may become disrupted (see Figure 1). To maintain effective functioning we aim to expand, or stay within the boundaries of, our optimal zone of arousal - the window of tolerance.  

* Discuss Siegal's perspective on arousal intensity
* Expand on fight or flight response (sympathetic)
* Expand on freeze response (parasympathetic)
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Thought-provoking questions'''
* What does it feel like when I am within my window of tolerance?
* Have I ever experienced a state of arousal (hyper or hypo)? 
* How do I recognise when I am becoming dysregulated?
* What can I do to expand my window of tolerance?
&lt;i&gt;Keep these questions in mind as you read through this chapter.&lt;/i&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Window of tolerance ==

* Expanded definition of the window of tolerance
* Optimal zone of arousal
* Feeling present in the moment
* Ability to self-soothe and regulate emotions
{{expand}}

* Include a window of tolerance quiz
** What does it feel like?
*** Chaotic and confusing
*** Capable and calm
*** Present in the moment
*** Stuck in survival mode

== Dysregulation ==

* Define dysregulation
* Identify citations for neuroscientific explanations of dysregulation
* Explain symptoms of emotional dysregulation
* Include a dysregulation quiz
** What does it feel like?
* OR include a case study
** Sam is beginning to fall out of their window of tolerance
** They are feeling increasingly more irritable, anxious, agitated as time goes on
** They notice they have little tolerance for disruptions
** They are starting to feel overwhelmed

== Arousal ==

* Briefly define arousal
* Identify how it comes to be
* Identify peer-reviewed, evidence-based research on the neuroscience behind arousal
* Explain the basic differences between the two forms of arousal
** In terms of overwhelmed and underwhelmed

=== Hyper arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hyper arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it

=== Hypo arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hypo arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Case study
* Utilise feature boxes in this section
* Use an example of someone with lived-experience of trauma
* This will help to explain how trauma impacts our window of tolerance
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Application ==

* Identify how the window of tolerance can be applied in practice
* Who may benefit from this concept?
* How can they benefit?

=== Psychotherapy ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|psychotherapeutic]] practices?
* Who is involved?
** Psychologists
** Counsellors
** Social Workers
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Psychoeducation ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in [[wikipedia:Psychoeducation|psychoeducational]] practices?
* Who is involved?
** Mental health workers
** Disability support workers
** Allied health professionals
** Teachers/Educators
** General Practitioners
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Self-help ===

* Self healing
* Self education
* Self validation
* How can the window of tolerance be applied in [[wikipedia:Self-healing|self healing]] practices?
** Distributing this information to the general public
** Access for all
* Who is involved?
** People seeking additional support
** People seeking information on their experiences
** People looking to improve their self awareness
** People who are trying to better understand themselves/their experiences
** People who are trying to change their behaviours
* What are the benefits?
** Are there benefits for people being able to access this information?
** Provides a deeper understanding of how and why we behave the way we do
** Validates the experience of dysregulation
** Opens up the opportunity for behaviour change
* Are there any risks?
{{summarise}}
== Learning features ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==

* What is the window of tolerance?
** Discuss optimal zone of arousal, dysregulation, hyper- &amp; hypo arousal, etc
** What does it feel like to be in each state?
* How can it be applied?
** Who can benefit from using this concept?
** How can they benefit? (Evidence-based)
** What exactly are the benefits? (Back up with research)

The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Affect regulation theory|Affect regulation theory]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Book chapter, 2013)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Corrigan, F. M., Fisher, J. J., Nutt, D. (2010) Autonomic dysregulation and the Window of Tolerance model of the effects of complex emotional trauma. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 25(1), 17–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881109354930

Seigel, D. J. (2020) The developing mind (3rd edition): How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are. Guilford Publications.

Seigel, D. J. (2020) The developing mind (3rd edition): How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are. p343. Guilford Publications.
}}
==Resources==

=== Internal links ===
*[[wikipedia:Arousal|Arousal]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Autonomic_nervous_system|Autonomic nervous system]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|Emotion self-regulation]] (Book chapter, 2013)
* [[wikipedia:Fight-or-flight_response|Fight or flight response]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Parasympathetic_nervous_system|Parasympathetic nervous system]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|Psychotherapy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Psychoeducation|Psychoeducation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Self-healing|Self-healing]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Sympathetic_nervous_system|Sympathetic nervous system]] (Wikipedia)
*

=== External links ===
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. What is dysregulation?] (verywellmind.com)
*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

=='''Overview'''==
[[File:Dan Seigel Quote.png|thumb|Figure 1. Direct quote by Dr. Dan Siegel (Siegal, 2020, p343) discussing the consequences of arousal moving outside of our window of tolerance. ]]
The window of tolerance is an explanatory component of [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|emotion regulation]]. It describes an optimal zone of [[wikipedia:Arousal|emotional arousal]] from which we can process stimuli and function effectively (Siegel, 2020). Effective functioning allows us to regulate our emotions when facing distress; it also allows us to take action when our [[wikipedia:Autonomic_nervous_system|autonomic nervous system]] increases in activity in response to a potential threat or traumatic experience (Corrigan, et al. 2010).

* Expand on emotion regulation
* What does it mean to function effectively
* Expand on the physiology behind autonomic nervous system function?

When we fall outside of this zone we may experience ([[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]] or) [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. dysregulation]. This can be a warning sign that we are not functioning effectively, and that our autonomic nervous system is beginning to experience an increase in arousal intensity. Siegel (2020) acknowledges that arousal intensity is expressed in two ways: 1. Hyper arousal ([[wikipedia:Sympathetic_nervous_system|sympathetic nervous system activation]], [[wikipedia:Fight-or-flight_response|fight or flight response]]); 2. Hypo arousal ([[wikipedia:Parasympathetic_nervous_system|parasympathetic nervous system activation]], freeze response). As a result of this increased arousal intensity, cognitions and behaviours may become disrupted (see Figure 1). To maintain effective functioning we aim to expand, or stay within the boundaries of, our optimal zone of arousal - the window of tolerance.  

* Discuss Siegal's perspective on arousal intensity
* Expand on fight or flight response (sympathetic)
* Expand on freeze response (parasympathetic)
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Thought-provoking questions'''
* What does it feel like when I am within my window of tolerance?
* Have I ever experienced a state of arousal (hyper or hypo)? 
* How do I recognise when I am becoming dysregulated?
* What can I do to expand my window of tolerance?
&lt;i&gt;Keep these questions in mind as you read through this chapter.&lt;/i&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=='''Window of tolerance'''==
* Expanded definition of the window of tolerance
* Optimal zone of arousal
* Feeling present in the moment
* Ability to self-soothe and regulate emotions

* Include a window of tolerance quiz
** What does it feel like?
*** Chaotic and confusing
*** Capable and calm
*** Present in the moment
*** Stuck in survival mode
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Case study
* Utilise feature boxes in this section
* Use an example of someone with lived-experience of trauma
* This will help to explain how trauma impacts our window of tolerance
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== '''Dysregulation''' ==

* Define dysregulation
* Identify citations for neuroscientific explanations of dysregulation
* Explain symptoms of emotional dysregulation
* Include a dysregulation quiz
** What does it feel like?
* OR include a case study
** Sam is beginning to fall out of their window of tolerance
** They are feeling increasingly more irritable, anxious, agitated as time goes on
** They notice they have little tolerance for disruptions
** They are starting to feel overwhelmed

== '''Arousal''' ==

* Briefly define arousal
* Identify how it comes to be
* Identify peer-reviewed, evidence-based research on the neuroscience behind arousal
* Explain the basic differences between the two forms of arousal
** In terms of overwhelmed and underwhelmed

=== Hyper arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hyper arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it

=== Hypo arousal ===

* Identify the symptoms of hypo arousal
* Acknowledge the difficulties this may cause the individuals who experience it
== '''Application''' ==

* Identify how the window of tolerance can be applied in practice
* Who may benefit from this concept?
* How can they benefit?

=== Psychotherapy ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|psychotherapeutic]] practices?
* Who is involved?
** Psychologists
** Counsellors
** Social Workers
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Psychoeducation ===

* How can the window of tolerance be applied in [[wikipedia:Psychoeducation|psychoeducational]] practices?
* Who is involved?
** Mental health workers
** Disability support workers
** Allied health professionals
** Teachers/Educators
** General Practitioners
* What are the benefits?
* Are there any risks?

=== Self-help ===

* Self healing
* Self education
* Self validation
* How can the window of tolerance be applied in [[wikipedia:Self-healing|self healing]] practices?
** Distributing this information to the general public
** Access for all
* Who is involved?
** People seeking additional support
** People seeking information on their experiences
** People looking to improve their self awareness
** People who are trying to better understand themselves/their experiences
** People who are trying to change their behaviours
* What are the benefits?
** Are there benefits for people being able to access this information?
** Provides a deeper understanding of how and why we behave the way we do
** Validates the experience of dysregulation
** Opens up the opportunity for behaviour change
* Are there any risks?
== '''Conclusion''' ==
* What is the window of tolerance?
** Discuss optimal zone of arousal, dysregulation, hyper- &amp; hypo arousal, etc
** What does it feel like to be in each state?
* How can it be applied?
** Who can benefit from using this concept?
** How can they benefit? (Evidence-based)
** What exactly are the benefits? (Back up with research)
* What are the answers to the thought-provoking/focus questions?

=='''See also'''==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Affect regulation theory|Affect regulation theory]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Book chapter, 2013)

=='''References'''==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Corrigan, F. M., Fisher, J. J., Nutt, D. (2010) Autonomic dysregulation and the Window of Tolerance model of the effects of complex emotional trauma. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford), 25(1), 17–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881109354930

Seigel, D. J. (2020) The developing mind (3rd edition): How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are. Guilford Publications.

Seigel, D. J. (2020) The developing mind (3rd edition): How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are. p343. Guilford Publications.
}}
=='''Resources'''==

=== Internal links ===
*[[wikipedia:Arousal|Arousal]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Autonomic_nervous_system|Autonomic nervous system]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|Emotion self-regulation]] (Book chapter, 2013)
* [[wikipedia:Fight-or-flight_response|Fight or flight response]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Parasympathetic_nervous_system|Parasympathetic nervous system]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|Psychotherapy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Psychoeducation|Psychoeducation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Self-healing|Self-healing]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Sympathetic_nervous_system|Sympathetic nervous system]] (Wikipedia)
*

=== External links ===
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-dysregulation-5073868#:~:text=Luis%20Pelaez%20Inc-,What%20Is%20Dysregulation%3F,anger%2C%20irritability%2C%20and%20frustration. What is dysregulation?] (verywellmind.com)
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__TOC__

==Overview==
* [[File:Fear has big eyes.jpg|thumb|333x333px|Figure 2. Fear has big eyes.]]definition of fear (fundamental life task: threat or danger present)
** expression of fear (facial expression, heart rate, sweat level)
** types of fear
** coping function (protect, avoid)
* outline the similarities and differences between fear and anxiety
* outline the cause of fear (psychologically, biologically and socially)
* overview of fear and phobia
* strategies to manage fear (in and out of clinical setting)
Fear can offer both advantage and disadvantage in everyday life. Understand the meaning and causation of fear can lead to course of action that helps to manage fear. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is fear?
* What is the difference between fear and anxiety? 
* What causes fear?
* When does fear lead to phobia?
* How can fear be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== What is fear? ==

* what is the definition of fear?
** fear is one of the human basic emotions (Gu et al., 2019)
** fear defined by ethologist (Steimer, 2002)
** fear as a motivator (Bates, 2014)

== The difference between fear and anxiety ==

* Are fear and anxiety truly distinct? (Daniel-Watanabe &amp; Fletcher, 2021)
* Neurobehavioral perspectives on the distinction between fear and anxiety (Perusini &amp; Fanselow, 2015)
* Fear and anxiety as separable emotions (Perkins et al., 2007)
* Interaction between fear and anxiety (Meulders et al., 2012)

== What causes fear? ==

* genetic and environmental cause of fear (Sundet et al., 2003)
* the hierarchic structure of fears (Taylor, 1998)

=== Physiological perspective ===

* fear response starts in the amygdala - fight or flight (Ressler, 2010)
* explicit fear processing activate the pulvinar and parahippocampal gyrus (Tao et al., 2021)
* release stress hormones and sympathetic nervous system (Steimer, 2002)
* James-Lange theory ()
* fear serve an adaptive role for survival - Darwin's theory (Mobbs, 2015) - from evolutionary (preprogrammed fear)

=== Social perspective ===

* are we born with fear of learn it overtime? (Debiec &amp; Olsson, 2017)
* Bandura's social learning theory (Olsson &amp; Phelps, 2007)
* cultural evolution of fear (Tudor, 2003) changing due to social experience, circumstances. 
** example: the fear of air siren back then (during war time) compare to modern days.

=== Psychological perspective ===

* Pavlovian fear conditioning (Hadley et al., 2011)
* fear is caused by particular perceived threat related stimuli - physically and psychologically (Rapee, 1997)
* cognitive appraisal theory ()

== When does fear become a phobia? ==

* what is phobia? (Eaton, 2018)
* fear becomes excessive beyond that which is justified by external threat (Du et al., 2008)
* phobia as the psychology of irrational fear (Milosevic &amp; McCabe, 2015)
* neurobiology of fear and specific phobias (Garcia, 2017)

== How can fear be managed? ==
{{expand}}

=== Within everyday life ===

==== Mindfulness ====

* mindfulness exercise and fear extinction (Kummar, 2017)
* the effects of mindfulness and fear inducing stimuli on avoidance behaviour (Carlin &amp; Ahrens, 2014)

==== Self-control instruction ====

* fear reduction using self-control instruction with home-based practice (Graziano et al., 1979)
* systematic desensitisation (Goldfield, 1971)
* will power is more than a metaphor (Galliot et al., 2007)

=== Within clinical settings ===

{{expand}}

==== Cognitive behavioural therapy ====

* case study report of cancer survivor on fear of recurrence (Montel, 2010)
* treating fear in anxiety disorders (Kaczkurkin, 2015)
* NMDA receptor and fear extinction (Davis, 2022)
* reducing fear-avoidance-beliefs among individuals with chronic pain (Lohnberg, 2007)

==== Exposure therapy ====

* face your fear (Frankland &amp; Josselyn, 2018)
* an inhibitory approach (Craske et al., 2014)

==Conclusion==

* Summaries key points - answer focus questions listed in overview.
**The pros and cons of fear.
**Fear can be distinguished from anxiety
**There are many factors that are involved in producing fear.  
**When fear is not recognised regulated, it can become overwhelming and potentially lead to phobia. 
**Fear is normal and can be treated with self help and/or professional help. 
*take home messages??

== Recap quizzes ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Fear induce risk taking behaviour
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{It is possible to manage fear with mindfulness techniques 
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>d6n72rolgk27qv4a0x3o859pibbzqai</sha1>
    </revision>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ categories</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8634" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Work and flow:&lt;br&gt;What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Flow]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work]]</text>
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Humour, leadership, and work</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <contributor>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

Why do we laugh and how and why does this laughter often move us to action?  

* Humour is an essential part of living for many living creatures, being a pro-socially evolved behaviour that reduces stress 
* However why we laugh and why it motivates us continues to largely be studied by philosophical fields 
* in comparison Humour is a relatively small field of research ( comparatively to Motivation studies) 


* As we will discuss further humour is used as an appeal to increase (and sometimes decrease) motivation for many types of behaviours

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* How are Humour and motivation linked? 
* How does leadership humour increase motivation 
* Criticism of Humour use in the workplace 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Workplace Humour Helps.png|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Humour Helps in a workplace ]]
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

= Humour, Motivation and Leadership =


== Humour and Motivation: Background ==

=== History: ===
* [[wikipedia:Humor_research|Humor_research]] (relatively new field of research) that encompasses linguistics, history and literature around the benefits of Humour
* Humour as a motivator one of the primary research areas

* affiliative and self-enhancing humour are the two adaptive styles (Martin et al., 2003)

=== Types of Humour ===
* affiliative humour is used to strengthen interpersonal relationships or ease tensions within those relationships.
* Self-enhancing humour involves the use of a humorous outlook on situations in life as a coping tool. Used to relieve stress without hurting others

== Leadership humour ==

* Humour plays a critical part in the functioning of a workplace environment and in leadership to guide employees. 

== Leadership Humour and workplace Morale ==

=== Teaching environments: ===

* teachers who work in elementary schools and high schools state that school managers use frequently the sense of affirmative humour-

* Affirmative and social humour directed from management linked towards a motivation increase in teachers  (Akyol &amp; Gündüz, 2014b)

=== Job Satisfaction/Motivation: ===
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Leader humour has been found to help establish high-quality relationships between leaders and followers&quot; (Pundt and Herrmann, 2014)  

&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Criticism of Humour as a form of motivation. ==

=== Affirmative vs negative Humour: ===
* Humour indicates a social goal which can be linked to malicious creativity and workplace bullying (Perchtold-Stefan et al., 2020)

==== Appropriateness of Humour: ====
* Sincerity plays a key role in developing trust with employees-  A humourless boss should not attempt to force humour
* Humour needs to be appropriate for the context 

== Future Research ==

=== Leadership humour: ===


=== Workplace Research: ===

* Research needed into physical and psychological effects of Humour in the workplace
* The limit to affirmative humour and physical effects at work

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humor_research
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Akyol, M. E., &amp; Gündüz, H. B. (2014). The Motivation Level of the Teachers According to the School Managers’ Senses of Humour. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 152, 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.182

Davis, A., &amp; Kleiner, B. H. (1989). The value of humour in effective leadership. Leadership &amp; Organization Development Journal, 10(1), i–iii.

Pundt, A., &amp; Herrmann, F. (2014). Affiliative and aggressive humour in leadership and their relationship to leader-member exchange. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 88(1), 108–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12081

Jin Yoon, H., &amp; Mark Mayer, J. (2014). Do humour and threat work well together? International Journal of Advertising, 33(4), 725–740. https://doi.org/10.2501/ija-33-4-725-740

Daman, Stuart Jenkins, &quot;The Influence of Humor on Approach and Avoidance Motivation&quot; (2008). ETD Archive. 585.
https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/etdarchive/585

Akyol, M. E., &amp; Gündüz, H. B. (2014b). The Motivation Level of the Teachers According to the School Managers’ Senses of Humour. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 152, 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.182
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
__FORCETOC__</text>
      <sha1>3tr3octshjgoof0hzt48f8nbtabe5dw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418180</id>
      <parentid>2418007</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T07:27:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3210264</username>
        <id>2947526</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10878" xml:space="preserve">{{title|HUMOUR, leadership, and work:&lt;br&gt;HOW does Humour influence workplace motivation?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

Why do we laugh and how and why does this laughter often move us to action?  

* Humour is an essential part of living for many living creatures, being a pro-socially evolved behaviour that reduces stress 
* However why we laugh and why it motivates us continues to largely be studied by philosophical fields 
* in comparison Humour is a relatively small field of research ( comparatively to Motivation studies) 


* As we will discuss further humour is used as an appeal to increase (and sometimes decrease) motivation for many types of behaviours

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* How are Humour and motivation linked? 
* How does leadership humour increase motivation 
* Criticism of Humour use in the workplace 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Workplace Humour Helps.png|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Humour Helps in a workplace ]]
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

= Humour, Motivation and Leadership =


== Humour and Motivation: Background ==

=== History: ===
* [[wikipedia:Humor_research|Humor_research]] (relatively new field of research) that encompasses linguistics, history and literature around the benefits of Humour
* Humour as a motivator one of the primary research areas

* affiliative and self-enhancing humour are the two adaptive styles (Martin et al., 2003)

=== Types of Humour ===
* affiliative humour is used to strengthen interpersonal relationships or ease tensions within those relationships.
* Self-enhancing humour involves the use of a humorous outlook on situations in life as a coping tool. Used to relieve stress without hurting others

== Leadership humour ==

* Humour plays a critical part in the functioning of a workplace environment and in leadership to guide employees. 

== Leadership Humour and workplace Morale ==

=== Teaching environments: ===

* teachers who work in elementary schools and high schools state that school managers use frequently the sense of affirmative humour-

* Affirmative and social humour directed from management linked towards a motivation increase in teachers  (Akyol &amp; Gündüz, 2014b)

=== Job Satisfaction/Motivation: ===
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Leader humour has been found to help establish high-quality relationships between leaders and followers&quot; (Pundt and Herrmann, 2014)  

&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Criticism of Humour as a form of motivation. ==

=== Affirmative vs negative Humour: ===
* Humour indicates a social goal which can be linked to malicious creativity and workplace bullying (Perchtold-Stefan et al., 2020)

==== Appropriateness of Humour: ====
* Sincerity plays a key role in developing trust with employees-  A humourless boss should not attempt to force humour
* Humour needs to be appropriate for the context 

== Future Research ==

=== Leadership humour: ===


=== Workplace Research: ===

* Research needed into physical and psychological effects of Humour in the workplace
* The limit to affirmative humour and physical effects at work

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humor_research
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Akyol, M. E., &amp; Gündüz, H. B. (2014). The Motivation Level of the Teachers According to the School Managers’ Senses of Humour. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 152, 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.182

Davis, A., &amp; Kleiner, B. H. (1989). The value of humour in effective leadership. Leadership &amp; Organization Development Journal, 10(1), i–iii.

Pundt, A., &amp; Herrmann, F. (2014). Affiliative and aggressive humour in leadership and their relationship to leader-member exchange. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 88(1), 108–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12081

Jin Yoon, H., &amp; Mark Mayer, J. (2014). Do humour and threat work well together? International Journal of Advertising, 33(4), 725–740. https://doi.org/10.2501/ija-33-4-725-740

Daman, Stuart Jenkins, &quot;The Influence of Humor on Approach and Avoidance Motivation&quot; (2008). ETD Archive. 585.
https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/etdarchive/585

Akyol, M. E., &amp; Gündüz, H. B. (2014b). The Motivation Level of the Teachers According to the School Managers’ Senses of Humour. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 152, 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.182
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
__FORCETOC__</text>
      <sha1>94ntizp02fdogblkddwbugy4qtoaicj</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418199</id>
      <parentid>2418180</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T08:27:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3210264</username>
        <id>2947526</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Conclusion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10956" xml:space="preserve">{{title|HUMOUR, leadership, and work:&lt;br&gt;HOW does Humour influence workplace motivation?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

Why do we laugh and how and why does this laughter often move us to action?  

* Humour is an essential part of living for many living creatures, being a pro-socially evolved behaviour that reduces stress 
* However why we laugh and why it motivates us continues to largely be studied by philosophical fields 
* in comparison Humour is a relatively small field of research ( comparatively to Motivation studies) 


* As we will discuss further humour is used as an appeal to increase (and sometimes decrease) motivation for many types of behaviours

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* How are Humour and motivation linked? 
* How does leadership humour increase motivation 
* Criticism of Humour use in the workplace 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Workplace Humour Helps.png|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Humour Helps in a workplace ]]
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

= Humour, Motivation and Leadership =


== Humour and Motivation: Background ==

=== History: ===
* [[wikipedia:Humor_research|Humor_research]] (relatively new field of research) that encompasses linguistics, history and literature around the benefits of Humour
* Humour as a motivator one of the primary research areas

* affiliative and self-enhancing humour are the two adaptive styles (Martin et al., 2003)

=== Types of Humour ===
* affiliative humour is used to strengthen interpersonal relationships or ease tensions within those relationships.
* Self-enhancing humour involves the use of a humorous outlook on situations in life as a coping tool. Used to relieve stress without hurting others

== Leadership humour ==

* Humour plays a critical part in the functioning of a workplace environment and in leadership to guide employees. 

== Leadership Humour and workplace Morale ==

=== Teaching environments: ===

* teachers who work in elementary schools and high schools state that school managers use frequently the sense of affirmative humour-

* Affirmative and social humour directed from management linked towards a motivation increase in teachers  (Akyol &amp; Gündüz, 2014b)

=== Job Satisfaction/Motivation: ===
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Leader humour has been found to help establish high-quality relationships between leaders and followers&quot; (Pundt and Herrmann, 2014)  

&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Criticism of Humour as a form of motivation. ==

=== Affirmative vs negative Humour: ===
* Humour indicates a social goal which can be linked to malicious creativity and workplace bullying (Perchtold-Stefan et al., 2020)

==== Appropriateness of Humour: ====
* Sincerity plays a key role in developing trust with employees-  A humourless boss should not attempt to force humour
* Humour needs to be appropriate for the context 

== Future Research ==

=== Leadership humour: ===


=== Workplace Research: ===

* Research needed into physical and psychological effects of Humour in the workplace
* The limit to affirmative humour and physical effects at work

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. 

* Good leaders incorporate humour into there leadership style

* Humour is a flexible device for potentially promoting status in a workplace or relieving tension with staff members
* However Humour can be used maliciously. It needs to be used respectfully and under appropriate contexts for increased morale 

==See also==
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humor_research
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Akyol, M. E., &amp; Gündüz, H. B. (2014). The Motivation Level of the Teachers According to the School Managers’ Senses of Humour. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 152, 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.182

Davis, A., &amp; Kleiner, B. H. (1989). The value of humour in effective leadership. Leadership &amp; Organization Development Journal, 10(1), i–iii.

Pundt, A., &amp; Herrmann, F. (2014). Affiliative and aggressive humour in leadership and their relationship to leader-member exchange. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 88(1), 108–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12081

Jin Yoon, H., &amp; Mark Mayer, J. (2014). Do humour and threat work well together? International Journal of Advertising, 33(4), 725–740. https://doi.org/10.2501/ija-33-4-725-740

Daman, Stuart Jenkins, &quot;The Influence of Humor on Approach and Avoidance Motivation&quot; (2008). ETD Archive. 585.
https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/etdarchive/585

Akyol, M. E., &amp; Gündüz, H. B. (2014b). The Motivation Level of the Teachers According to the School Managers’ Senses of Humour. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 152, 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.182
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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      <id>2418208</id>
      <parentid>2418199</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T08:52:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3210264</username>
        <id>2947526</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Leadership humour */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11353" xml:space="preserve">{{title|HUMOUR, leadership, and work:&lt;br&gt;HOW does Humour influence workplace motivation?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

Why do we laugh and how and why does this laughter often move us to action?  

* Humour is an essential part of living for many living creatures, being a pro-socially evolved behaviour that reduces stress 
* Humor is a tool by which social actors attempt to achieve functional ends
* However why we laugh and why it motivates us continues to largely be studied by philosophical fields 
* in comparison Humour is a relatively small field of research ( comparatively to Motivation studies) 


* As we will discuss further humour is used as an appeal to increase (and sometimes decrease) motivation for many types of behaviours

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* How are Humour and motivation linked? 
* How does leadership humour increase motivation 
* Criticism of Humour use in the workplace 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Workplace Humour Helps.png|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Humour Helps in a workplace ]]
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

= Humour, Motivation and Leadership =


== Humour and Motivation: Background ==

=== History: ===
* [[wikipedia:Humor_research|Humor_research]] (relatively new field of research) that encompasses linguistics, history and literature around the benefits of Humour
* Humour as a motivator one of the primary research areas
* wealth of literature social and clinical/health perspectives: observation of Humour as a social tool for people to achieve their goals (Foot 1986, as cited in Brooks,1992 ) and as stress relief for both patients and health practitioners ( Wanzer et al., 2005) 

* affiliative and self-enhancing humour are the two adaptive styles (Martin et al., 2003)

=== Types of Humour ===
* affiliative humour is used to strengthen interpersonal relationships or ease tensions within those relationships.
* Self-enhancing humour involves the use of a humorous outlook on situations in life as a coping tool. Used to relieve stress without hurting others

== Leadership humour ==

* Leadership Humour is a style of humour 

== Leadership Humour and workplace Morale ==

=== Teaching environments: ===

* teachers who work in elementary schools and high schools state that school managers use frequently the sense of affirmative humour-

* Affirmative and social humour directed from management linked towards a motivation increase in teachers  (Akyol &amp; Gündüz, 2014b)

=== Job Satisfaction/Motivation: ===
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Leader humour has been found to help establish high-quality relationships between leaders and followers&quot; (Pundt and Herrmann, 2014)  

&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Criticism of Humour as a form of motivation. ==

=== Affirmative vs negative Humour: ===
* Humour indicates a social goal which can be linked to malicious creativity and workplace bullying (Perchtold-Stefan et al., 2020)

==== Appropriateness of Humour: ====
* Sincerity plays a key role in developing trust with employees-  A humourless boss should not attempt to force humour
* Humour needs to be appropriate for the context 

== Future Research ==

=== Leadership humour: ===


=== Workplace Research: ===

* Research needed into physical and psychological effects of Humour in the workplace
* The limit to affirmative humour and physical effects at work

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. 

* Good leaders incorporate humour into there leadership style

* Humour is a flexible device for potentially promoting status in a workplace or relieving tension with staff members
* However Humour can be used maliciously. It needs to be used respectfully and under appropriate contexts for increased morale 

==See also==
* (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humor_research)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Akyol, M. E., &amp; Gündüz, H. B. (2014). The Motivation Level of the Teachers According to the School Managers’ Senses of Humour. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 152, 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.182

Davis, A., &amp; Kleiner, B. H. (1989). The value of humour in effective leadership. Leadership &amp; Organization Development Journal, 10(1), i–iii.

Pundt, A., &amp; Herrmann, F. (2014). Affiliative and aggressive humour in leadership and their relationship to leader-member exchange. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 88(1), 108–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12081

WANZER, M., BOOTH-BUTTERFIELD, M., &amp; BOOTH-BUTTERFIELD, S. (2005). “If We Didn’t Use Humor, We’d Cry”: Humorous Coping Communication in Health Care Settings. Journal of Health Communication, 10(2), 105–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730590915092

Jin Yoon, H., &amp; Mark Mayer, J. (2014). Do humour and threat work well together? International Journal of Advertising, 33(4), 725–740. https://doi.org/10.2501/ija-33-4-725-740

Daman, Stuart Jenkins, &quot;The Influence of Humor on Approach and Avoidance Motivation&quot; (2008). ETD Archive. 585.
https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/etdarchive/585

Ronglan, L. T., &amp; Aggerholm, K. (2014). ‘Humour helps’: Elite sports coaching as a balancing act. Sports Coaching Review, 3(1), 33–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/21640629.2014.885776
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* (https://search.informit.org/doi/abs/10.3316/meditext.387628368888489?casa_token=TJnTNsFPQkMAAAAA:xK6DIdJ_LrESAGmtIBU-yDkPCXjDzYCSMJupks0HjbzIUXHBVu3PlzSzrR4wQKO4svDPe9dGFQ6Wdw
* https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED417113
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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      <parentid>2418208</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T09:00:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3210264</username>
        <id>2947526</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="11766" xml:space="preserve">{{title|HUMOUR, leadership, and work:&lt;br&gt;HOW does Humour influence workplace motivation?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

Why do we laugh and how and why does this laughter often move us to action?  

* Humour is an essential part of living for many living creatures, being a pro-socially evolved behaviour that reduces stress 
* Humor is a tool by which social actors attempt to achieve functional ends
* However why we laugh and why it motivates us continues to largely be studied by philosophical fields 
* in comparison Humour is a relatively small field of research ( comparatively to Motivation studies) 


* As we will discuss further humour is used as an appeal to increase (and sometimes decrease) motivation for many types of behaviours

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* How are Humour and motivation linked? 
* How does leadership humour increase motivation 
* Criticism of Humour use in the workplace 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Workplace Humour Helps.png|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Humour Helps in a workplace ]]
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

= Humour, Motivation and Leadership =


== Humour and Motivation: Background ==

=== History: ===
* [[wikipedia:Humor_research|Humor_research]] (relatively new field of research) that encompasses linguistics, history and literature around the benefits of Humour
* Humour as a motivator one of the primary research areas
* wealth of literature social and clinical/health perspectives: observation of Humour as a social tool for people to achieve their goals (Foot 1986, as cited in Brooks,1992 ) and as stress relief for both patients and health practitioners (Cohen., 2001, Wanzer et al., 2005)

* affiliative and self-enhancing humour are the two adaptive styles (Martin et al., 2003)

=== Types of Humour ===
* affiliative humour is used to strengthen interpersonal relationships or ease tensions within those relationships.
* Self-enhancing humour involves the use of a humorous outlook on situations in life as a coping tool. Used to relieve stress without hurting others

== Leadership humour ==

* Leadership Humour is a style of humour 

== Leadership Humour and workplace Morale ==

=== Teaching environments: ===

* teachers who work in elementary schools and high schools state that school managers use frequently the sense of affirmative humour-

* Affirmative and social humour directed from management linked towards a motivation increase in teachers  (Akyol &amp; Gündüz, 2014b)

=== Job Satisfaction/Motivation: ===
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Leader humour has been found to help establish high-quality relationships between leaders and followers&quot; (Pundt and Herrmann, 2014)  

&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Criticism of Humour as a form of motivation. ==

=== Affirmative vs negative Humour: ===
* Humour indicates a social goal which can be linked to malicious creativity and workplace bullying (Perchtold-Stefan et al., 2020)

==== Appropriateness of Humour: ====
* Sincerity plays a key role in developing trust with employees-  A humourless boss should not attempt to force humour
* Humour needs to be appropriate for the context 

== Future Research ==

=== Leadership humour: ===


=== Workplace Research: ===

* Research needed into physical and psychological effects of Humour in the workplace
* The limit to affirmative humour and physical effects at work

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. 

* Good leaders incorporate humour into there leadership style

* Humour is a flexible device for potentially promoting status in a workplace or relieving tension with staff members
* However Humour can be used maliciously. It needs to be used respectfully and under appropriate contexts for increased morale 

==See also==
* (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humor_research)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Akyol, M. E., &amp; Gündüz, H. B. (2014). The Motivation Level of the Teachers According to the School Managers’ Senses of Humour. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 152, 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.182

Cohen, M. (2001). Happiness and humour: a medical perspective. Australian Family Physician, 30(1), 17–19. https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.387665634831006

Davis, A., &amp; Kleiner, B. H. (1989). The value of humour in effective leadership. Leadership &amp; Organization Development Journal, 10(1), i–iii.

Pundt, A., &amp; Herrmann, F. (2014). Affiliative and aggressive humour in leadership and their relationship to leader-member exchange. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 88(1), 108–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12081

WANZER, M., BOOTH-BUTTERFIELD, M., &amp; BOOTH-BUTTERFIELD, S. (2005). “If We Didn’t Use Humor, We’d Cry”: Humorous Coping Communication in Health Care Settings. Journal of Health Communication, 10(2), 105–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730590915092

Jin Yoon, H., &amp; Mark Mayer, J. (2014). Do humour and threat work well together? International Journal of Advertising, 33(4), 725–740. https://doi.org/10.2501/ija-33-4-725-740

Daman, Stuart Jenkins, &quot;The Influence of Humor on Approach and Avoidance Motivation&quot; (2008). ETD Archive. 585.
https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/etdarchive/585

Ronglan, L. T., &amp; Aggerholm, K. (2014). ‘Humour helps’: Elite sports coaching as a balancing act. Sports Coaching Review, 3(1), 33–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/21640629.2014.885776
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* (https://search.informit.org/doi/abs/10.3316/meditext.387628368888489?casa_token=TJnTNsFPQkMAAAAA:xK6DIdJ_LrESAGmtIBU-yDkPCXjDzYCSMJupks0HjbzIUXHBVu3PlzSzrR4wQKO4svDPe9dGFQ6Wdw
* https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED417113
* https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.387665634831006
* https://english.ahram.org.eg/News/473725.aspx
* https://metro.co.uk/2022/08/02/workplace-productivity-rises-when-people-feel-they-can-show-emotions-17112840/
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you ever been so engrossed in something that you forgot about the exam revision you needed to revise for your test tomorrow? Or perhaps you had work in the next 30 minutes? Alternatively, you have experienced a lack of time or cannot achieve your days' work due to your limited time. Luckily, this article is here to help you manage your time and inform you about the history and workings of time management. 

There has been a growing recognition of the importance of time organisation in literature. Orlikoqsky and Yate (2002), The dimension of work has increasingly become important due to the expanding global need and increases for immediate products and services. Additionally, Garhammer (2002) pointed out that there is an increase in the pace o life. Things were being done faster (accelerating), therefore contracting time expenditure (e.g. sleeping less) and compressing actions (e.g. multi-tasking). Many authors also discuss the need for better incorporation of time in theoretical models and research designs (e.g. Ancona et al, 2001., George and Jones, 200). Other authors have also focused their attention on researching how people in organisations manage their time and ways to make it effective (e.g. Macan, 1994).

Time management is not new, as it has been discussed since the 1950s-1960s. However, time management is somewhat ambiguous; time cannot be managed, but individuals can manage their time. Therefore time management is the strategy that supports and successfully executes behaviours required to achieve a set goal effectively. These strategies may include planning, prioritising important works, allocating time, goal settings, monitoring and self-organisation. By doing so, time management can positively bring about a good perception of control of time, job satisfaction and better health in contrast to reducing stress. 

Previous authors propose a method to handle time issues (Drucker,1967., Lakein, 1973). These authors suggest individuals write down on paper the lists of things to do, thus a &quot;To-do&quot; list. However, Drucker (1967) suggests that this method is not always practical as there are failures to complete tasks due to time being precious. In 1959, Mccay and his team developed time-management training programs that are still used today. The program focused on 

*Gaining insight into the consumption of time and activities 
*Changing time expenditures 
*Using daily planning
*Learning how to prioritise tasks
*Learning how to handle unexpected tasks and events

Though there is much research on time management, little research has been conducted on how to use and manage time effectively. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
*How is time managed?
*Why is time management important?
*Why is time management difficult?
*How can we improve time management?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{tip|
Perhaps you are a detailed person with detailed day-to-day to-do lists, or you are flexible and find regimented schedules suffocating. Managing your time right down to the minute with sticky notes and timetables is as valid as diving into big projects and prioritising other things. Perhaps you have a time of day that works best for you. Some people work better during daylight and others at night. As long as both the work is done, there is nothing wrong is either style. It would be best if you worked with what works best for you and allows you to accomplish all your tasks. 

}}

==How is time managed?==
-Internal/ External Motivation 
- general time management tools - Prioritisation, goal setting,Scheduling,Concentration, Focus time
-Time management in Practice 

{{tip|
Key points (summary)

}}


==Why is time management important?==
-Benefits of time management 
-Mental/Physical heath related
-Professional Life
-Social Life
-Academic Life

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
- Case study about academic and time management
{{RoundBOxBottom}}

 [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

==Why is time management difficult?==
- Procratination -Theory?
-Competing interest
-Lack of motivation
-mental/health isssues
-Work importance
-Displine

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Importance of good well-being
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RounBoxTop|theme=3}}
Mental Illness
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==How can we improve time management?==
-Tips

{{RounBoxTop|theme=3}}
How the brain works 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RounBoxTop|theme=3}}
Culture and time
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 03:39, 4 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you ever been so engrossed in something that you forgot about the exam revision you needed to revise for your test tomorrow? Or perhaps you had work in the next 30 minutes? Alternatively, you have experienced a lack of time or cannot achieve your days' work due to your limited time. Luckily, this article is here to help you manage your time and inform you about the history and workings of time management. 

There has been a growing recognition of the importance of time organisation in literature. Orlikoqsky and Yate (2002), The dimension of work has increasingly become important due to the expanding global need and increases for immediate products and services. Additionally, Garhammer (2002) pointed out that there is an increase in the pace o life. Things were being done faster (accelerating), therefore contracting time expenditure (e.g. sleeping less) and compressing actions (e.g. multi-tasking). Many authors also discuss the need for better incorporation of time in theoretical models and research designs (e.g. Ancona et al, 2001., George and Jones, 200). Other authors have also focused their attention on researching how people in organisations manage their time and ways to make it effective (e.g. Macan, 1994).

Time management is not new, as it has been discussed since the 1950s-1960s. However, time management is somewhat ambiguous; time cannot be managed, but individuals can manage their time. Therefore time management is the strategy that supports and successfully executes behaviours required to achieve a set goal effectively. These strategies may include planning, prioritising important works, allocating time, goal settings, monitoring and self-organisation. By doing so, time management can positively bring about a good perception of control of time, job satisfaction and better health in contrast to reducing stress. 

Previous authors propose a method to handle time issues (Drucker,1967., Lakein, 1973). These authors suggest individuals write down on paper the lists of things to do, thus a &quot;To-do&quot; list. However, Drucker (1967) suggests that this method is not always practical as there are failures to complete tasks due to time being precious. In 1959, Mccay and his team developed time-management training programs that are still used today. The program focused on 

*Gaining insight into the consumption of time and activities 
*Changing time expenditures 
*Using daily planning
*Learning how to prioritise tasks
*Learning how to handle unexpected tasks and events

Though there is much research on time management, little research has been conducted on how to use and manage time effectively. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
*How is time managed?
*Why is time management important?
*Why is time management difficult?
*How can we improve time management?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{tip|
Perhaps you are a detailed person with detailed day-to-day to-do lists, or you are flexible and find regimented schedules suffocating. Managing your time right down to the minute with sticky notes and timetables is as valid as diving into big projects and prioritising other things. Perhaps you have a time of day that works best for you. Some people work better during daylight and others at night. As long as both the work is done, there is nothing wrong is either style. It would be best if you worked with what works best for you and allows you to accomplish all your tasks. 

}}

==How is time managed?==
=== Pickle Jar Theory – The Cost of Small Time Consuming Tasks ===
=== Pareto’s Principle: The 80/20 Rule – Focus on the Tasks with the Greatest Benefit===
=== Parkinson’s Law – Reduce the Time Assigned to Each Task===
=== Explicit Motivation === 
=== Implicit Motivation ===
===General time management tools===
==== Prioritisation ====
==== Goal setting ====
==== Scheduling ====
==== Focus Time ====

{{tip|
Example situation

}}

==Why is time management important?==
=== Benefits of time management ===
=== Mental health and time management ===
=== Physical health and time management ===
=== Time management and life style===
=== Time management and academic ===
===== Study techniques =====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
- Case study about academic and time management
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

 [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

==Why is time management difficult?==
- Procratination -Theory?
-Competing interest
-Lack of motivation
-mental/health isssues
-Work importance
-Displine

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Importance of good well-being
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RounBoxTop|theme=3}}
Mental Illness
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==How can we improve time management?==
-Tips

{{RounBoxTop|theme=3}}
How the brain works 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RounBoxTop|theme=3}}
Culture and time
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 03:39, 4 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>jei4p3uxej1ueqney81cs7uoym18lya</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 03:44, 4 August 2022 (UTC)

{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>55ikxps7h3o0q3o6v2g85m6znmyd7tj</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418229</id>
      <parentid>2418113</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:37:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Adjust title layout and add categories</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="17111" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Time and motivation:&lt;br&gt;What is the effect of time on motivation?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 03:44, 4 August 2022 (UTC)

{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Time]]</text>
      <sha1>i6djybecf9jhwmifjt3ogcpim2lq4rv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418230</id>
      <parentid>2418229</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:39:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Remove duplication of starting template</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8547" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Time and motivation:&lt;br&gt;What is the effect of time on motivation?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Time]]</text>
      <sha1>4u9v43vkri09d1qgispm2z50s6spdfa</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418231</id>
      <parentid>2418230</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:40:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8552" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Time and motivation:&lt;br&gt;What is the effect of time on motivation?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time]]</text>
      <sha1>4g9mdtr1tpcdy21veohd8s6hnl62ehr</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Fully functioning person</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>286014</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418267</id>
      <parentid>2417753</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T11:57:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sebastian Armstrong</username>
        <id>2947157</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */ Added references into Overview</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="25369" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Fully functioning person:&lt;br&gt;What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

== Overview ==

;Focus questions
*What it is?&lt;blockquote&gt;Rogers (1959) noted several changes customarily associated with outcomes or results experienced by a person becoming more fully functioning, which are observed outside of the therapeutic relationship. The following changes were hypothesized as being relatively permanent:

# Being more congruent, open to experience, and less defensive
# Having improved psychological adjustment
# Having an increased degree of positive self-regard
# Perceiving the locus of evaluation and the locus of choice as residing within oneself
# Experiencing more acceptance of others &lt;/blockquote&gt;
*How it is developed?&lt;blockquote&gt;Consequences or results of the above changes:

# More realistic, objective, extensional in perceptions, and more effective in problem solving
# Less vulnerable to threat
# More confident and self-directing
# Values are determined by an OVP
# Perceive others more realistically and accurately
# Behaviors “owned” by the self are increased and those disowned as “not myself” are decreased
# Behavior is perceived as being more within control, socialized, mature, creative, uniquely adaptive to new situations and problems, and fully expressive of own purpose and values &lt;/blockquote&gt;
*Whose theory is it?
*How it is used?

== History ==

=== Pre-Rogers ===

==== Who covered similar theories before him ====
Socrates suggests that everything has a specific function, which he defines as what that thing does best or the only thing it can do (Korsgaard, 2008). The ancient Greek's worldview suggested that, a person could only be called 'good' if their soul was in peak condition.

According to Aristotle (1996), we can only know if something is good if we understand its function. He continued this theory to human nature, concluding that by performing virtuous activities of the soul, one can achieve the hight of human goodness.

The concept of a soul has vanished in modern psychology, and the notion of virtue has evolved. However, the concept that goodness and functionality are linked was adopted by the first wave of humanistic psychology, most notably by Carl Rogers (Straume, 2020).

=== Carl Rogers ===
The person-centered approach, often known as client-centered therapy, is Carl R. Rogers' method for assisting people who are dealing with a variety of personal disturbances or issues in their daily lives (Rogers, 1959; 1961; 1969; 1970; 1972; 1980; 1986). In 1939, Rogers created his theory of psychotherapy for troubled kids (Witty, 2007). Later, he broadened his theoretical framework to cover work with groups, families, and couples. His most complete theoretical statement, which covers his theories of motivation and personality development as well as those of group interaction and interpersonal interactions, was published as a chapter in Sigmund Koch's Psychology: A Study of a Science (Vol. III) in 1959. (Koch, 1959, 184–256).

=== Explore 7 points of FFP ===

=== FFP - What is it/why it exists ===

=== How do you develop FFP ===

== Clinical Use ==

=== What is it used for? ===

=== How? ===

=== Case study ===

== Non-Clinical Use ==

=== What areas could benifit from FFP ===

=== Case study ===

== Challenges ==

=== Western perspective ===

=== Enviromental influences ===

== Related Theories ==

=== Self actualisation ===

=== Humanistic Psychology ===

=== Client Centered Psychology ===

== Conclusion ==

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Aristotle. (1996). The Nicomachean ethics (trans: Ross, W. D.). Wordsworth Editions Limited. Ware: UK.

Koch, Sigmund. (Series Ed.), &amp; Koch, S. (Vol. Ed.). (1959). Psychology: A study of a science (Vol. 3). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Korsgaard, C. M. (2008). The constitution of agency: Essays on practical reason and moral psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Rogers, C. R. (1959). A theory of therapy, personality, and interpersonal relationships as developed in the client-centered framework. In S. Koch (Series Ed.) &amp; S. Koch (Vol. Ed.), Psychology: A study of a science (Vol. 3, pp. 184–256). New York: McGraw Hill.

Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Rogers, C. R. (1969). Freedom to learn. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill.

Rogers, C. R. (1970). Carl Rogers on encounter groups. New York: Harper and Row.

Rogers, C. R. (1972). Becoming partners: Marriage and its alternatives. New York: Dell.

Rogers, C. R. (1980). Empathic: An unappreciated way of being. In A way of being (pp. 137–163). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Rogers, C. R. (1986). Client-centered approach to therapy. In I. L. Kutash &amp; A. Wolf (Eds.), Psychotherapist’s casebook: Theory and technique in practice (pp. 197–208). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Straume, L.V., Vittersø, J. (2020). Fully Functioning Person. In: Zeigler-Hill, V., Shackelford, T.K. (eds) Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_1469

Witty, M.C. (2007). Client-Centered Therapy. In: Kazantzis, N., LĽAbate, L. (eds) Handbook of Homework Assignments in Psychotherapy. Springer, Boston, MA . https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-29681-4_3}}

== Overview ==
''What is a FFP and How can full functioning be developed?''&lt;blockquote&gt;
# &lt;u&gt;A growing openness to experience&lt;/u&gt;
# &lt;u&gt;An increasingly existential lifestyle&lt;/u&gt; 
# &lt;u&gt;Increasing organismic trust&lt;/u&gt; 
# &lt;u&gt;Freedom of choice&lt;/u&gt; 
# &lt;u&gt;Creativity&lt;/u&gt; 
# &lt;u&gt;Reliability and constructiveness&lt;/u&gt; 
# &lt;u&gt;A rich full life&lt;/u&gt; 
#* Rogers, Carl (1961). ''On becoming a person: A therapist's view of psychotherapy''. London: Constable. ISBN &lt;bdi&gt;978-1-84529-057-3&lt;/bdi&gt;.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== [[Caregiving and dementia/Topics/Person centred care|person-centered theory of personality]] ==

== History ==
&lt;u&gt;Both Plato and Aristotle proposed theories about goodness in which functioning worked as the most central concept. Arguments about goodness and functioning keep developing in contemporary work on human goodness. The work of Sen, Staudinger, and Tomasello serves as renowned examples. (https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_1469)&lt;/u&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;Client-centered therapy, also called the person-centered approach, describes Carl R. Rogers’ way of working with persons experiencing all types of personal disturbances or problems in living (Rogers, 1959; 1961; 1969; 1970; 1972; 1980a; 1986a). As early as 1939, Rogers developed his theory of psychotherapy with troubled children, and went on to expand his theoretical approach to include work with couples, families, and groups. His most comprehensive theoretical statement was published as a chapter in Sigmund Koch’s Psychology: A Study of a Science (Vol. III) in 1959, and includes his theory of motivation and personality development, as well as theory of group interaction and interpersonal relationships (Koch, 1959, 184–256). Over his long career, Rogers extrapolated client-centered values to the education, marriage, group encounter, personal power, and conflict resolution (Rogers, 1969, 1970, 1972). Today, the person-centered approach is practiced in the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Greece, Portugal, Demark, Poland, Hungary, The Netherlands, Italy, Japan, Brazil, Mexico, Australia, and South Africa, as well as here in the United States and Canada. A world association, which can be contacted online, was founded in Lisbon in 1997 that reflects the growth and vitality of the approach entitled the World Association for Person-Centered and Experiential Psychotherapy and Counseling (WAPCEPC). Another international organization comprised of a diverse membership—lay persons, educators, business consultants, therapists, artists, psychologists—the Association for the Development of the Person-Centered Approach (ADPCA), is also accessible on the internet.


Witty, M. C. (2007). Client-centered therapy. In ''Handbook of homework assignments in psychotherapy'' (pp. 35-50). Springer, Boston, MA.&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;According to Rogers, when fully functioning, the individual lives in close and confident relationship to the organismic valuing process, trusting that inner direction. Congruence is a constant companion. Furthermore, the fully functioning individual spontaneously communicates inner impulses both verbally and nonverbally. They are open to experience, accepts experiences as they are, and expresses those experiences in an unedited manner. The fully functioning individual is authentic. To characterize the moment-to-moment experience of the fully functioning individual, Figure 15.4 illustrates the sequential process of a motive’s emergence, acceptance, and unedited expression.


The congruent, fully functioning individual lives in close proximity to the actualizing tendency and therefore experiences a marked sense of autonomy, openness to experience,and personal growth.
Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding motivation and emotion. John Wiley &amp; Sons.&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;The actualizing tendency was a theoretical construct proposed by the great holistic neurologist Kurt Goldstein (Goldstein, 1939; 1940, 1963).

Witty, M.C. (2007). Client-Centered Therapy. In: Kazantzis, N., LĽAbate, L. (eds) Handbook of Homework Assignments in Psychotherapy. Springer, Boston, MA . &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-29681-4_3&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Growth psychology|Growth psychology]] ===
&lt;blockquote&gt;A second criticism is that humanistic theorists use a number of vague and ill-defined constructs. It is difficult to pinpoint precisely what an “organismic valuing process” and a “fully functioning individual” are, for example. Any theoretical construct that evades a precise operational definition must remain scientifically dubious. For this reason, humanistic views on motivation have been harshly criticized (Daniels,1988; Neher, 1991), and these criticisms were instrumental to the rise and eventual popularity of the more empirically driven (evidence-based) positive psychology.


Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding motivation and emotion. John Wiley &amp; Sons.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== [[Talk:Carl Rogers]] ===
&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Self-actualisation|Self-actualisation]] ===

=== [[wikipedia:Abraham_Maslow|Abraham Maslow]] ===
[[File:Carl Rogers.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Carl Rogers|alt=Artist rendition of Carl Rogers]]
== Clinical uses ==
&lt;blockquote&gt;This book explores, in depth, the link between modern psychiatric practice and the person-centred approach. It promotes an open dialogue between traditional rivals – counsellors and psychiatrists within the NHS – to assist greater understanding and improve practice. Easy to read and comprehend, it explains complex issues in a clear and accessible manner. The author is a full-time psychiatrist and qualified counsellor who offers a unique perspective drawing on personal experience. Humanising Psychiatry and Mental Health Care will be of significant interest and help to all mental health professionals including psychiatrists and psychiatric nurses, social care workers, occupational therapists, psychologists, person-centred counsellors and therapists. Health and social care policy makers and shapers, including patient groups, will also find it helpful and informative. 

Freeth, R., Thorne, B., &amp; Shooter, M. (2007). Humanising Psychiatry and Mental Health Care: The challenge of the person-centred approach (1st ed.). CRC Press. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315385051&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== Other uses ==

== Conclusion ==

=== Marking rubric ===

==== Overview ====
Easy to read and understand overview of the chapter.

==== Breadth ====
Theoretical framework for understanding the topic.&lt;blockquote&gt;theoretical model of the person who emerges from therapy—a person functioning freely in all the fullness of his organismic potentialities; a person who is dependable in being realistic, self-enhancing, socialized and appropriate in his behavior; a creative person, whose specific formings of behavior are not easily predictable; a person who is ever-changing, ever developing, always discovering himself and the newness in himself in each succeeding moment of time. This is the person who in an imperfect way actually emerges from the experience of safety and freedom in a therapeutic experience, and this is the person whom I have tried to describe for you in &quot;pure&quot; form.


Rogers, C. R. (1963). The concept of the fully functioning person. ''Psychotherapy: Theory, Research &amp; Practice, 1''(1), 17–26. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0088567&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;The actualizing tendency functions as an axiom in Rogers’ theory. To the extent that the therapist holds the hypothesis that the client possesses the capacity for selfdetermination he or she is more likely to perceive the client’s ideas, feelings, and actions as aspects of growth instead of pathology. It should be stated that the actualizing tendency does not mean that Rogers believed that people are “good,” simply that organisms realize their potentials limited only by internal and external environmental constraints (Rogers, 1951, 1959, 1961; Brodley, 1998). Rogers recommended that novice therapists attempt to hold the hypothesis that clients have the inner resources to meet life’s difficulties, recognizing that to discard that hypothesis would open the way for the therapist’s exerting influence over the supposedly less competent client. This hypothesis, he acknowledged, was most difficult to embrace in the face of self-destructive, self-defeating behavior on the part of the client (Rogers, 1951, pp. 20–25).

Witty, M.C. (2007). Client-Centered Therapy. In: Kazantzis, N., LĽAbate, L. (eds) Handbook of Homework Assignments in Psychotherapy. Springer, Boston, MA . &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-29681-4_3&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==== Depth ====
Clearly explain and integrate the theory(ies).&lt;blockquote&gt;Fully-functioning person. If people are able to operate their valuing processes fully, they will certainly  begin to  experience self  movement and  growth  toward  realization  of  their potentials. This shows that the person who are able  be  self-actualize,  are  called  fully functioning person (Rogers, 1961). According to Roger`s terminology, they will be moving toward  becoming  fully  functioning  persons. Fully functioning person, for Rogers, are well balanced,  well  adjusted  and  interesting  to know  (Mcleod,  2007).    Rogers,  in  his  later writings, extended and  amplified his view of the  fully  functioning  person  (1961)  to emerging person (1975)

Ismail, N. A. H., &amp; Tekke, M. (2015). Rediscovering Rogers’s self theory and personality. ''Journal of Educational, Health and Community Psychology'', ''4''(3), 28-36.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==== Key findings ====
Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem.&lt;blockquote&gt;Findings of this study suggested that people have intrinsic motivation to use their strengths, which results in increased authenticity, vitality, and well-being.

These findings provide support for the Rogerian perspective in which autonomous individuals will show greater openness to experience and a more genuine and less defensive perception of experience (Patterson &amp; Joseph, 2007).

Overall, findings of this study suggest that the fully functioning person from the positive psychology perspective is a “person-in-process,” a person who is characterized as being in touch with their organismic valuing process (OVP) and hence experiences increased happiness and life satisfaction, who feels competent, autonomous, and relates well with others and they with them. Moreover, the fully functioning person is open, authentic, and uses their strengths, experiencing the well-being associated with doing so. When compared with other people, this person less frequently experiences feelings of anxiety or alienation from themselves.

Proctor C, Tweed R, Morris D. The Rogerian Fully Functioning Person: A Positive Psychology Perspective. Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 2016;56(5):503-529. doi:10.1177/0022167815605936&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==== Critical thinking ====
Critically analyse the research discussed.

==== Integration ====
Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research.

==== Conclusion ====
Emphasise the key points and take-home messages.

==== Written expression - Style ====
Readable for a layperson interested in psychological science.

==== Written expression - Learning features ====
Invite interactivity through features such as case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quizzes.

==== Social contribution ====
Editing which enhances the quality of other book chapters.


---

Add an image

== Overview ==
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Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

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&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
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|type=&quot;()&quot;}
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&lt;/quiz&gt;

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==Conclusion==
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Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
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==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
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}}

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[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive psychology]]</text>
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Draft:Beat (acoustics)</title>
    <ns>118</ns>
    <id>286028</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2417866</id>
      <parentid>2417865</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T12:00:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g &lt;c g&gt;2          % (text after the % is just a comment)
    &lt;c es g&gt;2 &lt;c es g&gt;    % angle brackets create chords
    es4 d( c b)         % parentheses create slurs
    a4. r8 r8 a8 ~ a4     % r creates rests; ~ creates ties
    e-- e-&gt; e-. g\fermata % accents and other signs
    \bar &quot;|.&quot;
  }
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>2xwd3hko4iqw3um1zwil3vzlbb9t6rs</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417867</id>
      <parentid>2417866</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T12:00:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13793" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % (text after the % is just a comment)
    &lt;c es g&gt;2 &lt;c es g&gt;    % angle brackets create chords
    es4 d( c b)         % parentheses create slurs
    a4. r8 r8 a8 ~ a4     % r creates rests; ~ creates ties
    e-- e-&gt; e-. g\fermata % accents and other signs
    \bar &quot;|.&quot;
  }
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>g96qgd910upf5fp8qcesnobsm792w61</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417868</id>
      <parentid>2417867</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T12:02:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13728" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs'    % minor
    es4 d( c b)         % parentheses create slurs
    a4. r8 r8 a8 ~ a4     % r creates rests; ~ creates ties
    e-- e-&gt; e-. g\fermata % accents and other signs
    \bar &quot;|.&quot;
  }

&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>6xb9gzw6k0jdk7ftoj4e7q0h6rdw5b8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417869</id>
      <parentid>2417868</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T12:03:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13747" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs'    % minor
    es4 d( c b)         % parentheses create slurs
    a4. r8 r8 a8 ~ a4     % r creates rests; ~ creates ties
    e-- e-&gt; e-. g\fermata % accents and other signs
    \bar &quot;|.&quot;
  }

&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>7nc04djg694prxrczkaqtsupvt5ruvp</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417870</id>
      <parentid>2417869</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T12:04:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13593" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs'    % minor sixth
  
    \bar &quot;|.&quot;
  }

&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>0nscuif8xmdvbgh6gz4ac1q9x1edwc7</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417871</id>
      <parentid>2417870</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T12:05:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
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__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
  
    \bar &quot;|.&quot;
  }

&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
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      <id>2417878</id>
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        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
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__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c,fs&gt;2 
  
    \bar &quot;|.&quot;
  }

&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>pr79k9l8xg6mahddg8nmb6pib6jcue5</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417879</id>
      <parentid>2417878</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T12:39:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13620" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c',fs&gt;2 
  
    \bar &quot;|.&quot;
  }

&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>24xc5uoh93wd8zmxyncinrctab1dp7l</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417880</id>
      <parentid>2417879</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T12:39:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c' fs&gt;2 
  
    \bar &quot;|.&quot;
  }

&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
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__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
  
    \bar &quot;|.&quot;
  }

&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>b09snthoyvycp0h3922ucfxra7wbpaw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417882</id>
      <parentid>2417881</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T12:42:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13639" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;
 
  
    \bar &quot;|.&quot;
  }

&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>jek9kvq3ejzhiluoh3ipc6rq8i3m0pl</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417884</id>
      <parentid>2417882</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T12:45:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13681" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;
 
  
    \bar &quot;|.&quot;
   \addlyrics { Good mor -- ning to you}

  }

&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
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        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
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__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;}
   \addlyrics { Good mor -- ning to you}

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>6eazfq34hn3pld3as6dj0grdlhbxtjd</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417886</id>
      <parentid>2417885</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T12:48:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13686" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;}
   \addlyrics { fifth -- minor sixth tritone r2 3456 }

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>asalwj0cxt1agcxqr16p6rn5r55riyz</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417887</id>
      <parentid>2417886</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T12:48:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;}
   \addlyrics { fifth -- minor sixth tritone r2 chord }

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>5sljrcoktu44elzc5py4fkfypxabsp8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417888</id>
      <parentid>2417887</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
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__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;}
   \addlyrics { fifth r2 minor sixth tritone r2 chord }

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>knlitt4umcw048bfsm3t85zhh4uxqo0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417889</id>
      <parentid>2417888</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T12:50:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13686" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;}
   \addlyrics { fifth 2 minor sixth tritone r2 chord }

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>tvtuk0141nmlzp0jmvx8u0akxoni5y8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417890</id>
      <parentid>2417889</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T12:50:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13688" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;}
   \addlyrics { fifth -- -- minor sixth tritone  chord }

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>7w9c0bnstg3mng0qtmulgdts6zt7e3g</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417891</id>
      <parentid>2417890</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T12:58:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13691" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;}
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth  minor sixth tritone  chord }

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>4vmd5bx90ojo50mc1ieer5138clq3ed</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417892</id>
      <parentid>2417891</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T12:59:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13708" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 2 minor sixth \skip 1 tritone  chord } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>1vyzzkae7sjbathphe7t3yyjnx58yyw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417893</id>
      <parentid>2417892</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T12:59:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13708" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 3 minor sixth \skip 1 tritone  chord } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>kiw1yv9bc8hbaasrc16zufcxyi5onqf</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417894</id>
      <parentid>2417893</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:00:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13716" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 2 \skip 1 minor sixth \skip 1 tritone  chord } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>p4gjsbyfht45ae6ep62qblirj30k4qv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417895</id>
      <parentid>2417894</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:00:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13724" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 2 \skip 1 minor sixth \skip 2 tritone  \skip 2 chord } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>pwnv9ltxiwxd52k0603fum9pikp15iy</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417896</id>
      <parentid>2417895</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:01:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
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__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 1 \skip 1 minor sixth \skip 2 tritone  \skip 2 chord } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>32uzqm4fu6pvuvocsapy0v1gnz7svpv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417897</id>
      <parentid>2417896</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:01:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13717" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 1  minor sixth \skip 2 tritone  \skip 2 chord } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>r13t5ztu0k4rnhcxdj88cy2027csqjc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417898</id>
      <parentid>2417897</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:02:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13725" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 1  minor sixth \skip 2 \skip 1 tritone  \skip 2 chord } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2417899</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 2  minor-sixth \skip 2 \skip 1 tritone  \skip 2 chord } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>r8b7rc5dhaervln911ylzi5jyg5zymf</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417900</id>
      <parentid>2417899</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:03:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13741" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 1 \skip 1  minor-sixth \skip 1 \skip 1 tritone  \skip 1 \skip 1 chord } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>6q75q2bsil8q6k8kqstha1xgcf1ac5r</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417901</id>
      <parentid>2417900</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:03:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13734" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 1 \skip 1  minor-sixth \skip 1 \skip 1 tritone   \skip 1 chord } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>o0fzp3plbe1hf61vj16lqi3fctht77q</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417902</id>
      <parentid>2417901</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:04:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
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__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 1 \skip 1  minor-sixth \skip 1 \skip 1 tritone   \skip 1 &quot;4567&quot; } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>rn3g139mhjgwu2799hv81qsqby557o6</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417903</id>
      <parentid>2417902</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:04:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13731" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 1 \skip 1  minor-sixth \skip 1 \skip 1 tritone    &quot;4:5:6:7&quot; } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>df9psaw34036mxh5jhz2fjad2p6jz0n</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417904</id>
      <parentid>2417903</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:05:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13738" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A sample of all four intervals shown below:

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 1 \skip 1  minor-sixth \skip 1 \skip 1 tritone  \skip 1  &quot;4:5:6:7&quot; } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>00t0mrwdpi2a3f6wwutxhv97lgprj0k</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417905</id>
      <parentid>2417904</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:08:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13845" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A synthetic piano's version of these three intervals is shown below.  Also shown is a {{math|4:5:6:7}} chord called a that will be discussed shortly. 

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 1 \skip 1  minor-sixth \skip 1 \skip 1 tritone  \skip 1  &quot;4:5:6:7&quot; } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>2gm666jk01ip7b0hdt5svys1f53bk12</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417906</id>
      <parentid>2417905</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:15:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13841" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A synthetic piano's version of these three intervals is shown below.  Also shown is a {{math|4:5:6:7}} chord called a that will be discussed shortly. 

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 1 \skip 1  minor-sixth \skip 1 \skip 1 tritone  \skip 1  Adom7 } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>sbhug1nhq4wfrzzxqfyjifflilgxi7d</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417907</id>
      <parentid>2417906</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:16:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13843" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A synthetic piano's version of these three intervals is shown below.  Also shown is a {{math|4:5:6:7}} chord called a that will be discussed shortly. 

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 1 \skip 1  minor-sixth \skip 1 \skip 1 tritone  \skip 1  &quot;Adom7&quot; } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>hc7ljsbgp2uwrueikuxhjwjoyfpyqhy</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417908</id>
      <parentid>2417907</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:16:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A synthetic piano's version of these three intervals is shown below.  Also shown is a {{math|4:5:6:7}} chord called a that will be discussed shortly. 

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 1 \skip 1  minor-sixth \skip 1 \skip 1 tritone  \skip 1  &quot;A^7&quot; } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>9szxzf8yfrnqox26fo39cmutlsm7muq</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417909</id>
      <parentid>2417908</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:17:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13840" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A synthetic piano's version of these three intervals is shown below.  Also shown is a {{math|4:5:6:7}} chord called a that will be discussed shortly. 

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 1 \skip 1  minor-sixth \skip 1 \skip 1 tritone  \skip 1  &quot;C7&quot; } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>2pftg376dm2uqqc58cc4jbrmswey9rj</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417910</id>
      <parentid>2417909</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:18:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13869" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  A synthetic piano's version of these three intervals is shown below.  Also shown is a [[w:Dominant seventh chord|dominant seventh]] chord called a that will be discussed shortly. 

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 1 \skip 1  minor-sixth \skip 1 \skip 1 tritone  \skip 1  &quot;C7&quot; } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>pt1p2y628ie7jt7mx794lg961ura22y</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417911</id>
      <parentid>2417910</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:20:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13874" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  The reader can see and hear these three intervals in passage shown below.  Also shown is a [[w:Dominant seventh chord|dominant seventh]] chord called a that will be discussed shortly. 

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 1 \skip 1  minor-sixth \skip 1 \skip 1 tritone  \skip 1  &quot;C7&quot; } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
      <sha1>mt1aapimc1h0o64lqi7yqu1rbd97xew</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417912</id>
      <parentid>2417911</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T13:21:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminology and scope of discussion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13891" xml:space="preserve">

__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  The reader can see and hear these three intervals in passage shown below.  It conludes with a [[w:Dominant seventh chord|dominant seventh]] ({{math|C7}}) chord called a that will be discussed shortly. 

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 1 \skip 1  minor-sixth \skip 1 \skip 1 tritone  \skip 1  &quot;C7&quot; } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
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    </revision>
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      <id>2417918</id>
      <parentid>2417912</parentid>
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        <id>813252</id>
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__TOC__

{{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion.  &lt;br&gt;The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;messing around&quot;] with mathematical and computational methods.''
(See also [https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_66382/component/file_468040/content Plomp and Levelt 1965]])&lt;ref&gt;Plomp, Reinier, and Willem Johannes Maria Levelt. [https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_66382/component/file_468040/content &quot;Tonal consonance and critical bandwidth.&quot;] The journal of the Acoustical Society of America 38.4 (1965): 548-560. &lt;/ref&gt;''}}
==Terminology and scope of discussion==
An interval is any pair of musical notes, but here we shall focus on pairs that range between a simple&lt;ref&gt;Here, a &quot;simple unison&quot; refers to the same pitch played by two different instruments&lt;/ref&gt; unison and an octave.&lt;ref&gt;In music, and octave refers to two pitches whose fundamental frequency differs by a factor of two.&lt;/ref&gt; It is well understood that an  interval is consonant&lt;ref&gt;In casual language a '''consonant''' interval is often called '''harmonious'''.  But since '''harmony''' is such a broad topic, it is better to be more precise with '''consonance'''.&lt;/ref&gt; if the ratio of pitches&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Pitch&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; is often referred to as &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;frequency&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, measured in &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;cycles-per-second&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (cps) or &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;hertz&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Hz).&lt;/ref&gt; involve small integers.  For our purposes, the most fundamental interval is the perfect fifth, which has {{Math|3:2}} pitch ratio.  At some point the integers become too large for the interval to be considered consonant.  The {{Math|8:5}} ratio corresponds to the minor sixth, which generally sounds quite consonant.  Apparently {{Math|8}} is somehow viewed as a variation of the much smaller integer {{Math|2}}, since the {{Math|7:5}} interval (tritone) is usually viewed as dissonant.  The reader can see and hear these three intervals in passage shown below.  It conludes with a [[w:Dominant seventh chord|dominant seventh]] ({{math|C7}}) chord called a that will be discussed shortly. 

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt;\language &quot;english&quot;
  \relative c' { % display G for C, etc. and one octave higher
  \time 4/4
    c4 g' &lt;c, g'&gt;2          % fifth
    c4 gs' &lt;c,gs'&gt;2  % minor sixth
    c4 fs &lt;c fs&gt;2 
    r2 &lt;c e g bf&gt;  \bar &quot;|.&quot;} 
   \addlyrics { \skip 1 fifth \skip 1 \skip 1  minor-sixth \skip 1 \skip 1 tritone  \skip 1  &quot;C7&quot; } 

 
&lt;/score&gt;

==Consonance and musical intervals==
[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]]
[[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following:

::&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

::where,

::&lt;math&gt;fT =1&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\omega T = 2\pi,&lt;/math&gt; 

::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;, period &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, and angular frequency, &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt;.

===Helmholtz argument===
[[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; both equal &lt;math&gt;pqf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}=\left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

We shall see that the same formula  can be obtained by looking at cycles in the phase difference between two sine waves for which no harmonics are present.

==Phase-shift beating==
{{clear}}

====Characteristic frequencies associated with an interval====
[[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|'''Figure: Characteristic frequencies.'''These frequencies are associated with just musical intervals.  Shown are the characteristic frequencies associated with a perfect fifth and a tritone.  The shortest period (highest frequency) is T_0: the lowest matching harmonic for a a pair of periodic signals for which all harmonics are present.  The longest period is T_x: the periodicity of the signal if the interval's pitches are exactly just.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;f_q=qf_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;qf_p=pf_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;pT_p=T_0&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;qT_q=T_0&lt;/math&gt; ||&lt;math&gt;pT_p=qT_q&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; &quot;
|colspan=3 style=text-align:center|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;1&lt;q&lt;p&lt;2&lt;/math&gt; 
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; text-align:center&quot;
| &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;f_q&lt;f_p&lt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;
|-style=&quot;background-color:white; style=text-align:center&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;T_\text{x}&lt;T_p&lt;T_q&lt;T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Let &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f_p&lt;/math&gt; that are less than one octave apart.  It helps to also define a low frequency &lt;math&gt;f_0&lt;/math&gt; and a high frequency &lt;math&gt;f_\text{x}&lt;/math&gt;. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left.  The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods.

====Just interval phase shifts====
[[File:Just interval phase shifts.svg|thumb|450px|left|'''Figure: Phase shift''' Shifting one signal in a just interval will shift the segment marked &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; by a time that is related to the periods of the two signals that create the just interval.  The periodicity of the sum of the two signals is &lt;math&gt;T_x.&lt;/math&gt; ]]
This figure illustrates variations in a just interval that occur when a time delay is introduced between the two sinusoidals.  We begin with the perfect fifth shown in top portion of the figure.  The periodicity, &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt; holds only to the extent that the interval is a perfect just ratio of two integers.  Before considering small tempered variations from perfect justness, we first address the fact that a just interval is defined not only by the frequency ratio, but also by any phase difference that might exist between the two sinusoidals that.  A perfect fifth is first shown with zero phase shift, assuming that we adopt adopt the convention that both signals are sine waves (the phase shift is &lt;math&gt;\pi/4&lt;/math&gt; if they are cosines.) The reader can visually verify that advancing the low frequency signal by time, &lt;math&gt;t=T_0&lt;/math&gt; returns this phase shift back to zero, for both the fifth, as well as the tritone.  To facilitate visualization of this effect, alternate cycles of the sine wave are shaded (blue or yellow)&lt;ref&gt;According to [[c:Special:Permalink/576541721]], most color-blind readers should perceive the difference in shaded backgrounds of this figure.&lt;/ref&gt;  The region of unshifted sine waves can be recognized by the fact that only the corners of the two shaded regions are in contact with each other (at the start of a new period of length &lt;math&gt;T_x&lt;/math&gt;.)
====&quot;Phase&quot; cycles====
A different sort of beat occurs between sinusoidal waves at frequencies &lt;math&gt;pf_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;qf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  We shall define this beat frequency to be &lt;math&gt;f_b&lt;/math&gt; in order to distinguish it from &lt;math&gt;f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, due to traditional beating between lowest matching harmonics of  two  signals.  We shall find that &lt;math&gt;f_b=f_\text{beat}&lt;/math&gt;, though two comments are worth keeping in mind:
# The &quot;phase cycles&quot; is the simple variations in amplitude associated with beats between two signals of nearly the same frequency.  They not likely to involve fluctuations power delivered to a person's ears.&lt;ref&gt;Some fluctuation in power is possible if the two frequencies are sufficiently far apart.  Keep in mind that most treatments of wave energy and power focus only on time-averaged passage of energy through a reference plane.&lt;/ref&gt; Instead &quot;phase cycles&quot; are a periodic variation in the shape of the waveform associated with the phase difference between two sine (or cosine) waves.
# To the best of my knowledge, the the &quot;phase cycles&quot; described below have not been established to be responsible for the beats one hears when a musical interval deviates slightly from just intonation.
====Calculation of phase cycle beat frequency====
This calculation is actually only a plausibility argument for three reasons.  
#We vary only one frequency: &lt;math&gt;f_p\to f_p + \Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;.  Extension to the case where &lt;math&gt;f_q&lt;/math&gt; is also modified is a fundamentally trivial task.
#We severely limit possible values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt; by demanding that the beat period, &lt;math&gt;T_b=f_b^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, be an integral multiple of the periodicity of an interval with perfectly just intonation.  Currently, I see no simple way to avoid this assumption.  Nevertheless, my intuition clearly informs me that the same formula holds even if this assumption is not made.
#We also work in the approximation that &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p &lt;&lt; f_p=pf_0&lt;/math&gt;.  This latter approximation should not be viewed as a weakness in this &quot;proof&quot; because any discussion for moderately large values of &lt;math&gt;\Delta f_p/f_p&lt;/math&gt; is inherently complicated.

===Images===
{{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
{{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}}
[[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]
&lt;!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--&gt;

===Discussion===

Consider a just interval between the two periods, &lt;math&gt;T_p=pT_0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;T_q=qT_0&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p=3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q=2&lt;/math&gt; as shown in the figure. Because &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt; make an exactly just interval, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;q T_p =p T_q&lt;/math&gt;   ( &lt;math&gt;3 T_p = 2T_q&lt;/math&gt; for a P5&lt;ref&gt;P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.&lt;/ref&gt;)

ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD 

:&lt;math&gt;T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q&lt;/math&gt;

===I think this is right but need diagram===
Note that &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; equals &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; cycles of &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, increase &lt;math&gt;T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; in such a way that &lt;s&gt;one less&lt;/s&gt; cycle of &lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; is achieved:

:&lt;math&gt;N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)&lt;/math&gt;

For large &lt;math&gt;N_p&lt;/math&gt; this leads to,

:&lt;math&gt;T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt;

This value of &lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p&lt;/math&gt; restores the match between the two periods (&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_q&lt;/math&gt;). This allows us to define the beat period to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=N_pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

Combine the previous two equations to obtain:

&lt;math&gt;T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p&lt;/math&gt;

===Code===
‎&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot;&gt;
triton=True
if tritone:
    p  , q     =   7,  4
    f_0=50
    Df_p=2
else:
    p  , q     =   3,  2
    f_0=100
    Df_p=2
Df_q=0
f_p= p*f_0
f_q= q*f_0
Df_q=0
f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked)
f_c=p*f_b/q#new
T_c=1/f_c#new
cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents)
tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period
topi=2*np.pi
om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas
yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2
yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2
y=yp+yq
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
{{cot|Not yet needed}}
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;
{{cob}}

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

*Footnote.&lt;ref&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;f(t)=T^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and take the derivative to get, &lt;math&gt;df/dt=-T^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;, which leads to: &lt;math&gt;df/f=-dT/T&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
-----</text>
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        <id>2947756</id>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==

* Brief introduction on unemployment. 
* Brief introduction on mental health. 
* State how there is a relationship between unemployment and mental health. 
* Touch on how COVID-19 plays a huge role since the beginning of the pandemic, unemployment and mental health have risen. 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are the main causes of unemployment? 
* What are the main causes of mental health? 
*The relationship between unemployment and mental health. 
* The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|Provide an example or case study.}}

==What are the main causes of unemployment? ==

=== What is unemployment? ===

* What is unemployment? Define. 
** The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) defines an unemployed individual as one who is not employed for one hour or more during a given reference period, is actively seeking employment, and is currently available for work (Australian Bureau Of Statistics, 2022).
* Provide statistics. 
** The current unemployment rate sits at 3.4%, last recorded July 2022.

=== Mental health ===

* Define. 
** Mental health is an important aspect of general well-being and happiness. A clinically diagnosable ailment that severely impairs an individual's cognitive, emotional, or social capacities is referred to as a mental illness (Barkham et al., 2019). 
** In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
*** Over two in five (43.7% or 8.6 million people) had experienced a mental disorder at some time in their life.
*** One in five people (21.4% or 4.2 million people) had a 12-month mental disorder (sufficient symptoms of disorder 12 month duration prior to survey) 
*** 16.8% (3.3 million people) had a 12-month Anxiety disorder.
* Explain the mental and physical implications/impact on an individual mental health can have, and how this causes unemployment. 

=== Lack of knowledge ===

* Explain how lack of knowledge in specific areas/job requirements creates a smaller chance of employment and fewer job opportunities.  
* The level of competition between the population, and the outlook of the economy, a lack of education, knowledge, and skills can cause unemployment when job applying - Creates a huge issue on the individual, physically, mentally, and economically (LE &amp; MILLER, 2000).  
* This study (Haque &amp; Haque, 2022) demonstrate that the unemployment rate for non-English-speaking migrant women (7.2%) is significantly higher than the percentage of women born in Australia (5.1%). The lack of non-English speaking causes unemployment because they are unable to meet companies skill requirement (language).  

=== Burnout ===

* Define burnout. (Rossi et al., 2006) - They have a definition, also talk about exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy. This will provide a decent amount of information. 
* Talk about the 5 stages of burnout in each sub-heading 2. 

==== Honeymoon phase ====
The honeymoon period occurs throughout the first few days or weeks on the job. Employees are new in the game, overflowing with excitement, and ready to take on anything at this time. The task may be difficult, but the individual has a great deal of motivation and desire at this stage.  Although this period might be difficult, motivated people may compensate by working even harder, this influences the stage for burnout. 

==== Onset of stress phase ====
The honeymoon period passes, and the individual begins to feel stressed. Not consistently their day will be unpleasant, but there will be occasions when tension will dominate over. Remain aware of any mental or physical symptoms as this period begins. They  may discover it easier to lose concentration or be less effective when completing activities. Physical exhaustion might set in, making it difficult to sleep or enjoy activities outside of work.

==== Chronic stress phase ====
The chronic stress phase is where the stress has become more persistent, or chronic. As the strain builds, the stress is likely to have a continuous impact on their job. Symptoms include feelings of indifference, not finishing work on time, being late for work, or procrastinating throughout duties. Socially, they may disengage from usual work-related talks. In other circumstances, individuals may grow enraged and strike out at colleagues. These sentiments might sometimes follow them home and damage their relationships with family and friends.

==== Burnout phase ====
At this stage, you're likely to see very genuine dysfunction in your workplace. A sense of indifference or numbness sets in. You simply do not care whether or not things work anymore. And this may be quite dangerous since it can spill over into personal relationships and interactions with people.

==== Habitual burnout phase ====
This is the stage at which matters become unbearably miserable and unsustainable for you. Physical and mental exhaustion start to merge together, and you enter the self-preservation mode. The results can be catastrophic. You are now at a high risk of developing depression, physical illness, and debilitating daily anxiety.
* Discuss how burnout can cause strain, stress, and poor work performance = unemployment (this can be done either by quitting or being fired) 

=== Discrimination ===

==== Gender discrimination ====

==== Age discrimination ====

==== Racial discrimination ====

=== Health problems and complications ===

* Discuss impact/s on work performance. 

==== Physical health problems ====

==== Chronic illness  ====
{{tip|Provide case study, fact, or example }}

==What are the main causes of mental health? ==

=== What is mental health? ===

* Define. 
** Mental health is an important aspect of general well-being and happiness. A clinically diagnosable ailment that severely impairs an individual's cognitive, emotional, or social capacities is referred to as a mental illness (Barkham et al., 2019). 
* How is it caused? 
* Provide Australian statistics.
** In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
*** Over two in five (43.7% or 8.6 million people) had experienced a mental disorder at some time in their life (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022).
*** One in five people (21.4% or 4.2 million people) had a 12-month mental disorder (sufficient symptoms of disorder 12 month duration prior to survey) (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022).

Main causes (sub-headings):
# Trauma
# drug and alcohol abuse/addiction 
# family history 
# abuse
# up-bringing (government care, foster home, home placement)

=== Trauma ===

=== Drug and alcohol abuse ===

=== Family history ===

=== Abuse ===

=== Household up-brining ===

== The relationship between unemployment and mental health ==

=== The affects of mental health on employment ===

* Discuss how mental health can lead to/makes an individual unemployed:

==== Depression ====
* Define Depression - And touch on Low self worth, low self esteem, no motivation, anxiety, feeling unwell. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates unemployment.
** Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a frequent psychological illness with substantial morbidity and mortality rates. It is a severe condition characterised by low mood, reduced interests, poor cognitive performance, and vegetative symptoms such as altered sleep or hunger. MDD affects one in every six individuals throughout their lifetime and affects nearly twice as many women as men (Lohoff, 2010).
** [[wikipedia:Major_depressive_disorder|Major Depressive Disorder]]
* Depression (mood) is a mental condition characterised by a depressed mood and reluctance to exertion. Depression affects a person's thoughts, behaviour, motivation, feelings, and sense of well-being. The primary symptom of depression is anhedonia, which is defined as an absence of interest or a loss of enjoyment in things that normally bring individuals happiness (Piccinelli &amp; Wilkinson, 2000).
* [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|Depression (mood)]]
* Statistic: 
** Depression (mood) - Affects more than 280 million people of all ages (about 3.5% of the global population) (WHO, 2018).

===== Theories =====
Depression theories include: 

* [[wikipedia:Biology_of_depression|Biology of depression]]
* [[wikipedia:Beck's_cognitive_triad|Beck's cognitive triad]]
* [[wikipedia:Behavioral_theories_of_depression|Behavioural theories of depression]] 

==== Motivation ====
* Lack of motivation, hygiene, time management skills. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates to unemployment.

==== Anxiety ====
* Define Anxiety - Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that creates unemployment.
* Statistic: In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
** 16.8% (3.3 million people) had a 12-month Anxiety disorder (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022). 

=== The affects of unemployment on mental health ===
* Discuss how unemployment spikes/increases mental health.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

== The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment ==

=== Increased mental health ===

* The affect of COVID-19 on mental health. Discuss how mental health and suicide attempts has increased since the pandemic has started (isolation, stuck with abuser, increase fear)
* Discuss how job loss due to COVID-19 has affected and/or increase mental health.

==== Essential workers ====

* Discuss the increase of mental health and strain of essential workers. Provide a case. Example = nurses.

=== Job loss and shortages ===

* Discuss how COVID-19 has affected unemployment (job-loss, shortage) Example = flight attendants, family businesses.


===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==

* Provide overview and conclusion. 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

# &quot;Depression&quot;. ''www.who.int''. Archived from the original on 26 December 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
#
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
__TOC__</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418027</id>
      <parentid>2418014</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T02:52:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tiarnawilson01</username>
        <id>2947756</id>
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      <text bytes="16781" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Unemployment and mental health:&lt;br&gt;What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==

* Brief introduction on unemployment. 
* Brief introduction on mental health. 
* State how there is a relationship between unemployment and mental health. 
* Touch on how COVID-19 plays a huge role since the beginning of the pandemic, unemployment and mental health have risen. 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are the main causes of unemployment? 
* What are the main causes of mental health? 
*The relationship between unemployment and mental health. 
* The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|Provide an example or case study.}}

==What are the main causes of unemployment? ==

=== What is unemployment? ===

* What is unemployment? Define. 
** The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) defines an unemployed individual as one who is not employed for one hour or more during a given reference period, is actively seeking employment, and is currently available for work (Australian Bureau Of Statistics, 2022).
* Provide statistics. 
** The current unemployment rate sits at 3.4%, last recorded July 2022.

=== Mental health ===

* Define. 
** Mental health is an important aspect of general well-being and happiness. A clinically diagnosable ailment that severely impairs an individual's cognitive, emotional, or social capacities is referred to as a mental illness (Barkham et al., 2019). 
** In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
*** Over two in five (43.7% or 8.6 million people) had experienced a mental disorder at some time in their life.
*** One in five people (21.4% or 4.2 million people) had a 12-month mental disorder (sufficient symptoms of disorder 12 month duration prior to survey) 
*** 16.8% (3.3 million people) had a 12-month Anxiety disorder.
* Explain the mental and physical implications/impact on an individual mental health can have, and how this causes unemployment. 

=== Lack of knowledge ===

* Explain how lack of knowledge in specific areas/job requirements creates a smaller chance of employment and fewer job opportunities.  
* The level of competition between the population, and the outlook of the economy, a lack of education, knowledge, and skills can cause unemployment when job applying - Creates a huge issue on the individual, physically, mentally, and economically (LE &amp; MILLER, 2000).  
* This study (Haque &amp; Haque, 2022) demonstrate that the unemployment rate for non-English-speaking migrant women (7.2%) is significantly higher than the percentage of women born in Australia (5.1%). The lack of non-English speaking causes unemployment because they are unable to meet companies skill requirement (language).  

=== Burnout ===

* Define burnout. (Rossi et al., 2006) - They have a definition, also talk about exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy. This will provide a decent amount of information. 
* Talk about the 5 stages of burnout in each sub-heading 2. 

==== Honeymoon phase ====
The honeymoon period occurs throughout the first few days or weeks on the job. Employees are new in the game, overflowing with excitement, and ready to take on anything at this time. The task may be difficult, but the individual has a great deal of motivation and desire at this stage.  Although this period might be difficult, motivated people may compensate by working even harder, this influences the stage for burnout. 

==== Onset of stress phase ====
The honeymoon period passes, and the individual begins to feel stressed. Not consistently their day will be unpleasant, but there will be occasions when tension will dominate over. Remain aware of any mental or physical symptoms as this period begins. They  may discover it easier to lose concentration or be less effective when completing activities. Physical exhaustion might set in, making it difficult to sleep or enjoy activities outside of work.

==== Chronic stress phase ====
The chronic stress phase is where the stress has become more persistent, or chronic. As the strain builds, the stress is likely to have a continuous impact on their job. Symptoms include feelings of indifference, not finishing work on time, being late for work, or procrastinating throughout duties. Socially, they may disengage from usual work-related talks. In other circumstances, individuals may grow enraged and strike out at colleagues. These sentiments might sometimes follow them home and damage their relationships with family and friends.

==== Burnout phase ====
At this stage, you're likely to see very genuine dysfunction in your workplace. A sense of indifference or numbness sets in. You simply do not care whether or not things work anymore. And this may be quite dangerous since it can spill over into personal relationships and interactions with people.

==== Habitual burnout phase ====
This is the stage at which matters become unbearably miserable and unsustainable for you. Physical and mental exhaustion start to merge together, and you enter the self-preservation mode. The results can be catastrophic. You are now at a high risk of developing depression, physical illness, and debilitating daily anxiety.
* Discuss how burnout can cause strain, stress, and poor work performance = unemployment (this can be done either by quitting or being fired) 

=== Discrimination ===

==== Gender discrimination ====

==== Age discrimination ====

==== Racial discrimination ====

=== Health problems and complications ===

* Discuss impact/s on work performance. 

==== Physical health problems ====

==== Chronic illness  ====
{{tip|Provide case study, fact, or example }}

==What are the main causes of mental health? ==

=== What is mental health? ===

* Define. 
** Mental health is an important aspect of general well-being and happiness. A clinically diagnosable ailment that severely impairs an individual's cognitive, emotional, or social capacities is referred to as a mental illness (Barkham et al., 2019). 
* How is it caused? 
* Provide Australian statistics.
** In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
*** Over two in five (43.7% or 8.6 million people) had experienced a mental disorder at some time in their life (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022).
*** One in five people (21.4% or 4.2 million people) had a 12-month mental disorder (sufficient symptoms of disorder 12 month duration prior to survey) (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022).

Main causes (sub-headings):
# Trauma
# drug and alcohol abuse/addiction 
# family history 
# abuse
# up-bringing (government care, foster home, home placement)

=== Trauma ===
Trauma is defined generically as a very distressing occurrence that might be emotionally, cognitively, or physically overwhelming to an individual (Farrelly-Rosch &amp; Scanalan, 2018). Experiencing a traumatic event can potentially affect both an individuals current and future mental health (Norris, 1992). Trauma can occur by either, a single occurrence which is a single, unanticipated incident, such as a physical or sexual assault, a wildfire, an accident, or a catastrophic sickness or injury, can cause stress. Loss experiences may also be devastating, such as the death of a loved one, a miscarriage, or suicide (Breslau, 2002). Complex trauma refers to long-term or continuous traumatic events that are frequently tied to human relationships, such as marital violence, bullying, childhood neglect, witnessing trauma, emotional abuse, sexual assault, or torture (Kliethermes et al., 2014b). Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the trauma diagnosis. Symptoms include persistent recollections of the traumatic event, significant anxiety, avoidance of situations and individuals connection with the trauma, and heightened negative thoughts. PTSD can also interfere with an individuals interactions with others (Vahia, 2013). Approximately 30% of PTSD is experienced before the age of 18 (Koenen et al., 2017). 

=== Drug and alcohol abuse ===

=== Family history ===

=== Abuse ===

=== Household up-brining ===

== The relationship between unemployment and mental health ==

=== The affects of mental health on employment ===

* Discuss how mental health can lead to/makes an individual unemployed:

==== Depression ====
* Define Depression - And touch on Low self worth, low self esteem, no motivation, anxiety, feeling unwell. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates unemployment.
** Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a frequent psychological illness with substantial morbidity and mortality rates. It is a severe condition characterised by low mood, reduced interests, poor cognitive performance, and vegetative symptoms such as altered sleep or hunger. MDD affects one in every six individuals throughout their lifetime and affects nearly twice as many women as men (Lohoff, 2010).
** [[wikipedia:Major_depressive_disorder|Major Depressive Disorder]]
** Depression (mood) is a mental condition characterised by a depressed mood and reluctance to exertion. Depression affects a person's thoughts, behaviour, motivation, feelings, and sense of well-being. The primary symptom of depression is anhedonia, which is defined as an absence of interest or a loss of enjoyment in things that normally bring individuals happiness (Piccinelli &amp; Wilkinson, 2000).
** [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|Depression (mood)]]
* Statistic: 
** Depression (mood) - Affects more than 280 million people of all ages (about 3.5% of the global population) (WHO, 2018).

===== Theories =====
Depression theories include: 

* [[wikipedia:Biology_of_depression|Biology of depression]]
* [[wikipedia:Beck's_cognitive_triad|Beck's cognitive triad]]
* [[wikipedia:Behavioral_theories_of_depression|Behavioural theories of depression]] 

==== Motivation ====
* Lack of motivation, hygiene, time management skills. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates to unemployment.

==== Anxiety ====
* Define Anxiety - Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that creates unemployment.
* Statistic: In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
** 16.8% (3.3 million people) had a 12-month Anxiety disorder (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022). 

=== The affects of unemployment on mental health ===
* Discuss how unemployment spikes/increases mental health.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

== The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment ==

=== Increased mental health ===

* The affect of COVID-19 on mental health. Discuss how mental health and suicide attempts has increased since the pandemic has started (isolation, stuck with abuser, increase fear)
* Discuss how job loss due to COVID-19 has affected and/or increase mental health.

==== Essential workers ====

* Discuss the increase of mental health and strain of essential workers. Provide a case. Example = nurses.

=== Job loss and shortages ===

* Discuss how COVID-19 has affected unemployment (job-loss, shortage) Example = flight attendants, family businesses.


===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==

* Provide overview and conclusion. 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

# &quot;Depression&quot;. ''www.who.int''. Archived from the original on 26 December 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
#
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
__TOC__</text>
      <sha1>edpsbwznzqf12uelaqgdxjfxrgmqpo0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418069</id>
      <parentid>2418027</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:28:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tiarnawilson01</username>
        <id>2947756</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Drug and alcohol abuse */</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="18476" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Unemployment and mental health:&lt;br&gt;What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==

* Brief introduction on unemployment. 
* Brief introduction on mental health. 
* State how there is a relationship between unemployment and mental health. 
* Touch on how COVID-19 plays a huge role since the beginning of the pandemic, unemployment and mental health have risen. 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are the main causes of unemployment? 
* What are the main causes of mental health? 
*The relationship between unemployment and mental health. 
* The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|Provide an example or case study.}}

==What are the main causes of unemployment? ==

=== What is unemployment? ===

* What is unemployment? Define. 
** The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) defines an unemployed individual as one who is not employed for one hour or more during a given reference period, is actively seeking employment, and is currently available for work (Australian Bureau Of Statistics, 2022).
* Provide statistics. 
** The current unemployment rate sits at 3.4%, last recorded July 2022.

=== Mental health ===

* Define. 
** Mental health is an important aspect of general well-being and happiness. A clinically diagnosable ailment that severely impairs an individual's cognitive, emotional, or social capacities is referred to as a mental illness (Barkham et al., 2019). 
** In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
*** Over two in five (43.7% or 8.6 million people) had experienced a mental disorder at some time in their life.
*** One in five people (21.4% or 4.2 million people) had a 12-month mental disorder (sufficient symptoms of disorder 12 month duration prior to survey) 
*** 16.8% (3.3 million people) had a 12-month Anxiety disorder.
* Explain the mental and physical implications/impact on an individual mental health can have, and how this causes unemployment. 

=== Lack of knowledge ===

* Explain how lack of knowledge in specific areas/job requirements creates a smaller chance of employment and fewer job opportunities.  
* The level of competition between the population, and the outlook of the economy, a lack of education, knowledge, and skills can cause unemployment when job applying - Creates a huge issue on the individual, physically, mentally, and economically (LE &amp; MILLER, 2000).  
* This study (Haque &amp; Haque, 2022) demonstrate that the unemployment rate for non-English-speaking migrant women (7.2%) is significantly higher than the percentage of women born in Australia (5.1%). The lack of non-English speaking causes unemployment because they are unable to meet companies skill requirement (language).  

=== Burnout ===

* Define burnout. (Rossi et al., 2006) - They have a definition, also talk about exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy. This will provide a decent amount of information. 
* Talk about the 5 stages of burnout in each sub-heading 2. 

==== Honeymoon phase ====
The honeymoon period occurs throughout the first few days or weeks on the job. Employees are new in the game, overflowing with excitement, and ready to take on anything at this time. The task may be difficult, but the individual has a great deal of motivation and desire at this stage.  Although this period might be difficult, motivated people may compensate by working even harder, this influences the stage for burnout. 

==== Onset of stress phase ====
The honeymoon period passes, and the individual begins to feel stressed. Not consistently their day will be unpleasant, but there will be occasions when tension will dominate over. Remain aware of any mental or physical symptoms as this period begins. They  may discover it easier to lose concentration or be less effective when completing activities. Physical exhaustion might set in, making it difficult to sleep or enjoy activities outside of work.

==== Chronic stress phase ====
The chronic stress phase is where the stress has become more persistent, or chronic. As the strain builds, the stress is likely to have a continuous impact on their job. Symptoms include feelings of indifference, not finishing work on time, being late for work, or procrastinating throughout duties. Socially, they may disengage from usual work-related talks. In other circumstances, individuals may grow enraged and strike out at colleagues. These sentiments might sometimes follow them home and damage their relationships with family and friends.

==== Burnout phase ====
At this stage, you're likely to see very genuine dysfunction in your workplace. A sense of indifference or numbness sets in. You simply do not care whether or not things work anymore. And this may be quite dangerous since it can spill over into personal relationships and interactions with people.

==== Habitual burnout phase ====
This is the stage at which matters become unbearably miserable and unsustainable for you. Physical and mental exhaustion start to merge together, and you enter the self-preservation mode. The results can be catastrophic. You are now at a high risk of developing depression, physical illness, and debilitating daily anxiety.
* Discuss how burnout can cause strain, stress, and poor work performance = unemployment (this can be done either by quitting or being fired) 

=== Discrimination ===

==== Gender discrimination ====

==== Age discrimination ====

==== Racial discrimination ====

=== Health problems and complications ===

* Discuss impact/s on work performance. 

==== Physical health problems ====

==== Chronic illness  ====
{{tip|Provide case study, fact, or example }}

==What are the main causes of mental health? ==

=== What is mental health? ===

* Define. 
** Mental health is an important aspect of general well-being and happiness. A clinically diagnosable ailment that severely impairs an individual's cognitive, emotional, or social capacities is referred to as a mental illness (Barkham et al., 2019). 
* How is it caused? 
* Provide Australian statistics.
** In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
*** Over two in five (43.7% or 8.6 million people) had experienced a mental disorder at some time in their life (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022).
*** One in five people (21.4% or 4.2 million people) had a 12-month mental disorder (sufficient symptoms of disorder 12 month duration prior to survey) (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022).

Main causes (sub-headings):
# Trauma
# drug and alcohol abuse/addiction 
# family history 
# abuse
# up-bringing (government care, foster home, home placement)

=== Trauma ===
Trauma is defined generically as a very distressing occurrence that might be emotionally, cognitively, or physically overwhelming to an individual (Farrelly-Rosch &amp; Scanalan, 2018). Experiencing a traumatic event can potentially affect both an individuals current and future mental health (Norris, 1992). Trauma can occur by either, a single occurrence which is a single, unanticipated incident, such as a physical or sexual assault, a wildfire, an accident, or a catastrophic sickness or injury, can cause stress. Loss experiences may also be devastating, such as the death of a loved one, a miscarriage, or suicide (Breslau, 2002). Complex trauma refers to long-term or continuous traumatic events that are frequently tied to human relationships, such as marital violence, bullying, childhood neglect, witnessing trauma, emotional abuse, sexual assault, or torture (Kliethermes et al., 2014b). Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the trauma diagnosis. Symptoms include persistent recollections of the traumatic event, significant anxiety, avoidance of situations and individuals connection with the trauma, and heightened negative thoughts. PTSD can also interfere with an individuals interactions with others (Vahia, 2013). Approximately 30% of PTSD is experienced before the age of 18 (Koenen et al., 2017). 

=== Drug and alcohol abuse ===
Substance misuse and mental illnesses such as anxiety and depression are inextricably intertwined, though neither cause each other. Marijuana and methamphetamine abuse can result in protracted psychotic episodes, whilst alcohol can exacerbate depression and anxiety symptoms (REFERENCE). 

The consumption of alcohol and narcotics to self-medicate the symptoms of mental health disorders is common. People regularly abuse alcohol or drugs to alleviate the symptoms of an untreated mental disorder, to manage emotional pain, or to alter their mood momentarily. Unfortunately, self-medicating with drugs or alcohol has negative side effects and often exacerbate the problems it was intended to alleviate (REFERENCE).

Alcohol and drug abuse can enhance the chance of developing mental disorders. Although mental disorders are produced by a complex interaction of genetics, environment, and other variables, it's difficult to determine if substance abuse actually directly causes them. If you are predisposed to a mental health problem, though, misusing alcohol or drugs may drive you over the brink. There is preliminary indication that those who overuse opioid medications are more likely to develop depression, and frequent cannabis usage has been related to an increased risk of schizophrenia (REFERENCE).

Alcohol and drug abuse can increase the symptoms of a mental health disorder. Substance abuse can exacerbate or even cause additional mental illness symptoms. Abuse of drugs or alcohol can also interfere with prescribed medication such as antidepressants, anxiety medications, and mood stabilisers, making them less effective at managing symptoms and delaying your recovery (REFERENCE).

=== Family history ===

=== Abuse ===

=== Household up-brining ===

== The relationship between unemployment and mental health ==

=== The affects of mental health on employment ===

* Discuss how mental health can lead to/makes an individual unemployed:

==== Depression ====
* Define Depression - And touch on Low self worth, low self esteem, no motivation, anxiety, feeling unwell. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates unemployment.
** Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a frequent psychological illness with substantial morbidity and mortality rates. It is a severe condition characterised by low mood, reduced interests, poor cognitive performance, and vegetative symptoms such as altered sleep or hunger. MDD affects one in every six individuals throughout their lifetime and affects nearly twice as many women as men (Lohoff, 2010).
** [[wikipedia:Major_depressive_disorder|Major Depressive Disorder]]
** Depression (mood) is a mental condition characterised by a depressed mood and reluctance to exertion. Depression affects a person's thoughts, behaviour, motivation, feelings, and sense of well-being. The primary symptom of depression is anhedonia, which is defined as an absence of interest or a loss of enjoyment in things that normally bring individuals happiness (Piccinelli &amp; Wilkinson, 2000).
** [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|Depression (mood)]]
* Statistic: 
** Depression (mood) - Affects more than 280 million people of all ages (about 3.5% of the global population) (WHO, 2018).

===== Theories =====
Depression theories include: 

* [[wikipedia:Biology_of_depression|Biology of depression]]
* [[wikipedia:Beck's_cognitive_triad|Beck's cognitive triad]]
* [[wikipedia:Behavioral_theories_of_depression|Behavioural theories of depression]] 

==== Motivation ====
* Lack of motivation, hygiene, time management skills. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates to unemployment.

==== Anxiety ====
* Define Anxiety - Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that creates unemployment.
* Statistic: In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
** 16.8% (3.3 million people) had a 12-month Anxiety disorder (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022). 

=== The affects of unemployment on mental health ===
* Discuss how unemployment spikes/increases mental health.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

== The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment ==

=== Increased mental health ===

* The affect of COVID-19 on mental health. Discuss how mental health and suicide attempts has increased since the pandemic has started (isolation, stuck with abuser, increase fear)
* Discuss how job loss due to COVID-19 has affected and/or increase mental health.

==== Essential workers ====

* Discuss the increase of mental health and strain of essential workers. Provide a case. Example = nurses.

=== Job loss and shortages ===

* Discuss how COVID-19 has affected unemployment (job-loss, shortage) Example = flight attendants, family businesses.


===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==

* Provide overview and conclusion. 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

# &quot;Depression&quot;. ''www.who.int''. Archived from the original on 26 December 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
#
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
__TOC__</text>
      <sha1>9skhesbpkvu9gjje2kg9f3zkkx0o47a</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418088</id>
      <parentid>2418069</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:43:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tiarnawilson01</username>
        <id>2947756</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Drug and alcohol abuse */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="18502" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Unemployment and mental health:&lt;br&gt;What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==

* Brief introduction on unemployment. 
* Brief introduction on mental health. 
* State how there is a relationship between unemployment and mental health. 
* Touch on how COVID-19 plays a huge role since the beginning of the pandemic, unemployment and mental health have risen. 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are the main causes of unemployment? 
* What are the main causes of mental health? 
*The relationship between unemployment and mental health. 
* The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|Provide an example or case study.}}

==What are the main causes of unemployment? ==

=== What is unemployment? ===

* What is unemployment? Define. 
** The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) defines an unemployed individual as one who is not employed for one hour or more during a given reference period, is actively seeking employment, and is currently available for work (Australian Bureau Of Statistics, 2022).
* Provide statistics. 
** The current unemployment rate sits at 3.4%, last recorded July 2022.

=== Mental health ===

* Define. 
** Mental health is an important aspect of general well-being and happiness. A clinically diagnosable ailment that severely impairs an individual's cognitive, emotional, or social capacities is referred to as a mental illness (Barkham et al., 2019). 
** In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
*** Over two in five (43.7% or 8.6 million people) had experienced a mental disorder at some time in their life.
*** One in five people (21.4% or 4.2 million people) had a 12-month mental disorder (sufficient symptoms of disorder 12 month duration prior to survey) 
*** 16.8% (3.3 million people) had a 12-month Anxiety disorder.
* Explain the mental and physical implications/impact on an individual mental health can have, and how this causes unemployment. 

=== Lack of knowledge ===

* Explain how lack of knowledge in specific areas/job requirements creates a smaller chance of employment and fewer job opportunities.  
* The level of competition between the population, and the outlook of the economy, a lack of education, knowledge, and skills can cause unemployment when job applying - Creates a huge issue on the individual, physically, mentally, and economically (LE &amp; MILLER, 2000).  
* This study (Haque &amp; Haque, 2022) demonstrate that the unemployment rate for non-English-speaking migrant women (7.2%) is significantly higher than the percentage of women born in Australia (5.1%). The lack of non-English speaking causes unemployment because they are unable to meet companies skill requirement (language).  

=== Burnout ===

* Define burnout. (Rossi et al., 2006) - They have a definition, also talk about exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy. This will provide a decent amount of information. 
* Talk about the 5 stages of burnout in each sub-heading 2. 

==== Honeymoon phase ====
The honeymoon period occurs throughout the first few days or weeks on the job. Employees are new in the game, overflowing with excitement, and ready to take on anything at this time. The task may be difficult, but the individual has a great deal of motivation and desire at this stage.  Although this period might be difficult, motivated people may compensate by working even harder, this influences the stage for burnout. 

==== Onset of stress phase ====
The honeymoon period passes, and the individual begins to feel stressed. Not consistently their day will be unpleasant, but there will be occasions when tension will dominate over. Remain aware of any mental or physical symptoms as this period begins. They  may discover it easier to lose concentration or be less effective when completing activities. Physical exhaustion might set in, making it difficult to sleep or enjoy activities outside of work.

==== Chronic stress phase ====
The chronic stress phase is where the stress has become more persistent, or chronic. As the strain builds, the stress is likely to have a continuous impact on their job. Symptoms include feelings of indifference, not finishing work on time, being late for work, or procrastinating throughout duties. Socially, they may disengage from usual work-related talks. In other circumstances, individuals may grow enraged and strike out at colleagues. These sentiments might sometimes follow them home and damage their relationships with family and friends.

==== Burnout phase ====
At this stage, you're likely to see very genuine dysfunction in your workplace. A sense of indifference or numbness sets in. You simply do not care whether or not things work anymore. And this may be quite dangerous since it can spill over into personal relationships and interactions with people.

==== Habitual burnout phase ====
This is the stage at which matters become unbearably miserable and unsustainable for you. Physical and mental exhaustion start to merge together, and you enter the self-preservation mode. The results can be catastrophic. You are now at a high risk of developing depression, physical illness, and debilitating daily anxiety.
* Discuss how burnout can cause strain, stress, and poor work performance = unemployment (this can be done either by quitting or being fired) 

=== Discrimination ===

==== Gender discrimination ====

==== Age discrimination ====

==== Racial discrimination ====

=== Health problems and complications ===

* Discuss impact/s on work performance. 

==== Physical health problems ====

==== Chronic illness  ====
{{tip|Provide case study, fact, or example }}

==What are the main causes of mental health? ==

=== What is mental health? ===

* Define. 
** Mental health is an important aspect of general well-being and happiness. A clinically diagnosable ailment that severely impairs an individual's cognitive, emotional, or social capacities is referred to as a mental illness (Barkham et al., 2019). 
* How is it caused? 
* Provide Australian statistics.
** In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
*** Over two in five (43.7% or 8.6 million people) had experienced a mental disorder at some time in their life (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022).
*** One in five people (21.4% or 4.2 million people) had a 12-month mental disorder (sufficient symptoms of disorder 12 month duration prior to survey) (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022).

Main causes (sub-headings):
# Trauma
# drug and alcohol abuse/addiction 
# family history 
# abuse
# up-bringing (government care, foster home, home placement)

=== Trauma ===
Trauma is defined generically as a very distressing occurrence that might be emotionally, cognitively, or physically overwhelming to an individual (Farrelly-Rosch &amp; Scanalan, 2018). Experiencing a traumatic event can potentially affect both an individuals current and future mental health (Norris, 1992). Trauma can occur by either, a single occurrence which is a single, unanticipated incident, such as a physical or sexual assault, a wildfire, an accident, or a catastrophic sickness or injury, can cause stress. Loss experiences may also be devastating, such as the death of a loved one, a miscarriage, or suicide (Breslau, 2002). Complex trauma refers to long-term or continuous traumatic events that are frequently tied to human relationships, such as marital violence, bullying, childhood neglect, witnessing trauma, emotional abuse, sexual assault, or torture (Kliethermes et al., 2014b). Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the trauma diagnosis. Symptoms include persistent recollections of the traumatic event, significant anxiety, avoidance of situations and individuals connection with the trauma, and heightened negative thoughts. PTSD can also interfere with an individuals interactions with others (Vahia, 2013). Approximately 30% of PTSD is experienced before the age of 18 (Koenen et al., 2017). 

=== Drug and alcohol abuse ===
Substance misuse and mental illnesses such as anxiety and depression are inextricably intertwined, though neither cause each other. Marijuana and methamphetamine abuse can result in protracted psychotic episodes, whilst alcohol can exacerbate depression and anxiety symptoms (Mojtabai, 2005). 

The consumption of alcohol and narcotics to self-medicate the symptoms of mental health disorders is common. People regularly abuse alcohol or drugs to alleviate the symptoms of an untreated mental disorder, to manage emotional pain, or to alter their mood momentarily. Unfortunately, self-medicating with drugs or alcohol has negative side effects and often exacerbate the problems it was intended to alleviate (Kamerow, 1986).

Alcohol and drug abuse can enhance the chance of developing mental disorders. Although mental disorders are produced by a complex interaction of genetics, environment, and other variables, it's difficult to determine if substance abuse actually directly causes them. If you are predisposed to a mental health problem, though, misusing alcohol or drugs may drive you over the brink. There is preliminary indication that those who overuse opioid medications are more likely to develop depression, and frequent cannabis usage has been related to an increased risk of schizophrenia (Bradizza et al., 2006).

Alcohol and drug abuse can increase the symptoms of a mental health disorder. Substance abuse can exacerbate or even cause additional mental illness symptoms. Abuse of drugs or alcohol can also interfere with prescribed medication such as antidepressants, anxiety medications, and mood stabilisers, making them less effective at managing symptoms and delaying your recovery (Mojtabai, 2005).

=== Family history ===

=== Abuse ===

=== Household up-brining ===

== The relationship between unemployment and mental health ==

=== The affects of mental health on employment ===

* Discuss how mental health can lead to/makes an individual unemployed:

==== Depression ====
* Define Depression - And touch on Low self worth, low self esteem, no motivation, anxiety, feeling unwell. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates unemployment.
** Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a frequent psychological illness with substantial morbidity and mortality rates. It is a severe condition characterised by low mood, reduced interests, poor cognitive performance, and vegetative symptoms such as altered sleep or hunger. MDD affects one in every six individuals throughout their lifetime and affects nearly twice as many women as men (Lohoff, 2010).
** [[wikipedia:Major_depressive_disorder|Major Depressive Disorder]]
** Depression (mood) is a mental condition characterised by a depressed mood and reluctance to exertion. Depression affects a person's thoughts, behaviour, motivation, feelings, and sense of well-being. The primary symptom of depression is anhedonia, which is defined as an absence of interest or a loss of enjoyment in things that normally bring individuals happiness (Piccinelli &amp; Wilkinson, 2000).
** [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|Depression (mood)]]
* Statistic: 
** Depression (mood) - Affects more than 280 million people of all ages (about 3.5% of the global population) (WHO, 2018).

===== Theories =====
Depression theories include: 

* [[wikipedia:Biology_of_depression|Biology of depression]]
* [[wikipedia:Beck's_cognitive_triad|Beck's cognitive triad]]
* [[wikipedia:Behavioral_theories_of_depression|Behavioural theories of depression]] 

==== Motivation ====
* Lack of motivation, hygiene, time management skills. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates to unemployment.

==== Anxiety ====
* Define Anxiety - Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that creates unemployment.
* Statistic: In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
** 16.8% (3.3 million people) had a 12-month Anxiety disorder (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022). 

=== The affects of unemployment on mental health ===
* Discuss how unemployment spikes/increases mental health.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

== The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment ==

=== Increased mental health ===

* The affect of COVID-19 on mental health. Discuss how mental health and suicide attempts has increased since the pandemic has started (isolation, stuck with abuser, increase fear)
* Discuss how job loss due to COVID-19 has affected and/or increase mental health.

==== Essential workers ====

* Discuss the increase of mental health and strain of essential workers. Provide a case. Example = nurses.

=== Job loss and shortages ===

* Discuss how COVID-19 has affected unemployment (job-loss, shortage) Example = flight attendants, family businesses.


===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==

* Provide overview and conclusion. 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

# &quot;Depression&quot;. ''www.who.int''. Archived from the original on 26 December 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
#
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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      <sha1>7and9yti36qgfh565hzjzzc4k831cf0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418097</id>
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      <comment>/* Family history */</comment>
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      <text bytes="19711" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Unemployment and mental health:&lt;br&gt;What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==

* Brief introduction on unemployment. 
* Brief introduction on mental health. 
* State how there is a relationship between unemployment and mental health. 
* Touch on how COVID-19 plays a huge role since the beginning of the pandemic, unemployment and mental health have risen. 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are the main causes of unemployment? 
* What are the main causes of mental health? 
*The relationship between unemployment and mental health. 
* The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|Provide an example or case study.}}

==What are the main causes of unemployment? ==

=== What is unemployment? ===

* What is unemployment? Define. 
** The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) defines an unemployed individual as one who is not employed for one hour or more during a given reference period, is actively seeking employment, and is currently available for work (Australian Bureau Of Statistics, 2022).
* Provide statistics. 
** The current unemployment rate sits at 3.4%, last recorded July 2022.

=== Mental health ===

* Define. 
** Mental health is an important aspect of general well-being and happiness. A clinically diagnosable ailment that severely impairs an individual's cognitive, emotional, or social capacities is referred to as a mental illness (Barkham et al., 2019). 
** In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
*** Over two in five (43.7% or 8.6 million people) had experienced a mental disorder at some time in their life.
*** One in five people (21.4% or 4.2 million people) had a 12-month mental disorder (sufficient symptoms of disorder 12 month duration prior to survey) 
*** 16.8% (3.3 million people) had a 12-month Anxiety disorder.
* Explain the mental and physical implications/impact on an individual mental health can have, and how this causes unemployment. 

=== Lack of knowledge ===

* Explain how lack of knowledge in specific areas/job requirements creates a smaller chance of employment and fewer job opportunities.  
* The level of competition between the population, and the outlook of the economy, a lack of education, knowledge, and skills can cause unemployment when job applying - Creates a huge issue on the individual, physically, mentally, and economically (LE &amp; MILLER, 2000).  
* This study (Haque &amp; Haque, 2022) demonstrate that the unemployment rate for non-English-speaking migrant women (7.2%) is significantly higher than the percentage of women born in Australia (5.1%). The lack of non-English speaking causes unemployment because they are unable to meet companies skill requirement (language).  

=== Burnout ===

* Define burnout. (Rossi et al., 2006) - They have a definition, also talk about exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy. This will provide a decent amount of information. 
* Talk about the 5 stages of burnout in each sub-heading 2. 

==== Honeymoon phase ====
The honeymoon period occurs throughout the first few days or weeks on the job. Employees are new in the game, overflowing with excitement, and ready to take on anything at this time. The task may be difficult, but the individual has a great deal of motivation and desire at this stage.  Although this period might be difficult, motivated people may compensate by working even harder, this influences the stage for burnout. 

==== Onset of stress phase ====
The honeymoon period passes, and the individual begins to feel stressed. Not consistently their day will be unpleasant, but there will be occasions when tension will dominate over. Remain aware of any mental or physical symptoms as this period begins. They  may discover it easier to lose concentration or be less effective when completing activities. Physical exhaustion might set in, making it difficult to sleep or enjoy activities outside of work.

==== Chronic stress phase ====
The chronic stress phase is where the stress has become more persistent, or chronic. As the strain builds, the stress is likely to have a continuous impact on their job. Symptoms include feelings of indifference, not finishing work on time, being late for work, or procrastinating throughout duties. Socially, they may disengage from usual work-related talks. In other circumstances, individuals may grow enraged and strike out at colleagues. These sentiments might sometimes follow them home and damage their relationships with family and friends.

==== Burnout phase ====
At this stage, you're likely to see very genuine dysfunction in your workplace. A sense of indifference or numbness sets in. You simply do not care whether or not things work anymore. And this may be quite dangerous since it can spill over into personal relationships and interactions with people.

==== Habitual burnout phase ====
This is the stage at which matters become unbearably miserable and unsustainable for you. Physical and mental exhaustion start to merge together, and you enter the self-preservation mode. The results can be catastrophic. You are now at a high risk of developing depression, physical illness, and debilitating daily anxiety.
* Discuss how burnout can cause strain, stress, and poor work performance = unemployment (this can be done either by quitting or being fired) 

=== Discrimination ===

==== Gender discrimination ====

==== Age discrimination ====

==== Racial discrimination ====

=== Health problems and complications ===

* Discuss impact/s on work performance. 

==== Physical health problems ====

==== Chronic illness  ====
{{tip|Provide case study, fact, or example }}

==What are the main causes of mental health? ==

=== What is mental health? ===

* Define. 
** Mental health is an important aspect of general well-being and happiness. A clinically diagnosable ailment that severely impairs an individual's cognitive, emotional, or social capacities is referred to as a mental illness (Barkham et al., 2019). 
* How is it caused? 
* Provide Australian statistics.
** In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
*** Over two in five (43.7% or 8.6 million people) had experienced a mental disorder at some time in their life (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022).
*** One in five people (21.4% or 4.2 million people) had a 12-month mental disorder (sufficient symptoms of disorder 12 month duration prior to survey) (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022).

Main causes (sub-headings):
# Trauma
# drug and alcohol abuse/addiction 
# family history 
# abuse
# up-bringing (government care, foster home, home placement)

=== Trauma ===
Trauma is defined generically as a very distressing occurrence that might be emotionally, cognitively, or physically overwhelming to an individual (Farrelly-Rosch &amp; Scanalan, 2018). Experiencing a traumatic event can potentially affect both an individuals current and future mental health (Norris, 1992). Trauma can occur by either, a single occurrence which is a single, unanticipated incident, such as a physical or sexual assault, a wildfire, an accident, or a catastrophic sickness or injury, can cause stress. Loss experiences may also be devastating, such as the death of a loved one, a miscarriage, or suicide (Breslau, 2002). Complex trauma refers to long-term or continuous traumatic events that are frequently tied to human relationships, such as marital violence, bullying, childhood neglect, witnessing trauma, emotional abuse, sexual assault, or torture (Kliethermes et al., 2014b). Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the trauma diagnosis. Symptoms include persistent recollections of the traumatic event, significant anxiety, avoidance of situations and individuals connection with the trauma, and heightened negative thoughts. PTSD can also interfere with an individuals interactions with others (Vahia, 2013). Approximately 30% of PTSD is experienced before the age of 18 (Koenen et al., 2017). 

=== Drug and alcohol abuse ===
Substance misuse and mental illnesses such as anxiety and depression are inextricably intertwined, though neither cause each other. Marijuana and methamphetamine abuse can result in protracted psychotic episodes, whilst alcohol can exacerbate depression and anxiety symptoms (Mojtabai, 2005). 

The consumption of alcohol and narcotics to self-medicate the symptoms of mental health disorders is common. People regularly abuse alcohol or drugs to alleviate the symptoms of an untreated mental disorder, to manage emotional pain, or to alter their mood momentarily. Unfortunately, self-medicating with drugs or alcohol has negative side effects and often exacerbate the problems it was intended to alleviate (Kamerow, 1986).

Alcohol and drug abuse can enhance the chance of developing mental disorders. Although mental disorders are produced by a complex interaction of genetics, environment, and other variables, it's difficult to determine if substance abuse actually directly causes them. If you are predisposed to a mental health problem, though, misusing alcohol or drugs may drive you over the brink. There is preliminary indication that those who overuse opioid medications are more likely to develop depression, and frequent cannabis usage has been related to an increased risk of schizophrenia (Bradizza et al., 2006).

Alcohol and drug abuse can increase the symptoms of a mental health disorder. Substance abuse can exacerbate or even cause additional mental illness symptoms. Abuse of drugs or alcohol can also interfere with prescribed medication such as antidepressants, anxiety medications, and mood stabilisers, making them less effective at managing symptoms and delaying your recovery (Mojtabai, 2005).

=== Family history ===
Individuals are likely to develop a specific mental disorder if other family members have the same mental disorder (Jorm et al., 2007). Even though a mental disorder passes in the family, the intensity of symptoms might vary greatly amongst family members. This means that one member of the family may have a mild case of the mental disorder, while another has a more severe case. However, mental disorders do not follow traditional inheritance patterns (Kendler, 2008). 

Epigenetic regulation impacts how an individual react to environmental factors and, as a result, whether or not that individual will develop a mental disorder. Epigenetics does not remain stable throughout time. As a result, a gene is not constantly &quot;on&quot; or &quot;off.&quot; For a mental disorder to form, the correct balance of environmental stimuli and epigenetic regulation must be present (Tsankova et al., 2007). These genetic differences distinguish us as individuals. A polymorphism will not result in the development of a mental disorder on its own. The combination of one or more particular polymorphisms plus certain environmental factors, on the other hand, may result in the development of a mental disorder (Schmiedel et al., 2018).

=== Abuse ===

=== Household up-brining ===

== The relationship between unemployment and mental health ==

=== The affects of mental health on employment ===

* Discuss how mental health can lead to/makes an individual unemployed:

==== Depression ====
* Define Depression - And touch on Low self worth, low self esteem, no motivation, anxiety, feeling unwell. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates unemployment.
** Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a frequent psychological illness with substantial morbidity and mortality rates. It is a severe condition characterised by low mood, reduced interests, poor cognitive performance, and vegetative symptoms such as altered sleep or hunger. MDD affects one in every six individuals throughout their lifetime and affects nearly twice as many women as men (Lohoff, 2010).
** [[wikipedia:Major_depressive_disorder|Major Depressive Disorder]]
** Depression (mood) is a mental condition characterised by a depressed mood and reluctance to exertion. Depression affects a person's thoughts, behaviour, motivation, feelings, and sense of well-being. The primary symptom of depression is anhedonia, which is defined as an absence of interest or a loss of enjoyment in things that normally bring individuals happiness (Piccinelli &amp; Wilkinson, 2000).
** [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|Depression (mood)]]
* Statistic: 
** Depression (mood) - Affects more than 280 million people of all ages (about 3.5% of the global population) (WHO, 2018).

===== Theories =====
Depression theories include: 

* [[wikipedia:Biology_of_depression|Biology of depression]]
* [[wikipedia:Beck's_cognitive_triad|Beck's cognitive triad]]
* [[wikipedia:Behavioral_theories_of_depression|Behavioural theories of depression]] 

==== Motivation ====
* Lack of motivation, hygiene, time management skills. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates to unemployment.

==== Anxiety ====
* Define Anxiety - Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that creates unemployment.
* Statistic: In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
** 16.8% (3.3 million people) had a 12-month Anxiety disorder (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022). 

=== The affects of unemployment on mental health ===
* Discuss how unemployment spikes/increases mental health.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

== The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment ==

=== Increased mental health ===

* The affect of COVID-19 on mental health. Discuss how mental health and suicide attempts has increased since the pandemic has started (isolation, stuck with abuser, increase fear)
* Discuss how job loss due to COVID-19 has affected and/or increase mental health.

==== Essential workers ====

* Discuss the increase of mental health and strain of essential workers. Provide a case. Example = nurses.

=== Job loss and shortages ===

* Discuss how COVID-19 has affected unemployment (job-loss, shortage) Example = flight attendants, family businesses.


===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==

* Provide overview and conclusion. 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

# &quot;Depression&quot;. ''www.who.int''. Archived from the original on 26 December 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
#
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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==Overview==

* Brief introduction on unemployment. 
* Brief introduction on mental health. 
* State how there is a relationship between unemployment and mental health. 
* Touch on how COVID-19 plays a huge role since the beginning of the pandemic, unemployment and mental health have risen. 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are the main causes of unemployment? 
* What are the main causes of mental health? 
*The relationship between unemployment and mental health. 
* The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|Provide an example or case study.}}

==What are the main causes of unemployment? ==

=== What is unemployment? ===

* What is unemployment? Define. 
** The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) defines an unemployed individual as one who is not employed for one hour or more during a given reference period, is actively seeking employment, and is currently available for work (Australian Bureau Of Statistics, 2022).
* Provide statistics. 
** The current unemployment rate sits at 3.4%, last recorded July 2022.

=== Mental health ===

* Define. 
** Mental health is an important aspect of general well-being and happiness. A clinically diagnosable ailment that severely impairs an individual's cognitive, emotional, or social capacities is referred to as a mental illness (Barkham et al., 2019). 
** In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
*** Over two in five (43.7% or 8.6 million people) had experienced a mental disorder at some time in their life.
*** One in five people (21.4% or 4.2 million people) had a 12-month mental disorder (sufficient symptoms of disorder 12 month duration prior to survey) 
*** 16.8% (3.3 million people) had a 12-month Anxiety disorder.
* Explain the mental and physical implications/impact on an individual mental health can have, and how this causes unemployment. 

=== Lack of knowledge ===

* Explain how lack of knowledge in specific areas/job requirements creates a smaller chance of employment and fewer job opportunities.  
* The level of competition between the population, and the outlook of the economy, a lack of education, knowledge, and skills can cause unemployment when job applying - Creates a huge issue on the individual, physically, mentally, and economically (LE &amp; MILLER, 2000).  
* This study (Haque &amp; Haque, 2022) demonstrate that the unemployment rate for non-English-speaking migrant women (7.2%) is significantly higher than the percentage of women born in Australia (5.1%). The lack of non-English speaking causes unemployment because they are unable to meet companies skill requirement (language).  

=== Burnout ===

* Define burnout. (Rossi et al., 2006) - They have a definition, also talk about exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy. This will provide a decent amount of information. 
* Talk about the 5 stages of burnout in each sub-heading 2. 

==== Honeymoon phase ====
The honeymoon period occurs throughout the first few days or weeks on the job. Employees are new in the game, overflowing with excitement, and ready to take on anything at this time. The task may be difficult, but the individual has a great deal of motivation and desire at this stage.  Although this period might be difficult, motivated people may compensate by working even harder, this influences the stage for burnout. 

==== Onset of stress phase ====
The honeymoon period passes, and the individual begins to feel stressed. Not consistently their day will be unpleasant, but there will be occasions when tension will dominate over. Remain aware of any mental or physical symptoms as this period begins. They  may discover it easier to lose concentration or be less effective when completing activities. Physical exhaustion might set in, making it difficult to sleep or enjoy activities outside of work.

==== Chronic stress phase ====
The chronic stress phase is where the stress has become more persistent, or chronic. As the strain builds, the stress is likely to have a continuous impact on their job. Symptoms include feelings of indifference, not finishing work on time, being late for work, or procrastinating throughout duties. Socially, they may disengage from usual work-related talks. In other circumstances, individuals may grow enraged and strike out at colleagues. These sentiments might sometimes follow them home and damage their relationships with family and friends.

==== Burnout phase ====
At this stage, you're likely to see very genuine dysfunction in your workplace. A sense of indifference or numbness sets in. You simply do not care whether or not things work anymore. And this may be quite dangerous since it can spill over into personal relationships and interactions with people.

==== Habitual burnout phase ====
This is the stage at which matters become unbearably miserable and unsustainable for you. Physical and mental exhaustion start to merge together, and you enter the self-preservation mode. The results can be catastrophic. You are now at a high risk of developing depression, physical illness, and debilitating daily anxiety.
* Discuss how burnout can cause strain, stress, and poor work performance = unemployment (this can be done either by quitting or being fired) 

=== Discrimination ===

==== Gender discrimination ====

==== Age discrimination ====

==== Racial discrimination ====

=== Health problems and complications ===

* Discuss impact/s on work performance. 

==== Physical health problems ====

==== Chronic illness  ====
{{tip|Provide case study, fact, or example }}

==What are the main causes of mental health? ==

=== What is mental health? ===

* Define. 
** Mental health is an important aspect of general well-being and happiness. A clinically diagnosable ailment that severely impairs an individual's cognitive, emotional, or social capacities is referred to as a mental illness (Barkham et al., 2019). 
* How is it caused? 
* Provide Australian statistics.
** In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
*** Over two in five (43.7% or 8.6 million people) had experienced a mental disorder at some time in their life (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022).
*** One in five people (21.4% or 4.2 million people) had a 12-month mental disorder (sufficient symptoms of disorder 12 month duration prior to survey) (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022).

Main causes (sub-headings):
# Trauma
# drug and alcohol abuse/addiction 
# family history 
# abuse
# up-bringing (government care, foster home, home placement)

=== Trauma ===
Trauma is defined generically as a very distressing occurrence that might be emotionally, cognitively, or physically overwhelming to an individual (Farrelly-Rosch &amp; Scanalan, 2018). Experiencing a traumatic event can potentially affect both an individuals current and future mental health (Norris, 1992). Trauma can occur by either, a single occurrence which is a single, unanticipated incident, such as a physical or sexual assault, a wildfire, an accident, or a catastrophic sickness or injury, can cause stress. Loss experiences may also be devastating, such as the death of a loved one, a miscarriage, or suicide (Breslau, 2002). Complex trauma refers to long-term or continuous traumatic events that are frequently tied to human relationships, such as marital violence, bullying, childhood neglect, witnessing trauma, emotional abuse, sexual assault, or torture (Kliethermes et al., 2014b). Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the trauma diagnosis. Symptoms include persistent recollections of the traumatic event, significant anxiety, avoidance of situations and individuals connection with the trauma, and heightened negative thoughts. PTSD can also interfere with an individuals interactions with others (Vahia, 2013). Approximately 30% of PTSD is experienced before the age of 18 (Koenen et al., 2017). 

=== Drug and alcohol abuse ===
Substance misuse and mental illnesses such as anxiety and depression are inextricably intertwined, though neither cause each other. Marijuana and methamphetamine abuse can result in protracted psychotic episodes, whilst alcohol can exacerbate depression and anxiety symptoms (Mojtabai, 2005). 

The consumption of alcohol and narcotics to self-medicate the symptoms of mental health disorders is common. People regularly abuse alcohol or drugs to alleviate the symptoms of an untreated mental disorder, to manage emotional pain, or to alter their mood momentarily. Unfortunately, self-medicating with drugs or alcohol has negative side effects and often exacerbate the problems it was intended to alleviate (Kamerow, 1986).

Alcohol and drug abuse can enhance the chance of developing mental disorders. Although mental disorders are produced by a complex interaction of genetics, environment, and other variables, it's difficult to determine if substance abuse actually directly causes them. If you are predisposed to a mental health problem, though, misusing alcohol or drugs may drive you over the brink. There is preliminary indication that those who overuse opioid medications are more likely to develop depression, and frequent cannabis usage has been related to an increased risk of schizophrenia (Bradizza et al., 2006).

Alcohol and drug abuse can increase the symptoms of a mental health disorder. Substance abuse can exacerbate or even cause additional mental illness symptoms. Abuse of drugs or alcohol can also interfere with prescribed medication such as antidepressants, anxiety medications, and mood stabilisers, making them less effective at managing symptoms and delaying your recovery (Mojtabai, 2005).

=== Family history ===
Individuals are likely to develop a specific mental disorder if other family members have the same mental disorder (Jorm et al., 2007). Even though a mental disorder passes in the family, the intensity of symptoms might vary greatly amongst family members. This means that one member of the family may have a mild case of the mental disorder, while another has a more severe case. However, mental disorders do not follow traditional inheritance patterns (Kendler, 2008). 

Epigenetic regulation impacts how an individual react to environmental factors and, as a result, whether or not that individual will develop a mental disorder. Epigenetics does not remain stable throughout time. As a result, a gene is not constantly &quot;on&quot; or &quot;off.&quot; For a mental disorder to form, the correct balance of environmental stimuli and epigenetic regulation must be present (Tsankova et al., 2007). These genetic differences distinguish us as individuals. A polymorphism will not result in the development of a mental disorder on its own. The combination of one or more particular polymorphisms plus certain environmental factors, on the other hand, may result in the development of a mental disorder (Schmiedel et al., 2018).

=== Abuse ===
Child abuse and neglect can have an immediate and long-term effect on a child's physical and emotional health (Hildyard &amp; Wolfe, 2002). Early brain development has been discovered to be negatively impacted by maltreatment in infancy and early childhood, which can lead to poor behavioural health effects in adolescence and adulthood (Kaplow &amp; Widom, 2007). Isolation, anxiety, and a lack of trust can be long-term consequences of abuse and neglect, as can poor mental health and behavioural health outcomes and an increased risk of drug use disorder.

* Discuss further on about brain development. How can this cause mental health disorder/s? 

=== Household up-brining ===

== The relationship between unemployment and mental health ==

=== The affects of mental health on employment ===

* Discuss how mental health can lead to/makes an individual unemployed:

==== Depression ====
* Define Depression - And touch on Low self worth, low self esteem, no motivation, anxiety, feeling unwell. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates unemployment.
** Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a frequent psychological illness with substantial morbidity and mortality rates. It is a severe condition characterised by low mood, reduced interests, poor cognitive performance, and vegetative symptoms such as altered sleep or hunger. MDD affects one in every six individuals throughout their lifetime and affects nearly twice as many women as men (Lohoff, 2010).
** [[wikipedia:Major_depressive_disorder|Major Depressive Disorder]]
** Depression (mood) is a mental condition characterised by a depressed mood and reluctance to exertion. Depression affects a person's thoughts, behaviour, motivation, feelings, and sense of well-being. The primary symptom of depression is anhedonia, which is defined as an absence of interest or a loss of enjoyment in things that normally bring individuals happiness (Piccinelli &amp; Wilkinson, 2000).
** [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|Depression (mood)]]
* Statistic: 
** Depression (mood) - Affects more than 280 million people of all ages (about 3.5% of the global population) (WHO, 2018).

===== Theories =====
Depression theories include: 

* [[wikipedia:Biology_of_depression|Biology of depression]]
* [[wikipedia:Beck's_cognitive_triad|Beck's cognitive triad]]
* [[wikipedia:Behavioral_theories_of_depression|Behavioural theories of depression]] 

==== Motivation ====
* Lack of motivation, hygiene, time management skills. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates to unemployment.

==== Anxiety ====
* Define Anxiety - Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that creates unemployment.
* Statistic: In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
** 16.8% (3.3 million people) had a 12-month Anxiety disorder (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022). 

=== The affects of unemployment on mental health ===
* Discuss how unemployment spikes/increases mental health.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

== The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment ==

=== Increased mental health ===

* The affect of COVID-19 on mental health. Discuss how mental health and suicide attempts has increased since the pandemic has started (isolation, stuck with abuser, increase fear)
* Discuss how job loss due to COVID-19 has affected and/or increase mental health.

==== Essential workers ====

* Discuss the increase of mental health and strain of essential workers. Provide a case. Example = nurses.

=== Job loss and shortages ===

* Discuss how COVID-19 has affected unemployment (job-loss, shortage) Example = flight attendants, family businesses.


===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==

* Provide overview and conclusion. 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

# &quot;Depression&quot;. ''www.who.int''. Archived from the original on 26 December 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
#
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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==Overview==

* Brief introduction on unemployment. 
* Brief introduction on mental health. 
* State how there is a relationship between unemployment and mental health. 
* Touch on how COVID-19 plays a huge role since the beginning of the pandemic, unemployment and mental health have risen. 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are the main causes of unemployment? 
* What are the main causes of mental health? 
*The relationship between unemployment and mental health. 
* The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|Provide an example or case study.}}

==What are the main causes of unemployment? ==

=== What is unemployment? ===

* What is unemployment? Define. 
** The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) defines an unemployed individual as one who is not employed for one hour or more during a given reference period, is actively seeking employment, and is currently available for work (Australian Bureau Of Statistics, 2022).
* Provide statistics. 
** The current unemployment rate sits at 3.4%, last recorded July 2022.

=== Mental health ===

* Define. 
** Mental health is an important aspect of general well-being and happiness. A clinically diagnosable ailment that severely impairs an individual's cognitive, emotional, or social capacities is referred to as a mental illness (Barkham et al., 2019). 
** In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
*** Over two in five (43.7% or 8.6 million people) had experienced a mental disorder at some time in their life.
*** One in five people (21.4% or 4.2 million people) had a 12-month mental disorder (sufficient symptoms of disorder 12 month duration prior to survey) 
*** 16.8% (3.3 million people) had a 12-month Anxiety disorder.
* Explain the mental and physical implications/impact on an individual mental health can have, and how this causes unemployment. 

=== Lack of knowledge ===

* Explain how lack of knowledge in specific areas/job requirements creates a smaller chance of employment and fewer job opportunities.  
* The level of competition between the population, and the outlook of the economy, a lack of education, knowledge, and skills can cause unemployment when job applying - Creates a huge issue on the individual, physically, mentally, and economically (LE &amp; MILLER, 2000).  
* This study (Haque &amp; Haque, 2022) demonstrate that the unemployment rate for non-English-speaking migrant women (7.2%) is significantly higher than the percentage of women born in Australia (5.1%). The lack of non-English speaking causes unemployment because they are unable to meet companies skill requirement (language).  

=== Burnout ===

* Define burnout. (Rossi et al., 2006) - They have a definition, also talk about exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy. This will provide a decent amount of information. 
* Talk about the 5 stages of burnout in each sub-heading 2. 

==== Honeymoon phase ====
The honeymoon period occurs throughout the first few days or weeks on the job. Employees are new in the game, overflowing with excitement, and ready to take on anything at this time. The task may be difficult, but the individual has a great deal of motivation and desire at this stage.  Although this period might be difficult, motivated people may compensate by working even harder, this influences the stage for burnout. 

==== Onset of stress phase ====
The honeymoon period passes, and the individual begins to feel stressed. Not consistently their day will be unpleasant, but there will be occasions when tension will dominate over. Remain aware of any mental or physical symptoms as this period begins. They  may discover it easier to lose concentration or be less effective when completing activities. Physical exhaustion might set in, making it difficult to sleep or enjoy activities outside of work.

==== Chronic stress phase ====
The chronic stress phase is where the stress has become more persistent, or chronic. As the strain builds, the stress is likely to have a continuous impact on their job. Symptoms include feelings of indifference, not finishing work on time, being late for work, or procrastinating throughout duties. Socially, they may disengage from usual work-related talks. In other circumstances, individuals may grow enraged and strike out at colleagues. These sentiments might sometimes follow them home and damage their relationships with family and friends.

==== Burnout phase ====
At this stage, you're likely to see very genuine dysfunction in your workplace. A sense of indifference or numbness sets in. You simply do not care whether or not things work anymore. And this may be quite dangerous since it can spill over into personal relationships and interactions with people.

==== Habitual burnout phase ====
This is the stage at which matters become unbearably miserable and unsustainable for you. Physical and mental exhaustion start to merge together, and you enter the self-preservation mode. The results can be catastrophic. You are now at a high risk of developing depression, physical illness, and debilitating daily anxiety.
* Discuss how burnout can cause strain, stress, and poor work performance = unemployment (this can be done either by quitting or being fired) 

=== Discrimination ===

==== Gender discrimination ====

==== Age discrimination ====

==== Racial discrimination ====

=== Health problems and complications ===

* Discuss impact/s on work performance. 

==== Physical health problems ====

==== Chronic illness  ====
{{tip|Provide case study, fact, or example }}

==What are the main causes of mental health? ==

=== What is mental health? ===

* Define. 
** Mental health is an important aspect of general well-being and happiness. A clinically diagnosable ailment that severely impairs an individual's cognitive, emotional, or social capacities is referred to as a mental illness (Barkham et al., 2019). 
* How is it caused? 
* Provide Australian statistics.
** In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
*** Over two in five (43.7% or 8.6 million people) had experienced a mental disorder at some time in their life (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022).
*** One in five people (21.4% or 4.2 million people) had a 12-month mental disorder (sufficient symptoms of disorder 12 month duration prior to survey) (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022).

Main causes (sub-headings):
# Trauma
# drug and alcohol abuse/addiction 
# family history 
# abuse
# up-bringing (government care, foster home, home placement)

=== Trauma ===
Trauma is defined generically as a very distressing occurrence that might be emotionally, cognitively, or physically overwhelming to an individual (Farrelly-Rosch &amp; Scanalan, 2018). Experiencing a traumatic event can potentially affect both an individuals current and future mental health (Norris, 1992). Trauma can occur by either, a single occurrence which is a single, unanticipated incident, such as a physical or sexual assault, a wildfire, an accident, or a catastrophic sickness or injury, can cause stress. Loss experiences may also be devastating, such as the death of a loved one, a miscarriage, or suicide (Breslau, 2002). Complex trauma refers to long-term or continuous traumatic events that are frequently tied to human relationships, such as marital violence, bullying, childhood neglect, witnessing trauma, emotional abuse, sexual assault, or torture (Kliethermes et al., 2014b). Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the trauma diagnosis. Symptoms include persistent recollections of the traumatic event, significant anxiety, avoidance of situations and individuals connection with the trauma, and heightened negative thoughts. PTSD can also interfere with an individuals interactions with others (Vahia, 2013). Approximately 30% of PTSD is experienced before the age of 18 (Koenen et al., 2017). 

=== Drug and alcohol abuse ===
Substance misuse and mental illnesses such as anxiety and depression are inextricably intertwined, though neither cause each other. Marijuana and methamphetamine abuse can result in protracted psychotic episodes, whilst alcohol can exacerbate depression and anxiety symptoms (Mojtabai, 2005). 

The consumption of alcohol and narcotics to self-medicate the symptoms of mental health disorders is common. People regularly abuse alcohol or drugs to alleviate the symptoms of an untreated mental disorder, to manage emotional pain, or to alter their mood momentarily. Unfortunately, self-medicating with drugs or alcohol has negative side effects and often exacerbate the problems it was intended to alleviate (Kamerow, 1986).

Alcohol and drug abuse can enhance the chance of developing mental disorders. Although mental disorders are produced by a complex interaction of genetics, environment, and other variables, it's difficult to determine if substance abuse actually directly causes them. If you are predisposed to a mental health problem, though, misusing alcohol or drugs may drive you over the brink. There is preliminary indication that those who overuse opioid medications are more likely to develop depression, and frequent cannabis usage has been related to an increased risk of schizophrenia (Bradizza et al., 2006).

Alcohol and drug abuse can increase the symptoms of a mental health disorder. Substance abuse can exacerbate or even cause additional mental illness symptoms. Abuse of drugs or alcohol can also interfere with prescribed medication such as antidepressants, anxiety medications, and mood stabilisers, making them less effective at managing symptoms and delaying your recovery (Mojtabai, 2005).

=== Family history ===
Individuals are likely to develop a specific mental disorder if other family members have the same mental disorder (Jorm et al., 2007). Even though a mental disorder passes in the family, the intensity of symptoms might vary greatly amongst family members. This means that one member of the family may have a mild case of the mental disorder, while another has a more severe case. However, mental disorders do not follow traditional inheritance patterns (Kendler, 2008). 

Epigenetic regulation impacts how an individual react to environmental factors and, as a result, whether or not that individual will develop a mental disorder. Epigenetics does not remain stable throughout time. As a result, a gene is not constantly &quot;on&quot; or &quot;off.&quot; For a mental disorder to form, the correct balance of environmental stimuli and epigenetic regulation must be present (Tsankova et al., 2007). These genetic differences distinguish us as individuals. A polymorphism will not result in the development of a mental disorder on its own. The combination of one or more particular polymorphisms plus certain environmental factors, on the other hand, may result in the development of a mental disorder (Schmiedel et al., 2018).

=== Abuse ===
Child abuse and neglect can have an immediate and long-term effect on a child's physical and emotional health (Hildyard &amp; Wolfe, 2002). Early brain development has been discovered to be negatively impacted by maltreatment in infancy and early childhood, which can lead to poor behavioural health effects in adolescence and adulthood (Kaplow &amp; Widom, 2007). Isolation, anxiety, and a lack of trust can be long-term consequences of abuse and neglect, as can poor mental health and behavioural health outcomes and an increased risk of drug use disorder.

* Discuss further on about brain development. How can this cause mental health disorder/s? 

=== Household up-brining ===

== The relationship between unemployment and mental health ==

=== The affects of mental health on employment ===

* Discuss how mental health can lead to/makes an individual unemployed:

==== Depression ====
* Define Depression - And touch on Low self worth, low self esteem, no motivation, anxiety, feeling unwell. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates unemployment.
** Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a frequent psychological illness with substantial morbidity and mortality rates. It is a severe condition characterised by low mood, reduced interests, poor cognitive performance, and vegetative symptoms such as altered sleep or hunger. MDD affects one in every six individuals throughout their lifetime and affects nearly twice as many women as men (Lohoff, 2010).
** [[wikipedia:Major_depressive_disorder|Major Depressive Disorder]]
** Depression (mood) is a mental condition characterised by a depressed mood and reluctance to exertion. Depression affects a person's thoughts, behaviour, motivation, feelings, and sense of well-being. The primary symptom of depression is anhedonia, which is defined as an absence of interest or a loss of enjoyment in things that normally bring individuals happiness (Piccinelli &amp; Wilkinson, 2000).
** [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|Depression (mood)]]
* Statistic: 
** Depression (mood) - Affects more than 280 million people of all ages (about 3.5% of the global population) (WHO, 2018).

===== Theories =====
Depression theories include: 

* [[wikipedia:Biology_of_depression|Biology of depression]]
* [[wikipedia:Beck's_cognitive_triad|Beck's cognitive triad]]
* [[wikipedia:Behavioral_theories_of_depression|Behavioural theories of depression]] 

==== Motivation ====
* Lack of motivation, hygiene, time management skills. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates to unemployment.

==== Anxiety ====
* Define Anxiety - Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that creates unemployment.
* Statistic: In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
** 16.8% (3.3 million people) had a 12-month Anxiety disorder (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022). 

=== The effects of unemployment on mental health ===
* Discuss how unemployment spikes/increases mental health.
* sub-headings: 
** Increase of mental health symptoms/stress/anxiety.
** Unemployment decreases motivation = Lack of motivation and increases depression. 
** Low self-esteem. 

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

== The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment ==

=== Increased mental health ===

* The affect of COVID-19 on mental health. Discuss how mental health and suicide attempts has increased since the pandemic has started (isolation, stuck with abuser, increase fear)
* Discuss how job loss due to COVID-19 has affected and/or increase mental health.

==== Essential workers ====

* Discuss the increase of mental health and strain of essential workers. Provide a case. Example = nurses.

=== Job loss and shortages ===

* Discuss how COVID-19 has affected unemployment (job-loss, shortage) Example = flight attendants, family businesses.


===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==

* Provide overview and conclusion. 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

# &quot;Depression&quot;. ''www.who.int''. Archived from the original on 26 December 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
#
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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==Overview==

* Brief introduction on unemployment. 
* Brief introduction on mental health. 
* State how there is a relationship between unemployment and mental health. 
* Touch on how COVID-19 plays a huge role since the beginning of the pandemic, unemployment and mental health have risen. 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are the main causes of unemployment? 
* What are the main causes of mental health? 
*The relationship between unemployment and mental health. 
* The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|Provide an example or case study.}}

==What are the main causes of unemployment? ==

=== What is unemployment? ===

* What is unemployment? Define. 
** The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) defines an unemployed individual as one who is not employed for one hour or more during a given reference period, is actively seeking employment, and is currently available for work (Australian Bureau Of Statistics, 2022).
* Provide statistics. 
** The current unemployment rate sits at 3.4%, last recorded July 2022.

=== Mental health ===

* Define. 
** Mental health is an important aspect of general well-being and happiness. A clinically diagnosable ailment that severely impairs an individual's cognitive, emotional, or social capacities is referred to as a mental illness (Barkham et al., 2019). 
** In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
*** Over two in five (43.7% or 8.6 million people) had experienced a mental disorder at some time in their life.
*** One in five people (21.4% or 4.2 million people) had a 12-month mental disorder (sufficient symptoms of disorder 12 month duration prior to survey) 
*** 16.8% (3.3 million people) had a 12-month Anxiety disorder.
* Explain the mental and physical implications/impact on an individual mental health can have, and how this causes unemployment. 

=== Lack of knowledge ===

* Explain how lack of knowledge in specific areas/job requirements creates a smaller chance of employment and fewer job opportunities.  
* The level of competition between the population, and the outlook of the economy, a lack of education, knowledge, and skills can cause unemployment when job applying - Creates a huge issue on the individual, physically, mentally, and economically (LE &amp; MILLER, 2000).  
* This study (Haque &amp; Haque, 2022) demonstrate that the unemployment rate for non-English-speaking migrant women (7.2%) is significantly higher than the percentage of women born in Australia (5.1%). The lack of non-English speaking causes unemployment because they are unable to meet companies skill requirement (language).  

=== Burnout ===

* Define burnout. (Rossi et al., 2006) - They have a definition, also talk about exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy. This will provide a decent amount of information. 
* Talk about the 5 stages of burnout in each sub-heading 2. 

==== Honeymoon phase ====
The honeymoon period occurs throughout the first few days or weeks on the job. Employees are new in the game, overflowing with excitement, and ready to take on anything at this time. The task may be difficult, but the individual has a great deal of motivation and desire at this stage.  Although this period might be difficult, motivated people may compensate by working even harder, this influences the stage for burnout. 

==== Onset of stress phase ====
The honeymoon period passes, and the individual begins to feel stressed. Not consistently their day will be unpleasant, but there will be occasions when tension will dominate over. Remain aware of any mental or physical symptoms as this period begins. They  may discover it easier to lose concentration or be less effective when completing activities. Physical exhaustion might set in, making it difficult to sleep or enjoy activities outside of work.

==== Chronic stress phase ====
The chronic stress phase is where the stress has become more persistent, or chronic. As the strain builds, the stress is likely to have a continuous impact on their job. Symptoms include feelings of indifference, not finishing work on time, being late for work, or procrastinating throughout duties. Socially, they may disengage from usual work-related talks. In other circumstances, individuals may grow enraged and strike out at colleagues. These sentiments might sometimes follow them home and damage their relationships with family and friends.

==== Burnout phase ====
At this stage, you're likely to see very genuine dysfunction in your workplace. A sense of indifference or numbness sets in. You simply do not care whether or not things work anymore. And this may be quite dangerous since it can spill over into personal relationships and interactions with people.

==== Habitual burnout phase ====
This is the stage at which matters become unbearably miserable and unsustainable for you. Physical and mental exhaustion start to merge together, and you enter the self-preservation mode. The results can be catastrophic. You are now at a high risk of developing depression, physical illness, and debilitating daily anxiety.
* Discuss how burnout can cause strain, stress, and poor work performance = unemployment (this can be done either by quitting or being fired) 

=== Discrimination ===

==== Gender discrimination ====

==== Age discrimination ====

==== Racial discrimination ====

=== Health problems and complications ===

* Discuss impact/s on work performance. 

==== Physical health problems ====

==== Chronic illness  ====
{{tip|Provide case study, fact, or example }}

==What are the main causes of mental health? ==

=== What is mental health? ===

* Define. 
** Mental health is an important aspect of general well-being and happiness. A clinically diagnosable ailment that severely impairs an individual's cognitive, emotional, or social capacities is referred to as a mental illness (Barkham et al., 2019). 
* How is it caused? 
* Provide Australian statistics.
** In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
*** Over two in five (43.7% or 8.6 million people) had experienced a mental disorder at some time in their life (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022).
*** One in five people (21.4% or 4.2 million people) had a 12-month mental disorder (sufficient symptoms of disorder 12 month duration prior to survey) (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022).

Main causes (sub-headings):
# Trauma
# drug and alcohol abuse/addiction 
# family history 
# abuse
# up-bringing (government care, foster home, home placement)

=== Trauma ===
Trauma is defined generically as a very distressing occurrence that might be emotionally, cognitively, or physically overwhelming to an individual (Farrelly-Rosch &amp; Scanalan, 2018). Experiencing a traumatic event can potentially affect both an individuals current and future mental health (Norris, 1992). Trauma can occur by either, a single occurrence which is a single, unanticipated incident, such as a physical or sexual assault, a wildfire, an accident, or a catastrophic sickness or injury, can cause stress. Loss experiences may also be devastating, such as the death of a loved one, a miscarriage, or suicide (Breslau, 2002). Complex trauma refers to long-term or continuous traumatic events that are frequently tied to human relationships, such as marital violence, bullying, childhood neglect, witnessing trauma, emotional abuse, sexual assault, or torture (Kliethermes et al., 2014b). Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the trauma diagnosis. Symptoms include persistent recollections of the traumatic event, significant anxiety, avoidance of situations and individuals connection with the trauma, and heightened negative thoughts. PTSD can also interfere with an individuals interactions with others (Vahia, 2013). Approximately 30% of PTSD is experienced before the age of 18 (Koenen et al., 2017). 

=== Drug and alcohol abuse ===
Substance misuse and mental illnesses such as anxiety and depression are inextricably intertwined, though neither cause each other. Marijuana and methamphetamine abuse can result in protracted psychotic episodes, whilst alcohol can exacerbate depression and anxiety symptoms (Mojtabai, 2005). 

The consumption of alcohol and narcotics to self-medicate the symptoms of mental health disorders is common. People regularly abuse alcohol or drugs to alleviate the symptoms of an untreated mental disorder, to manage emotional pain, or to alter their mood momentarily. Unfortunately, self-medicating with drugs or alcohol has negative side effects and often exacerbate the problems it was intended to alleviate (Kamerow, 1986).

Alcohol and drug abuse can enhance the chance of developing mental disorders. Although mental disorders are produced by a complex interaction of genetics, environment, and other variables, it's difficult to determine if substance abuse actually directly causes them. If you are predisposed to a mental health problem, though, misusing alcohol or drugs may drive you over the brink. There is preliminary indication that those who overuse opioid medications are more likely to develop depression, and frequent cannabis usage has been related to an increased risk of schizophrenia (Bradizza et al., 2006).

Alcohol and drug abuse can increase the symptoms of a mental health disorder. Substance abuse can exacerbate or even cause additional mental illness symptoms. Abuse of drugs or alcohol can also interfere with prescribed medication such as antidepressants, anxiety medications, and mood stabilisers, making them less effective at managing symptoms and delaying your recovery (Mojtabai, 2005).

=== Family history ===
Individuals are likely to develop a specific mental disorder if other family members have the same mental disorder (Jorm et al., 2007). Even though a mental disorder passes in the family, the intensity of symptoms might vary greatly amongst family members. This means that one member of the family may have a mild case of the mental disorder, while another has a more severe case. However, mental disorders do not follow traditional inheritance patterns (Kendler, 2008). 

Epigenetic regulation impacts how an individual react to environmental factors and, as a result, whether or not that individual will develop a mental disorder. Epigenetics does not remain stable throughout time. As a result, a gene is not constantly &quot;on&quot; or &quot;off.&quot; For a mental disorder to form, the correct balance of environmental stimuli and epigenetic regulation must be present (Tsankova et al., 2007). These genetic differences distinguish us as individuals. A polymorphism will not result in the development of a mental disorder on its own. The combination of one or more particular polymorphisms plus certain environmental factors, on the other hand, may result in the development of a mental disorder (Schmiedel et al., 2018).

=== Abuse ===
Child abuse and neglect can have an immediate and long-term effect on a child's physical and emotional health (Hildyard &amp; Wolfe, 2002). Early brain development has been discovered to be negatively impacted by maltreatment in infancy and early childhood, which can lead to poor behavioural health effects in adolescence and adulthood (Kaplow &amp; Widom, 2007). Isolation, anxiety, and a lack of trust can be long-term consequences of abuse and neglect, as can poor mental health and behavioural health outcomes and an increased risk of drug use disorder.

* Discuss further on about brain development. How can this cause mental health disorder/s? 

=== Household up-brining ===

== The relationship between unemployment and mental health ==

=== The affects of mental health on employment ===

* Discuss how mental health can lead to/makes an individual unemployed:

==== Depression ====
* Define Depression - And touch on Low self worth, low self esteem, no motivation, anxiety, feeling unwell. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates unemployment.
** Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a frequent psychological illness with substantial morbidity and mortality rates. It is a severe condition characterised by low mood, reduced interests, poor cognitive performance, and vegetative symptoms such as altered sleep or hunger. MDD affects one in every six individuals throughout their lifetime and affects nearly twice as many women as men (Lohoff, 2010).
** [[wikipedia:Major_depressive_disorder|Major Depressive Disorder]]
** Depression (mood) is a mental condition characterised by a depressed mood and reluctance to exertion. Depression affects a person's thoughts, behaviour, motivation, feelings, and sense of well-being. The primary symptom of depression is anhedonia, which is defined as an absence of interest or a loss of enjoyment in things that normally bring individuals happiness (Piccinelli &amp; Wilkinson, 2000).
** [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|Depression (mood)]]
* Statistic: 
** Depression (mood) - Affects more than 280 million people of all ages (about 3.5% of the global population) (WHO, 2018).

===== Theories =====
Depression theories include: 

* [[wikipedia:Biology_of_depression|Biology of depression]]
* [[wikipedia:Beck's_cognitive_triad|Beck's cognitive triad]]
* [[wikipedia:Behavioral_theories_of_depression|Behavioural theories of depression]] 

==== Motivation ====
* Lack of motivation, hygiene, time management skills. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates to unemployment.

==== Anxiety ====
* Define Anxiety - Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that creates unemployment.
* Statistic: In 2020-21, of the 19.6 million Australians aged 16-85 years:
** 16.8% (3.3 million people) had a 12-month Anxiety disorder (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022). 

=== The effects of unemployment on mental health ===
* Discuss how unemployment spikes/increases mental health.
* sub-headings: 
** Increase of mental health symptoms/stress/anxiety.
** Unemployment decreases motivation = Lack of motivation and increases depression. 
** Low self-esteem. 

==== Increases mental health symptom's ====

==== Low self-esteem ====

==== Decreased motivation ====

== The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment ==

=== Increased mental health ===

* The effect of COVID-19 on mental health. Discuss how mental health and suicide attempts has increased since the pandemic has started (isolation, stuck with abuser, increase fear)
* Discuss how job loss due to COVID-19 has affected and/or increase mental health.

==== Essential workers ====

* Discuss the increase of mental health and strain of essential workers. Provide a case. Example = nurses.

=== Job loss and shortages ===

* Discuss how COVID-19 has affected unemployment (job-loss, shortage) Example = flight attendants, family businesses.


===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==

* Provide overview and conclusion. 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

# &quot;Depression&quot;. ''www.who.int''. Archived from the original on 26 December 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
#
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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      <sha1>it1sqj03c3c6po3d7zcnn9pstz94g6y</sha1>
    </revision>
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      <text bytes="9272" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
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==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== Zoom Exhaustion &amp; Fatigue Scale ==

==Causes Zoom Fatigue ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Consequences of Zoom Fatigue ==

== Linking Zoom Fatigue  Gender and Personality Types ==

=== Zoom Fatigue and Gender ===

=== Zoom Fatigue and Personality Types ===

==== Extroverts ====

==== Introverts ====

== Beating Zoom Fatigue ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Attention restoration theory|Attention restoration theory]] (Book Chapter , 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Burnout|Burnout]] ( Book Chapter , 2013)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion|COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion]]  (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Digital culture]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Flexible work arrangements and work motivation|Flexible work arrangements and work motivation]] (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Media_fatigue|Media fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Workplace mental health|Workplace mental health]] (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Workplace stress and motivation|Workplace stress and motivation]]  (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Digital Media Concepts/Zoom Video Communications|Zoom Video Communications]] (Wikiversity)

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://news.stanford.edu/2021/02/23/four-causes-zoom-fatigue-solutions/ Stanford researchers identify four causes for ‘Zoom fatigue’ and their simple fixes] ( Stanford University )
* [https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20200421-why-zoom-video-chats-are-so-exhausting The reason Zoom calls drain your energy] (BBC.com)
* [https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2021/04/videoconferences-fatigue Videoconferences more exhausting when participants don’t feel group belonging] (APA.org)
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-science-tells-us-about-zoom-fatigue-5114577 What Science Tells Us About Zoom Fatigue] (verywellmind.com)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [https://www.ucumberlands.edu/blog/zoom-fatigue Zoom fatigue and why it matters: know the facts] (University of the Cumberlands)
* [[doi:10.5590/JSWGC.2022.07.1.01|Zoom Fatigue in the Age of COVID-19]] (Bullock et al., 2022)

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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== Zoom Fatigue ==

=== Origin ===

=== Symptoms ===

=== Factors ===

==== Personal Factors ====

==== Technology Factors ====

==== Organizational Factors ====

==== Environmental Factors ====

== Zoom Exhaustion &amp; Fatigue Scale ==

==== Psychological Distress ====

==== Life Satisfaction ====

==== Academic Well-Being ====

==== Mental Well-Being ====

==Causes Zoom Fatigue ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Consequences of Zoom Fatigue ==

== Linking Zoom Fatigue  Gender and Personality Types ==

=== Zoom Fatigue and Gender ===

=== Zoom Fatigue and Personality Types ===

==== Extroverts ====

==== Introverts ====

=== Zoom Fatigue and ADHD ===

== Beating Zoom Fatigue ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Attention restoration theory|Attention restoration theory]] (Book Chapter , 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Burnout|Burnout]] ( Book Chapter , 2013)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion|COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion]]  (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Digital culture]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Flexible work arrangements and work motivation|Flexible work arrangements and work motivation]] (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Media_fatigue|Media fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Workplace mental health|Workplace mental health]] (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Workplace stress and motivation|Workplace stress and motivation]]  (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Digital Media Concepts/Zoom Video Communications|Zoom Video Communications]] (Wikiversity)

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://news.stanford.edu/2021/02/23/four-causes-zoom-fatigue-solutions/ Stanford researchers identify four causes for ‘Zoom fatigue’ and their simple fixes] ( Stanford University )
* [https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20200421-why-zoom-video-chats-are-so-exhausting The reason Zoom calls drain your energy] (BBC.com)
* [https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2021/04/videoconferences-fatigue Videoconferences more exhausting when participants don’t feel group belonging] (APA.org)
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-science-tells-us-about-zoom-fatigue-5114577 What Science Tells Us About Zoom Fatigue] (verywellmind.com)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [https://www.ucumberlands.edu/blog/zoom-fatigue Zoom fatigue and why it matters: know the facts] (University of the Cumberlands)
* [[doi:10.5590/JSWGC.2022.07.1.01|Zoom Fatigue in the Age of COVID-19]] (Bullock et al., 2022)

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__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== Zoom Fatigue ==

=== Origin ===

=== Symptoms ===

=== Factors ===

==== Personal Factors ====

==== Technology Factors ====

==== Organizational Factors ====

==== Environmental Factors ====

== Zoom Exhaustion &amp; Fatigue Scale ==

==== Psychological Distress ====

==== Life Satisfaction ====

==== Academic Well-Being ====

==== Mental Well-Being ====

==Causes Zoom Fatigue ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Consequences of Zoom Fatigue ==

== Linking Zoom Fatigue  Gender and Personality Types ==

=== Zoom Fatigue and Gender ===

=== Zoom Fatigue and Personality Types ===

==== Extroverts ====

==== Introverts ====

=== Zoom Fatigue and ADHD ===

== Beating Zoom Fatigue ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

== Placeholders ==

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Attention restoration theory|Attention restoration theory]] (Book Chapter , 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Burnout|Burnout]] ( Book Chapter , 2013)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion|COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion]]  (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Digital culture]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Flexible work arrangements and work motivation|Flexible work arrangements and work motivation]] (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Media_fatigue|Media fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Workplace mental health|Workplace mental health]] (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Workplace stress and motivation|Workplace stress and motivation]]  (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Digital Media Concepts/Zoom Video Communications|Zoom Video Communications]] (Wikiversity)

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://news.stanford.edu/2021/02/23/four-causes-zoom-fatigue-solutions/ Stanford researchers identify four causes for ‘Zoom fatigue’ and their simple fixes] ( Stanford University )
* [https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20200421-why-zoom-video-chats-are-so-exhausting The reason Zoom calls drain your energy] (BBC.com)
* [https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2021/04/videoconferences-fatigue Videoconferences more exhausting when participants don’t feel group belonging] (APA.org)
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-science-tells-us-about-zoom-fatigue-5114577 What Science Tells Us About Zoom Fatigue] (verywellmind.com)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [https://www.ucumberlands.edu/blog/zoom-fatigue Zoom fatigue and why it matters: know the facts] (University of the Cumberlands)
* [[doi:10.5590/JSWGC.2022.07.1.01|Zoom Fatigue in the Age of COVID-19]] (Bullock et al., 2022)

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__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!
[[File:Greg Stanton conference about INVEST Act.jpg|right|frameless|220x220px|Picture 1 - People attending Zoom Meeting]]
This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== Zoom Fatigue ==

=== Origin ===

=== Symptoms ===

=== Factors ===

==== Personal Factors ====

==== Technology Factors ====

==== Organizational Factors ====

==== Environmental Factors ====

== Zoom Exhaustion &amp; Fatigue Scale ==

==== Psychological Distress ====

==== Life Satisfaction ====

==== Academic Well-Being ====

==== Mental Well-Being ====

==Causes Zoom Fatigue ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Consequences of Zoom Fatigue ==

== Linking Zoom Fatigue  Gender and Personality Types ==

=== Zoom Fatigue and Gender ===

=== Zoom Fatigue and Personality Types ===

==== Extroverts ====

==== Introverts ====

=== Zoom Fatigue and ADHD ===

== Beating Zoom Fatigue ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

== Placeholders ==

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Attention restoration theory|Attention restoration theory]] (Book Chapter , 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Burnout|Burnout]] ( Book Chapter , 2013)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion|COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion]]  (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Digital culture]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Flexible work arrangements and work motivation|Flexible work arrangements and work motivation]] (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Media_fatigue|Media fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Workplace mental health|Workplace mental health]] (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Workplace stress and motivation|Workplace stress and motivation]]  (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Digital Media Concepts/Zoom Video Communications|Zoom Video Communications]] (Wikiversity)

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://news.stanford.edu/2021/02/23/four-causes-zoom-fatigue-solutions/ Stanford researchers identify four causes for ‘Zoom fatigue’ and their simple fixes] ( Stanford University )
* [https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20200421-why-zoom-video-chats-are-so-exhausting The reason Zoom calls drain your energy] (BBC.com)
* [https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2021/04/videoconferences-fatigue Videoconferences more exhausting when participants don’t feel group belonging] (APA.org)
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-science-tells-us-about-zoom-fatigue-5114577 What Science Tells Us About Zoom Fatigue] (verywellmind.com)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [https://www.ucumberlands.edu/blog/zoom-fatigue Zoom fatigue and why it matters: know the facts] (University of the Cumberlands)
* [[doi:10.5590/JSWGC.2022.07.1.01|Zoom Fatigue in the Age of COVID-19]] (Bullock et al., 2022)

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__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!
[[File:Greg Stanton conference about INVEST Act.jpg|right|frameless|220x220px|Figure 1 - People attending Zoom Meeting|alt=Picture 1 - People attending Zoom Meeting]]
This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== Zoom Fatigue ==

=== Origin ===

=== Symptoms ===

=== Factors ===

==== Personal Factors ====

==== Technology Factors ====

==== Organizational Factors ====

==== Environmental Factors ====

== Zoom Exhaustion &amp; Fatigue Scale ==

==== Psychological Distress ====

==== Life Satisfaction ====

==== Academic Well-Being ====

==== Mental Well-Being ====

==Causes Zoom Fatigue ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Consequences of Zoom Fatigue ==

== Linking Zoom Fatigue  Gender and Personality Types ==

=== Zoom Fatigue and Gender ===

=== Zoom Fatigue and Personality Types ===

==== Extroverts ====

==== Introverts ====

=== Zoom Fatigue and ADHD ===

== Beating Zoom Fatigue ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

== Placeholders ==

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Attention restoration theory|Attention restoration theory]] (Book Chapter , 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Burnout|Burnout]] ( Book Chapter , 2013)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion|COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion]]  (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Digital culture]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Flexible work arrangements and work motivation|Flexible work arrangements and work motivation]] (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Media_fatigue|Media fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Workplace mental health|Workplace mental health]] (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Workplace stress and motivation|Workplace stress and motivation]]  (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Digital Media Concepts/Zoom Video Communications|Zoom Video Communications]] (Wikiversity)

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://news.stanford.edu/2021/02/23/four-causes-zoom-fatigue-solutions/ Stanford researchers identify four causes for ‘Zoom fatigue’ and their simple fixes] ( Stanford University )
* [https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20200421-why-zoom-video-chats-are-so-exhausting The reason Zoom calls drain your energy] (BBC.com)
* [https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2021/04/videoconferences-fatigue Videoconferences more exhausting when participants don’t feel group belonging] (APA.org)
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-science-tells-us-about-zoom-fatigue-5114577 What Science Tells Us About Zoom Fatigue] (verywellmind.com)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [https://www.ucumberlands.edu/blog/zoom-fatigue Zoom fatigue and why it matters: know the facts] (University of the Cumberlands)
* [[doi:10.5590/JSWGC.2022.07.1.01|Zoom Fatigue in the Age of COVID-19]] (Bullock et al., 2022)

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__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!
[[File:Greg Stanton conference about INVEST Act.jpg|right|thumb|220x220px|Figure 1 - People attending Zoom Meeting|alt=Picture 1 - People attending Zoom Meeting]]
This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== Zoom Fatigue ==

=== Origin ===

=== Symptoms ===

=== Factors ===

==== Personal Factors ====

==== Technology Factors ====

==== Organizational Factors ====

==== Environmental Factors ====

== Zoom Exhaustion &amp; Fatigue Scale ==

==== Psychological Distress ====

==== Life Satisfaction ====

==== Academic Well-Being ====

==== Mental Well-Being ====

==Causes Zoom Fatigue ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Consequences of Zoom Fatigue ==

== Linking Zoom Fatigue  Gender and Personality Types ==

=== Zoom Fatigue and Gender ===

=== Zoom Fatigue and Personality Types ===

==== Extroverts ====

==== Introverts ====

=== Zoom Fatigue and ADHD ===

== Beating Zoom Fatigue ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

== Placeholders ==

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Attention restoration theory|Attention restoration theory]] (Book Chapter , 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Burnout|Burnout]] ( Book Chapter , 2013)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion|COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion]]  (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Digital culture]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Flexible work arrangements and work motivation|Flexible work arrangements and work motivation]] (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Media_fatigue|Media fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Workplace mental health|Workplace mental health]] (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Workplace stress and motivation|Workplace stress and motivation]]  (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Digital Media Concepts/Zoom Video Communications|Zoom Video Communications]] (Wikiversity)

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://news.stanford.edu/2021/02/23/four-causes-zoom-fatigue-solutions/ Stanford researchers identify four causes for ‘Zoom fatigue’ and their simple fixes] ( Stanford University )
* [https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20200421-why-zoom-video-chats-are-so-exhausting The reason Zoom calls drain your energy] (BBC.com)
* [https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2021/04/videoconferences-fatigue Videoconferences more exhausting when participants don’t feel group belonging] (APA.org)
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-science-tells-us-about-zoom-fatigue-5114577 What Science Tells Us About Zoom Fatigue] (verywellmind.com)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [https://www.ucumberlands.edu/blog/zoom-fatigue Zoom fatigue and why it matters: know the facts] (University of the Cumberlands)
* [[doi:10.5590/JSWGC.2022.07.1.01|Zoom Fatigue in the Age of COVID-19]] (Bullock et al., 2022)

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__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!
[[File:Greg Stanton conference about INVEST Act.jpg|right|thumb|220x220px|Figure 1 - People attending Zoom Meeting|alt=Picture 1 - People attending Zoom Meeting]]
This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== Zoom Fatigue ==

=== Origin ===

=== Symptoms ===

=== Factors ===

==== Personal Factors ====

==== Technology Factors ====

==== Organizational Factors ====

==== Environmental Factors ====

== Zoom Exhaustion &amp; Fatigue Scale ==

==== Psychological Distress ====

==== Life Satisfaction ====

==== Academic Well-Being ====

==== Mental Well-Being ====

==Causes Zoom Fatigue ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Consequences of Zoom Fatigue ==

== Linking Zoom Fatigue  Gender and Personality Types ==

=== Zoom Fatigue and Gender ===

=== Zoom Fatigue and Personality Types ===

==== Extroverts ====

==== Introverts ====

=== Zoom Fatigue and ADHD ===

== Beating Zoom Fatigue ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

== Placeholders ==

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Attention restoration theory|Attention restoration theory]] (Book Chapter , 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Burnout|Burnout]] ( Book Chapter , 2013)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion|COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion]]  (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Digital culture]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Flexible work arrangements and work motivation|Flexible work arrangements and work motivation]] (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Media_fatigue|Media fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Workplace mental health|Workplace mental health]] (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Workplace stress and motivation|Workplace stress and motivation]]  (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Digital Media Concepts/Zoom Video Communications|Zoom Video Communications]] (Wikiversity)

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://news.stanford.edu/2021/02/23/four-causes-zoom-fatigue-solutions/ Stanford researchers identify four causes for ‘Zoom fatigue’ and their simple fixes] ( Stanford University )
* [https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20200421-why-zoom-video-chats-are-so-exhausting The reason Zoom calls drain your energy] (BBC.com)
* [https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2021/04/videoconferences-fatigue Videoconferences more exhausting when participants don’t feel group belonging] (APA.org)
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-science-tells-us-about-zoom-fatigue-5114577 What Science Tells Us About Zoom Fatigue] (verywellmind.com)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [https://www.ucumberlands.edu/blog/zoom-fatigue Zoom fatigue and why it matters: know the facts] (University of the Cumberlands)
* [[doi:10.5590/JSWGC.2022.07.1.01|Zoom Fatigue in the Age of COVID-19]] (Bullock et al., 2022)

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        <id>2947419</id>
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      <comment>Just a minor edit with sub sections -VC Fatigue</comment>
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      <text bytes="9908" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!
[[File:Greg Stanton conference about INVEST Act.jpg|right|thumb|220x220px|Figure 1 - People attending Zoom Meeting|alt=Picture 1 - People attending Zoom Meeting]]
This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== Video conferencing fatigue ==

=== Origin ===

=== Symptoms ===

=== Factors ===

* Personal Factors
* Technology Factors
* Organizational Factors
* Environmental Factors

== Zoom exhaustion and fatigue scale ==

==== Psychological Distress ====

==== Life Satisfaction ====

==== Academic Well-Being ====

==== Mental Well-Being ====

== Causes of video conferencing fatigue ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Consequences of video conferencing fatigue ==

== Linking video conferencing fatigue  to variables ==

=== Video conferencing fatigue and gender ===

=== Video conferencing fatigue and  and Personality Types ===

==== Extroverts ====

==== Introverts ====

=== Video conferencing fatigue and psychopathology ===
ADHD

Social anxiety

== Beating video conferencing fatigue ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

== Placeholders ==

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Attention restoration theory|Attention restoration theory]] (Book Chapter , 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Burnout|Burnout]] ( Book Chapter , 2013)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion|COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion]]  (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Digital culture]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Flexible work arrangements and work motivation|Flexible work arrangements and work motivation]] (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Media_fatigue|Media fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Workplace mental health|Workplace mental health]] (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Workplace stress and motivation|Workplace stress and motivation]]  (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Digital Media Concepts/Zoom Video Communications|Zoom Video Communications]] (Wikiversity)

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://news.stanford.edu/2021/02/23/four-causes-zoom-fatigue-solutions/ Stanford researchers identify four causes for ‘Zoom fatigue’ and their simple fixes] ( Stanford University )
* [https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20200421-why-zoom-video-chats-are-so-exhausting The reason Zoom calls drain your energy] (BBC.com)
* [https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2021/04/videoconferences-fatigue Videoconferences more exhausting when participants don’t feel group belonging] (APA.org)
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-science-tells-us-about-zoom-fatigue-5114577 What Science Tells Us About Zoom Fatigue] (verywellmind.com)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [https://www.ucumberlands.edu/blog/zoom-fatigue Zoom fatigue and why it matters: know the facts] (University of the Cumberlands)
* [[doi:10.5590/JSWGC.2022.07.1.01|Zoom Fatigue in the Age of COVID-19]] (Bullock et al., 2022)

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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!
[[File:Greg Stanton conference about INVEST Act.jpg|right|thumb|220x220px|Figure 1 - People attending Zoom Meeting|alt=Picture 1 - People attending Zoom Meeting]]
This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== Video conferencing fatigue ==

=== Origin ===

=== Symptoms ===

=== Factors ===

* Personal Factors
* Technology Factors
* Organizational Factors
* Environmental Factors

== Zoom exhaustion and fatigue scale ==

==== Psychological Distress ====

==== Life Satisfaction ====

==== Academic Well-Being ====

==== Mental Well-Being ====

== Causes of video conferencing fatigue ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Consequences of video conferencing fatigue ==

== Linking video conferencing fatigue  to variables ==

=== Video conferencing fatigue and gender ===

=== Video conferencing fatigue and  and Personality Types ===

==== Extroverts ====

==== Introverts ====

=== Video conferencing fatigue and psychopathology ===
ADHD

Social anxiety

== Beating video conferencing fatigue ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

== Placeholders ==

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Attention restoration theory|Attention restoration theory]] (Book Chapter , 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Burnout|Burnout]] ( Book Chapter , 2013)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion|COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion]]  (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Digital culture]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Flexible work arrangements and work motivation|Flexible work arrangements and work motivation]] (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Media_fatigue|Media fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Workplace mental health|Workplace mental health]] (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Workplace stress and motivation|Workplace stress and motivation]]  (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Digital Media Concepts/Zoom Video Communications|Zoom Video Communications]] (Wikiversity)

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://news.stanford.edu/2021/02/23/four-causes-zoom-fatigue-solutions/ Stanford researchers identify four causes for ‘Zoom fatigue’ and their simple fixes] ( Stanford University )
* [https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20200421-why-zoom-video-chats-are-so-exhausting The reason Zoom calls drain your energy] (BBC.com)
* [https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2021/04/videoconferences-fatigue Videoconferences more exhausting when participants don’t feel group belonging] (APA.org)
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-science-tells-us-about-zoom-fatigue-5114577 What Science Tells Us About Zoom Fatigue] (verywellmind.com)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [https://www.ucumberlands.edu/blog/zoom-fatigue Zoom fatigue and why it matters: know the facts] (University of the Cumberlands)
* [[doi:10.5590/JSWGC.2022.07.1.01|Zoom Fatigue in the Age of COVID-19]] (Bullock et al., 2022)

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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!
[[File:Greg Stanton conference about INVEST Act.jpg|right|thumb|220x220px|Figure 1 - People attending Zoom Meeting|alt=Picture 1 - People attending Zoom Meeting]]
This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== Video conferencing fatigue ==

=== Origin ===

=== Symptoms ===

=== Factors ===

* Personal Factors
* Technology Factors
* Organizational Factors
* Environmental Factors

== Zoom exhaustion and fatigue scale ==

==== Psychological Distress ====

==== Life Satisfaction ====

==== Academic Well-Being ====

==== Mental Well-Being ====

== Causes of video conferencing fatigue ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Consequences of video conferencing fatigue ==

== Linking video conferencing fatigue  to variables ==

=== Video conferencing fatigue and gender ===

=== Video conferencing fatigue and  and Personality Types ===

==== Extroverts ====

==== Introverts ====

=== Video conferencing fatigue and psychopathology ===
ADHD

Social anxiety

== Beating video conferencing fatigue ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

== Placeholders ==

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Attention restoration theory|Attention restoration theory]] (Book Chapter , 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Burnout|Burnout]] ( Book Chapter , 2013)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion|COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion]]  (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Digital culture]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Flexible work arrangements and work motivation|Flexible work arrangements and work motivation]] (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Media_fatigue|Media fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Workplace mental health|Workplace mental health]] (Book Chapter , 2020)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Workplace stress and motivation|Workplace stress and motivation]]  (Book Chapter , 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Digital Media Concepts/Zoom Video Communications|Zoom Video Communications]] (Wikiversity)

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://www.discovermagazine.com/technology/a-psychologist-explains-how-to-cope-with-video-chat-when-youre-socially A Psychologist Explains How to Cope With Video Chat When You’re Socially Anxious] - (discovermagazine.com)
* [https://slack.com/intl/en-au/blog/collaboration/video-conference-fatigue Feeling video-conference fatigue? You’re not alone] (slack.com)
* [https://wiki.neic.no/wiki/Guidance_on_video_conferencing Guidance on video conferencing] ([https://wiki.neic.no/ https://wiki.neic.no)]
* [https://news.stanford.edu/2021/02/23/four-causes-zoom-fatigue-solutions/ Stanford researchers identify four causes for ‘Zoom fatigue’ and their simple fixes] ( Stanford University )
* [https://www.ijic.org/articles/abstract/10.5334/ijic.901/ Tele-rehabilitation: video-conferencing for delivery of interventions for people with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome] (Cox et al., 2012)
* [https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20200421-why-zoom-video-chats-are-so-exhausting The reason Zoom calls drain your energy] (BBC.com)
* [https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2021/04/videoconferences-fatigue Videoconferences more exhausting when participants don’t feel group belonging] (APA.org)
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-science-tells-us-about-zoom-fatigue-5114577 What Science Tells Us About Zoom Fatigue] (verywellmind.com)
* [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia)
* [https://www.ucumberlands.edu/blog/zoom-fatigue Zoom fatigue and why it matters: know the facts] (University of the Cumberlands)
* [[doi:10.5590/JSWGC.2022.07.1.01|Zoom Fatigue in the Age of COVID-19]] (Bullock et al., 2022)

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What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== The ‘Liking vs Wanting’ distinction ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Brain Mechanisms associated==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== The ‘Liking vs Wanting’ distinction ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Liking==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

== Wanting ==

=== blah ===

=== blah ===

=== blah ===

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>ex4pop4v6mz3gk7wkwwudo9wz8tv9au</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Suffering as emotion</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>286195</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2417972</id>
      <parentid>2417674</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T21:54:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brookewin</username>
        <id>2947702</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */ focus questions editing</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8848" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Suffering as an emotion:                                                                                          }}{{Title|What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering?}}{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''This chapter provides an overview on suffering and answers the following questions:'''
* What is suffering?
* What is the emotional experience of suffering?
* What are the forms of suffering?
* What is the purpose of emotional suffering?
* What are the helpful mechanisms to cope with suffering?
* What are the unhelpful mechanisms to cope with suffering?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is suffering?==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==What is the emotional experience of suffering?==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===How do humans experience suffering?===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Forms of emotional suffering===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===What is the purpose of emotional suffering?===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Schadenfreude - the enjoyment of suffering===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===The emotional experience of suffering in animals===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== How can people cope with suffering? ==
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanisms ===
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanism 1 ===
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanism 2 ===
blah blah blah

=== Unhelpful coping with suffering ===
blah blah blah

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 04:02, 10 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>7vaaa6ufnqax7cxw7r06jhp5k2yij1x</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417978</id>
      <parentid>2417972</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T22:37:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brookewin</username>
        <id>2947702</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Overview editing</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9106" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Suffering as an emotion:                                                                                          }}{{Title|What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering?}}{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Suffering is an intense emotion that both humans and animals are capable of experiencing. The emotional experience of suffering can occur in many forms, impacting the physical, psychological and emotional well-being of the individual impacted. Understanding the emotional experience of suffering in humans is an important step in identifying the adaptive coping mechanisms that can be helpful to cope with suffering, and to also determine the maladaptive forms of coping with suffering that may be unhelpful and ineffective. 


At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''This chapter provides an overview on suffering and answers the following questions:'''
* What is suffering?
* What is the emotional experience of suffering?
* What are the forms of suffering?
* What is the purpose of emotional suffering?
* What are the helpful mechanisms to cope with suffering?
* What are the unhelpful mechanisms to cope with suffering?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is suffering?==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==What is the emotional experience of suffering?==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===How do humans experience suffering?===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Forms of emotional suffering===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===What is the purpose of emotional suffering?===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Schadenfreude - the enjoyment of suffering===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===The emotional experience of suffering in animals===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== How can people cope with suffering? ==
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanisms ===
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanism 1 ===
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanism 2 ===
blah blah blah

=== Unhelpful coping with suffering ===
blah blah blah

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 04:02, 10 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>craz7niciwm6bi7sa3r8cf6jnecqpna</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417983</id>
      <parentid>2417978</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T23:02:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brookewin</username>
        <id>2947702</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */ edits</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9272" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Suffering as an emotion:                                                                                          }}{{Title|What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering?}}{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Suffering is an intense emotion that both humans and animals are capable of experiencing. The emotional experience of suffering can occur in many forms, impacting the physical, psychological and emotional well-being of the individual impacted. Understanding the emotional experience of suffering in humans is an important step in identifying the adaptive coping mechanisms that can be helpful to cope with suffering, and to also determine the maladaptive forms of coping with suffering that may be unhelpful and ineffective. 

- how we experience suffering - brief 

- techniques of coping with suffering - maladaptive and adaptive - brief 

- case study example covid-19 suffering impact  


At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''This chapter provides an overview on suffering and answers the following questions:'''
* What is suffering?
* What is the emotional experience of suffering?
* What are the forms of suffering?
* What is the purpose of emotional suffering?
* What are the helpful mechanisms to cope with suffering?
* What are the unhelpful mechanisms to cope with suffering?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is suffering?==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==What is the emotional experience of suffering?==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===How do humans experience suffering?===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Forms of emotional suffering===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===What is the purpose of emotional suffering?===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Schadenfreude - the enjoyment of suffering===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===The emotional experience of suffering in animals===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== How can people cope with suffering? ==
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanisms ===
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanism 1 ===
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanism 2 ===
blah blah blah

=== Unhelpful coping with suffering ===
blah blah blah

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 04:02, 10 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>fxwv7ywjlevip5e2xdafzokzrnma37f</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417985</id>
      <parentid>2417983</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T23:06:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brookewin</username>
        <id>2947702</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What is suffering? */ brief edits</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9331" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Suffering as an emotion:                                                                                          }}{{Title|What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering?}}{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Suffering is an intense emotion that both humans and animals are capable of experiencing. The emotional experience of suffering can occur in many forms, impacting the physical, psychological and emotional well-being of the individual impacted. Understanding the emotional experience of suffering in humans is an important step in identifying the adaptive coping mechanisms that can be helpful to cope with suffering, and to also determine the maladaptive forms of coping with suffering that may be unhelpful and ineffective. 

- how we experience suffering - brief 

- techniques of coping with suffering - maladaptive and adaptive - brief 

- case study example covid-19 suffering impact  


At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''This chapter provides an overview on suffering and answers the following questions:'''
* What is suffering?
* What is the emotional experience of suffering?
* What are the forms of suffering?
* What is the purpose of emotional suffering?
* What are the helpful mechanisms to cope with suffering?
* What are the unhelpful mechanisms to cope with suffering?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is suffering?==
Definitions of suffering: 

physical/emotional meanings  

How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==What is the emotional experience of suffering?==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===How do humans experience suffering?===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Forms of emotional suffering===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===What is the purpose of emotional suffering?===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Schadenfreude - the enjoyment of suffering===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===The emotional experience of suffering in animals===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== How can people cope with suffering? ==
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanisms ===
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanism 1 ===
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanism 2 ===
blah blah blah

=== Unhelpful coping with suffering ===
blah blah blah

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 04:02, 10 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>qwaw5em0fmey1a8zlcwxb62q5x3jbxi</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418017</id>
      <parentid>2417985</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T02:23:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brookewin</username>
        <id>2947702</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Forms of emotional suffering */ subtitle edits</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9326" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Suffering as an emotion:                                                                                          }}{{Title|What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering?}}{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Suffering is an intense emotion that both humans and animals are capable of experiencing. The emotional experience of suffering can occur in many forms, impacting the physical, psychological and emotional well-being of the individual impacted. Understanding the emotional experience of suffering in humans is an important step in identifying the adaptive coping mechanisms that can be helpful to cope with suffering, and to also determine the maladaptive forms of coping with suffering that may be unhelpful and ineffective. 

- how we experience suffering - brief 

- techniques of coping with suffering - maladaptive and adaptive - brief 

- case study example covid-19 suffering impact  


At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''This chapter provides an overview on suffering and answers the following questions:'''
* What is suffering?
* What is the emotional experience of suffering?
* What are the forms of suffering?
* What is the purpose of emotional suffering?
* What are the helpful mechanisms to cope with suffering?
* What are the unhelpful mechanisms to cope with suffering?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is suffering?==
Definitions of suffering: 

physical/emotional meanings  

How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==What is the emotional experience of suffering?==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===How do humans experience suffering?===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Forms of emotional pain===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===What is the purpose of emotional suffering?===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Schadenfreude - the enjoyment of suffering===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===The emotional experience of suffering in animals===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== How can people cope with suffering? ==
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanisms ===
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanism 1 ===
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanism 2 ===
blah blah blah

=== Unhelpful coping with suffering ===
blah blah blah

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 04:02, 10 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>8mxguqsk6uw2glgqm1o80nu2qmj9bas</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418018</id>
      <parentid>2418017</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T02:24:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brookewin</username>
        <id>2947702</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Forms of emotional pain */ re-ordering of subtitles</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9326" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Suffering as an emotion:                                                                                          }}{{Title|What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering?}}{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Suffering is an intense emotion that both humans and animals are capable of experiencing. The emotional experience of suffering can occur in many forms, impacting the physical, psychological and emotional well-being of the individual impacted. Understanding the emotional experience of suffering in humans is an important step in identifying the adaptive coping mechanisms that can be helpful to cope with suffering, and to also determine the maladaptive forms of coping with suffering that may be unhelpful and ineffective. 

- how we experience suffering - brief 

- techniques of coping with suffering - maladaptive and adaptive - brief 

- case study example covid-19 suffering impact  


At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''This chapter provides an overview on suffering and answers the following questions:'''
* What is suffering?
* What is the emotional experience of suffering?
* What are the forms of suffering?
* What is the purpose of emotional suffering?
* What are the helpful mechanisms to cope with suffering?
* What are the unhelpful mechanisms to cope with suffering?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is suffering?==
Definitions of suffering: 

physical/emotional meanings  

How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==What is the emotional experience of suffering?==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Forms of emotional pain===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===How do humans experience suffering?===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===What is the purpose of emotional suffering?===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Schadenfreude - the enjoyment of suffering===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===The emotional experience of suffering in animals===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== How can people cope with suffering? ==
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanisms ===
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanism 1 ===
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanism 2 ===
blah blah blah

=== Unhelpful coping with suffering ===
blah blah blah

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 04:02, 10 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>5cpxghoaiy28yglp5r6zfv5hz8nop30</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418102</id>
      <parentid>2418018</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:26:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brookewin</username>
        <id>2947702</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* How do humans experience suffering? */ add link</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9426" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Suffering as an emotion:                                                                                          }}{{Title|What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering?}}{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Suffering is an intense emotion that both humans and animals are capable of experiencing. The emotional experience of suffering can occur in many forms, impacting the physical, psychological and emotional well-being of the individual impacted. Understanding the emotional experience of suffering in humans is an important step in identifying the adaptive coping mechanisms that can be helpful to cope with suffering, and to also determine the maladaptive forms of coping with suffering that may be unhelpful and ineffective. 

- how we experience suffering - brief 

- techniques of coping with suffering - maladaptive and adaptive - brief 

- case study example covid-19 suffering impact  


At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''This chapter provides an overview on suffering and answers the following questions:'''
* What is suffering?
* What is the emotional experience of suffering?
* What are the forms of suffering?
* What is the purpose of emotional suffering?
* What are the helpful mechanisms to cope with suffering?
* What are the unhelpful mechanisms to cope with suffering?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is suffering?==
Definitions of suffering: 

physical/emotional meanings  

How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==What is the emotional experience of suffering?==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Forms of emotional pain===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===How do humans experience suffering?===


https://medium.com/thrive-global/14-reasons-why-we-suffer-and-how-to-stop-suffering-b5791c9ea495

Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===What is the purpose of emotional suffering?===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Schadenfreude - the enjoyment of suffering===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===The emotional experience of suffering in animals===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== How can people cope with suffering? ==
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanisms ===
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanism 1 ===
blah blah blah

=== Coping mechanism 2 ===
blah blah blah

=== Unhelpful coping with suffering ===
blah blah blah

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 04:02, 10 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>62qbrzxm8vvt60vw0ayulggqhcocxb1</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Hedonic adaptation prevention model</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>286198</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418160</id>
      <parentid>2413066</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T07:06:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lyndel Lemon</username>
        <id>2947551</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Embed Figure 1. Hedonic Adaptation Prevention Model</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8875" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Hedonic adaptation prevention model:&lt;br&gt;What is the HAP model and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]


&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-hedonic-adaptation-prevention-HAP-model_fig1_221858054&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sonja-Lyubomirsky/publication/221858054/figure/fig1/AS:571542895591424@1513277853200/The-hedonic-adaptation-prevention-HAP-model.png&quot; alt=&quot;The hedonic adaptation prevention (HAP) model&quot;/&gt;&lt;/a&gt;</text>
      <sha1>cqu7sztsoqw9ut1fof8wbvezzzyu2xq</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418187</id>
      <parentid>2418160</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T07:51:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lyndel Lemon</username>
        <id>2947551</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Deletion of Figure 1.</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8529" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Hedonic adaptation prevention model:&lt;br&gt;What is the HAP model and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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    </revision>
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      <parentid>2418187</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T08:13:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lyndel Lemon</username>
        <id>2947551</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="7010" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Hedonic adaptation prevention model:&lt;br&gt;What is the HAP model and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

  {{RoundBoxTop}}
  =Simple round-corner boxes=
  ;Templates for boxes
  :This page shows templates that you can use to create boxes for lessons.
  {{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
Bao, K. J., &amp; Lyubomirsky, S. (2014). Making happiness last: Using the hedonic adaptation prevention model to extend the success of positive interventions. ''The Wiley Blackwell handbook of positive psychological interventions'', 373-384.

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>gvy8hblmr9wbuj4s0zx5e1z7vso96uh</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418197</id>
      <parentid>2418194</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T08:16:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lyndel Lemon</username>
        <id>2947551</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6825" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Hedonic adaptation prevention model:&lt;br&gt;What is the HAP model and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the Hedonic Adaptation Prevention (HAP) model?
* How can the HAP model be applied?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
Bao, K. J., &amp; Lyubomirsky, S. (2014). Making happiness last: Using the hedonic adaptation prevention model to extend the success of positive interventions. ''The Wiley Blackwell handbook of positive psychological interventions'', 373-384.

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>cygu3afziog186ey395yz4g89qr11a4</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:U3211603</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>286205</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418203</id>
      <parentid>2417038</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T08:36:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Book Chapter I am working on */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2063" xml:space="preserve">== &lt;u&gt;About Me&lt;/u&gt; :- ==

=== Something about myself ===
G'day!
[[File:Profile Picture U3211603.jpg|thumb|I am what I am. I am my own special creation.]]
Parvaz here.I'm a third year, part-time '''[[w:Psychology|Psychology]]''' student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2022 University of Canberra].

Aspiring Psychologist and [https://vikingagilist.com/agilist-definition Agilist] with a positive attitude who contributes to a routine that provides a good structure for achieving goals. I have extensive industry experience in information technology, with a track record of converting projects into profitable engagements by delivering cost-cutting solutions and improving process and implementation in the Australian Public Service, Retail Banking &amp; Financial Services, Transportation and Logistics, and Telecommunications. Seeking a rewarding career in a challenging and highly regulated environment where I can improve someone's quality of life and give others hope for a better and brighter future.

So far, my time at the University of Canberra has allowed me to broaden my understanding as well as develop many skills such as communication, presentation, and problem-solving abilities, all while improving my ability to work as part of a team.

=== Hobbies ===

* Gardening
* Binge watching 
* Cooking &amp; eating good food

== Book Chapter I am working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Video conferencing fatigue|Video conferencing fatigue]]

== Social Contribution ==

=== Wikiversity ===

== Future Interest ==

=== Plan for next 1 Year ===
I plan to finish my Bachelors Degree by 2023 and enrol for Honors Program .

=== Plan for next 2 Year ===
Continue with my Honors Program and prepare to get my application ready for Masters in Clinical Psychology.

=== Plan for next 5 Year ===
Hopefully get a practicing License to work as an Independent Psychologist. Would like to get my learning experience as [https://www.allpsychologyschools.com/organizational-psychology/job-description/ Organisational Psychologist]

== External links ==</text>
      <sha1>hwl9lrxdxwsizzkqc49iaeo80crts59</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418238</id>
      <parentid>2418203</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:52:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3211603</username>
        <id>2947419</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Social Contributions</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2703" xml:space="preserve">== &lt;u&gt;About Me&lt;/u&gt; :- ==

=== Something about myself ===
G'day!
[[File:Profile Picture U3211603.jpg|thumb|I am what I am. I am my own special creation.]]
Parvaz here.I'm a third year, part-time '''[[w:Psychology|Psychology]]''' student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2022 University of Canberra].

Aspiring Psychologist and [https://vikingagilist.com/agilist-definition Agilist] with a positive attitude who contributes to a routine that provides a good structure for achieving goals. I have extensive industry experience in information technology, with a track record of converting projects into profitable engagements by delivering cost-cutting solutions and improving process and implementation in the Australian Public Service, Retail Banking &amp; Financial Services, Transportation and Logistics, and Telecommunications. Seeking a rewarding career in a challenging and highly regulated environment where I can improve someone's quality of life and give others hope for a better and brighter future.

So far, my time at the University of Canberra has allowed me to broaden my understanding as well as develop many skills such as communication, presentation, and problem-solving abilities, all while improving my ability to work as part of a team.

=== Hobbies ===

* Gardening
* Binge watching 
* Cooking &amp; eating good food

== Book Chapter I am working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Video conferencing fatigue|Video conferencing fatigue]]

== Social Contribution ==

=== Wikiversity ===

==== 21 Aug 2022 - Edits made to book 2019 chapter  - Morality and emotion ====

* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2019%2FMorality_and_emotion&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2417022&amp;oldid=2143371 11:07, 21 August 2022 - More edits made on on the page addressing grammar , spelling and improving the structure of sentences.] 
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2019%2FMorality_and_emotion&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2417020&amp;oldid=2143371 10:50, 21 August 2022  - Various edits made on the page addressing grammar , spelling and improving the structure of sentences.] 

== Future Interest ==

=== Plan for next 1 Year ===
I plan to finish my Bachelors Degree by 2023 and enrol for Honors Program .

=== Plan for next 2 Year ===
Continue with my Honors Program and prepare to get my application ready for Masters in Clinical Psychology.

=== Plan for next 5 Year ===
Hopefully get a practicing License to work as an Independent Psychologist. Would like to get my learning experience as [https://www.allpsychologyschools.com/organizational-psychology/job-description/ Organisational Psychologist]

== External links ==</text>
      <sha1>jwb3oklu960tdwzvxcnr6wfh61ev5nc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418240</id>
      <parentid>2418238</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:53:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3211603</username>
        <id>2947419</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Social Contribution */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2691" xml:space="preserve">== &lt;u&gt;About Me&lt;/u&gt; :- ==

=== Something about myself ===
G'day!
[[File:Profile Picture U3211603.jpg|thumb|I am what I am. I am my own special creation.]]
Parvaz here.I'm a third year, part-time '''[[w:Psychology|Psychology]]''' student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2022 University of Canberra].

Aspiring Psychologist and [https://vikingagilist.com/agilist-definition Agilist] with a positive attitude who contributes to a routine that provides a good structure for achieving goals. I have extensive industry experience in information technology, with a track record of converting projects into profitable engagements by delivering cost-cutting solutions and improving process and implementation in the Australian Public Service, Retail Banking &amp; Financial Services, Transportation and Logistics, and Telecommunications. Seeking a rewarding career in a challenging and highly regulated environment where I can improve someone's quality of life and give others hope for a better and brighter future.

So far, my time at the University of Canberra has allowed me to broaden my understanding as well as develop many skills such as communication, presentation, and problem-solving abilities, all while improving my ability to work as part of a team.

=== Hobbies ===

* Gardening
* Binge watching 
* Cooking &amp; eating good food

== Book Chapter I am working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Video conferencing fatigue|Video conferencing fatigue]]

== Social Contribution ==

=== Wikiversity ===
21 Aug 2022 - Edits made to book 2019 chapter  - Morality and emotion
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2019%2FMorality_and_emotion&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2417022&amp;oldid=2143371 11:07, 21 August 2022 - More edits made on on the page addressing grammar , spelling and improving the structure of sentences.] 
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2019%2FMorality_and_emotion&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2417020&amp;oldid=2143371 10:50, 21 August 2022  - Various edits made on the page addressing grammar , spelling and improving the structure of sentences.] 

== Future Interest ==

=== Plan for next 1 Year ===
I plan to finish my Bachelors Degree by 2023 and enrol for Honors Program .

=== Plan for next 2 Year ===
Continue with my Honors Program and prepare to get my application ready for Masters in Clinical Psychology.

=== Plan for next 5 Year ===
Hopefully get a practicing License to work as an Independent Psychologist. Would like to get my learning experience as [https://www.allpsychologyschools.com/organizational-psychology/job-description/ Organisational Psychologist]

== External links ==</text>
      <sha1>svdr033kzi4ytynds28ugkj64lx0e0h</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418243</id>
      <parentid>2418240</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:55:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3211603</username>
        <id>2947419</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Wikiversity */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2686" xml:space="preserve">== &lt;u&gt;About Me&lt;/u&gt; :- ==

=== Something about myself ===
G'day!
[[File:Profile Picture U3211603.jpg|thumb|I am what I am. I am my own special creation.]]
Parvaz here.I'm a third year, part-time '''[[w:Psychology|Psychology]]''' student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2022 University of Canberra].

Aspiring Psychologist and [https://vikingagilist.com/agilist-definition Agilist] with a positive attitude who contributes to a routine that provides a good structure for achieving goals. I have extensive industry experience in information technology, with a track record of converting projects into profitable engagements by delivering cost-cutting solutions and improving process and implementation in the Australian Public Service, Retail Banking &amp; Financial Services, Transportation and Logistics, and Telecommunications. Seeking a rewarding career in a challenging and highly regulated environment where I can improve someone's quality of life and give others hope for a better and brighter future.

So far, my time at the University of Canberra has allowed me to broaden my understanding as well as develop many skills such as communication, presentation, and problem-solving abilities, all while improving my ability to work as part of a team.

=== Hobbies ===

* Gardening
* Binge watching 
* Cooking &amp; eating good food

== Book Chapter I am working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Video conferencing fatigue|Video conferencing fatigue]]

== Social Contribution ==

=== Wikiversity ===
21 Aug 2022-Edits made to 2019 book chapter-Morality and emotion
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2019%2FMorality_and_emotion&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2417022&amp;oldid=2143371 11:07, 21 August 2022 - More edits made on on the page addressing grammar , spelling and improving the structure of sentences.] 
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2019%2FMorality_and_emotion&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2417020&amp;oldid=2143371 10:50, 21 August 2022  - Various edits made on the page addressing grammar , spelling and improving the structure of sentences.] 

== Future Interest ==

=== Plan for next 1 Year ===
I plan to finish my Bachelors Degree by 2023 and enrol for Honors Program .

=== Plan for next 2 Year ===
Continue with my Honors Program and prepare to get my application ready for Masters in Clinical Psychology.

=== Plan for next 5 Year ===
Hopefully get a practicing License to work as an Independent Psychologist. Would like to get my learning experience as [https://www.allpsychologyschools.com/organizational-psychology/job-description/ Organisational Psychologist]

== External links ==</text>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="2751" xml:space="preserve">== &lt;u&gt;About Me&lt;/u&gt; :- ==

=== Something about myself ===
G'day!
[[File:Profile Picture U3211603.jpg|thumb|I am what I am. I am my own special creation.]]
Parvaz here.I'm a third year, part-time '''[[w:Psychology|Psychology]]''' student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2022 University of Canberra].

Aspiring Psychologist and [https://vikingagilist.com/agilist-definition Agilist] with a positive attitude who contributes to a routine that provides a good structure for achieving goals. I have extensive industry experience in information technology, with a track record of converting projects into profitable engagements by delivering cost-cutting solutions and improving process and implementation in the Australian Public Service, Retail Banking &amp; Financial Services, Transportation and Logistics, and Telecommunications. Seeking a rewarding career in a challenging and highly regulated environment where I can improve someone's quality of life and give others hope for a better and brighter future.

So far, my time at the University of Canberra has allowed me to broaden my understanding as well as develop many skills such as communication, presentation, and problem-solving abilities, all while improving my ability to work as part of a team.

=== Hobbies ===

* Gardening
* Binge watching 
* Cooking &amp; eating good food

== Book chapter i am working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Video conferencing fatigue|Video conferencing fatigue]]

== Social contribution ==

=== Wikiversity ===
21 Aug 2022-Edits made to 2019 book chapter-Morality and emotion
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2019%2FMorality_and_emotion&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2417022&amp;oldid=2143371 11:07, 21 August 2022 - More edits made on on the page addressing grammar , spelling and improving the structure of sentences.] 
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2019%2FMorality_and_emotion&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2417020&amp;oldid=2143371 10:50, 21 August 2022  - Various edits made on the page addressing grammar , spelling and improving the structure of sentences.] 

== Future interest ==

=== Plan for next 1 year ===
I plan to finish my Bachelors Degree by 2023 and enrol for Honors Program .

=== Plan for next 2 year ===
Continue with my Honors Program and prepare to get my application ready for Masters in Clinical Psychology.

=== Plan for next 5 year ===
Hopefully get a practicing License to work as an Independent Psychologist. Would like to get my learning experience as [https://www.allpsychologyschools.com/organizational-psychology/job-description/ Organisational Psychologist]

== External links ==

* [https://www.linkedin.com/in/parvaz-aiyubi-10b6b726 Linkedin]</text>
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      <comment>/* About Me :- */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2751" xml:space="preserve">== &lt;u&gt;About me&lt;/u&gt; :- ==

=== Something about myself ===
G'day!
[[File:Profile Picture U3211603.jpg|thumb|I am what I am. I am my own special creation.]]
Parvaz here.I'm a third year, part-time '''[[w:Psychology|Psychology]]''' student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2022 University of Canberra].

Aspiring Psychologist and [https://vikingagilist.com/agilist-definition Agilist] with a positive attitude who contributes to a routine that provides a good structure for achieving goals. I have extensive industry experience in information technology, with a track record of converting projects into profitable engagements by delivering cost-cutting solutions and improving process and implementation in the Australian Public Service, Retail Banking &amp; Financial Services, Transportation and Logistics, and Telecommunications. Seeking a rewarding career in a challenging and highly regulated environment where I can improve someone's quality of life and give others hope for a better and brighter future.

So far, my time at the University of Canberra has allowed me to broaden my understanding as well as develop many skills such as communication, presentation, and problem-solving abilities, all while improving my ability to work as part of a team.

=== Hobbies ===

* Gardening
* Binge watching 
* Cooking &amp; eating good food

== Book chapter i am working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Video conferencing fatigue|Video conferencing fatigue]]

== Social contribution ==

=== Wikiversity ===
21 Aug 2022-Edits made to 2019 book chapter-Morality and emotion
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2019%2FMorality_and_emotion&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2417022&amp;oldid=2143371 11:07, 21 August 2022 - More edits made on on the page addressing grammar , spelling and improving the structure of sentences.] 
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2019%2FMorality_and_emotion&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2417020&amp;oldid=2143371 10:50, 21 August 2022  - Various edits made on the page addressing grammar , spelling and improving the structure of sentences.] 

== Future interest ==

=== Plan for next 1 year ===
I plan to finish my Bachelors Degree by 2023 and enrol for Honors Program .

=== Plan for next 2 year ===
Continue with my Honors Program and prepare to get my application ready for Masters in Clinical Psychology.

=== Plan for next 5 year ===
Hopefully get a practicing License to work as an Independent Psychologist. Would like to get my learning experience as [https://www.allpsychologyschools.com/organizational-psychology/job-description/ Organisational Psychologist]

== External links ==

* [https://www.linkedin.com/in/parvaz-aiyubi-10b6b726 Linkedin]</text>
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== About me ==
My name is Georgia Fairweather and I am a 3rd year university student at [https://www.youtube.com UC]. I am studying a double degree of [[Psychology]] and [[Business|Business.]] This semester I am enrolled in [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion.]] 

== Hobbies ==
If I am not studying or working you will find me walking my Labrador and Sausage dog or going for a few cocktails with [[User:U3200859|Zoe,]] another student in this unit.  

== Book chapter ==
The book chapter that I am working on is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Choice overload|Choice Overload.]]

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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== About me ==
My name is Georgia Fairweather and I am a 3rd year university student at [https://www.youtube.com UC]. I am studying a double degree of [[Psychology]] and [[Business|Business.]] This semester I am enrolled in [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion.]] 

== Hobbies ==
If I am not studying or working you will find me walking my labrador and sausage dog or going for a few cocktails with [[User:U3200859|Zoe,]] another student in this unit.  

== Book chapter ==
The book chapter that I am working on is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Choice overload|Choice Overload.]]

== Social Contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>rm44u2k1ywnmf2qqkkqh82pwiv8lv36</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Ecological grief</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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        <username>Brewerjr</username>
        <id>2947044</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="5566" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Ecological grief:&lt;br&gt;What is ecological grief and what can be done about it?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

== Overview ==
- what does this chapter focus on 

what is grief 

- what is emotion 

- ecological grief 

-  {{Robelbox|title=&quot;The enormous transformations to our planet from climate change can have powerful effects on our emotions, making us grieve for what is lost.&quot;          - Panu Pihkala 2020
{{roble/close}}|theme=7|style=centre}}

== What is ecological grief? ==
- more specific about eco-grief 

==== Identified pathways of ecological grief ====

==== Grief Associated With Physical Losses ====

==== Grief Associated With a Loss of Environmental Knowledge ====

==== Grief Associated With Future Loss ====
{{robelbox|theme=11|title=Focus Question}} &lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Who first coined the term Ecological Grief? 
&lt;div&gt;
What is Ecological Grief?
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
=== Impacts of ecological grief ===

==== Grief and the human brain ====

==== Psychological consequences of Grief ====

=== Different demographics affect by ecological grief ===
[[File:Blackandwhiteclimatephoto-co2pollution.jpg|thumb|291x291px|''Figure 1''. C02 pollution into environment]]
== Theories of ecological grief ==
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.{{robelbox|theme=10|title=Steps towards the future}} &lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Discussing future implications of eco-grief
&lt;div&gt;
What can be done
&lt;div&gt;
Future research
&lt;/div&gt;
&quot;{{Robelbox/close}}&quot;{{Robelbox/close}}

== What can be done about it? ==

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example
** [[Grief]] (Wikipedia)
** [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
** Viewing Natural Scenes and Emotion (Book Chapter, 2022)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}
==References==
https://www.apa.org/monitor/2019/05/mourning-land

https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2017/03/climate-mental-health

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-018-0092-2

https://www.everydayhealth.com/emotional-health/whats-the-difference-between-eco-anxiety-and-ecological-grief/

https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200402-climate-grief-mourning-loss-due-to-climate-change

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Climate change]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Environment]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Grief]]</text>
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    <revision>
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      <parentid>2418030</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T03:04:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brewerjr</username>
        <id>2947044</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="8678" xml:space="preserve">__TOC__

{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Climate change]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Environment]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Grief]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418038</id>
      <parentid>2418033</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T03:36:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brewerjr</username>
        <id>2947044</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9530" xml:space="preserve">__TOC__

{{title|Ecological Grief: &lt;br&gt; What is ecological grief and what can be done about it?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
- '''Introduction to topic''': Grief presents in many ways and can be differ vastly between cultures and individuals. In a generation of increased climate change, challenges and awareness, many individuals and groups are using emotional coping mechanisms to cope with the loss and damage to the environment. New and emerging research is addressing the emotional and psychological effects that environmental changes have on people wellbeing. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}&quot;The enormous transformations to our planet from climate change can have powerful effects on our emotions, making us grieve for what is lost.&quot; &lt;br&gt; - Panu Pihkala 2020{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Blackandwhiteclimatephoto-co2pollution.jpg|center|thumb|459x459px|''Figure 1'': C02 gases being admitted into the atmosphere ]]

== What is ecological grief ==
- Defintion 

- history 

- research 

=== Three contexts of ecological grief ===
- Grief associated with physical ecological losses 

- Grief associated with loss of environmental knowledge and identity 

- Grief associated with anticipated future losses 


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}'''Focus questions:'''
* What is ecological grief?
* Who first coined the term ecological grief?
* What are the three contexts of ecological grief?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Impacts of ecological grief ===
- impacts of grief on the body and mind 

- physical 
[[File:Womencryingoverclimate.jpg|thumb|315x315px|''Figure 2''. Grief]]
- psychological {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Case study:'''
* 2020 bushfires 
* Great Barrier Reef 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Theories==
Theories of emotion - the neuroscience of emotion  

=== Stages of grief ===

=== theory 1 ===

=== theory 2 ===

=== theory 3 ===
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==What can be done about it?==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For exampl
** [[Ecological grief#:~:text%3DEcological%20grief%20(or%20eco-grief%2Cenvironmental%20destruction%20or%20climate%20change.|Ecological Grief]] (Wikipedia)
** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Environmental grief|Environmental Grief]] (Book Chapter, 2022)
** [[Grief]] (Wikipedia)
** [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
** Viewing Natural Scenes and Emotion (Book Chapter, 2022)
**
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Climate change]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Environment]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Grief]]</text>
      <sha1>l8na2e9b7ar7cgkm98swflqlsgtdizk</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418039</id>
      <parentid>2418038</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T03:38:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brewerjr</username>
        <id>2947044</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9644" xml:space="preserve">__TOC__

{{title|Ecological Grief: &lt;br&gt; What is ecological grief and what can be done about it?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
- '''Introduction to topic''': Grief presents in many ways and can be differ vastly between cultures and individuals. In a generation of increased climate change, challenges and awareness, many individuals and groups are using emotional coping mechanisms to cope with the loss and damage to the environment. New and emerging research is addressing the emotional and psychological effects that environmental changes have on people wellbeing. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}&quot;The enormous transformations to our planet from climate change can have powerful effects on our emotions, making us grieve for what is lost.&quot; &lt;br&gt; - Panu Pihkala 2020{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Blackandwhiteclimatephoto-co2pollution.jpg|center|thumb|459x459px|''Figure 1'': C02 gases being admitted into the atmosphere ]]

== What is ecological grief ==
- Defintion 

- history 

- research 

=== Three contexts of ecological grief ===
- Grief associated with physical ecological losses 

- Grief associated with loss of environmental knowledge and identity 

- Grief associated with anticipated future losses 


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}'''Focus questions:'''
* What is ecological grief?
* Who first coined the term ecological grief?
* What are the three contexts of ecological grief?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Impacts of ecological grief ===
- impacts of grief on the body and mind 

- physical 
[[File:Womencryingoverclimate.jpg|thumb|315x315px|''Figure 2''. Grief]]
- psychological {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Case study:'''
* 2020 bushfires 
* Great Barrier Reef 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Theories==
Theories of emotion - the neuroscience of emotion  

=== Stages of grief ===

=== theory 1 ===

=== theory 2 ===

=== theory 3 ===
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==What can be done about it?==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For exampl
** [[Ecological grief#:~:text%3DEcological%20grief%20(or%20eco-grief%2Cenvironmental%20destruction%20or%20climate%20change.|Ecological Grief]] (Wikipedia)
** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Environmental grief|Environmental Grief]] (Book Chapter, 2022)
** [[Grief]] (Wikipedia)
** [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Natural disasters and emotion|Natural Disasters and Emotions]] (Book Chapter, 2022)
** [https://www.lifeline.org.au Lifeline] (Helpline) 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Climate change]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Environment]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Grief]]</text>
      <sha1>7t0y5rsudj3t41ozv9gfrs7w23o39p0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418040</id>
      <parentid>2418039</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T03:39:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brewerjr</username>
        <id>2947044</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Impacts of ecological grief */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9650" xml:space="preserve">__TOC__

{{title|Ecological Grief: &lt;br&gt; What is ecological grief and what can be done about it?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
- '''Introduction to topic''': Grief presents in many ways and can be differ vastly between cultures and individuals. In a generation of increased climate change, challenges and awareness, many individuals and groups are using emotional coping mechanisms to cope with the loss and damage to the environment. New and emerging research is addressing the emotional and psychological effects that environmental changes have on people wellbeing. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}&quot;The enormous transformations to our planet from climate change can have powerful effects on our emotions, making us grieve for what is lost.&quot; &lt;br&gt; - Panu Pihkala 2020{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Blackandwhiteclimatephoto-co2pollution.jpg|center|thumb|459x459px|''Figure 1'': C02 gases being admitted into the atmosphere ]]

== What is ecological grief ==
- Defintion 

- history 

- research 

=== Three contexts of ecological grief ===
- Grief associated with physical ecological losses 

- Grief associated with loss of environmental knowledge and identity 

- Grief associated with anticipated future losses 


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}'''Focus questions:'''
* What is ecological grief?
* Who first coined the term ecological grief?
* What are the three contexts of ecological grief?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Impacts of ecological grief ===
- impacts of grief on the body and mind 

- physical 
- psychological [[File:Womencryingoverclimate.jpg|thumb|790x790px|''Figure 2''. Grief|center]]{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Case study:'''
* 2020 bushfires 
* Great Barrier Reef 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Theories==
Theories of emotion - the neuroscience of emotion  

=== Stages of grief ===

=== theory 1 ===

=== theory 2 ===

=== theory 3 ===
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==What can be done about it?==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For exampl
** [[Ecological grief#:~:text%3DEcological%20grief%20(or%20eco-grief%2Cenvironmental%20destruction%20or%20climate%20change.|Ecological Grief]] (Wikipedia)
** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Environmental grief|Environmental Grief]] (Book Chapter, 2022)
** [[Grief]] (Wikipedia)
** [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Natural disasters and emotion|Natural Disasters and Emotions]] (Book Chapter, 2022)
** [https://www.lifeline.org.au Lifeline] (Helpline) 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Climate change]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Environment]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Grief]]</text>
      <sha1>7cgmpog26m5hkfnhpki9tr6nrm3n7aw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418041</id>
      <parentid>2418040</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T03:41:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brewerjr</username>
        <id>2947044</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Figures */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9552" xml:space="preserve">__TOC__

{{title|Ecological Grief: &lt;br&gt; What is ecological grief and what can be done about it?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
- '''Introduction to topic''': Grief presents in many ways and can be differ vastly between cultures and individuals. In a generation of increased climate change, challenges and awareness, many individuals and groups are using emotional coping mechanisms to cope with the loss and damage to the environment. New and emerging research is addressing the emotional and psychological effects that environmental changes have on people wellbeing. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} &quot;The enormous transformations to our planet from climate change can have  powerful effects on our emotions, making us grieve for what is lost.&quot; &lt;br&gt; - Panu Pihkala 2020{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Blackandwhiteclimatephoto-co2pollution.jpg|center|thumb|459x459px|''Figure 1'': C02 gases being admitted into the atmosphere ]]

== What is ecological grief ==
- Defintion 

- history 

- research 

=== Three contexts of ecological grief ===
- Grief associated with physical ecological losses 

- Grief associated with loss of environmental knowledge and identity 

- Grief associated with anticipated future losses 


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}'''Focus questions:'''
* What is ecological grief?
* Who first coined the term ecological grief?
* What are the three contexts of ecological grief?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Impacts of ecological grief ===
- impacts of grief on the body and mind 

- physical 
- psychological [[File:Womencryingoverclimate.jpg|thumb|790x790px|''Figure 2''. Grief|center]]{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Case study:'''
* 2020 bushfires 
* Great Barrier Reef 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Theories==
Theories of emotion - the neuroscience of emotion  

=== Stages of grief ===

=== theory 1 ===

=== theory 2 ===

=== theory 3 ===
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==What can be done about it?==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For exampl
** [[Ecological grief#:~:text%3DEcological%20grief%20(or%20eco-grief%2Cenvironmental%20destruction%20or%20climate%20change.|Ecological Grief]] (Wikipedia)
** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Environmental grief|Environmental Grief]] (Book Chapter, 2022)
** [[Grief]] (Wikipedia)
** [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Natural disasters and emotion|Natural Disasters and Emotions]] (Book Chapter, 2022)
** [https://www.lifeline.org.au Lifeline] (Helpline) 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Climate change]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Environment]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Grief]]</text>
      <sha1>bw8qeg3pzpo26jlbm76t62ustd5l25t</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Choice overload</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>286234</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418268</id>
      <parentid>2413324</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T11:57:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GeorgiaFairweather</username>
        <id>2947505</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6140" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Choice Overload&lt;br&gt;What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? 
}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
What is choice overload?

What is the problem, why is it important

How can psychological science help, specific emotion or motivation theories 

Provide example of case stud

What are the focus questions? 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/University student motivation|University Student Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014)
* [[Facing Facts]] (Beaumont, 2017)


==References==

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>il0fqmgwh1ck41y28a57s9vfrd8qc5a</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:U3210431</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>286264</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418026</id>
      <parentid>2417156</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T02:49:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Book chapter I am working on */ + link</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1445" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
My name is Fiola Kicmari and I am a 22-year-old student at the University of Canberra. I am currently studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology majoring in Counselling studies. My career interests lie in pursuing clinical psychology with a specific focus in post-traumatic stress disorder. I am fascinated by human behaviour and mental processes and have found a passion in learning about how humans think, act and feel. 

I am a 3rd year [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra] 

Throughout this semester I am studying ''[[motivation and emotion]]''  

=== Hobbies ===

* Playing the piano 
* Hiking 

=== Interesting fact about me ===
An interesting fact about me is that I am a German citizen of Kosovan heritage studying in Australia on a student visa. I am well-travelled and have lived among many different cultures as I am the daughter of a diplomatic family. Although I have a tendency to move from one place to another regularly, I have found my constant in the field of Psychology. 

==== Professional Profile ====
[https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/user/view.php?id=49464 Professional ePortfolio]

=== Book chapter I am working on ===
Throughout this unit, I will be working on a book chapter focusing on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use|psychological trauma and subsequent drug use]] 

==== Social contributions ====</text>
      <sha1>iqt0s14kpmo2k7g9s8dzzxee4o25d5g</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Nature therapy</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>286367</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418107</id>
      <parentid>2417018</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:32:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ana028</username>
        <id>2947571</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6305" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Nature Therapy:&lt;br&gt;What is nature therapy and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
'''Case study:'''
How to make a box - source edit
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is nature therapy?
* What are the benefits of nature therapy? 
* How can nature therapy be applied?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Nature_therapy|Nature therapy]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.wwf.org.uk/5-ways-connect-nature-help-our-wellbeing 5 ways to connect to nature] (WWF)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kYNpQu0jIyE Nature wisdom] (TED)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>07zbefcruklxqvm1ucblr630e292zaa</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418125</id>
      <parentid>2418107</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T06:04:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ana028</username>
        <id>2947571</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Main headings */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6461" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Nature Therapy:&lt;br&gt;What is nature therapy and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
'''Case study:'''
How to make a box - source edit
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is nature therapy?
* What are the benefits of nature therapy? 
* How can nature therapy be applied?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is nature therapy?==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==What can be gained from nature and its inclusion in therapy?==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

== The application of nature therapy ==

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== How has nature therapy grown and taken different forms? ==
Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Nature_therapy|Nature therapy]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.wwf.org.uk/5-ways-connect-nature-help-our-wellbeing 5 ways to connect to nature] (WWF)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kYNpQu0jIyE Nature wisdom] (TED)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>2llbpz4qodcoyuayzi9w9wfsskgl4el</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418127</id>
      <parentid>2418125</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T06:06:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ana028</username>
        <id>2947571</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6220" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Nature Therapy:&lt;br&gt;What is nature therapy and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
'''Case study:'''
How to make a box - source edit
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is nature therapy?
* What are the benefits of nature therapy? 
* How can nature therapy be applied?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is nature therapy?==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==What can be gained from nature and its inclusion in therapy?==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

== The application of nature therapy ==

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== How has nature therapy grown and taken different forms? ==
Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Nature_therapy|Nature therapy]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.wwf.org.uk/5-ways-connect-nature-help-our-wellbeing 5 ways to connect to nature] (WWF)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kYNpQu0jIyE Nature wisdom] (TED)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>auwdnk80hog2yxj7bhkb9i7ezd4a0hf</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418131</id>
      <parentid>2418127</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T06:10:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ana028</username>
        <id>2947571</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6220" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Nature Therapy:&lt;br&gt;What is nature therapy and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is nature therapy?
* What are the benefits of nature therapy? 
* How can nature therapy be applied?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is nature therapy?==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==What can be gained from nature and its inclusion in therapy?==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
'''Case study:'''
How to make a box - source edit
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== The application of nature therapy ==

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== How has nature therapy grown and taken different forms? ==
Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Nature_therapy|Nature therapy]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.wwf.org.uk/5-ways-connect-nature-help-our-wellbeing 5 ways to connect to nature] (WWF)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kYNpQu0jIyE Nature wisdom] (TED)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>kcvwhzqdsfjvpz32gr8dqbqfbchotcn</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418134</id>
      <parentid>2418131</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T06:16:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ana028</username>
        <id>2947571</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What is nature therapy? */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4611" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Nature Therapy:&lt;br&gt;What is nature therapy and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is nature therapy?
* What are the benefits of nature therapy? 
* How can nature therapy be applied?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is nature therapy?==
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==What can be gained from nature and its inclusion in therapy?==
===Case studies===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
'''Case study:'''
How to make a box - source edit
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== The application of nature therapy ==
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== How has nature therapy grown and taken different forms? ==
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Nature_therapy|Nature therapy]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.). APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.wwf.org.uk/5-ways-connect-nature-help-our-wellbeing 5 ways to connect to nature] (WWF)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kYNpQu0jIyE Nature wisdom] (TED)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>lbrmi777xeinfz3e6syqpaotowabcfy</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418135</id>
      <parentid>2418134</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T06:17:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ana028</username>
        <id>2947571</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What can be gained from nature and its inclusion in therapy? */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4592" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Nature Therapy:&lt;br&gt;What is nature therapy and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is nature therapy?
* What are the benefits of nature therapy? 
* How can nature therapy be applied?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is nature therapy?==
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==What can be gained from nature and its inclusion in therapy?==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
'''Case study:'''
How to make a box - source edit
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== The application of nature therapy ==
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== How has nature therapy grown and taken different forms? ==
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Nature_therapy|Nature therapy]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.). APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.wwf.org.uk/5-ways-connect-nature-help-our-wellbeing 5 ways to connect to nature] (WWF)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kYNpQu0jIyE Nature wisdom] (TED)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>fado2n90cl7vwg8qsddr6kp3264d9an</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Help-seeking among boys</title>
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    <revision>
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      <parentid>2414632</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>BradMcgrath</username>
        <id>2947530</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added Barriers to help-seeking, stigma, stereotypes, motivation for seeking help, psychological needs, autonomy, competence and autonomy headings/sub-headings</comment>
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      <text bytes="8722" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Help-seeking among Australian boys: the barriers and motivators for help-seeking}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==

== Barriers to help-seeking ==

=== Stigma ===

=== Stereotypes ===

== Motivation for seeking help ==

=== Psychological needs ===

==== Autonomy ====

==== Competence ====

==== Relatedness ====


You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>1u46vaniabdmj3jhgpmpe1mbixbncof</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418032</id>
      <parentid>2418024</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T03:02:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BradMcgrath</username>
        <id>2947530</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Addition of several new sub-titles</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9460" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Help-seeking among Australian boys: the barriers and motivators for help-seeking}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==

== Barriers to help-seeking among boys ==


=== Cognitive Evaluation Theory ===

==== Controlling behaviour vs informing competence ====

==== Amotivation ====

=== Psychological barriers ===

==== The Purpose Void ====

==== Need for control ====

===== Vulnerability =====

==== Lack of tools for emotional expression ====

=== Social barriers ===

==== Stigma ====

==== Stereotypes ====

==== Masculinity ====

===== Toxic Masculinity =====

==== Fatherlessness ====

==== Over-reliance on male peers ====

==== Absence of social support and community connections ====

== Motivation for help-seeking among boys ==

=== Mentoring ===

=== Physiological needs ===

==== Testosterone ====

=== Psychological needs ===

==== Autonomy ====

==== Competence ====

==== Relatedness ====

=== Intervention practices ===

==== Activity-based interventions ====

==== Exercise-based interventions ====

==== Sports-based interventions ====


You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>dukvihciqwqf8actish1esr8h57flea</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418037</id>
      <parentid>2418032</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T03:21:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BradMcgrath</username>
        <id>2947530</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9623" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Help-seeking among Australian boys: the barriers and motivators for help-seeking}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==


== Barriers to help-seeking among boys ==


=== Cognitive Evaluation Theory ===

==== Controlling behaviour vs informing competence ====

==== Amotivation ====

=== Psychological barriers ===

==== The Purpose Void ====

==== Need for control ====

===== Vulnerability =====

==== Lack of tools for emotional expression ====

=== Social barriers ===

==== Stigma ====

==== Stereotypes ====

==== Masculinity ====

===== Toxic Masculinity =====

==== Fatherlessness ====

==== Over-reliance on male peers ====

==== Absence of social support and community connections ====

== Motivation for help-seeking among boys ==

== Help-seeking Motivation Theories ==

=== Health Belief Model ===

=== Social Cognitive Theory ===

=== Theory of Reasoned Action and Planned Behaviour ===

=== Mentoring ===

=== Physiological needs ===

==== Testosterone ====

=== Psychological needs ===

==== Autonomy ====

==== Competence ====

==== Relatedness ====

=== Intervention practices ===

==== Activity-based interventions ====

==== Exercise-based interventions ====

==== Sports-based interventions ====


You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>bfzij8kb617lzjrxtlxaablz0st09xx</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418093</id>
      <parentid>2418037</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:59:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Adjust title and subtitle</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9704" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Help-seeking among boys:&lt;br&gt;What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==

== Barriers to help-seeking among boys ==

=== Cognitive Evaluation Theory ===

==== Controlling behaviour vs informing competence ====

==== Amotivation ====

=== Psychological barriers ===

==== The Purpose Void ====

==== Need for control ====

===== Vulnerability =====

==== Lack of tools for emotional expression ====

=== Social barriers ===

==== Stigma ====

==== Stereotypes ====

==== Masculinity ====

===== Toxic Masculinity =====

==== Fatherlessness ====

==== Over-reliance on male peers ====

==== Absence of social support and community connections ====

== Motivation for help-seeking among boys ==

== Help-seeking Motivation Theories ==

=== Health Belief Model ===

=== Social Cognitive Theory ===

=== Theory of Reasoned Action and Planned Behaviour ===

=== Mentoring ===

=== Physiological needs ===

==== Testosterone ====

=== Psychological needs ===

==== Autonomy ====

==== Competence ====

==== Relatedness ====

=== Intervention practices ===

==== Activity-based interventions ====

==== Exercise-based interventions ====

==== Sports-based interventions ====


You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Help-seeking]]</text>
      <sha1>da2sinwtzacra117ws8zrna2pqqkwn8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418249</id>
      <parentid>2418093</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T11:06:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ categories</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9801" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Help-seeking among boys:&lt;br&gt;What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==

== Barriers to help-seeking among boys ==

=== Cognitive Evaluation Theory ===

==== Controlling behaviour vs informing competence ====

==== Amotivation ====

=== Psychological barriers ===

==== The Purpose Void ====

==== Need for control ====

===== Vulnerability =====

==== Lack of tools for emotional expression ====

=== Social barriers ===

==== Stigma ====

==== Stereotypes ====

==== Masculinity ====

===== Toxic Masculinity =====

==== Fatherlessness ====

==== Over-reliance on male peers ====

==== Absence of social support and community connections ====

== Motivation for help-seeking among boys ==

== Help-seeking Motivation Theories ==

=== Health Belief Model ===

=== Social Cognitive Theory ===

=== Theory of Reasoned Action and Planned Behaviour ===

=== Mentoring ===

=== Physiological needs ===

==== Testosterone ====

=== Psychological needs ===

==== Autonomy ====

==== Competence ====

==== Relatedness ====

=== Intervention practices ===

==== Activity-based interventions ====

==== Exercise-based interventions ====

==== Sports-based interventions ====


You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Childhood]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Help-seeking]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Male]]</text>
      <sha1>lnhs61q7x6p8b0fukxapcpug9fgkqv3</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418250</id>
      <parentid>2418249</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T11:07:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9800" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Help-seeking among boys:&lt;br&gt;What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==

== Barriers to help-seeking among boys ==

=== Cognitive Evaluation Theory ===

==== Controlling behaviour vs informing competence ====

==== Amotivation ====

=== Psychological barriers ===

==== The Purpose Void ====

==== Need for control ====

===== Vulnerability =====

==== Lack of tools for emotional expression ====

=== Social barriers ===

==== Stigma ====

==== Stereotypes ====

==== Masculinity ====

===== Toxic Masculinity =====

==== Fatherlessness ====

==== Over-reliance on male peers ====

==== Absence of social support and community connections ====

== Motivation for help-seeking among boys ==

== Help-seeking Motivation Theories ==

=== Health Belief Model ===

=== Social Cognitive Theory ===

=== Theory of Reasoned Action and Planned Behaviour ===

=== Mentoring ===

=== Physiological needs ===

==== Testosterone ====

=== Psychological needs ===

==== Autonomy ====

==== Competence ====

==== Relatedness ====

=== Intervention practices ===

==== Activity-based interventions ====

==== Exercise-based interventions ====

==== Sports-based interventions ====


You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Male]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Help-seeking]]</text>
      <sha1>9w7yn3yifgzy4ftbi2py5tar6ak00n8</sha1>
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  </page>
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      <contributor>
        <username>U3210431</username>
        <id>2947391</id>
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      <comment>/* What is psychological trauma? */</comment>
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      <text bytes="14710" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use:&lt;br&gt;How does childhood trauma influence subsequent drug use?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
The use of drugs has jumped from the romanticisation of the “love drug” known by the name of methylenedioxymetamfetamine (MDMA) and hallucinogenic drugs in the 1980s, to the rumination of them and their lethal and detrimental nature across time. When it comes to [[Drug misuse|drug]] consumption, we see those individuals who search for a deeper meaning, those who try to find an escape and those who conform to [[social norms]]. Yet, humans are aware of the detrimental consequences of drug consumption. From a young age we are taught about drugs and their lethal consequences. Why do individuals partake in drug consumption when they are aware of what might happen? 

Imagine an individual who has consistently used drugs for years, developed an addiction and is therefore unemployed. This behaviour has caused family members and friends to detach themselves, leaving this individual lonely. Family members constantly asking why they have done this to themselves and the blame being pointed at the individual for ruining their life. Although it is not out of the picture, we tend to believe that people are responsible for using drugs and that it is their responsibility to not become addicted. Why do we tend to believe that? Is it truly the individuals fault or can drug use be influenced by previous traumatic experiences?


This chapter focuses on how psychological trauma can influence subsequent drug use. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is childhood trauma?
* What are theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use? 
* What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is childhood trauma?==
The [https://www.apa.org/topics/trauma Australian Psychological Association] (APA) defines psychological trauma as:  &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;An emotional response to a terrible event like an accident, rape, or natural disaster. immediately after the event, shock and denial are typical. Longer term reactions include unpredictable emotions, flashbacks, strained relationships, and even physical symptoms like headaches to nausea.&quot; '''()'''&lt;/blockquote&gt;Childhood trauma refers to negative events that threaten or cause harm to a child's emotional and/or physical wellbeing. Childhood trauma is most commonly the result of a child perceiving themselves to be in a life-threatening situation.  

Terr (1991) introduced two types of psychological childhood trauma: 

* '''Type I''' - results from a single event such as an accident, witnessing a crime or rape. 
** Individuals affected by Type I trauma especially if the incident occurred after the age of 3, are thought to remember the incident and experience perceptual symptoms such as visual hallucinations as a consequence of the trauma. 
* '''Type II -''' results from repeated exposure of extreme traumatising events such as re-occurring abuse 
** Individuals affected by Type II trauma, are proposed to repress the event using denial and dissociation methods to avoid the trauma exposure. 
== What constitutes drug use? ==
* Drugs have been been used medically and recreationally throughout history with early civilisations using them for religious rituals. 
* [[Substance abuse|Drug misuse]] is defined as the recreational use of alcohol, illicit drugs and pain medications which can lead to emotional, physical and social harm (Ghuran &amp; Nolan, 2000). 
* Repeated drug use often leads to substance use disorder (SUD) which commonly constitutes addiction and the inability to discontinue drug use. 
* According to the 5&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; edition of the Diagnostic Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) substance induced disorders occur when the substance use leads to intoxication, addiction, withdrawal and induced psychological disorders such as psychosis and and depressive disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). 

=== Alcohol ===

* The World Health Organisation (WHO) has identified [https://www.who.int/health-topics/alcohol#tab=tab_1 alcohol] as a psychoactive type of drug which is highly addictive and the cause of around 3 million deaths per year (World Health Organisation, 2022). 
* Repeated alcohol use can result in alcohol use disorder which can impact an individual's psychological, physical and social well-being 

=== Pain medication ===

* Pain medication such as opioids are crucial in the medical world and have a purpose of delivering an analgesic effect for those individuals experiencing agonising pain. Acute pain patients benefit from these drugs immensely. 
* The use of pain medication is common among those who suffer from chronic pain conditions and is commonly not addictive or harmful when used in moderation. Nonetheless, the addictive properties in opioids paired with repeated use can quickly lead to drug addiction (Schnoll &amp; Weaver, 2003)

=== Illicit drugs ===

* What makes a drug illicit? An illicit drug is one which has not been medically approved and is prohibited and illegal to be consumed, possess and sold. Illicit drugs are illegal due to the risk of [[addiction]] and the psychological and physiological risks attached to them. The international illegality of these drugs extends from plant-based drugs (e.g. cannabis, cocaine heroin) to pharmaceutical drugs (e.g. benzodiazepines) and synthetic drugs (e.g. MDMA, amphetamines) (Degenhardt &amp; Hall, 2012).
* The use of illicit drugs is commonly looked down upon and seen as the self-endangerment of an individual's well-being and sanity. So why do individuals partake in illicit drug use? 
{{Robelbox|theme=7|title=Quiz Time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What makes a drug illicit?}

- When it has been medically approved for consumption
+ When it has not been medically approved and is prohibited and illegal
- When it is a plant-based drug

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}

==What are the theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use?==

* Using drugs is a dangerous behaviour that is commonly performed recreationally with large negative consequences. Although drug use is often initiated by peer pressure within social situations, psychological trauma can be a precursor for drug use throughout the lifespan. Trauma-exposed individuals are likely engaging in drug use as a maladaptive coping strategy to experience an emotional relief which may be compounding distress (Sheerin et al., 2016).
* This part of the chapter will discuss the theoretical concepts surrounding the motivation behind trauma induced drug use. 

=== Protection Motivation theory ===

* Protection motivation theory proposed by Rogers (1997) considers how individuals cope in distressing situations in order to protect oneself from perceived threat. This theory operates on three aspects:
*# The magnitude the threat within a specific event 
*# the probability that this event will re-occur 
*# The efficacy of a protective response 

=== Negative Reinforcement ===

* When considering the negative reinforcement model and its influence in drug use, we can suggest that psychological trauma and the subsequent emotional damage, can motivate drug use. This can be considered whereby trauma may place an individual in an uncomfortable and distressing emotional state which can be relieved through an immediate short-term reward illicit by the consumption of drugs (May et al., 2020)

== How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? ==

* It comes as no surprise that individuals turn to drug misuse to self-medicate against the unbearable pain and distress caused by unresolved and unprocessed traumatic experiences (Marcenko et al., 2000).

=== Trauma types most relevant to drug use ===

=== Consequences of trauma induced drug use ===

== What are the strategies for treating trauma induced drug use? ==

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]]</text>
      <sha1>t26f6sovln3kae2cc6is6hgpltq6mvz</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418213</id>
      <parentid>2417992</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T09:24:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3210431</username>
        <id>2947391</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */ Edit of how</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15476" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use:&lt;br&gt;How does childhood trauma influence subsequent drug use?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
The use of drugs has jumped from the romanticisation of the “love drug” known by the name of methylenedioxymetamfetamine (MDMA) and hallucinogenic drugs in the 1980s, to the rumination of them and their lethal and detrimental nature across time. When it comes to [[Drug misuse|drug]] consumption, we see those individuals who search for a deeper meaning, those who try to find an escape and those who conform to [[social norms]]. Yet, humans are aware of the detrimental consequences of drug consumption. From a young age we are taught about drugs and their lethal consequences. Why do individuals partake in drug consumption when they are aware of what might happen? 

Imagine an individual who has consistently used drugs for years, developed an addiction and is therefore unemployed. This behaviour has caused family members and friends to detach themselves, leaving this individual lonely. Family members constantly asking why they have done this to themselves and the blame being pointed at the individual for ruining their life. Although it is not out of the picture, we tend to believe that people are responsible for using drugs and that it is their responsibility to not become addicted. Why do we tend to believe that? Is it truly the individuals fault or can drug use be influenced by previous traumatic experiences?


This chapter focuses on how childhood trauma can influence subsequent drug use. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is childhood trauma?
* What are theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use? 
* What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is childhood trauma?==
The [https://www.apa.org/topics/trauma Australian Psychological Association] (APA) defines a traumatic life event as:  &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;One that threatens, injury, death, or the physical integrity of self or others and also causes horror, terror, or helplessness at the time it occurs. Traumatic events include sexual abuse, physical abuse, domestic violence, community and school violence, medical trauma, motor vehicle accidents, acts of terrorism, war experiences, natural and human-made disasters, suicides, and other traumatic losses.&quot; &lt;/blockquote&gt;When these events are experienced in a developing child, this constitutes as childhood trauma. Longer term reactions include unpredictable emotions, sleep disturbances, separation anxiety, the development of new fears, anger irritability, and even physical symptoms like headaches to nausea.&quot; '''()'''  

Childhood trauma refers to negative events that threaten or cause harm to a child's emotional and/or physical wellbeing. Childhood trauma is most commonly the result of a child perceiving themselves to be in a life-threatening situation.  

Terr (1991) introduced two types of  childhood trauma: 

* '''Type I''' - results from a single event such as an accident, witnessing a crime or rape. 
** Individuals affected by Type I trauma especially if the incident occurred after the age of 3, are thought to remember the incident and experience perceptual symptoms such as visual hallucinations as a consequence of the trauma. 
* '''Type II -''' results from repeated exposure of extreme traumatising events such as re-occurring abuse 
** Individuals affected by Type II trauma, are proposed to repress the event using denial and dissociation methods to avoid the trauma exposure. 
== What constitutes drug use? ==
* Drugs have been been used medically and recreationally throughout history with early civilisations using them for religious rituals. 
* [[Substance abuse|Drug misuse]] is defined as the recreational use of alcohol, illicit drugs and pain medications which can lead to emotional, physical and social harm (Ghuran &amp; Nolan, 2000). 
* Repeated drug use often leads to substance use disorder (SUD) which commonly constitutes addiction and the inability to discontinue drug use. 
* According to the 5&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; edition of the Diagnostic Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) substance induced disorders occur when the substance use leads to intoxication, addiction, withdrawal and induced psychological disorders such as psychosis and and depressive disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). 

=== Alcohol ===

* The World Health Organisation (WHO) has identified [https://www.who.int/health-topics/alcohol#tab=tab_1 alcohol] as a psychoactive type of drug which is highly addictive and the cause of around 3 million deaths per year (World Health Organisation, 2022). 
* Repeated alcohol use can result in alcohol use disorder which can impact an individual's psychological, physical and social well-being 

=== Pain medication ===

* Pain medication such as opioids are crucial in the medical world and have a purpose of delivering an analgesic effect for those individuals experiencing agonising pain. Acute pain patients benefit from these drugs immensely. 
* The use of pain medication is common among those who suffer from chronic pain conditions and is commonly not addictive or harmful when used in moderation. Nonetheless, the addictive properties in opioids paired with repeated use can quickly lead to drug addiction (Schnoll &amp; Weaver, 2003)

=== Illicit drugs ===

* What makes a drug illicit? An illicit drug is one which has not been medically approved and is prohibited and illegal to be consumed, possess and sold. Illicit drugs are illegal due to the risk of [[addiction]] and the psychological and physiological risks attached to them. The international illegality of these drugs extends from plant-based drugs (e.g. cannabis, cocaine heroin) to pharmaceutical drugs (e.g. benzodiazepines) and synthetic drugs (e.g. MDMA, amphetamines) (Degenhardt &amp; Hall, 2012).
* The use of illicit drugs is commonly looked down upon and seen as the self-endangerment of an individual's well-being and sanity. So why do individuals partake in illicit drug use? 
{{Robelbox|theme=7|title=Quiz Time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What makes a drug illicit?}

- When it has been medically approved for consumption
+ When it has not been medically approved and is prohibited and illegal
- When it is a plant-based drug

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}

==What are the theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use?==

* Using drugs is a dangerous behaviour that is commonly performed recreationally with large negative consequences. Although drug use is often initiated by peer pressure within social situations, psychological trauma can be a precursor for drug use throughout the lifespan. Trauma-exposed individuals are likely engaging in drug use as a maladaptive coping strategy to experience an emotional relief which may be compounding distress (Sheerin et al., 2016).
* This part of the chapter will discuss the theoretical concepts surrounding the motivation behind trauma induced drug use. 

=== Protection Motivation theory ===

* Protection motivation theory proposed by Rogers (1997) considers how individuals cope in distressing situations in order to protect oneself from perceived threat. This theory operates on three aspects:
*# The magnitude the threat within a specific event 
*# the probability that this event will re-occur 
*# The efficacy of a protective response 

=== Negative Reinforcement ===

* When considering the negative reinforcement model and its influence in drug use, we can suggest that childhood trauma and the subsequent emotional damage, can motivate drug use. This can be considered whereby trauma may place an individual in an uncomfortable and distressing emotional state which can be relieved through an immediate short-term reward illicit by the consumption of drugs (May et al., 2020)

== How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? ==

* It comes as no surprise that individuals turn to drug misuse to self-medicate against the unbearable pain and distress caused by unresolved and unprocessed traumatic experiences (Marcenko et al., 2000).

=== Trauma types most relevant to drug use ===

* It comes as no surprise that adverse childhood experiences play a role in maladaptive coping mechanisms. Nonetheless, it is important to address the types of trauma that affect this behaviour in order to successfully treat it. 
* A study conducted by Dube et al. (2003) demonstrated that ''childhood neglect'' was a predictor for illicit drug use. How does this occur? 

=== Consequences of trauma induced drug use ===

== What are the strategies for treating trauma induced drug use? ==

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]]</text>
      <sha1>0ej7k9vrvfdgvkvuvckivv9lteua94l</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418217</id>
      <parentid>2418213</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T09:40:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3210431</username>
        <id>2947391</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What is childhood trauma? */ edited pictures</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15771" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use:&lt;br&gt;How does childhood trauma influence subsequent drug use?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Toxicoman - Substance abuse.jpg|thumb|384x384px|''Figure 1.'' Drug use can heavily impact an individuals physical and mental health ]]
The use of drugs has jumped from the romanticisation of the “love drug” known by the name of methylenedioxymetamfetamine (MDMA) and hallucinogenic drugs in the 1980s, to the rumination of them and their lethal and detrimental nature across time. When it comes to [[Drug misuse|drug]] consumption, we see those individuals who search for a deeper meaning, those who try to find an escape and those who conform to [[social norms]]. Yet, humans are aware of the detrimental consequences of drug consumption. From a young age we are taught about drugs and their lethal consequences. Why do individuals partake in drug consumption when they are aware of what might happen? 

Imagine an individual who has consistently used drugs for years, developed an addiction and is therefore unemployed. This behaviour has caused family members and friends to detach themselves, leaving this individual lonely. Family members constantly asking why they have done this to themselves and the blame being pointed at the individual for ruining their life. Although it is not out of the picture, we tend to believe that people are responsible for using drugs and that it is their responsibility to not become addicted. Why do we tend to believe that? Is it truly the individuals fault or can drug use be influenced by previous traumatic experiences?


This chapter focuses on how childhood trauma can influence subsequent drug use. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is childhood trauma?
* What are theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use? 
* What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is childhood trauma?==
[[File:Crying child with blonde hair.jpg|thumb|342x342px|''Figure 2.'' Childhood trauma negatively impacts a child's emotional well-being]]

The [https://www.apa.org/topics/trauma Australian Psychological Association] (APA) defines a traumatic life event as:  &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;One that threatens, injury, death, or the physical integrity of self or others and also causes horror, terror, or helplessness at the time it occurs. Traumatic events include sexual abuse, physical abuse, domestic violence, community and school violence, medical trauma, motor vehicle accidents, acts of terrorism, war experiences, natural and human-made disasters, suicides, and other traumatic losses.&quot; &lt;/blockquote&gt;When these events are experienced in a developing child, this constitutes as childhood trauma. Longer term reactions include unpredictable emotions, sleep disturbances, separation anxiety, the development of new fears, anger irritability, and even physical symptoms like headaches to nausea.&quot; '''()'''  

Childhood trauma refers to negative events that threaten or cause harm to a child's emotional and/or physical wellbeing. Childhood trauma is most commonly the result of a child perceiving themselves to be in a life-threatening situation.  

Terr (1991) introduced two types of  childhood trauma: 

* '''Type I''' - results from a single event such as an accident, witnessing a crime or rape. 
** Individuals affected by Type I trauma especially if the incident occurred after the age of 3, are thought to remember the incident and experience perceptual symptoms such as visual hallucinations as a consequence of the trauma. 
* '''Type II -''' results from repeated exposure of extreme traumatising events such as re-occurring abuse 
** Individuals affected by Type II trauma, are proposed to repress the event using denial and dissociation methods to avoid the trauma exposure. 
== What constitutes drug use? ==
* Drugs have been been used medically and recreationally throughout history with early civilisations using them for religious rituals. 
* [[Substance abuse|Drug misuse]] is defined as the recreational use of alcohol, illicit drugs and pain medications which can lead to emotional, physical and social harm (Ghuran &amp; Nolan, 2000). 
* Repeated drug use often leads to substance use disorder (SUD) which commonly constitutes addiction and the inability to discontinue drug use. 
* According to the 5&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; edition of the Diagnostic Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) substance induced disorders occur when the substance use leads to intoxication, addiction, withdrawal and induced psychological disorders such as psychosis and and depressive disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). 

=== Alcohol ===

* The World Health Organisation (WHO) has identified [https://www.who.int/health-topics/alcohol#tab=tab_1 alcohol] as a psychoactive type of drug which is highly addictive and the cause of around 3 million deaths per year (World Health Organisation, 2022). 
* Repeated alcohol use can result in alcohol use disorder which can impact an individual's psychological, physical and social well-being 

=== Pain medication ===

* Pain medication such as opioids are crucial in the medical world and have a purpose of delivering an analgesic effect for those individuals experiencing agonising pain. Acute pain patients benefit from these drugs immensely. 
* The use of pain medication is common among those who suffer from chronic pain conditions and is commonly not addictive or harmful when used in moderation. Nonetheless, the addictive properties in opioids paired with repeated use can quickly lead to drug addiction (Schnoll &amp; Weaver, 2003)

=== Illicit drugs ===

* What makes a drug illicit? An illicit drug is one which has not been medically approved and is prohibited and illegal to be consumed, possess and sold. Illicit drugs are illegal due to the risk of [[addiction]] and the psychological and physiological risks attached to them. The international illegality of these drugs extends from plant-based drugs (e.g. cannabis, cocaine heroin) to pharmaceutical drugs (e.g. benzodiazepines) and synthetic drugs (e.g. MDMA, amphetamines) (Degenhardt &amp; Hall, 2012).
* The use of illicit drugs is commonly looked down upon and seen as the self-endangerment of an individual's well-being and sanity. So why do individuals partake in illicit drug use? 
{{Robelbox|theme=7|title=Quiz Time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What makes a drug illicit?}

- When it has been medically approved for consumption
+ When it has not been medically approved and is prohibited and illegal
- When it is a plant-based drug

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}

==What are the theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use?==

* Using drugs is a dangerous behaviour that is commonly performed recreationally with large negative consequences. Although drug use is often initiated by peer pressure within social situations, psychological trauma can be a precursor for drug use throughout the lifespan. Trauma-exposed individuals are likely engaging in drug use as a maladaptive coping strategy to experience an emotional relief which may be compounding distress (Sheerin et al., 2016).
* This part of the chapter will discuss the theoretical concepts surrounding the motivation behind trauma induced drug use. 

=== Protection Motivation theory ===

* Protection motivation theory proposed by Rogers (1997) considers how individuals cope in distressing situations in order to protect oneself from perceived threat. This theory operates on three aspects:
*# The magnitude the threat within a specific event 
*# the probability that this event will re-occur 
*# The efficacy of a protective response 

=== Negative Reinforcement ===

* When considering the negative reinforcement model and its influence in drug use, we can suggest that childhood trauma and the subsequent emotional damage, can motivate drug use. This can be considered whereby trauma may place an individual in an uncomfortable and distressing emotional state which can be relieved through an immediate short-term reward illicit by the consumption of drugs (May et al., 2020)

== How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? ==

* It comes as no surprise that individuals turn to drug misuse to self-medicate against the unbearable pain and distress caused by unresolved and unprocessed traumatic experiences (Marcenko et al., 2000).

=== Childhood trauma types most relevant to drug use ===

* It comes as no surprise that adverse childhood experiences play a role in maladaptive coping mechanisms. Nonetheless, it is important to address the types of trauma that affect this behaviour in order to successfully treat it. 
* A study conducted by Dube et al. (2003) demonstrated that ''childhood neglect'' was a predictor for illicit drug use. How does this occur? 
*

=== Consequences of trauma induced drug use ===

== What are the strategies for treating trauma induced drug use? ==

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]]</text>
      <sha1>atdl00bynxwjbvqr3epi1jjpy1he68a</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418222</id>
      <parentid>2418217</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:12:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3210431</username>
        <id>2947391</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Childhood trauma types most relevant to drug use */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="16235" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use:&lt;br&gt;How does childhood trauma influence subsequent drug use?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Toxicoman - Substance abuse.jpg|thumb|384x384px|''Figure 1.'' Drug use can heavily impact an individuals physical and mental health ]]
The use of drugs has jumped from the romanticisation of the “love drug” known by the name of methylenedioxymetamfetamine (MDMA) and hallucinogenic drugs in the 1980s, to the rumination of them and their lethal and detrimental nature across time. When it comes to [[Drug misuse|drug]] consumption, we see those individuals who search for a deeper meaning, those who try to find an escape and those who conform to [[social norms]]. Yet, humans are aware of the detrimental consequences of drug consumption. From a young age we are taught about drugs and their lethal consequences. Why do individuals partake in drug consumption when they are aware of what might happen? 

Imagine an individual who has consistently used drugs for years, developed an addiction and is therefore unemployed. This behaviour has caused family members and friends to detach themselves, leaving this individual lonely. Family members constantly asking why they have done this to themselves and the blame being pointed at the individual for ruining their life. Although it is not out of the picture, we tend to believe that people are responsible for using drugs and that it is their responsibility to not become addicted. Why do we tend to believe that? Is it truly the individuals fault or can drug use be influenced by previous traumatic experiences?


This chapter focuses on how childhood trauma can influence subsequent drug use. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is childhood trauma?
* What are theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use? 
* What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is childhood trauma?==
[[File:Crying child with blonde hair.jpg|thumb|342x342px|''Figure 2.'' Childhood trauma negatively impacts a child's emotional well-being]]

The [https://www.apa.org/topics/trauma Australian Psychological Association] (APA) defines a traumatic life event as:  &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;One that threatens, injury, death, or the physical integrity of self or others and also causes horror, terror, or helplessness at the time it occurs. Traumatic events include sexual abuse, physical abuse, domestic violence, community and school violence, medical trauma, motor vehicle accidents, acts of terrorism, war experiences, natural and human-made disasters, suicides, and other traumatic losses.&quot; &lt;/blockquote&gt;When these events are experienced in a developing child, this constitutes as childhood trauma. Longer term reactions include unpredictable emotions, sleep disturbances, separation anxiety, the development of new fears, anger irritability, and even physical symptoms like headaches to nausea.&quot; '''()'''  

Childhood trauma refers to negative events that threaten or cause harm to a child's emotional and/or physical wellbeing. Childhood trauma is most commonly the result of a child perceiving themselves to be in a life-threatening situation.  

Terr (1991) introduced two types of  childhood trauma: 

* '''Type I''' - results from a single event such as an accident, witnessing a crime or rape. 
** Individuals affected by Type I trauma especially if the incident occurred after the age of 3, are thought to remember the incident and experience perceptual symptoms such as visual hallucinations as a consequence of the trauma. 
* '''Type II -''' results from repeated exposure of extreme traumatising events such as re-occurring abuse 
** Individuals affected by Type II trauma, are proposed to repress the event using denial and dissociation methods to avoid the trauma exposure. 
== What constitutes drug use? ==
* Drugs have been been used medically and recreationally throughout history with early civilisations using them for religious rituals. 
* [[Substance abuse|Drug misuse]] is defined as the recreational use of alcohol, illicit drugs and pain medications which can lead to emotional, physical and social harm (Ghuran &amp; Nolan, 2000). 
* Repeated drug use often leads to substance use disorder (SUD) which commonly constitutes addiction and the inability to discontinue drug use. 
* According to the 5&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; edition of the Diagnostic Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) substance induced disorders occur when the substance use leads to intoxication, addiction, withdrawal and induced psychological disorders such as psychosis and and depressive disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). 

=== Alcohol ===

* The World Health Organisation (WHO) has identified [https://www.who.int/health-topics/alcohol#tab=tab_1 alcohol] as a psychoactive type of drug which is highly addictive and the cause of around 3 million deaths per year (World Health Organisation, 2022). 
* Repeated alcohol use can result in alcohol use disorder which can impact an individual's psychological, physical and social well-being 

=== Pain medication ===

* Pain medication such as opioids are crucial in the medical world and have a purpose of delivering an analgesic effect for those individuals experiencing agonising pain. Acute pain patients benefit from these drugs immensely. 
* The use of pain medication is common among those who suffer from chronic pain conditions and is commonly not addictive or harmful when used in moderation. Nonetheless, the addictive properties in opioids paired with repeated use can quickly lead to drug addiction (Schnoll &amp; Weaver, 2003)

=== Illicit drugs ===

* What makes a drug illicit? An illicit drug is one which has not been medically approved and is prohibited and illegal to be consumed, possess and sold. Illicit drugs are illegal due to the risk of [[addiction]] and the psychological and physiological risks attached to them. The international illegality of these drugs extends from plant-based drugs (e.g. cannabis, cocaine heroin) to pharmaceutical drugs (e.g. benzodiazepines) and synthetic drugs (e.g. MDMA, amphetamines) (Degenhardt &amp; Hall, 2012).
* The use of illicit drugs is commonly looked down upon and seen as the self-endangerment of an individual's well-being and sanity. So why do individuals partake in illicit drug use? 
{{Robelbox|theme=7|title=Quiz Time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What makes a drug illicit?}

- When it has been medically approved for consumption
+ When it has not been medically approved and is prohibited and illegal
- When it is a plant-based drug

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}

==What are the theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use?==

* Using drugs is a dangerous behaviour that is commonly performed recreationally with large negative consequences. Although drug use is often initiated by peer pressure within social situations, psychological trauma can be a precursor for drug use throughout the lifespan. Trauma-exposed individuals are likely engaging in drug use as a maladaptive coping strategy to experience an emotional relief which may be compounding distress (Sheerin et al., 2016).
* This part of the chapter will discuss the theoretical concepts surrounding the motivation behind trauma induced drug use. 

=== Protection Motivation theory ===

* Protection motivation theory proposed by Rogers (1997) considers how individuals cope in distressing situations in order to protect oneself from perceived threat. This theory operates on three aspects:
*# The magnitude the threat within a specific event 
*# the probability that this event will re-occur 
*# The efficacy of a protective response 

=== Negative Reinforcement ===

* When considering the negative reinforcement model and its influence in drug use, we can suggest that childhood trauma and the subsequent emotional damage, can motivate drug use. This can be considered whereby trauma may place an individual in an uncomfortable and distressing emotional state which can be relieved through an immediate short-term reward illicit by the consumption of drugs (May et al., 2020)

== How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? ==

* It comes as no surprise that individuals turn to drug misuse to self-medicate against the unbearable pain and distress caused by unresolved and unprocessed traumatic experiences (Marcenko et al., 2000).

=== Childhood trauma types most relevant to drug use ===

* It comes as no surprise that adverse childhood experiences play a role in maladaptive coping mechanisms. Nonetheless, it is important to address the types of trauma that affect this behaviour in order to successfully treat it. 
* A study conducted by Dube et al. (2003) demonstrated that ''childhood neglect'' was a predictor for illicit drug use. How does this occur? 
* Household dysfunction consisting of domestic violence, violence towards parent, divorce, mentally family member etc. presents another predictor for potential drug use. 
*Another type of childhood trauma that heavily influences drug use is childhood sexual abuse with the most common mean age at 11 - 13 years of age. Childhood sexual abuse is more commonly related to later substance use in comparison to an adulthood sexual abuse life event (Liebschutz, 2002).
*

=== Consequences of trauma induced drug use ===

== What are the strategies for treating trauma induced drug use? ==

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]]</text>
      <sha1>88ihyo10m58xp51g5vnvrwi4uht6jbq</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418235</id>
      <parentid>2418222</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:48:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3210431</username>
        <id>2947391</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Consequences of trauma induced drug use */ New heading</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="16485" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use:&lt;br&gt;How does childhood trauma influence subsequent drug use?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Toxicoman - Substance abuse.jpg|thumb|384x384px|''Figure 1.'' Drug use can heavily impact an individuals physical and mental health ]]
The use of drugs has jumped from the romanticisation of the “love drug” known by the name of methylenedioxymetamfetamine (MDMA) and hallucinogenic drugs in the 1980s, to the rumination of them and their lethal and detrimental nature across time. When it comes to [[Drug misuse|drug]] consumption, we see those individuals who search for a deeper meaning, those who try to find an escape and those who conform to [[social norms]]. Yet, humans are aware of the detrimental consequences of drug consumption. From a young age we are taught about drugs and their lethal consequences. Why do individuals partake in drug consumption when they are aware of what might happen? 

Imagine an individual who has consistently used drugs for years, developed an addiction and is therefore unemployed. This behaviour has caused family members and friends to detach themselves, leaving this individual lonely. Family members constantly asking why they have done this to themselves and the blame being pointed at the individual for ruining their life. Although it is not out of the picture, we tend to believe that people are responsible for using drugs and that it is their responsibility to not become addicted. Why do we tend to believe thist? Is it truly the individuals fault or can drug use be influenced by previous traumatic experiences?


This chapter focuses on how childhood trauma can influence subsequent drug use. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is childhood trauma?
* What are theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use? 
* What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is childhood trauma?==
[[File:Crying child with blonde hair.jpg|thumb|342x342px|''Figure 2.'' Childhood trauma negatively impacts a child's emotional well-being]]

The [https://www.apa.org/topics/trauma Australian Psychological Association] (APA) defines a traumatic life event as:  &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;One that threatens, injury, death, or the physical integrity of self or others and also causes horror, terror, or helplessness at the time it occurs. Traumatic events include sexual abuse, physical abuse, domestic violence, community and school violence, medical trauma, motor vehicle accidents, acts of terrorism, war experiences, natural and human-made disasters, suicides, and other traumatic losses.&quot; &lt;/blockquote&gt;When these events are experienced in a developing child, this constitutes as childhood trauma. 

=== Types of childhood trauma ===
Childhood trauma refers to negative events that threaten or cause harm to a child's emotional and/or physical wellbeing. Childhood trauma is most commonly the result of a child perceiving themselves to be in a life-threatening situation.  

Terr (1991) introduced two types of  childhood trauma: 

* '''Type I''' - results from a single event such as an accident, witnessing a crime or rape. 
** Individuals affected by Type I trauma especially if the incident occurred after the age of 3, are thought to remember the incident and experience perceptual symptoms such as visual hallucinations as a consequence of the trauma. 
* '''Type II -''' results from repeated exposure of extreme traumatising events such as re-occurring abuse 
** Individuals affected by Type II trauma, are proposed to repress the event using denial and dissociation methods to avoid the trauma exposure. 

=== Consequences of childhood trauma ===

* Longer term reactions include unpredictable emotions, sleep disturbances, separation anxiety, the development of new fears, anger irritability, and even physical symptoms like headaches to nausea.&quot; '''()'''

== What constitutes drug use? ==
* Drugs have been been used medically and recreationally throughout history with early civilisations using them for religious rituals. 
* [[Substance abuse|Drug misuse]] is defined as the recreational use of alcohol, illicit drugs and pain medications which can lead to emotional, physical and social harm (Ghuran &amp; Nolan, 2000). 
* Repeated drug use often leads to substance use disorder (SUD) which commonly constitutes addiction and the inability to discontinue drug use. 
* According to the 5&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; edition of the Diagnostic Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) substance induced disorders occur when the substance use leads to intoxication, addiction, withdrawal and induced psychological disorders such as psychosis and and depressive disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). 

=== Alcohol ===

* The World Health Organisation (WHO) has identified [https://www.who.int/health-topics/alcohol#tab=tab_1 alcohol] as a psychoactive type of drug which is highly addictive and the cause of around 3 million deaths per year (World Health Organisation, 2022). 
* Repeated alcohol use can result in alcohol use disorder which can impact an individual's psychological, physical and social well-being 

=== Pain medication ===

* Pain medication such as opioids are crucial in the medical world and have a purpose of delivering an analgesic effect for those individuals experiencing agonising pain. Acute pain patients benefit from these drugs immensely. 
* The use of pain medication is common among those who suffer from chronic pain conditions and is commonly not addictive or harmful when used in moderation. Nonetheless, the addictive properties in opioids paired with repeated use can quickly lead to drug addiction (Schnoll &amp; Weaver, 2003)

=== Illicit drugs ===

* What makes a drug illicit? An illicit drug is one which has not been medically approved and is prohibited and illegal to be consumed, possess and sold. Illicit drugs are illegal due to the risk of [[addiction]] and the psychological and physiological risks attached to them. The international illegality of these drugs extends from plant-based drugs (e.g. cannabis, cocaine heroin) to pharmaceutical drugs (e.g. benzodiazepines) and synthetic drugs (e.g. MDMA, amphetamines) (Degenhardt &amp; Hall, 2012).
* The use of illicit drugs is commonly looked down upon and seen as the self-endangerment of an individual's well-being and sanity. So why do individuals partake in illicit drug use? 
{{Robelbox|theme=7|title=Quiz Time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What makes a drug illicit?}

- When it has been medically approved for consumption
+ When it has not been medically approved and is prohibited and illegal
- When it is a plant-based drug

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}

==What are the theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use?==

* Using drugs is a dangerous behaviour that is commonly performed recreationally with large negative consequences. Although drug use is often initiated by peer pressure within social situations, psychological trauma can be a precursor for drug use throughout the lifespan. Trauma-exposed individuals are likely engaging in drug use as a maladaptive coping strategy to experience an emotional relief which may be compounding distress (Sheerin et al., 2016).
* This part of the chapter will discuss the theoretical concepts surrounding the motivation behind trauma induced drug use. 

=== Protection Motivation theory ===

* Protection motivation theory proposed by Rogers (1997) considers how individuals cope in distressing situations in order to protect oneself from perceived threat. This theory operates on three aspects:
*# The magnitude the threat within a specific event 
*# the probability that this event will re-occur 
*# The efficacy of a protective response 

=== Negative Reinforcement ===

* When considering the negative reinforcement model and its influence in drug use, we can suggest that childhood trauma and the subsequent emotional damage, can motivate drug use. This can be considered whereby trauma may place an individual in an uncomfortable and distressing emotional state which can be relieved through an immediate short-term reward illicit by the consumption of drugs (May et al., 2020)

== How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? ==

* It comes as no surprise that individuals turn to drug misuse to self-medicate against the unbearable pain and distress caused by unresolved and unprocessed traumatic experiences (Marcenko et al., 2000).

=== Childhood trauma types most relevant to drug use ===

* It comes as no surprise that adverse childhood experiences play a role in maladaptive coping mechanisms. Nonetheless, it is important to address the types of trauma that affect this behaviour in order to successfully treat it. 
* A study conducted by Dube et al. (2003) demonstrated that ''childhood neglect'' was a predictor for illicit drug use. How does this occur? 
* Household dysfunction consisting of domestic violence, violence towards parent, divorce, mentally family member etc. presents another predictor for potential drug use. 
*Another type of childhood trauma that heavily influences drug use is childhood sexual abuse with the most common mean age at 11 - 13 years of age. Childhood sexual abuse is more commonly related to later substance use in comparison to an adulthood sexual abuse life event (Liebschutz, 2002).
*

=== Self-medication following childhood trauma ===

* Early childhood sexual trauma has been theorised to result in drug use due to the desire to numb the painful affect caused by the trauma (Marcenko et al., 2000) . 

== What are the strategies for treating trauma induced drug use? ==

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]]</text>
      <sha1>8pbco0qki2uosoks0beh61cr8d65h1r</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418237</id>
      <parentid>2418235</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:52:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3210431</username>
        <id>2947391</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What is childhood trauma? */ self-medication</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="16851" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use:&lt;br&gt;How does childhood trauma influence subsequent drug use?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Toxicoman - Substance abuse.jpg|thumb|384x384px|''Figure 1.'' Drug use can heavily impact an individuals physical and mental health ]]
The use of drugs has jumped from the romanticisation of the “love drug” known by the name of methylenedioxymetamfetamine (MDMA) and hallucinogenic drugs in the 1980s, to the rumination of them and their lethal and detrimental nature across time. When it comes to [[Drug misuse|drug]] consumption, we see those individuals who search for a deeper meaning, those who try to find an escape and those who conform to [[social norms]]. Yet, humans are aware of the detrimental consequences of drug consumption. From a young age we are taught about drugs and their lethal consequences. Why do individuals partake in drug consumption when they are aware of what might happen? 

Imagine an individual who has consistently used drugs for years, developed an addiction and is therefore unemployed. This behaviour has caused family members and friends to detach themselves, leaving this individual lonely. Family members constantly asking why they have done this to themselves and the blame being pointed at the individual for ruining their life. Although it is not out of the picture, we tend to believe that people are responsible for using drugs and that it is their responsibility to not become addicted. Why do we tend to believe thist? Is it truly the individuals fault or can drug use be influenced by previous traumatic experiences?


This chapter focuses on how childhood trauma can influence subsequent drug use. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is childhood trauma?
* What are theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use? 
* What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is childhood trauma?==
[[File:Crying child with blonde hair.jpg|thumb|342x342px|''Figure 2.'' Childhood trauma negatively impacts a child's emotional well-being]]

* The [https://www.apa.org/topics/trauma Australian Psychological Association] (APA) defines a traumatic life event as:  &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;One that threatens, injury, death, or the physical integrity of self or others and also causes horror, terror, or helplessness at the time it occurs. Traumatic events include sexual abuse, physical abuse, domestic violence, community and school violence, medical trauma, motor vehicle accidents, acts of terrorism, war experiences, natural and human-made disasters, suicides, and other traumatic losses.&quot; &lt;/blockquote&gt;

* When these events are experienced in a developing child, this constitutes as childhood trauma.

=== Types of childhood trauma ===
Childhood trauma refers to negative events that threaten or cause harm to a child's emotional and/or physical wellbeing. Childhood trauma is most commonly the result of a child perceiving themselves to be in a life-threatening situation.  

Terr (1991) introduced two types of childhood trauma: 

* '''Type I''' - results from a single event such as an accident, witnessing a crime or rape. 
** Individuals affected by Type I trauma especially if the incident occurred after the age of 3, are thought to remember the incident and experience perceptual symptoms such as visual hallucinations as a consequence of the trauma. 
* '''Type II -''' results from repeated exposure of extreme traumatising events such as re-occurring abuse 
** Individuals affected by Type II trauma, are proposed to repress the event using denial and dissociation methods to avoid the trauma exposure. 

=== Consequences of childhood trauma ===

* Longer term reactions include unpredictable emotions, sleep disturbances, separation anxiety, the development of new fears, anger irritability, and even physical symptoms like headaches to nausea.&quot; '''(APA)'''

== What constitutes drug use? ==
* Drugs have been been used medically and recreationally throughout history with early civilisations using them for religious rituals. 
* [[Substance abuse|Drug misuse]] is defined as the recreational use of alcohol, illicit drugs and pain medications which can lead to emotional, physical and social harm (Ghuran &amp; Nolan, 2000). 
* Repeated drug use often leads to substance use disorder (SUD) which commonly constitutes addiction and the inability to discontinue drug use. 
* According to the 5&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; edition of the Diagnostic Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) substance induced disorders occur when the substance use leads to intoxication, addiction, withdrawal and induced psychological disorders such as psychosis and and depressive disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). 

=== Alcohol ===

* The World Health Organisation (WHO) has identified [https://www.who.int/health-topics/alcohol#tab=tab_1 alcohol] as a psychoactive type of drug which is highly addictive and the cause of around 3 million deaths per year (World Health Organisation, 2022). 
* Repeated alcohol use can result in alcohol use disorder which can impact an individual's psychological, physical and social well-being 

=== Pain medication ===

* Pain medication such as opioids are crucial in the medical world and have a purpose of delivering an analgesic effect for those individuals experiencing agonising pain. Acute pain patients benefit from these drugs immensely. 
* The use of pain medication is common among those who suffer from chronic pain conditions and is commonly not addictive or harmful when used in moderation. Nonetheless, the addictive properties in opioids paired with repeated use can quickly lead to drug addiction (Schnoll &amp; Weaver, 2003)

=== Illicit drugs ===

* What makes a drug illicit? An illicit drug is one which has not been medically approved and is prohibited and illegal to be consumed, possess and sold. Illicit drugs are illegal due to the risk of [[addiction]] and the psychological and physiological risks attached to them. The international illegality of these drugs extends from plant-based drugs (e.g. cannabis, cocaine heroin) to pharmaceutical drugs (e.g. benzodiazepines) and synthetic drugs (e.g. MDMA, amphetamines) (Degenhardt &amp; Hall, 2012).
* The use of illicit drugs is commonly looked down upon and seen as the self-endangerment of an individual's well-being and sanity. So why do individuals partake in illicit drug use? 
{{Robelbox|theme=7|title=Quiz Time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What makes a drug illicit?}

- When it has been medically approved for consumption
+ When it has not been medically approved and is prohibited and illegal
- When it is a plant-based drug

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}

==What are the theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use?==

* Using drugs is a dangerous behaviour that is commonly performed recreationally with large negative consequences. Although drug use is often initiated by peer pressure within social situations, psychological trauma can be a precursor for drug use throughout the lifespan. Trauma-exposed individuals are likely engaging in drug use as a maladaptive coping strategy to experience an emotional relief which may be compounding distress (Sheerin et al., 2016).
* This part of the chapter will discuss the theoretical concepts surrounding the motivation behind trauma induced drug use. 

=== Protection Motivation theory ===

* Protection motivation theory proposed by Rogers (1997) considers how individuals cope in distressing situations in order to protect oneself from perceived threat. This theory operates on three aspects:
*# The magnitude the threat within a specific event 
*# the probability that this event will re-occur 
*# The efficacy of a protective response 

=== Negative Reinforcement ===

* When considering the negative reinforcement model and its influence in drug use, we can suggest that childhood trauma and the subsequent emotional damage, can motivate drug use. This can be considered whereby trauma may place an individual in an uncomfortable and distressing emotional state which can be relieved through an immediate short-term reward illicit by the consumption of drugs (May et al., 2020)

== How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? ==

* It comes as no surprise that individuals turn to drug misuse to self-medicate against the unbearable pain and distress caused by unresolved and unprocessed traumatic experiences (Marcenko et al., 2000).

=== Childhood trauma types most relevant to drug use ===

* It comes as no surprise that adverse childhood experiences play a role in maladaptive coping mechanisms. Nonetheless, it is important to address the types of trauma that affect this behaviour in order to successfully treat it. 
* A study conducted by Dube et al. (2003) demonstrated that ''childhood neglect'' was a predictor for illicit drug use. How does this occur? 
* Household dysfunction consisting of domestic violence, violence towards parent, divorce, mentally family member etc. presents another predictor for potential drug use. 
*Another type of childhood trauma that heavily influences drug use is childhood sexual abuse with the most common mean age at 11 - 13 years of age. Childhood sexual abuse is more commonly related to later substance use in comparison to an adulthood sexual abuse life event (Liebschutz, 2002).
*

=== Self-medication following childhood trauma ===

* Early childhood sexual trauma has been theorised to result in drug use due to the desire to numb the painful affect caused by the trauma (Marcenko et al., 2000) . 
* Moreover, the psychological impact that childhood trauma has on a developing child plays a large role in how the child learns to adapt and cope. For example, a child with severe attachment issues due to a physically abusive parents, may turn to drugs to counteract the insecure relationships they experience throughout adulthood - avoidance of loneliness. 

== What are the strategies for treating trauma induced drug use? ==

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]]</text>
      <sha1>cbyep44d42l919mmu858f0h8jh3wn0k</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Kindness motivation</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>286453</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418156</id>
      <parentid>2417229</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T07:00:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8388" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Kindness motivation&lt;br&gt;What motivates kindness?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Kindness is everything! -WomensMarch -WomensMarch2018 -SenecaFalls -NY (24937353927).jpg|alt=A person holding a kindness is everything sign. |thumb|Figure 1: A person holding a kindness is everything sign.  ]]
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is motivation?==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==What is kindness?==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== How does motivation affect kindness? ==

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[wikipedia:Kindness|Kindness]]  (Wikipedia) 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pGgnyj8Oyvo How one act of kindness can change your life]. (Youtube) 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 00:06, 17 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>pz9nw0g83o86lr7hfc39k14zx6vg6tl</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Kindness motivation</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>286454</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418234</id>
      <parentid>2415653</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:45:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CNK.20</username>
        <id>2947582</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Subtopic suggetions */ new section</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1599" xml:space="preserve">== Peer-reviewed references to look at  ==

Hi, 

I have found some references through the UC library that may be of use in developing this chapter. 

Cox, J., Nguyen, T., &amp; Kang, S. M. (2018). The Kindness of Strangers? An Investigation into the Interaction of Funder Motivations in Online Crowdfunding Campaigns. Kyklos (Basel), 71(2), 187–212. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/kykl.12167&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Kirby, J. N., Gerrish, R., Sherwell, C., &amp; Gilbert, P. (2022). The Role of Likeability in Discriminating Between Kindness and Compassion. Mindfulness, 13(6), 1555–1564. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-022-01900-z&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Cotney, J. L., &amp; Banerjee, R. (2019). Adolescents’ Conceptualizations of Kindness and its Links with Well-being: A Focus Group Study. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(2), 599–617. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407517738584&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Otake, K., Shimai, S., Tanaka-Matsumi, J., Otsui, K., &amp; Fredrickson, B. L. (2006). HAPPY PEOPLE BECOME HAPPIER THROUGH KINDNESS: A COUNTING KINDNESSES INTERVENTION. Journal of Happiness Studies, 7(3), 361–375. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-005-3650-z&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 00:15, 17 August 2022 (UTC)

== Subtopic suggetions ==

Perhaps you should mention the types motivation- Explicit, implicit motivation. You can find information on the Motivation and Emotion Module. [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]] ([[User talk:CNK.20|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CNK.20|contribs]]) 10:45, 24 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>1py2yd0xpnb88rdo266od86lgxyi1cp</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Workplace mental health training</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>286459</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2417929</id>
      <parentid>2417826</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-23T14:23:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ArtOfHappiness</username>
        <id>2947543</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */ psychological hazzards</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="18782" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Workplace mental health training:&lt;br&gt;Current techniques and their impact}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Most people spend one-third of their working lives at work or in work-related activities. Challenging modern-day work environments and conditions can strain the workforce's psychological well-being. Hundreds of millions of people attend work every day with mental health issues. For some, it may be a temporary effect, while for others, it can be a life-long condition. Workplace-related mental health problems are common and disabling, causing significant emotional, physical, and mental health problems for employees, decreasing productivity and increasing employers' economic loss (Mcdaid et al., 2019). According to The Productivity Commission report on workplace mental health (2020), the economic cost of reduced participation and absenteeism alone was more than two billion dollars to employers. One Canadian research by [https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ca/Documents/about-deloitte/ca-en-about-blueprint-for-workplace-mental-health-final-aoda.pdf Deloitte] found the return on investment on mental health training CA$2.18, while another [http://www.mentalhealthpromotion.net/?i=portal.en.enmhp-news.2900 European study] suggests that figure as high as $13.62 for every $1 spent on training. As much as an individual is responsible for their health, the employer must also be responsible for the empathetic caring of employees. The costs to organisations are significantly higher than those involved in developing resilience and mental toughness programmes for employees. Improved mental health and illness prevention programmes can help employees stay at work for longer and increase productivity, resulting in social and economic benefits for individuals, employers, and the country (Mcdaid et al., 2019). One Australian countrywide study by [https://www.allianz.com.au/images/internet/aalaus/Allianz_Awareness_Into_Action.pdf Allianz Group] found that companies, government and mental health experts have made significant gains in addressing the issue, but a lot more needs to be done. This report suggests that considering the significant costs involved with mental health issues, it must be treated as a business priority. Future interventions must also consider the globalised work culture and culturally diverse people in the workforce because the 'One size fits all' approach will not work in the new work environment.   

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is workplace mental health?
* What are the workplace mental health training techniques? 
* What ia the current impacts of these techniques?
* What is the future of workplace mental health training?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{robelbox|theme=6|width=100%|title=Case study 1}} 
  &lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Ruth is ruminating about work and finds it difficult to sleep.  During the journey to work Ruth begins to experience panic attacks.  Whilst at work she feels scrutinised and unsupported.  Recently during meetings she has started to forget what she was going to say.  Ruth begins to feels angry and vulnerable, and feels like a failure at work.
 &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
{{robelbox|theme=6|width=100%|title=Case study 2}} 
  &lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Peter has regular meetings with his workplace mentor. Through the &quot;well-at-work&quot; program, Peter began attending training and started using web-based resources. Peter liaised with his workplace health officer to amend any practices hindering his MH. He felt listened to and through this empathetic process his apprehensions reduced. Peter now sleeps better and feels a more valued part of the organisation. 
 &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
==Workplace mental health==
Workplace mental health is an approach to address mental health wellbeing of the employees in their respective workplaces. The onus is on employees to build resilience amongst themselves as well as the employers to foster mental toughness and provide an environment that supports mental wellbeing of the employees.  [[File:Alysha-rosly-6GZQo28ecoE-unsplash.jpg|thumb|413x413px|Creating a mentally healthy workplace.Image by Alysha Rosly]]

=== What is a mentally healthy workplace? ===
One of the early description of a mentally healthy workplace was, an organisation that&lt;blockquote&gt;'''''“maximizes the integration of worker goals for well-being and company objectives for profitability and productivity”''''' 

Sauter et al. (1996)&lt;/blockquote&gt;With more research and understanding on the issue in recent years the definition of mentally healthy workplace has evolved. '[https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace Heads Up]' an Australian organisation that provides tools to create mentally healthy workplaces defines mentally healthy workplace as - A workplace that fosters a culture that encourages positive mental health and wellbeing, supports employees with mental health conditions, and has a zero-tolerance policy for discrimination will help employees and the organisation become more resilient. 

[https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/safety-and-prevention/mental-health/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit#:~:text=A%20mentally%20healthy%20workplace%20is,and%20assessment%20of%20psychosocial%20hazards WorkSafe Queensland] takes almost a similar approach and describes a mentally healthy workplace in its [https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/20871/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit.pdf toolkit] as the one that:

* Promotes practices that support positive mental health
* Reduces and eliminates psychological hazards
* Trains employees to be resilient and thrive in mentally tough conditions
* Creates positive environment by addressing stigma and discrimination
* Supports the recovery and rehabilitation after the illness
According to Kelloway (2017) workplace mental health is based on four general principles:
* Corporate commitment to improving psychological health and safety
* Leadership commitment to the issue
* Employee involvement in the identification of workplace issues and the design of intervention programs
* Confidentiality of individuals

=== Healthy workplace practices ===
A meta study by Grawitch et al. (2006) identified by key features of a healthy workplace:

* Work-life balance
* Employee growth and development
* Health and safety
* Recognition,
* Employee involvement

Further research has expanded these to a comprehensive list of nine key elements. Beyond Blue's Heads Up program identifies [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace/9-attributes-of-a-healthy-workplace nine attributes of a healthy workplace] as:

* Prioritising mental health: To increase understanding, promote open communication, and raise awareness among all staff levels, provide mental health education.
* Trusting fair and respectful culture: Give staff members at all levels the abilities to communicate with coworkers, clients, and the general public in an honest and respectful manner.
* Open and honest leadership: Give team members a sense of shared purpose in the organisation's goals by practising effective leadership.
* Good job design: Make sure people are physically safe, match job roles to their skills, and provide flexible work schedules.
* Workload management: Set goals that are achievable within a reasonable amount of time with the help of resources that are already available.
* Employee development: Create an environment where staff members receive regular, two-way feedback and are also supported, trained, recognised, and rewarded.
* Inclusion and influence: Make arrangements so that employees have control over how they work and participate in organisational decision making.
* Work/life balance: Recognise the value of work-life balance and give employees the chance to strike a balance between obligations to family, career, and personal life.
* Mental health support: Make sure that, whatever the cause, managers and staff are sensitive to employees' mental health issues, and that accommodations at work and counselling support are readily available.

=== Psychological hazards ===
Not only are there physical characteristics, but also psychological and cultural traits that define healthy workplaces. Psychosocial hazards are workplace conditions that have the potential to harm mental health. Physical harm can also result from these risks. Different workplaces may present different psychological risks.Safe Work Australia has provided an extensive list of psychological hazards in their [https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/model-code-practice-managing-psychosocial-hazards-work Model Code of Practice: Managing psychosocial hazards at work].

Some of the common risk factors found in workplaces, according to Safe Work research, include:

* High work demands
* Low control over work conditions
* Poor managerial/supervisory support
* Lack of role clarity
* Poor management
* Unsatisfactory reward and recognition system
* Traumatic events
* Poor physical environment (ergonomics)
* Violence/aggression or bullying
* Harassment/sexual harassment
* Workplace conflicts

Stress, job burnout, and mental ill health are just a few of the effects on psychological health that can result from poorly managed psychosocial hazards.

== Workplace mental health training ==

=== How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? ===
The definition of healthy workplace is based on two underlying assumptions ( First, it assumes that it is possible to identify the key characteristics of a healthy workplace based on a set of job and organizational factors. The second assumption is that the establishment of a healthy workplace leads to a healthier and more productive workforce, which translates into increased productivity and a competitive advantage for the organization.

==== Individual factors ====

===== Individual competence =====

===== Intervention =====

===== Training =====
Building knowledge and skills

===== Self-improvements =====
Mindfulness

Yoga

Meditation

=== Corporate responsibilities ===

===== Staff training =====

===== Ergonomics =====

===== Ongoing support =====

===== Cultural competency =====

===== Mental health warden =====

== Current WMHT techniques employed at workplaces ==

=== Three pillars of improving mental health in the workplace ===

==== Prevention ====

==== Intervention ====

==== Accomodation ====

=== Impact of these techniques so far ===

== Future ==

== Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

# [https://theconversation.com/5-strategies-employers-can-use-to-address-workplace-mental-health-issues-173818?gclid=Cj0KCQjw0oyYBhDGARIsAMZEuMstjNZpAh8JOFZMX2kghAHZiaMbhCeZLTOxDi9tx6ben4wg1JxRoSoaAodwEALw_wcB 5 strategies employers can use to address workplace mental health issues] (The Conversation)
# [https://www.apa.org/topics/workplace/improve-employee-mental-health 5 ways to improve employee mental health] (American Psychological Association)
# [https://www.healthierwork.act.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Guide-to-Promoting-Health-and-Wellbeing-in-the-Workplace-2016.pdf Guide to promoting health and wellbeing in the workplace]. (ACT Government)
# [[Happiness/Have a Happy Job|Happiness/ Have a happy job]]. (Wikiversity)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Negative emotion in the workplace|Negative emotions in the workplace]] (Book chapter 2018)
# [https://www.hospitalhealth.com.au/content/aged-allied-health/article/why-empowerment-is-key-for-mental-health-gains-and-recovery-1644648024 Why empowerment is key for mental health gains and recovery] (Hospital and Healthcare)
# [https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/08/workplace-wellbeing-mental-health-new-zealand/ Why it’s more important than ever for workplaces to have staff well-being plans] (The World Economic Forum)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Workplace mental health#Workplace mental health|Workplace mental health]] (Book chapter 2020)
# [https://www.peopleatwork.gov.au/webcopy/healthhazards Psychosocial hazards and factors] (Australian Government: Comcare)

==References==

# Grawitch, Gottschalk, M., &amp; Munz, D. C. (2006). The path to a healthy workplace: A critical review linking healthy workplace practices, employee well-being, and organizational improvements. Consulting Psychology Journal, 58(3), 129–147. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/1065-9293.58.3.129&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Kelloway E. K. (2017). Mental health in the workplace: Towards evidence-based practice. ''Canadian Psychology = Psychologie Canadienne'', ''58''(1), 1–6. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000084&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Mcdaid, D., Park, A.-L., &amp; Wahlbeck, K.. (2019). The Economic Case for the Prevention of Mental Illness. ''Annual Review of Public Health'', ''40''(1), 373–389. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-013629&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Sauter, S., Lim, S., &amp; Murphy, L. (1996). Organizational health: A new paradigm for occupational stress research at NIOSH. ''Japanese Journal of Occupational Mental Health'', 4, 248-254

==External links==

# [https://www.allianz.com.au/images/internet/aalaus/Allianz_Awareness_Into_Action.pdf Awareness into action: A holistic approach to cultivating mentally healthy workplaces in Australia] (Allianz Australia)
# [https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ca/Documents/about-deloitte/ca-en-about-blueprint-for-workplace-mental-health-final-aoda.pdf Deloitte insights] (Deloitte)
# [http://www.mentalhealthpromotion.net/?i=portal.en.enmhp-news.2900 Economic analysis of workplace mental health promotion and mental disorder prevention programmes and of their potential contribution to EU health, social and economic policy objectives]
# [https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/20871/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit.pdf Mentally healthy workplaces toolkit] (WorkSafe Queensland)
# [https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/model-code-practice-managing-psychosocial-hazards-work Model Code of Practice: Managing psychosocial hazards at work] (Safe work Australia)
# [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace/9-attributes-of-a-healthy-workplace Nine attributes of a healthy workplace] (Beyond Blue: Heads Up)
# [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace What is a healthy workplace?] (Heads Up)
# [https://www.sira.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0015/1011363/When-Size-Matters-Creating-Mentally-Healthy-Workplaces.pdf When size matters: Creating mentally healthy workplaces.] (University of Newcastle)

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==Overview==
Most people spend one-third of their working lives at work or in work-related activities. Challenging modern-day work environments and conditions can strain the workforce's psychological well-being. Hundreds of millions of people attend work every day with mental health issues. For some, it may be a temporary effect, while for others, it can be a life-long condition. Workplace-related mental health problems are common and disabling, causing significant emotional, physical, and mental health problems for employees, decreasing productivity and increasing employers' economic loss (Mcdaid et al., 2019). According to The Productivity Commission report on workplace mental health (2020), the economic cost of reduced participation and absenteeism alone was more than two billion dollars to employers. One Canadian research by [https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ca/Documents/about-deloitte/ca-en-about-blueprint-for-workplace-mental-health-final-aoda.pdf Deloitte] found the return on investment on mental health training CA$2.18, while another [http://www.mentalhealthpromotion.net/?i=portal.en.enmhp-news.2900 European study] suggests that figure as high as $13.62 for every $1 spent on training. As much as an individual is responsible for their health, the employer must also be responsible for the empathetic caring of employees. The costs to organisations are significantly higher than those involved in developing resilience and mental toughness programmes for employees. Improved mental health and illness prevention programmes can help employees stay at work for longer and increase productivity, resulting in social and economic benefits for individuals, employers, and the country (Mcdaid et al., 2019). One Australian countrywide study by [https://www.allianz.com.au/images/internet/aalaus/Allianz_Awareness_Into_Action.pdf Allianz Group] found that companies, government and mental health experts have made significant gains in addressing the issue, but a lot more needs to be done. This report suggests that considering the significant costs involved with mental health issues, it must be treated as a business priority. Future interventions must also consider the globalised work culture and culturally diverse people in the workforce because the 'One size fits all' approach will not work in the new work environment.   

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is workplace mental health?
* What are the workplace mental health training techniques? 
* What ia the current impacts of these techniques?
* What is the future of workplace mental health training?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{robelbox|theme=6|width=100%|title=Case study 1}} 
  &lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Ruth is ruminating about work and finds it difficult to sleep.  During the journey to work Ruth begins to experience panic attacks.  Whilst at work she feels scrutinised and unsupported.  Recently during meetings she has started to forget what she was going to say.  Ruth begins to feels angry and vulnerable, and feels like a failure at work.
 &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
{{robelbox|theme=6|width=100%|title=Case study 2}} 
  &lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Peter has regular meetings with his workplace mentor. Through the &quot;well-at-work&quot; program, Peter began attending training and started using web-based resources. Peter liaised with his workplace health officer to amend any practices hindering his MH. He felt listened to and through this empathetic process his apprehensions reduced. Peter now sleeps better and feels a more valued part of the organisation. 
 &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
==Workplace mental health==
Workplace mental health is an approach to address mental health wellbeing of the employees in their respective workplaces. The onus is on employees to build resilience amongst themselves as well as the employers to foster mental toughness and provide an environment that supports mental wellbeing of the employees.  [[File:Alysha-rosly-6GZQo28ecoE-unsplash.jpg|thumb|413x413px|Creating a mentally healthy workplace.Image by Alysha Rosly]]

=== What is a mentally healthy workplace? ===
One of the early description of a mentally healthy workplace was, an organisation that&lt;blockquote&gt;'''''“maximizes the integration of worker goals for well-being and company objectives for profitability and productivity”''''' 

Sauter et al. (1996)&lt;/blockquote&gt;With more research and understanding on the issue in recent years the definition of mentally healthy workplace has evolved. '[https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace Heads Up]' an Australian organisation that provides tools to create mentally healthy workplaces defines mentally healthy workplace as - A workplace that fosters a culture that encourages positive mental health and wellbeing, supports employees with mental health conditions, and has a zero-tolerance policy for discrimination will help employees and the organisation become more resilient. 

[https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/safety-and-prevention/mental-health/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit#:~:text=A%20mentally%20healthy%20workplace%20is,and%20assessment%20of%20psychosocial%20hazards WorkSafe Queensland] takes almost a similar approach and describes a mentally healthy workplace in its [https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/20871/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit.pdf toolkit] as the one that:

* Promotes practices that support positive mental health
* Reduces and eliminates psychological hazards
* Trains employees to be resilient and thrive in mentally tough conditions
* Creates positive environment by addressing stigma and discrimination
* Supports the recovery and rehabilitation after the illness
According to Kelloway (2017) workplace mental health is based on four general principles:
* Corporate commitment to improving psychological health and safety
* Leadership commitment to the issue
* Employee involvement in the identification of workplace issues and the design of intervention programs
* Confidentiality of individuals

=== Healthy workplace practices ===
A meta study by Grawitch et al. (2006) identified five key features of a healthy workplace:

* Work-life balance
* Employee growth and development
* Health and safety
* Recognition,
* Employee involvement

Further research has expanded these to a comprehensive list of nine key elements. Beyond Blue's Heads Up program identifies [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace/9-attributes-of-a-healthy-workplace nine attributes of a healthy workplace] as:

* Prioritising mental health: To increase understanding, promote open communication, and raise awareness among all staff levels, provide mental health education.
* Trusting fair and respectful culture: Give staff members at all levels the abilities to communicate with coworkers, clients, and the general public in an honest and respectful manner.
* Open and honest leadership: Give team members a sense of shared purpose in the organisation's goals by practising effective leadership.
* Good job design: Make sure people are physically safe, match job roles to their skills, and provide flexible work schedules.
* Workload management: Set goals that are achievable within a reasonable amount of time with the help of resources that are already available.
* Employee development: Create an environment where staff members receive regular, two-way feedback and are also supported, trained, recognised, and rewarded.
* Inclusion and influence: Make arrangements so that employees have control over how they work and participate in organisational decision making.
* Work/life balance: Recognise the value of work-life balance and give employees the chance to strike a balance between obligations to family, career, and personal life.
* Mental health support: Make sure that, whatever the cause, managers and staff are sensitive to employees' mental health issues, and that accommodations at work and counselling support are readily available.

=== Psychological hazards ===
Not only are there physical characteristics, but also psychological and cultural traits that define healthy workplaces. Psychosocial hazards are workplace conditions that have the potential to harm mental health. Physical harm can also result from these risks. Different workplaces may present different psychological risks.Safe Work Australia has provided an extensive list of psychological hazards in their [https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/model-code-practice-managing-psychosocial-hazards-work Model Code of Practice: Managing psychosocial hazards at work].

Some of the common risk factors found in workplaces, according to Safe Work research, include:

* High work demands
* Low control over work conditions
* Poor managerial/supervisory support
* Lack of role clarity
* Poor management
* Unsatisfactory reward and recognition system
* Traumatic events
* Poor physical environment (ergonomics)
* Violence/aggression or bullying
* Harassment/sexual harassment
* Workplace conflicts

Stress, job burnout, and mental ill health are just a few of the effects on psychological health that can result from poorly managed psychosocial hazards.

== Workplace mental health training ==

=== How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? ===
The definition of healthy workplace is based on two underlying assumptions ( First, it assumes that it is possible to identify the key characteristics of a healthy workplace based on a set of job and organizational factors. The second assumption is that the establishment of a healthy workplace leads to a healthier and more productive workforce, which translates into increased productivity and a competitive advantage for the organization.

==== Individual factors ====

===== Individual competence =====

===== Intervention =====

===== Training =====
Building knowledge and skills

===== Self-improvements =====
Mindfulness

Yoga

Meditation

=== Corporate responsibilities ===

===== Staff training =====

===== Ergonomics =====

===== Ongoing support =====

===== Cultural competency =====

===== Mental health warden =====

== Current WMHT techniques employed at workplaces ==

=== Three pillars of improving mental health in the workplace ===

==== Prevention ====

==== Intervention ====

==== Accomodation ====

=== Impact of these techniques so far ===

== Future ==

== Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

# [https://theconversation.com/5-strategies-employers-can-use-to-address-workplace-mental-health-issues-173818?gclid=Cj0KCQjw0oyYBhDGARIsAMZEuMstjNZpAh8JOFZMX2kghAHZiaMbhCeZLTOxDi9tx6ben4wg1JxRoSoaAodwEALw_wcB 5 strategies employers can use to address workplace mental health issues] (The Conversation)
# [https://www.apa.org/topics/workplace/improve-employee-mental-health 5 ways to improve employee mental health] (American Psychological Association)
# [https://www.healthierwork.act.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Guide-to-Promoting-Health-and-Wellbeing-in-the-Workplace-2016.pdf Guide to promoting health and wellbeing in the workplace]. (ACT Government)
# [[Happiness/Have a Happy Job|Happiness/ Have a happy job]]. (Wikiversity)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Negative emotion in the workplace|Negative emotions in the workplace]] (Book chapter 2018)
# [https://www.hospitalhealth.com.au/content/aged-allied-health/article/why-empowerment-is-key-for-mental-health-gains-and-recovery-1644648024 Why empowerment is key for mental health gains and recovery] (Hospital and Healthcare)
# [https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/08/workplace-wellbeing-mental-health-new-zealand/ Why it’s more important than ever for workplaces to have staff well-being plans] (The World Economic Forum)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Workplace mental health#Workplace mental health|Workplace mental health]] (Book chapter 2020)
# [https://www.peopleatwork.gov.au/webcopy/healthhazards Psychosocial hazards and factors] (Australian Government: Comcare)

==References==

# Grawitch, Gottschalk, M., &amp; Munz, D. C. (2006). The path to a healthy workplace: A critical review linking healthy workplace practices, employee well-being, and organizational improvements. Consulting Psychology Journal, 58(3), 129–147. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/1065-9293.58.3.129&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Kelloway E. K. (2017). Mental health in the workplace: Towards evidence-based practice. ''Canadian Psychology = Psychologie Canadienne'', ''58''(1), 1–6. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000084&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Mcdaid, D., Park, A.-L., &amp; Wahlbeck, K.. (2019). The Economic Case for the Prevention of Mental Illness. ''Annual Review of Public Health'', ''40''(1), 373–389. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-013629&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Sauter, S., Lim, S., &amp; Murphy, L. (1996). Organizational health: A new paradigm for occupational stress research at NIOSH. ''Japanese Journal of Occupational Mental Health'', 4, 248-254

==External links==

# [https://www.allianz.com.au/images/internet/aalaus/Allianz_Awareness_Into_Action.pdf Awareness into action: A holistic approach to cultivating mentally healthy workplaces in Australia] (Allianz Australia)
# [https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ca/Documents/about-deloitte/ca-en-about-blueprint-for-workplace-mental-health-final-aoda.pdf Deloitte insights] (Deloitte)
# [http://www.mentalhealthpromotion.net/?i=portal.en.enmhp-news.2900 Economic analysis of workplace mental health promotion and mental disorder prevention programmes and of their potential contribution to EU health, social and economic policy objectives]
# [https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/20871/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit.pdf Mentally healthy workplaces toolkit] (WorkSafe Queensland)
# [https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/model-code-practice-managing-psychosocial-hazards-work Model Code of Practice: Managing psychosocial hazards at work] (Safe work Australia)
# [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace/9-attributes-of-a-healthy-workplace Nine attributes of a healthy workplace] (Beyond Blue: Heads Up)
# [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace What is a healthy workplace?] (Heads Up)
# [https://www.sira.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0015/1011363/When-Size-Matters-Creating-Mentally-Healthy-Workplaces.pdf When size matters: Creating mentally healthy workplaces.] (University of Newcastle)

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__TOC__

==Overview==
Most people spend one-third of their working lives at work or in work-related activities. Challenging modern-day work environments and conditions can strain the workforce's psychological well-being. Hundreds of millions of people attend work every day with mental health issues. For some, it may be a temporary effect, while for others, it can be a life-long condition. Workplace-related mental health problems are common and disabling, causing significant emotional, physical, and mental health problems for employees, decreasing productivity and increasing employers' economic loss (Mcdaid et al., 2019). According to The Productivity Commission report on workplace mental health (2020), the economic cost of reduced participation and absenteeism alone was more than two billion dollars to employers. One Canadian research by [https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ca/Documents/about-deloitte/ca-en-about-blueprint-for-workplace-mental-health-final-aoda.pdf Deloitte] found the return on investment on mental health training CA$2.18, while another [http://www.mentalhealthpromotion.net/?i=portal.en.enmhp-news.2900 European study] suggests that figure as high as $13.62 for every $1 spent on training. As much as an individual is responsible for their health, the employer must also be responsible for the empathetic caring of employees. The costs to organisations are significantly higher than those involved in developing resilience and mental toughness programmes for employees. Improved mental health and illness prevention programmes can help employees stay at work for longer and increase productivity, resulting in social and economic benefits for individuals, employers, and the country (Mcdaid et al., 2019). One Australian countrywide study by [https://www.allianz.com.au/images/internet/aalaus/Allianz_Awareness_Into_Action.pdf Allianz Group] found that companies, government and mental health experts have made significant gains in addressing the issue, but a lot more needs to be done. This report suggests that considering the significant costs involved with mental health issues, it must be treated as a business priority. Future interventions must also consider the globalised work culture and culturally diverse people in the workforce because the 'One size fits all' approach will not work in the new work environment.   

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is workplace mental health?
* What are the workplace mental health training techniques? 
* What ia the current impacts of these techniques?
* What is the future of workplace mental health training?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{robelbox|theme=6|width=100%|title=Case study 1}} 
  &lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Ruth is ruminating about work and finds it difficult to sleep.  During the journey to work Ruth begins to experience panic attacks.  Whilst at work she feels scrutinised and unsupported.  Recently during meetings she has started to forget what she was going to say.  Ruth begins to feels angry and vulnerable, and feels like a failure at work.
 &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
{{robelbox|theme=6|width=100%|title=Case study 2}} 
  &lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Peter has regular meetings with his workplace mentor. Through the &quot;well-at-work&quot; program, Peter began attending training and started using web-based resources. Peter liaised with his workplace health officer to amend any practices hindering his MH. He felt listened to and through this empathetic process his apprehensions reduced. Peter now sleeps better and feels a more valued part of the organisation. 
 &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
==Workplace mental health==
Workplace mental health is an approach to address mental health wellbeing of the employees in their respective workplaces. The onus is on employees to build resilience amongst themselves as well as the employers to foster mental toughness and provide an environment that supports mental wellbeing of the employees.  [[File:Alysha-rosly-6GZQo28ecoE-unsplash.jpg|thumb|413x413px|Creating a mentally healthy workplace.Image by Alysha Rosly]]

=== What is a mentally healthy workplace? ===
One of the early description of a mentally healthy workplace was, an organisation that&lt;blockquote&gt;'''''“maximizes the integration of worker goals for well-being and company objectives for profitability and productivity”''''' 

Sauter et al. (1996)&lt;/blockquote&gt;With more research and understanding on the issue in recent years the definition of mentally healthy workplace has evolved. '[https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace Heads Up]' an Australian organisation that provides tools to create mentally healthy workplaces defines mentally healthy workplace as - A workplace that fosters a culture that encourages positive mental health and wellbeing, supports employees with mental health conditions, and has a zero-tolerance policy for discrimination will help employees and the organisation become more resilient. 

[https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/safety-and-prevention/mental-health/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit#:~:text=A%20mentally%20healthy%20workplace%20is,and%20assessment%20of%20psychosocial%20hazards WorkSafe Queensland] takes almost a similar approach and describes a mentally healthy workplace in its [https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/20871/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit.pdf toolkit] as the one that:

* Promotes practices that support positive mental health
* Reduces and eliminates psychological hazards
* Trains employees to be resilient and thrive in mentally tough conditions
* Creates positive environment by addressing stigma and discrimination
* Supports the recovery and rehabilitation after the illness
According to Kelloway (2017) workplace mental health is based on four general principles:
* Corporate commitment to improving psychological health and safety
* Leadership commitment to the issue
* Employee involvement in the identification of workplace issues and the design of intervention programs
* Confidentiality of individuals

=== Healthy workplace practices ===
A meta study by Grawitch et al. (2006) identified five key features of a healthy workplace:

* Work-life balance
* Employee growth and development
* Health and safety
* Recognition,
* Employee involvement

Further research has expanded these to a comprehensive list of nine key elements. Beyond Blue's Heads Up program identifies [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace/9-attributes-of-a-healthy-workplace nine attributes of a healthy workplace] as:

* Prioritising mental health: To increase understanding, promote open communication, and raise awareness among all staff levels, provide mental health education.
* Trusting fair and respectful culture: Give staff members at all levels the abilities to communicate with coworkers, clients, and the general public in an honest and respectful manner.
* Open and honest leadership: Give team members a sense of shared purpose in the organisation's goals by practising effective leadership.
* Good job design: Make sure people are physically safe, match job roles to their skills, and provide flexible work schedules.
* Workload management: Set goals that are achievable within a reasonable amount of time with the help of resources that are already available.
* Employee development: Create an environment where staff members receive regular, two-way feedback and are also supported, trained, recognised, and rewarded.
* Inclusion and influence: Make arrangements so that employees have control over how they work and participate in organisational decision making.
* Work/life balance: Recognise the value of work-life balance and give employees the chance to strike a balance between obligations to family, career, and personal life.
* Mental health support: Make sure that, whatever the cause, managers and staff are sensitive to employees' mental health issues, and that accommodations at work and counselling support are readily available.

=== Psychological hazards ===
Not only are there physical characteristics, but also psychological and cultural traits that define healthy workplaces. Psychosocial hazards are workplace conditions that have the potential to harm mental health. Physical harm can also result from these risks. Different workplaces may present different psychological risks.Safe Work Australia has provided an extensive list of psychological hazards in their [https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/model-code-practice-managing-psychosocial-hazards-work Model Code of Practice: Managing psychosocial hazards at work].

Some of the common risk factors found in workplaces, according to Safe Work research, include:

* High work demands
* Low control over work conditions
* Poor managerial/supervisory support
* Lack of role clarity
* Poor management
* Unsatisfactory reward and recognition system
* Traumatic events
* Poor physical environment (ergonomics)
* Violence/aggression or bullying
* Harassment/sexual harassment
* Workplace conflicts

Stress, job burnout, and mental ill health are just a few of the effects on psychological health that can result from poorly managed psychosocial hazards.

== Workplace mental health training ==

=== How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? ===
The definition of healthy workplace is based on two underlying assumptions ( First, it assumes that it is possible to identify the key characteristics of a healthy workplace based on a set of job and organizational factors. The second assumption is that the establishment of a healthy workplace leads to a healthier and more productive workforce, which translates into increased productivity and a competitive advantage for the organization.

==== Individual factors ====

===== Individual competence =====

===== Intervention =====

===== Training =====
Building knowledge and skills

===== Self-improvements =====
Mindfulness

Yoga

Meditation

==== Corporate responsibilities ====

===== Staff training =====

===== Ergonomics =====

===== Ongoing support =====

===== Cultural competency =====

===== Mental health warden =====

== Current WMHT techniques employed at workplaces ==

=== Three pillars of improving mental health in the workplace ===

==== Prevention ====

==== Intervention ====

==== Accomodation ====

=== Impact of these techniques so far ===

== Future ==

== Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

# [https://theconversation.com/5-strategies-employers-can-use-to-address-workplace-mental-health-issues-173818?gclid=Cj0KCQjw0oyYBhDGARIsAMZEuMstjNZpAh8JOFZMX2kghAHZiaMbhCeZLTOxDi9tx6ben4wg1JxRoSoaAodwEALw_wcB 5 strategies employers can use to address workplace mental health issues] (The Conversation)
# [https://www.apa.org/topics/workplace/improve-employee-mental-health 5 ways to improve employee mental health] (American Psychological Association)
# [https://www.healthierwork.act.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Guide-to-Promoting-Health-and-Wellbeing-in-the-Workplace-2016.pdf Guide to promoting health and wellbeing in the workplace]. (ACT Government)
# [[Happiness/Have a Happy Job|Happiness/ Have a happy job]]. (Wikiversity)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Negative emotion in the workplace|Negative emotions in the workplace]] (Book chapter 2018)
# [https://www.hospitalhealth.com.au/content/aged-allied-health/article/why-empowerment-is-key-for-mental-health-gains-and-recovery-1644648024 Why empowerment is key for mental health gains and recovery] (Hospital and Healthcare)
# [https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/08/workplace-wellbeing-mental-health-new-zealand/ Why it’s more important than ever for workplaces to have staff well-being plans] (The World Economic Forum)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Workplace mental health#Workplace mental health|Workplace mental health]] (Book chapter 2020)
# [https://www.peopleatwork.gov.au/webcopy/healthhazards Psychosocial hazards and factors] (Australian Government: Comcare)

==References==

# Grawitch, Gottschalk, M., &amp; Munz, D. C. (2006). The path to a healthy workplace: A critical review linking healthy workplace practices, employee well-being, and organizational improvements. Consulting Psychology Journal, 58(3), 129–147. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/1065-9293.58.3.129&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Kelloway E. K. (2017). Mental health in the workplace: Towards evidence-based practice. ''Canadian Psychology = Psychologie Canadienne'', ''58''(1), 1–6. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000084&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Mcdaid, D., Park, A.-L., &amp; Wahlbeck, K.. (2019). The Economic Case for the Prevention of Mental Illness. ''Annual Review of Public Health'', ''40''(1), 373–389. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-013629&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Sauter, S., Lim, S., &amp; Murphy, L. (1996). Organizational health: A new paradigm for occupational stress research at NIOSH. ''Japanese Journal of Occupational Mental Health'', 4, 248-254

==External links==

# [https://www.allianz.com.au/images/internet/aalaus/Allianz_Awareness_Into_Action.pdf Awareness into action: A holistic approach to cultivating mentally healthy workplaces in Australia] (Allianz Australia)
# [https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ca/Documents/about-deloitte/ca-en-about-blueprint-for-workplace-mental-health-final-aoda.pdf Deloitte insights] (Deloitte)
# [http://www.mentalhealthpromotion.net/?i=portal.en.enmhp-news.2900 Economic analysis of workplace mental health promotion and mental disorder prevention programmes and of their potential contribution to EU health, social and economic policy objectives]
# [https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/20871/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit.pdf Mentally healthy workplaces toolkit] (WorkSafe Queensland)
# [https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/model-code-practice-managing-psychosocial-hazards-work Model Code of Practice: Managing psychosocial hazards at work] (Safe work Australia)
# [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace/9-attributes-of-a-healthy-workplace Nine attributes of a healthy workplace] (Beyond Blue: Heads Up)
# [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace What is a healthy workplace?] (Heads Up)
# [https://www.sira.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0015/1011363/When-Size-Matters-Creating-Mentally-Healthy-Workplaces.pdf When size matters: Creating mentally healthy workplaces.] (University of Newcastle)

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__TOC__

==Overview==
Most people spend one-third of their working lives at work or in work-related activities. Challenging modern-day work environments and conditions can strain the workforce's psychological well-being. Hundreds of millions of people attend work every day with mental health issues. For some, it may be a temporary effect, while for others, it can be a life-long condition. Workplace-related mental health problems are common and disabling, causing significant emotional, physical, and mental health problems for employees, decreasing productivity and increasing employers' economic loss (Mcdaid et al., 2019). According to The Productivity Commission report on workplace mental health (2020), the economic cost of reduced participation and absenteeism alone was more than two billion dollars to employers. One Canadian research by [https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ca/Documents/about-deloitte/ca-en-about-blueprint-for-workplace-mental-health-final-aoda.pdf Deloitte] found the return on investment on mental health training CA$2.18, while another [http://www.mentalhealthpromotion.net/?i=portal.en.enmhp-news.2900 European study] suggests that figure as high as $13.62 for every $1 spent on training. As much as an individual is responsible for their health, the employer must also be responsible for the empathetic caring of employees. The costs to organisations are significantly higher than those involved in developing resilience and mental toughness programmes for employees. Improved mental health and illness prevention programmes can help employees stay at work for longer and increase productivity, resulting in social and economic benefits for individuals, employers, and the country (Mcdaid et al., 2019). One Australian countrywide study by [https://www.allianz.com.au/images/internet/aalaus/Allianz_Awareness_Into_Action.pdf Allianz Group] found that companies, government and mental health experts have made significant gains in addressing the issue, but a lot more needs to be done. This report suggests that considering the significant costs involved with mental health issues, it must be treated as a business priority. Future interventions must also consider the globalised work culture and culturally diverse people in the workforce because the 'One size fits all' approach will not work in the new work environment.   

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is workplace mental health?
* What are the workplace mental health training techniques? 
* What ia the current impacts of these techniques?
* What is the future of workplace mental health training?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{robelbox|theme=6|width=100%|title=Case study 1}} 
  &lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Ruth is ruminating about work and finds it difficult to sleep.  During the journey to work Ruth begins to experience panic attacks.  Whilst at work she feels scrutinised and unsupported.  Recently during meetings she has started to forget what she was going to say.  Ruth begins to feels angry and vulnerable, and feels like a failure at work.
 &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
{{robelbox|theme=6|width=100%|title=Case study 2}} 
  &lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Peter has regular meetings with his workplace mentor. Through the &quot;well-at-work&quot; program, Peter began attending training and started using web-based resources. Peter liaised with his workplace health officer to amend any practices hindering his MH. He felt listened to and through this empathetic process his apprehensions reduced. Peter now sleeps better and feels a more valued part of the organisation. 
 &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
==Workplace mental health==
Workplace mental health is an approach to address mental health wellbeing of the employees in their respective workplaces. The onus is on employees to build resilience amongst themselves as well as the employers to foster mental toughness and provide an environment that supports mental wellbeing of the employees.  [[File:Alysha-rosly-6GZQo28ecoE-unsplash.jpg|thumb|413x413px|Creating a mentally healthy workplace.Image by Alysha Rosly]]

=== What is a mentally healthy workplace? ===
One of the early description of a mentally healthy workplace was, an organisation that&lt;blockquote&gt;'''''“maximizes the integration of worker goals for well-being and company objectives for profitability and productivity”''''' 

Sauter et al. (1996)&lt;/blockquote&gt;With more research and understanding on the issue in recent years the definition of mentally healthy workplace has evolved. '[https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace Heads Up]' an Australian organisation that provides tools to create mentally healthy workplaces defines mentally healthy workplace as - A workplace that fosters a culture that encourages positive mental health and wellbeing, supports employees with mental health conditions, and has a zero-tolerance policy for discrimination will help employees and the organisation become more resilient. 

[https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/safety-and-prevention/mental-health/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit#:~:text=A%20mentally%20healthy%20workplace%20is,and%20assessment%20of%20psychosocial%20hazards WorkSafe Queensland] takes almost a similar approach and describes a mentally healthy workplace in its [https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/20871/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit.pdf toolkit] as the one that:

* Promotes practices that support positive mental health
* Reduces and eliminates psychological hazards
* Trains employees to be resilient and thrive in mentally tough conditions
* Creates positive environment by addressing stigma and discrimination
* Supports the recovery and rehabilitation after the illness
According to Kelloway (2017) workplace mental health is based on four general principles:
* Corporate commitment to improving psychological health and safety
* Leadership commitment to the issue
* Employee involvement in the identification of workplace issues and the design of intervention programs
* Confidentiality of individuals

=== Healthy workplace practices ===
A meta study by Grawitch et al. (2006) identified five key features of a healthy workplace:

* Work-life balance
* Employee growth and development
* Health and safety
* Recognition,
* Employee involvement

Further research has expanded these to a comprehensive list of nine key elements. Beyond Blue's Heads Up program identifies [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace/9-attributes-of-a-healthy-workplace nine attributes of a healthy workplace] as:

* Prioritising mental health: To increase understanding, promote open communication, and raise awareness among all staff levels, provide mental health education.
* Trusting fair and respectful culture: Give staff members at all levels the abilities to communicate with coworkers, clients, and the general public in an honest and respectful manner.
* Open and honest leadership: Give team members a sense of shared purpose in the organisation's goals by practising effective leadership.
* Good job design: Make sure people are physically safe, match job roles to their skills, and provide flexible work schedules.
* Workload management: Set goals that are achievable within a reasonable amount of time with the help of resources that are already available.
* Employee development: Create an environment where staff members receive regular, two-way feedback and are also supported, trained, recognised, and rewarded.
* Inclusion and influence: Make arrangements so that employees have control over how they work and participate in organisational decision making.
* Work/life balance: Recognise the value of work-life balance and give employees the chance to strike a balance between obligations to family, career, and personal life.
* Mental health support: Make sure that, whatever the cause, managers and staff are sensitive to employees' mental health issues, and that accommodations at work and counselling support are readily available.

=== Psychological hazards ===
Not only are there physical characteristics, but also psychological and cultural traits that define healthy workplaces. Psychosocial hazards are workplace conditions that have the potential to harm mental health. Physical harm can also result from these risks. Different workplaces may present different psychological risks.Safe Work Australia has provided an extensive list of psychological hazards in their [https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/model-code-practice-managing-psychosocial-hazards-work Model Code of Practice: Managing psychosocial hazards at work].

Some of the common risk factors found in workplaces, according to Safe Work research, include:

* High work demands
* Low control over work conditions
* Poor managerial/supervisory support
* Lack of role clarity
* Poor management
* Unsatisfactory reward and recognition system
* Traumatic events
* Poor physical environment (ergonomics)
* Violence/aggression or bullying
* Harassment/sexual harassment
* Workplace conflicts

Stress, job burnout, and mental ill health are just a few of the effects on psychological health that can result from poorly managed psychosocial hazards.

== Workplace mental health training ==

=== How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? ===
The definition of healthy workplace is based on two underlying assumptions ( First, it assumes that it is possible to identify the key characteristics of a healthy workplace based on a set of job and organizational factors. The second assumption is that the establishment of a healthy workplace leads to a healthier and more productive workforce, which translates into increased productivity and a competitive advantage for the organization.

==== Individual factors ====

===== Individual competence =====

===== Intervention =====

===== Training =====
Building knowledge and skills

===== Self-improvements =====
Mindfulness

Yoga

Meditation

==== Corporate responsibilities ====

===== Staff training =====

===== Ergonomics =====

===== Ongoing support =====

===== Cultural competency =====

===== Mental health warden =====

=== Current WMHT techniques employed at workplaces ===

==== Three pillars of improving mental health in the workplace ====

===== Prevention =====

===== Intervention =====

===== Accomodation =====

==== Impact of these techniques so far ====

== Future ==

== Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

# [https://theconversation.com/5-strategies-employers-can-use-to-address-workplace-mental-health-issues-173818?gclid=Cj0KCQjw0oyYBhDGARIsAMZEuMstjNZpAh8JOFZMX2kghAHZiaMbhCeZLTOxDi9tx6ben4wg1JxRoSoaAodwEALw_wcB 5 strategies employers can use to address workplace mental health issues] (The Conversation)
# [https://www.apa.org/topics/workplace/improve-employee-mental-health 5 ways to improve employee mental health] (American Psychological Association)
# [https://www.healthierwork.act.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Guide-to-Promoting-Health-and-Wellbeing-in-the-Workplace-2016.pdf Guide to promoting health and wellbeing in the workplace]. (ACT Government)
# [[Happiness/Have a Happy Job|Happiness/ Have a happy job]]. (Wikiversity)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Negative emotion in the workplace|Negative emotions in the workplace]] (Book chapter 2018)
# [https://www.hospitalhealth.com.au/content/aged-allied-health/article/why-empowerment-is-key-for-mental-health-gains-and-recovery-1644648024 Why empowerment is key for mental health gains and recovery] (Hospital and Healthcare)
# [https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/08/workplace-wellbeing-mental-health-new-zealand/ Why it’s more important than ever for workplaces to have staff well-being plans] (The World Economic Forum)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Workplace mental health#Workplace mental health|Workplace mental health]] (Book chapter 2020)
# [https://www.peopleatwork.gov.au/webcopy/healthhazards Psychosocial hazards and factors] (Australian Government: Comcare)

==References==

# Grawitch, Gottschalk, M., &amp; Munz, D. C. (2006). The path to a healthy workplace: A critical review linking healthy workplace practices, employee well-being, and organizational improvements. Consulting Psychology Journal, 58(3), 129–147. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/1065-9293.58.3.129&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Kelloway E. K. (2017). Mental health in the workplace: Towards evidence-based practice. ''Canadian Psychology = Psychologie Canadienne'', ''58''(1), 1–6. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000084&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Mcdaid, D., Park, A.-L., &amp; Wahlbeck, K.. (2019). The Economic Case for the Prevention of Mental Illness. ''Annual Review of Public Health'', ''40''(1), 373–389. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-013629&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Sauter, S., Lim, S., &amp; Murphy, L. (1996). Organizational health: A new paradigm for occupational stress research at NIOSH. ''Japanese Journal of Occupational Mental Health'', 4, 248-254

==External links==

# [https://www.allianz.com.au/images/internet/aalaus/Allianz_Awareness_Into_Action.pdf Awareness into action: A holistic approach to cultivating mentally healthy workplaces in Australia] (Allianz Australia)
# [https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ca/Documents/about-deloitte/ca-en-about-blueprint-for-workplace-mental-health-final-aoda.pdf Deloitte insights] (Deloitte)
# [http://www.mentalhealthpromotion.net/?i=portal.en.enmhp-news.2900 Economic analysis of workplace mental health promotion and mental disorder prevention programmes and of their potential contribution to EU health, social and economic policy objectives]
# [https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/20871/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit.pdf Mentally healthy workplaces toolkit] (WorkSafe Queensland)
# [https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/model-code-practice-managing-psychosocial-hazards-work Model Code of Practice: Managing psychosocial hazards at work] (Safe work Australia)
# [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace/9-attributes-of-a-healthy-workplace Nine attributes of a healthy workplace] (Beyond Blue: Heads Up)
# [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace What is a healthy workplace?] (Heads Up)
# [https://www.sira.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0015/1011363/When-Size-Matters-Creating-Mentally-Healthy-Workplaces.pdf When size matters: Creating mentally healthy workplaces.] (University of Newcastle)

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==Overview==
Most people spend one-third of their working lives at work or in work-related activities. Challenging modern-day work environments and conditions can strain the workforce's psychological well-being. Hundreds of millions of people attend work every day with mental health issues. For some, it may be a temporary effect, while for others, it can be a life-long condition. Workplace-related mental health problems are common and disabling, causing significant emotional, physical, and mental health problems for employees, decreasing productivity and increasing employers' economic loss (Mcdaid et al., 2019). According to The Productivity Commission report on workplace mental health (2020), the economic cost of reduced participation and absenteeism alone was more than two billion dollars to employers. One Canadian research by [https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ca/Documents/about-deloitte/ca-en-about-blueprint-for-workplace-mental-health-final-aoda.pdf Deloitte] found the return on investment on mental health training CA$2.18, while another [http://www.mentalhealthpromotion.net/?i=portal.en.enmhp-news.2900 European study] suggests that figure as high as $13.62 for every $1 spent on training. As much as an individual is responsible for their health, the employer must also be responsible for the empathetic caring of employees. The costs to organisations are significantly higher than those involved in developing resilience and mental toughness programmes for employees. Improved mental health and illness prevention programmes can help employees stay at work for longer and increase productivity, resulting in social and economic benefits for individuals, employers, and the country (Mcdaid et al., 2019). One Australian countrywide study by [https://www.allianz.com.au/images/internet/aalaus/Allianz_Awareness_Into_Action.pdf Allianz Group] found that companies, government and mental health experts have made significant gains in addressing the issue, but a lot more needs to be done. This report suggests that considering the significant costs involved with mental health issues, it must be treated as a business priority. Future interventions must also consider the globalised work culture and culturally diverse people in the workforce because the 'One size fits all' approach will not work in the new work environment.   

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is workplace mental health?
* What are the workplace mental health training techniques? 
* What ia the current impacts of these techniques?
* What is the future of workplace mental health training?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{robelbox|theme=6|width=100%|title=Case study 1}} 
  &lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Ruth is ruminating about work and finds it difficult to sleep.  During the journey to work Ruth begins to experience panic attacks.  Whilst at work she feels scrutinised and unsupported.  Recently during meetings she has started to forget what she was going to say.  Ruth begins to feels angry and vulnerable, and feels like a failure at work.
 &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
{{robelbox|theme=6|width=100%|title=Case study 2}} 
  &lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Peter has regular meetings with his workplace mentor. Through the &quot;well-at-work&quot; program, Peter began attending training and started using web-based resources. Peter liaised with his workplace health officer to amend any practices hindering his MH. He felt listened to and through this empathetic process his apprehensions reduced. Peter now sleeps better and feels a more valued part of the organisation. 
 &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
==Workplace mental health==
Workplace mental health is an approach to address mental health wellbeing of the employees in their respective workplaces. The onus is on employees to build resilience amongst themselves as well as the employers to foster mental toughness and provide an environment that supports mental wellbeing of the employees.  [[File:Alysha-rosly-6GZQo28ecoE-unsplash.jpg|thumb|413x413px|Creating a mentally healthy workplace.Image by Alysha Rosly]]

=== What is a mentally healthy workplace? ===
One of the early description of a mentally healthy workplace was, an organisation that&lt;blockquote&gt;'''''“maximizes the integration of worker goals for well-being and company objectives for profitability and productivity”''''' 

Sauter et al. (1996)&lt;/blockquote&gt;With more research and understanding on the issue in recent years the definition of mentally healthy workplace has evolved. '[https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace Heads Up]' an Australian organisation that provides tools to create mentally healthy workplaces defines mentally healthy workplace as - A workplace that fosters a culture that encourages positive mental health and wellbeing, supports employees with mental health conditions, and has a zero-tolerance policy for discrimination will help employees and the organisation become more resilient. 

[https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/safety-and-prevention/mental-health/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit#:~:text=A%20mentally%20healthy%20workplace%20is,and%20assessment%20of%20psychosocial%20hazards WorkSafe Queensland] takes almost a similar approach and describes a mentally healthy workplace in its [https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/20871/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit.pdf toolkit] as the one that:

* Promotes practices that support positive mental health
* Reduces and eliminates psychological hazards
* Trains employees to be resilient and thrive in mentally tough conditions
* Creates positive environment by addressing stigma and discrimination
* Supports the recovery and rehabilitation after the illness
According to Kelloway (2017) workplace mental health is based on four general principles:
* Corporate commitment to improving psychological health and safety
* Leadership commitment to the issue
* Employee involvement in the identification of workplace issues and the design of intervention programs
* Confidentiality of individuals

=== Healthy workplace practices ===
A meta study by Grawitch et al. (2006) identified five key features of a healthy workplace:

* Work-life balance
* Employee growth and development
* Health and safety
* Recognition,
* Employee involvement

Further research has expanded these to a comprehensive list of nine key elements. Beyond Blue's Heads Up program identifies [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace/9-attributes-of-a-healthy-workplace nine attributes of a healthy workplace] as:

* Prioritising mental health: To increase understanding, promote open communication, and raise awareness among all staff levels, provide mental health education.
* Trusting fair and respectful culture: Give staff members at all levels the abilities to communicate with coworkers, clients, and the general public in an honest and respectful manner.
* Open and honest leadership: Give team members a sense of shared purpose in the organisation's goals by practising effective leadership.
* Good job design: Make sure people are physically safe, match job roles to their skills, and provide flexible work schedules.
* Workload management: Set goals that are achievable within a reasonable amount of time with the help of resources that are already available.
* Employee development: Create an environment where staff members receive regular, two-way feedback and are also supported, trained, recognised, and rewarded.
* Inclusion and influence: Make arrangements so that employees have control over how they work and participate in organisational decision making.
* Work/life balance: Recognise the value of work-life balance and give employees the chance to strike a balance between obligations to family, career, and personal life.
* Mental health support: Make sure that, whatever the cause, managers and staff are sensitive to employees' mental health issues, and that accommodations at work and counselling support are readily available.

=== Psychological hazards ===
Not only are there physical characteristics, but also psychological and cultural traits that define healthy workplaces. Psychosocial hazards are workplace conditions that have the potential to harm mental health. Physical harm can also result from these risks. Different workplaces may present different psychological risks.Safe Work Australia has provided an extensive list of psychological hazards in their [https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/model-code-practice-managing-psychosocial-hazards-work Model Code of Practice: Managing psychosocial hazards at work].

Some of the common risk factors found in workplaces, according to Safe Work research, include:

* High work demands
* Low control over work conditions
* Poor managerial/supervisory support
* Lack of role clarity
* Poor management
* Unsatisfactory reward and recognition system
* Traumatic events
* Poor physical environment (ergonomics)
* Violence/aggression or bullying
* Harassment/sexual harassment
* Workplace conflicts

Stress, job burnout, and mental ill health are just a few of the effects on psychological health that can result from poorly managed psychosocial hazards.

== Workplace mental health training ==

=== How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? ===
The definition of healthy workplace is based on two underlying assumptions ( First, it assumes that it is possible to identify the key characteristics of a healthy workplace based on a set of job and organizational factors. The second assumption is that the establishment of a healthy workplace leads to a healthier and more productive workforce, which translates into increased productivity and a competitive advantage for the organization.

==== Individual factors ====

===== Individual competence =====

===== Intervention =====

===== Training =====
Building knowledge and skills

===== Self-improvements =====
Mindfulness

Yoga

Meditation

==== Corporate responsibilities ====

===== Staff training =====

===== Ergonomics =====

===== Ongoing support =====

===== Cultural competency =====

===== Mental health warden =====

=== Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training ===

=== Current WMHT techniques employed at workplaces ===

==== Three pillars of improving mental health in the workplace ====

===== Prevention =====

===== Intervention =====

===== Accomodation =====

==== Impact of these techniques so far ====

== Future ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

# [https://theconversation.com/5-strategies-employers-can-use-to-address-workplace-mental-health-issues-173818?gclid=Cj0KCQjw0oyYBhDGARIsAMZEuMstjNZpAh8JOFZMX2kghAHZiaMbhCeZLTOxDi9tx6ben4wg1JxRoSoaAodwEALw_wcB 5 strategies employers can use to address workplace mental health issues] (The Conversation)
# [https://www.apa.org/topics/workplace/improve-employee-mental-health 5 ways to improve employee mental health] (American Psychological Association)
# [https://www.healthierwork.act.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Guide-to-Promoting-Health-and-Wellbeing-in-the-Workplace-2016.pdf Guide to promoting health and wellbeing in the workplace]. (ACT Government)
# [[Happiness/Have a Happy Job|Happiness/ Have a happy job]]. (Wikiversity)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Negative emotion in the workplace|Negative emotions in the workplace]] (Book chapter 2018)
# [https://www.hospitalhealth.com.au/content/aged-allied-health/article/why-empowerment-is-key-for-mental-health-gains-and-recovery-1644648024 Why empowerment is key for mental health gains and recovery] (Hospital and Healthcare)
# [https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/08/workplace-wellbeing-mental-health-new-zealand/ Why it’s more important than ever for workplaces to have staff well-being plans] (The World Economic Forum)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Workplace mental health#Workplace mental health|Workplace mental health]] (Book chapter 2020)
# [https://www.peopleatwork.gov.au/webcopy/healthhazards Psychosocial hazards and factors] (Australian Government: Comcare)

==References==

# Grawitch, Gottschalk, M., &amp; Munz, D. C. (2006). The path to a healthy workplace: A critical review linking healthy workplace practices, employee well-being, and organizational improvements. Consulting Psychology Journal, 58(3), 129–147. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/1065-9293.58.3.129&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Kelloway E. K. (2017). Mental health in the workplace: Towards evidence-based practice. ''Canadian Psychology = Psychologie Canadienne'', ''58''(1), 1–6. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000084&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Mcdaid, D., Park, A.-L., &amp; Wahlbeck, K.. (2019). The Economic Case for the Prevention of Mental Illness. ''Annual Review of Public Health'', ''40''(1), 373–389. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-013629&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Sauter, S., Lim, S., &amp; Murphy, L. (1996). Organizational health: A new paradigm for occupational stress research at NIOSH. ''Japanese Journal of Occupational Mental Health'', 4, 248-254

==External links==

# [https://www.allianz.com.au/images/internet/aalaus/Allianz_Awareness_Into_Action.pdf Awareness into action: A holistic approach to cultivating mentally healthy workplaces in Australia] (Allianz Australia)
# [https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ca/Documents/about-deloitte/ca-en-about-blueprint-for-workplace-mental-health-final-aoda.pdf Deloitte insights] (Deloitte)
# [http://www.mentalhealthpromotion.net/?i=portal.en.enmhp-news.2900 Economic analysis of workplace mental health promotion and mental disorder prevention programmes and of their potential contribution to EU health, social and economic policy objectives]
# [https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/20871/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit.pdf Mentally healthy workplaces toolkit] (WorkSafe Queensland)
# [https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/model-code-practice-managing-psychosocial-hazards-work Model Code of Practice: Managing psychosocial hazards at work] (Safe work Australia)
# [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace/9-attributes-of-a-healthy-workplace Nine attributes of a healthy workplace] (Beyond Blue: Heads Up)
# [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace What is a healthy workplace?] (Heads Up)
# [https://www.sira.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0015/1011363/When-Size-Matters-Creating-Mentally-Healthy-Workplaces.pdf When size matters: Creating mentally healthy workplaces.] (University of Newcastle)

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__TOC__

==Overview==
Most people spend one-third of their working lives at work or in work-related activities. Challenging modern-day work environments and conditions can strain the workforce's psychological well-being. Hundreds of millions of people attend work every day with mental health issues. For some, it may be a temporary effect, while for others, it can be a life-long condition. Workplace-related mental health problems are common and disabling, causing significant emotional, physical, and mental health problems for employees, decreasing productivity and increasing employers' economic loss (Mcdaid et al., 2019). According to The Productivity Commission report on workplace mental health (2020), the economic cost of reduced participation and absenteeism alone was more than two billion dollars to employers. One Canadian research by [https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ca/Documents/about-deloitte/ca-en-about-blueprint-for-workplace-mental-health-final-aoda.pdf Deloitte] found the return on investment on mental health training CA$2.18, while another [http://www.mentalhealthpromotion.net/?i=portal.en.enmhp-news.2900 European study] suggests that figure as high as $13.62 for every $1 spent on training. As much as an individual is responsible for their health, the employer must also be responsible for the empathetic caring of employees. The costs to organisations are significantly higher than those involved in developing resilience and mental toughness programmes for employees. Improved mental health and illness prevention programmes can help employees stay at work for longer and increase productivity, resulting in social and economic benefits for individuals, employers, and the country (Mcdaid et al., 2019). One Australian countrywide study by [https://www.allianz.com.au/images/internet/aalaus/Allianz_Awareness_Into_Action.pdf Allianz Group] found that companies, government and mental health experts have made significant gains in addressing the issue, but a lot more needs to be done. This report suggests that considering the significant costs involved with mental health issues, it must be treated as a business priority. Future interventions must also consider the globalised work culture and culturally diverse people in the workforce because the 'One size fits all' approach will not work in the new work environment.   

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is workplace mental health?
* What are the workplace mental health training techniques? 
* What ia the current impacts of these techniques?
* What is the future of workplace mental health training?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{robelbox|theme=6|width=100%|title=Case study 1}} 
  &lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Ruth is ruminating about work and finds it difficult to sleep.  During the journey to work Ruth begins to experience panic attacks.  Whilst at work she feels scrutinised and unsupported.  Recently during meetings she has started to forget what she was going to say.  Ruth begins to feels angry and vulnerable, and feels like a failure at work.
 &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
{{robelbox|theme=6|width=100%|title=Case study 2}} 
  &lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Peter has regular meetings with his workplace mentor. Through the &quot;well-at-work&quot; program, Peter began attending training and started using web-based resources. Peter liaised with his workplace health officer to amend any practices hindering his MH. He felt listened to and through this empathetic process his apprehensions reduced. Peter now sleeps better and feels a more valued part of the organisation. 
 &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
==Workplace mental health==
Workplace mental health is an approach to address mental health wellbeing of the employees in their respective workplaces. The onus is on employees to build resilience amongst themselves as well as the employers to foster mental toughness and provide an environment that supports mental wellbeing of the employees.  [[File:Alysha-rosly-6GZQo28ecoE-unsplash.jpg|thumb|413x413px|Creating a mentally healthy workplace.Image by Alysha Rosly]]

=== What is a mentally healthy workplace? ===
One of the early description of a mentally healthy workplace was, an organisation that&lt;blockquote&gt;'''''“maximizes the integration of worker goals for well-being and company objectives for profitability and productivity”''''' 

Sauter et al. (1996)&lt;/blockquote&gt;With more research and understanding on the issue in recent years the definition of mentally healthy workplace has evolved. '[https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace Heads Up]' an Australian organisation that provides tools to create mentally healthy workplaces defines mentally healthy workplace as - A workplace that fosters a culture that encourages positive mental health and wellbeing, supports employees with mental health conditions, and has a zero-tolerance policy for discrimination will help employees and the organisation become more resilient. 

[https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/safety-and-prevention/mental-health/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit#:~:text=A%20mentally%20healthy%20workplace%20is,and%20assessment%20of%20psychosocial%20hazards WorkSafe Queensland] takes almost a similar approach and describes a mentally healthy workplace in its [https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/20871/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit.pdf toolkit] as the one that:

* Promotes practices that support positive mental health
* Reduces and eliminates psychological hazards
* Trains employees to be resilient and thrive in mentally tough conditions
* Creates positive environment by addressing stigma and discrimination
* Supports the recovery and rehabilitation after the illness
According to Kelloway (2017) workplace mental health is based on four general principles:
* Corporate commitment to improving psychological health and safety
* Leadership commitment to the issue
* Employee involvement in the identification of workplace issues and the design of intervention programs
* Confidentiality of individuals

=== Healthy workplace practices ===
A meta study by Grawitch et al. (2006) identified five key features of a healthy workplace:

* Work-life balance
* Employee growth and development
* Health and safety
* Recognition,
* Employee involvement

Further research has expanded these to a comprehensive list of nine key elements. Beyond Blue's Heads Up program identifies [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace/9-attributes-of-a-healthy-workplace nine attributes of a healthy workplace] as:

* Prioritising mental health: To increase understanding, promote open communication, and raise awareness among all staff levels, provide mental health education.
* Trusting fair and respectful culture: Give staff members at all levels the abilities to communicate with coworkers, clients, and the general public in an honest and respectful manner.
* Open and honest leadership: Give team members a sense of shared purpose in the organisation's goals by practising effective leadership.
* Good job design: Make sure people are physically safe, match job roles to their skills, and provide flexible work schedules.
* Workload management: Set goals that are achievable within a reasonable amount of time with the help of resources that are already available.
* Employee development: Create an environment where staff members receive regular, two-way feedback and are also supported, trained, recognised, and rewarded.
* Inclusion and influence: Make arrangements so that employees have control over how they work and participate in organisational decision making.
* Work/life balance: Recognise the value of work-life balance and give employees the chance to strike a balance between obligations to family, career, and personal life.
* Mental health support: Make sure that, whatever the cause, managers and staff are sensitive to employees' mental health issues, and that accommodations at work and counselling support are readily available.

=== Psychological hazards ===
Not only are there physical characteristics, but also psychological and cultural traits that define healthy workplaces. Psychosocial hazards are workplace conditions that have the potential to harm mental health. Physical harm can also result from these risks. Different workplaces may present different psychological risks.Safe Work Australia has provided an extensive list of psychological hazards in their [https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/model-code-practice-managing-psychosocial-hazards-work Model Code of Practice: Managing psychosocial hazards at work].

Some of the common risk factors found in workplaces, according to Safe Work research, include:

* High work demands
* Low control over work conditions
* Poor managerial/supervisory support
* Lack of role clarity
* Poor management
* Unsatisfactory reward and recognition system
* Traumatic events
* Poor physical environment (ergonomics)
* Violence/aggression or bullying
* Harassment/sexual harassment
* Workplace conflicts

Stress, job burnout, and mental ill health are just a few of the effects on psychological health that can result from poorly managed psychosocial hazards.

== Workplace mental health training ==

=== How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? ===
The definition of healthy workplace is based on two underlying assumptions ( First, it assumes that it is possible to identify the key characteristics of a healthy workplace based on a set of job and organizational factors. The second assumption is that the establishment of a healthy workplace leads to a healthier and more productive workforce, which translates into increased productivity and a competitive advantage for the organization.

==== Individual factors ====

===== Individual competence =====

===== Intervention =====

===== Training =====
Building knowledge and skills

===== Self-improvements =====
Mindfulness

Yoga

Meditation

==== Corporate responsibilities ====

===== Staff training =====

===== Ergonomics =====

===== Ongoing support =====

===== Cultural competency =====

===== Mental health warden =====

=== Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training ===

=== Current WMHT techniques employed at workplaces ===

==== Three pillars of improving mental health in the workplace ====

===== Prevention =====

===== Intervention =====

===== Accomodation =====

==== Impact of these techniques so far ====

== Future ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Take home message===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}Message{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

# [https://theconversation.com/5-strategies-employers-can-use-to-address-workplace-mental-health-issues-173818?gclid=Cj0KCQjw0oyYBhDGARIsAMZEuMstjNZpAh8JOFZMX2kghAHZiaMbhCeZLTOxDi9tx6ben4wg1JxRoSoaAodwEALw_wcB 5 strategies employers can use to address workplace mental health issues] (The Conversation)
# [https://www.apa.org/topics/workplace/improve-employee-mental-health 5 ways to improve employee mental health] (American Psychological Association)
# [https://www.healthierwork.act.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Guide-to-Promoting-Health-and-Wellbeing-in-the-Workplace-2016.pdf Guide to promoting health and wellbeing in the workplace]. (ACT Government)
# [[Happiness/Have a Happy Job|Happiness/ Have a happy job]]. (Wikiversity)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Negative emotion in the workplace|Negative emotions in the workplace]] (Book chapter 2018)
# [https://www.hospitalhealth.com.au/content/aged-allied-health/article/why-empowerment-is-key-for-mental-health-gains-and-recovery-1644648024 Why empowerment is key for mental health gains and recovery] (Hospital and Healthcare)
# [https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/08/workplace-wellbeing-mental-health-new-zealand/ Why it’s more important than ever for workplaces to have staff well-being plans] (The World Economic Forum)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Workplace mental health#Workplace mental health|Workplace mental health]] (Book chapter 2020)
# [https://www.peopleatwork.gov.au/webcopy/healthhazards Psychosocial hazards and factors] (Australian Government: Comcare)

==References==

# Grawitch, Gottschalk, M., &amp; Munz, D. C. (2006). The path to a healthy workplace: A critical review linking healthy workplace practices, employee well-being, and organizational improvements. Consulting Psychology Journal, 58(3), 129–147. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/1065-9293.58.3.129&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Kelloway E. K. (2017). Mental health in the workplace: Towards evidence-based practice. ''Canadian Psychology = Psychologie Canadienne'', ''58''(1), 1–6. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000084&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Mcdaid, D., Park, A.-L., &amp; Wahlbeck, K.. (2019). The Economic Case for the Prevention of Mental Illness. ''Annual Review of Public Health'', ''40''(1), 373–389. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-013629&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Sauter, S., Lim, S., &amp; Murphy, L. (1996). Organizational health: A new paradigm for occupational stress research at NIOSH. ''Japanese Journal of Occupational Mental Health'', 4, 248-254

==External links==

# [https://www.allianz.com.au/images/internet/aalaus/Allianz_Awareness_Into_Action.pdf Awareness into action: A holistic approach to cultivating mentally healthy workplaces in Australia] (Allianz Australia)
# [https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ca/Documents/about-deloitte/ca-en-about-blueprint-for-workplace-mental-health-final-aoda.pdf Deloitte insights] (Deloitte)
# [http://www.mentalhealthpromotion.net/?i=portal.en.enmhp-news.2900 Economic analysis of workplace mental health promotion and mental disorder prevention programmes and of their potential contribution to EU health, social and economic policy objectives]
# [https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/20871/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit.pdf Mentally healthy workplaces toolkit] (WorkSafe Queensland)
# [https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/model-code-practice-managing-psychosocial-hazards-work Model Code of Practice: Managing psychosocial hazards at work] (Safe work Australia)
# [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace/9-attributes-of-a-healthy-workplace Nine attributes of a healthy workplace] (Beyond Blue: Heads Up)
# [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace What is a healthy workplace?] (Heads Up)
# [https://www.sira.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0015/1011363/When-Size-Matters-Creating-Mentally-Healthy-Workplaces.pdf When size matters: Creating mentally healthy workplaces.] (University of Newcastle)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>64feo3f0ztrkoba0wpc85eup8zp4i2g</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417943</id>
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        <username>ArtOfHappiness</username>
        <id>2947543</id>
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      <text bytes="17181" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Workplace mental health training:&lt;br&gt;Current techniques and their impact}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Most people spend one-third of their working lives at work or in work-related activities. Challenging modern-day work environments and conditions can strain the workforce's psychological well-being. Hundreds of millions of people attend work every day with mental health issues. For some, it may be a temporary effect, while for others, it can be a life-long condition. Workplace-related mental health problems are common and disabling, causing significant emotional, physical, and mental health problems for employees, decreasing productivity and increasing employers' economic loss (Mcdaid et al., 2019). According to The Productivity Commission report on workplace mental health (2020), the economic cost of reduced participation and absenteeism alone was more than two billion dollars to employers. One Canadian research by [https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ca/Documents/about-deloitte/ca-en-about-blueprint-for-workplace-mental-health-final-aoda.pdf Deloitte] found the return on investment on mental health training CA$2.18, while another [http://www.mentalhealthpromotion.net/?i=portal.en.enmhp-news.2900 European study] suggests that figure as high as $13.62 for every $1 spent on training. As much as an individual is responsible for their health, the employer must also be responsible for the empathetic caring of employees. The costs to organisations are significantly higher than those involved in developing resilience and mental toughness programmes for employees. Improved mental health and illness prevention programmes can help employees stay at work for longer and increase productivity, resulting in social and economic benefits for individuals, employers, and the country (Mcdaid et al., 2019). One Australian countrywide study by [https://www.allianz.com.au/images/internet/aalaus/Allianz_Awareness_Into_Action.pdf Allianz Group] found that companies, government and mental health experts have made significant gains in addressing the issue, but a lot more needs to be done. This report suggests that considering the significant costs involved with mental health issues, it must be treated as a business priority. Future interventions must also consider the globalised work culture and culturally diverse people in the workforce because the 'One size fits all' approach will not work in the new work environment.   

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is workplace mental health?
* What are the workplace mental health training techniques? 
* What ia the current impacts of these techniques?
* What is the future of workplace mental health training?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{robelbox|theme=6|width=100%|title=Case study 1}} 
  &lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Ruth is ruminating about work and finds it difficult to sleep.  During the journey to work Ruth begins to experience panic attacks.  Whilst at work she feels scrutinised and unsupported.  Recently during meetings she has started to forget what she was going to say.  Ruth begins to feels angry and vulnerable, and feels like a failure at work.
 &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
{{robelbox|theme=6|width=100%|title=Case study 2}} 
  &lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Peter has regular meetings with his workplace mentor. Through the &quot;well-at-work&quot; program, Peter began attending training and started using web-based resources. Peter liaised with his workplace health officer to amend any practices hindering his MH. He felt listened to and through this empathetic process his apprehensions reduced. Peter now sleeps better and feels a more valued part of the organisation. 
 &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
==Workplace mental health==
Workplace mental health is an approach to address mental health wellbeing of the employees in their respective workplaces. The onus is on employees to build resilience amongst themselves as well as the employers to foster mental toughness and provide an environment that supports mental wellbeing of the employees.  [[File:Alysha-rosly-6GZQo28ecoE-unsplash.jpg|thumb|413x413px|Creating a mentally healthy workplace.Image by Alysha Rosly]]

=== What is a mentally healthy workplace? ===
One of the early description of a mentally healthy workplace was, an organisation that&lt;blockquote&gt;'''''“maximizes the integration of worker goals for well-being and company objectives for profitability and productivity”''''' 

Sauter et al. (1996)&lt;/blockquote&gt;With more research and understanding on the issue in recent years the definition of mentally healthy workplace has evolved. '[https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace Heads Up]' an Australian organisation that provides tools to create mentally healthy workplaces defines mentally healthy workplace as - A workplace that fosters a culture that encourages positive mental health and wellbeing, supports employees with mental health conditions, and has a zero-tolerance policy for discrimination will help employees and the organisation become more resilient. 

[https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/safety-and-prevention/mental-health/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit#:~:text=A%20mentally%20healthy%20workplace%20is,and%20assessment%20of%20psychosocial%20hazards WorkSafe Queensland] takes almost a similar approach and describes a mentally healthy workplace in its [https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/20871/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit.pdf toolkit] as the one that:

* Promotes practices that support positive mental health
* Reduces and eliminates psychological hazards
* Trains employees to be resilient and thrive in mentally tough conditions
* Creates positive environment by addressing stigma and discrimination
* Supports the recovery and rehabilitation after the illness
According to Kelloway (2017) workplace mental health is based on four general principles:
* Corporate commitment to improving psychological health and safety
* Leadership commitment to the issue
* Employee involvement in the identification of workplace issues and the design of intervention programs
* Confidentiality of individuals

=== Healthy workplace practices ===
A meta study by Grawitch et al. (2006) identified five key features of a healthy workplace:

* Work-life balance
* Employee growth and development
* Health and safety
* Recognition,
* Employee involvement

Further research has expanded these to a comprehensive list of nine key elements. Beyond Blue's Heads Up program identifies [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace/9-attributes-of-a-healthy-workplace nine attributes of a healthy workplace] as:

* Prioritising mental health: To increase understanding, promote open communication, and raise awareness among all staff levels, provide mental health education.
* Trusting fair and respectful culture: Give staff members at all levels the abilities to communicate with coworkers, clients, and the general public in an honest and respectful manner.
* Open and honest leadership: Give team members a sense of shared purpose in the organisation's goals by practising effective leadership.
* Good job design: Make sure people are physically safe, match job roles to their skills, and provide flexible work schedules.
* Workload management: Set goals that are achievable within a reasonable amount of time with the help of resources that are already available.
* Employee development: Create an environment where staff members receive regular, two-way feedback and are also supported, trained, recognised, and rewarded.
* Inclusion and influence: Make arrangements so that employees have control over how they work and participate in organisational decision making.
* Work/life balance: Recognise the value of work-life balance and give employees the chance to strike a balance between obligations to family, career, and personal life.
* Mental health support: Make sure that, whatever the cause, managers and staff are sensitive to employees' mental health issues, and that accommodations at work and counselling support are readily available.

=== Psychological hazards ===
Not only are there physical characteristics, but also psychological and cultural traits that define healthy workplaces. Psychosocial hazards are workplace conditions that have the potential to harm mental health. Physical harm can also result from these risks. Different workplaces may present different psychological risks.Safe Work Australia has provided an extensive list of psychological hazards in their [https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/model-code-practice-managing-psychosocial-hazards-work Model Code of Practice: Managing psychosocial hazards at work].

Some of the common risk factors found in workplaces, according to Safe Work research, include:

* High work demands
* Low control over work conditions
* Poor managerial/supervisory support
* Lack of role clarity
* Poor management
* Unsatisfactory reward and recognition system
* Traumatic events
* Poor physical environment (ergonomics)
* Violence/aggression or bullying
* Harassment/sexual harassment
* Workplace conflicts

Stress, job burnout, and mental ill health are just a few of the effects on psychological health that can result from poorly managed psychosocial hazards.

== Workplace mental health training ==

=== How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? ===
The definition of healthy workplace is based on two underlying assumptions ( First, it assumes that it is possible to identify the key characteristics of a healthy workplace based on a set of job and organizational factors. The second assumption is that the establishment of a healthy workplace leads to a healthier and more productive workforce, which translates into increased productivity and a competitive advantage for the organization.

==== Individual factors ====

===== Individual competence =====

===== Intervention =====

===== Training =====
Building knowledge and skills

===== Self-improvements =====
Mindfulness

Yoga

Meditation

==== Corporate responsibilities ====

===== Staff training =====

===== Ergonomics =====

===== Ongoing support =====

===== Cultural competency =====

===== Mental health warden =====

=== Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training ===

=== Current WMHT techniques employed at workplaces ===

==== Three pillars of improving mental health in the workplace ====

===== Prevention =====

===== Intervention =====

===== Accomodation =====

==== Impact of these techniques so far ====

== Future ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Take home message===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}If we can get over the stigma and treat mental health issues just like any other illness then most of the people facing mental illness can live happily ever after. Start with talking to someone about how you are feeling. It is possible. It is achievable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

# [https://theconversation.com/5-strategies-employers-can-use-to-address-workplace-mental-health-issues-173818?gclid=Cj0KCQjw0oyYBhDGARIsAMZEuMstjNZpAh8JOFZMX2kghAHZiaMbhCeZLTOxDi9tx6ben4wg1JxRoSoaAodwEALw_wcB 5 strategies employers can use to address workplace mental health issues] (The Conversation)
# [https://www.apa.org/topics/workplace/improve-employee-mental-health 5 ways to improve employee mental health] (American Psychological Association)
# [https://www.healthierwork.act.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Guide-to-Promoting-Health-and-Wellbeing-in-the-Workplace-2016.pdf Guide to promoting health and wellbeing in the workplace]. (ACT Government)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Negative emotion in the workplace|Negative emotions in the workplace]] (Book chapter 2018)
# [https://www.hospitalhealth.com.au/content/aged-allied-health/article/why-empowerment-is-key-for-mental-health-gains-and-recovery-1644648024 Why empowerment is key for mental health gains and recovery] (Hospital and Healthcare)
# [https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/08/workplace-wellbeing-mental-health-new-zealand/ Why it’s more important than ever for workplaces to have staff well-being plans] (The World Economic Forum)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Workplace mental health#Workplace mental health|Workplace mental health]] (Book chapter 2020)
# [https://www.peopleatwork.gov.au/webcopy/healthhazards Psychosocial hazards and factors] (Australian Government: Comcare)

==References==

# Grawitch, Gottschalk, M., &amp; Munz, D. C. (2006). The path to a healthy workplace: A critical review linking healthy workplace practices, employee well-being, and organizational improvements. Consulting Psychology Journal, 58(3), 129–147. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/1065-9293.58.3.129&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Kelloway E. K. (2017). Mental health in the workplace: Towards evidence-based practice. ''Canadian Psychology = Psychologie Canadienne'', ''58''(1), 1–6. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000084&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Mcdaid, D., Park, A.-L., &amp; Wahlbeck, K.. (2019). The Economic Case for the Prevention of Mental Illness. ''Annual Review of Public Health'', ''40''(1), 373–389. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-013629&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Sauter, S., Lim, S., &amp; Murphy, L. (1996). Organizational health: A new paradigm for occupational stress research at NIOSH. ''Japanese Journal of Occupational Mental Health'', 4, 248-254

==External links==

# [https://www.allianz.com.au/images/internet/aalaus/Allianz_Awareness_Into_Action.pdf Awareness into action: A holistic approach to cultivating mentally healthy workplaces in Australia] (Allianz Australia)
# [https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ca/Documents/about-deloitte/ca-en-about-blueprint-for-workplace-mental-health-final-aoda.pdf Deloitte insights] (Deloitte)
# [http://www.mentalhealthpromotion.net/?i=portal.en.enmhp-news.2900 Economic analysis of workplace mental health promotion and mental disorder prevention programmes and of their potential contribution to EU health, social and economic policy objectives]
# [https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/20871/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit.pdf Mentally healthy workplaces toolkit] (WorkSafe Queensland)
# [https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/model-code-practice-managing-psychosocial-hazards-work Model Code of Practice: Managing psychosocial hazards at work] (Safe work Australia)
# [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace/9-attributes-of-a-healthy-workplace Nine attributes of a healthy workplace] (Beyond Blue: Heads Up)
# [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace What is a healthy workplace?] (Heads Up)
# [https://www.sira.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0015/1011363/When-Size-Matters-Creating-Mentally-Healthy-Workplaces.pdf When size matters: Creating mentally healthy workplaces.] (University of Newcastle)

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    <revision>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Most people spend one-third of their working lives at work or in work-related activities. Challenging modern-day work environments and conditions can strain the workforce's psychological well-being. Hundreds of millions of people attend work every day with mental health issues. For some, it may be a temporary effect, while for others, it can be a life-long condition. Workplace-related mental health problems are common and disabling, causing significant emotional, physical, and mental health problems for employees, decreasing productivity and increasing employers' economic loss (Mcdaid et al., 2019). According to The Productivity Commission report on workplace mental health (2020), the economic cost of reduced participation and absenteeism alone was more than two billion dollars to employers. One Canadian research by [https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ca/Documents/about-deloitte/ca-en-about-blueprint-for-workplace-mental-health-final-aoda.pdf Deloitte] found the return on investment on mental health training CA$2.18, while another [http://www.mentalhealthpromotion.net/?i=portal.en.enmhp-news.2900 European study] suggests that figure as high as $13.62 for every $1 spent on training. As much as an individual is responsible for their health, the employer must also be responsible for the empathetic caring of employees. The costs to organisations are significantly higher than those involved in developing resilience and mental toughness programmes for employees. Improved mental health and illness prevention programmes can help employees stay at work for longer and increase productivity, resulting in social and economic benefits for individuals, employers, and the country (Mcdaid et al., 2019). One Australian countrywide study by [https://www.allianz.com.au/images/internet/aalaus/Allianz_Awareness_Into_Action.pdf Allianz Group] found that companies, government and mental health experts have made significant gains in addressing the issue, but a lot more needs to be done. This report suggests that considering the significant costs involved with mental health issues, it must be treated as a business priority. Future interventions must also consider the globalised work culture and culturally diverse people in the workforce because the 'One size fits all' approach will not work in the new work environment.   

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is workplace mental health?
* What are the workplace mental health training techniques? 
* What ia the current impacts of these techniques?
* What is the future of workplace mental health training?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{robelbox|theme=6|width=100%|title=Case study 1}} 
  &lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Ruth is ruminating about work and finds it difficult to sleep.  During the journey to work Ruth begins to experience panic attacks.  Whilst at work she feels scrutinised and unsupported.  Recently during meetings she has started to forget what she was going to say.  Ruth begins to feels angry and vulnerable, and feels like a failure at work.
 &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
{{robelbox|theme=6|width=100%|title=Case study 2}} 
  &lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Peter has regular meetings with his workplace mentor. Through the &quot;well-at-work&quot; program, Peter began attending training and started using web-based resources. Peter liaised with his workplace health officer to amend any practices hindering his MH. He felt listened to and through this empathetic process his apprehensions reduced. Peter now sleeps better and feels a more valued part of the organisation. 
 &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
==Workplace mental health==
Workplace mental health is an approach to address mental health wellbeing of the employees in their respective workplaces. The onus is on employees to build resilience amongst themselves as well as the employers to foster mental toughness and provide an environment that supports mental wellbeing of the employees.  [[File:Alysha-rosly-6GZQo28ecoE-unsplash.jpg|thumb|413x413px|Creating a mentally healthy workplace.Image by Alysha Rosly]]

=== What is a mentally healthy workplace? ===
One of the early description of a mentally healthy workplace was, an organisation that&lt;blockquote&gt;'''''“maximizes the integration of worker goals for well-being and company objectives for profitability and productivity”''''' 

Sauter et al. (1996)&lt;/blockquote&gt;With more research and understanding on the issue in recent years the definition of mentally healthy workplace has evolved. '[https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace Heads Up]' an Australian organisation that provides tools to create mentally healthy workplaces defines mentally healthy workplace as - A workplace that fosters a culture that encourages positive mental health and wellbeing, supports employees with mental health conditions, and has a zero-tolerance policy for discrimination will help employees and the organisation become more resilient. 

[https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/safety-and-prevention/mental-health/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit#:~:text=A%20mentally%20healthy%20workplace%20is,and%20assessment%20of%20psychosocial%20hazards WorkSafe Queensland] takes almost a similar approach and describes a mentally healthy workplace in its [https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/20871/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit.pdf toolkit] as the one that:

* Promotes practices that support positive mental health
* Reduces and eliminates psychological hazards
* Trains employees to be resilient and thrive in mentally tough conditions
* Creates positive environment by addressing stigma and discrimination
* Supports the recovery and rehabilitation after the illness
According to Kelloway (2017) workplace mental health is based on four general principles:
* Corporate commitment to improving psychological health and safety
* Leadership commitment to the issue
* Employee involvement in the identification of workplace issues and the design of intervention programs
* Confidentiality of individuals

=== Healthy workplace practices ===
A meta study by Grawitch et al. (2006) identified five key features of a healthy workplace:

* Work-life balance
* Employee growth and development
* Health and safety
* Recognition,
* Employee involvement

Further research has expanded these to a comprehensive list of nine key elements. Beyond Blue's Heads Up program identifies [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace/9-attributes-of-a-healthy-workplace nine attributes of a healthy workplace] as:

* Prioritising mental health: To increase understanding, promote open communication, and raise awareness among all staff levels, provide mental health education.
* Trusting fair and respectful culture: Give staff members at all levels the abilities to communicate with coworkers, clients, and the general public in an honest and respectful manner.
* Open and honest leadership: Give team members a sense of shared purpose in the organisation's goals by practising effective leadership.
* Good job design: Make sure people are physically safe, match job roles to their skills, and provide flexible work schedules.
* Workload management: Set goals that are achievable within a reasonable amount of time with the help of resources that are already available.
* Employee development: Create an environment where staff members receive regular, two-way feedback and are also supported, trained, recognised, and rewarded.
* Inclusion and influence: Make arrangements so that employees have control over how they work and participate in organisational decision making.
* Work/life balance: Recognise the value of work-life balance and give employees the chance to strike a balance between obligations to family, career, and personal life.
* Mental health support: Make sure that, whatever the cause, managers and staff are sensitive to employees' mental health issues, and that accommodations at work and counselling support are readily available.

=== Psychological hazards ===
Not only are there physical characteristics, but also psychological and cultural traits that define healthy workplaces. Psychosocial hazards are workplace conditions that have the potential to harm mental health. Physical harm can also result from these risks. Different workplaces may present different psychological risks.Safe Work Australia has provided an extensive list of psychological hazards in their [https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/model-code-practice-managing-psychosocial-hazards-work Model Code of Practice: Managing psychosocial hazards at work].

Some of the common risk factors found in workplaces, according to Safe Work research, include:

* High work demands
* Low control over work conditions
* Poor managerial/supervisory support
* Lack of role clarity
* Poor management
* Unsatisfactory reward and recognition system
* Traumatic events
* Poor physical environment (ergonomics)
* Violence/aggression or bullying
* Harassment/sexual harassment
* Workplace conflicts

Stress, job burnout, and mental ill health are just a few of the effects on psychological health that can result from poorly managed psychosocial hazards.

== Workplace mental health training ==

=== How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? ===
The definition of healthy workplace is based on two underlying assumptions ( First, it assumes that it is possible to identify the key characteristics of a healthy workplace based on a set of job and organizational factors. The second assumption is that the establishment of a healthy workplace leads to a healthier and more productive workforce, which translates into increased productivity and a competitive advantage for the organization.

==== Individual factors ====

===== Individual competence =====

===== Intervention =====

===== Training =====
Building knowledge and skills

===== Self-improvements =====
Mindfulness

Yoga

Meditation

==== Corporate responsibilities ====

===== Staff training =====

===== Ergonomics =====

===== Ongoing support =====

===== Cultural competency =====

===== Mental health warden =====

=== Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training ===

=== Current WMHT techniques employed at workplaces ===

==== Three pillars of improving mental health in the workplace ====

===== Prevention =====

===== Intervention =====

===== Accomodation =====

==== Impact of these techniques so far ====

== Future ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Take home message===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}If we can get over the stigma and treat mental health issues just like any other illness then most of the people facing mental illness can live happily ever after. Start with talking to someone about how you are feeling. It is possible. It is achievable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

# [https://theconversation.com/5-strategies-employers-can-use-to-address-workplace-mental-health-issues-173818?gclid=Cj0KCQjw0oyYBhDGARIsAMZEuMstjNZpAh8JOFZMX2kghAHZiaMbhCeZLTOxDi9tx6ben4wg1JxRoSoaAodwEALw_wcB 5 strategies employers can use to address workplace mental health issues] (The Conversation)
# [https://www.apa.org/topics/workplace/improve-employee-mental-health 5 ways to improve employee mental health] (American Psychological Association)
# [https://www.healthierwork.act.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Guide-to-Promoting-Health-and-Wellbeing-in-the-Workplace-2016.pdf Guide to promoting health and wellbeing in the workplace]. (ACT Government)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Negative emotion in the workplace|Negative emotions in the workplace]] (Book chapter 2018)
# [https://www.hospitalhealth.com.au/content/aged-allied-health/article/why-empowerment-is-key-for-mental-health-gains-and-recovery-1644648024 Why empowerment is key for mental health gains and recovery] (Hospital and Healthcare)
# [https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/08/workplace-wellbeing-mental-health-new-zealand/ Why it’s more important than ever for workplaces to have staff well-being plans] (The World Economic Forum)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Workplace mental health#Workplace mental health|Workplace mental health]] (Book chapter 2020)
# [https://www.peopleatwork.gov.au/webcopy/healthhazards Psychosocial hazards and factors] (Australian Government: Comcare)

==References==

# Grawitch, Gottschalk, M., &amp; Munz, D. C. (2006). The path to a healthy workplace: A critical review linking healthy workplace practices, employee well-being, and organizational improvements. Consulting Psychology Journal, 58(3), 129–147. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/1065-9293.58.3.129&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Kelloway E. K. (2017). Mental health in the workplace: Towards evidence-based practice. ''Canadian Psychology = Psychologie Canadienne'', ''58''(1), 1–6. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000084&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Mcdaid, D., Park, A.-L., &amp; Wahlbeck, K.. (2019). The Economic Case for the Prevention of Mental Illness. ''Annual Review of Public Health'', ''40''(1), 373–389. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-013629&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Sauter, S., Lim, S., &amp; Murphy, L. (1996). Organizational health: A new paradigm for occupational stress research at NIOSH. ''Japanese Journal of Occupational Mental Health'', 4, 248-254

==External links==

# [https://www.allianz.com.au/images/internet/aalaus/Allianz_Awareness_Into_Action.pdf Awareness into action: A holistic approach to cultivating mentally healthy workplaces in Australia] (Allianz Australia)
# [https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ca/Documents/about-deloitte/ca-en-about-blueprint-for-workplace-mental-health-final-aoda.pdf Deloitte insights] (Deloitte)
# [http://www.mentalhealthpromotion.net/?i=portal.en.enmhp-news.2900 Economic analysis of workplace mental health promotion and mental disorder prevention programmes and of their potential contribution to EU health, social and economic policy objectives]
# [https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/20871/mentally-healthy-workplaces-toolkit.pdf Mentally healthy workplaces toolkit] (WorkSafe Queensland)
# [https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/model-code-practice-managing-psychosocial-hazards-work Model Code of Practice: Managing psychosocial hazards at work] (Safe work Australia)
# [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace/9-attributes-of-a-healthy-workplace Nine attributes of a healthy workplace] (Beyond Blue: Heads Up)
# [https://www.headsup.org.au/healthy-workplaces/what-is-a-mentally-workplace What is a healthy workplace?] (Heads Up)
# [https://www.sira.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0015/1011363/When-Size-Matters-Creating-Mentally-Healthy-Workplaces.pdf When size matters: Creating mentally healthy workplaces.] (University of Newcastle)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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      <comment>Added details on  My Book Chapter</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3236" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hey , I am Manav  (pronounced &quot;Maanav&quot;/Mɑnʌv, meaning &quot;human&quot;) .
[[File:Manav Profile Pic.jpg|thumb|220x220px|A better version of me.]]
For as long as I can remember, I knew that I wanted to make a difference in the world. I knew that the first step was to attend an accredited university, and that university happened to be '''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/about-uc University of Canberra]'''.

I am an aspiring Psychologist &amp; COVID19 Response Public Health Support Officer with a positive attitude contributing to the national response to the pandemic. I have extensive experience working with people in various fields of hospitality, construction, public transport, and information awareness.  Looking for a rewarding career that truly makes a difference in people's lives with a high level of passion and energy that motivates others. I volunteer with '''[https://mieact.org.au/ MIEACT]''', '''[https://reachoutcanberra.com.au/ Reach Out Canberra]''' and '''[https://www.lifeline.org.au/ Lifeline]'''.

=== Interests ===

* Cooking
* Painting
* Woodworking
* Photography

=== Qualification ===

* Bachelor of Engineering - Chemical (1996)
* Master of International Business (2000)
* Bachelor of Science in Psychology (2022)
* Certificate IV in Mental Health (2022)

=== Work Experience ===

== My Book Chapter ==
As part of [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit , I am currently working on the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Workplace mental health training|Workplace mental health training]] chapter. We spend one-third of our adult lives working, workplace mental health and well-being are inextricably linked to our overall wellness. As the world faces a mental health crisis, workplaces around the world are changing workplace culture by raising awareness. Check out my book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Workplace mental health training|Workplace mental health training]] if you want to learn more about why '''?????????????????????????????????'''

I'd love to hear any suggestions or feedback you have for improving the chapter. Please feel free to edit, comment, and provide feedback on the chapter throughout the semester.

== Books I Recommend To Inspire Your Reading ==

* [https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/11468377-thinking-fast-and-slow?from_search=true&amp;from_srp=true&amp;qid=R2RZ0XaBga&amp;rank=1 Thinking, Fast and Slow] - Daniel Kahneman
* [https://www.amazon.com/Power-Positive-Thinking-Norman-Vincent/dp/0743234804 The Power of Positive Thinking] - Dr. Norman Vincent Peale
* [https://www.booktopia.com.au/if-you-re-so-smart-why-aren-t-you-happy-raj-raghunathan/book/9781785040412.html?source=pla&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjw9ZGYBhCEARIsAEUXITVOMM23eEpJjbGP6Qp7jWUFiFQEZ5CehtPrBy1UsAX9jQ1bOyqnH_waAt7jEALw_wcB If You're So Smart, Why Aren't You Happy?] - Raj Raghunathan
* [https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Don_t_Believe_Everything_You_Think/_puVf0woEosC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;printsec=frontcover Don't Believe Everything You Think] - Thomas Edward Kida

== Social Contribution ==

== External links ==

* [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/view/view.php?t=jT6aDSZ7UsGnLdeqRyYg e-Portfolio]
* [https://www.linkedin.com/in/manav-porwal-79b8a26/?originalSubdomain=au LinkedIn Profile]</text>
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      <text bytes="3213" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hey , I am Manav  (pronounced &quot;Maanav&quot;/Mɑnʌv, meaning &quot;human&quot;) .
[[File:Manav Profile Pic.jpg|thumb|220x220px|A better version of me.]]
For as long as I can remember, I knew that I wanted to make a difference in the world. I knew that the first step was to attend an accredited university, and that university happened to be '''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/about-uc University of Canberra]'''.

I am an aspiring Psychologist &amp; COVID19 Response Public Health Support Officer with a positive attitude contributing to the national response to the pandemic. I have extensive experience working with people in various fields of hospitality, construction, public transport, and information awareness.  Looking for a rewarding career that truly makes a difference in people's lives with a high level of passion and energy that motivates others. I volunteer with '''[https://mieact.org.au/ MIEACT]''', '''[https://reachoutcanberra.com.au/ Reach Out Canberra]''' and '''[https://www.lifeline.org.au/ Lifeline]'''.

=== Interests ===

* Cooking
* Painting
* Woodworking
* Photography

=== Qualification ===

* Bachelor of Engineering - Chemical (1996)
* Master of International Business (2000)
* Bachelor of Science in Psychology (2022)
* Certificate IV in Mental Health (2022)

=== My Book Chapter ===
As part of [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit , I am currently working on the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Workplace mental health training|Workplace mental health training]] chapter. We spend one-third of our adult lives working, workplace mental health and well-being are inextricably linked to our overall wellness. As the world faces a mental health crisis, workplaces around the world are changing workplace culture by raising awareness. Check out my book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Workplace mental health training|Workplace mental health training]] if you want to learn more about why '''?????????????????????????????????'''

I'd love to hear any suggestions or feedback you have for improving the chapter. Please feel free to edit, comment, and provide feedback on the chapter throughout the semester.

== Books I Recommend To Inspire Your Reading ==

* [https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/11468377-thinking-fast-and-slow?from_search=true&amp;from_srp=true&amp;qid=R2RZ0XaBga&amp;rank=1 Thinking, Fast and Slow] - Daniel Kahneman
* [https://www.amazon.com/Power-Positive-Thinking-Norman-Vincent/dp/0743234804 The Power of Positive Thinking] - Dr. Norman Vincent Peale
* [https://www.booktopia.com.au/if-you-re-so-smart-why-aren-t-you-happy-raj-raghunathan/book/9781785040412.html?source=pla&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjw9ZGYBhCEARIsAEUXITVOMM23eEpJjbGP6Qp7jWUFiFQEZ5CehtPrBy1UsAX9jQ1bOyqnH_waAt7jEALw_wcB If You're So Smart, Why Aren't You Happy?] - Raj Raghunathan
* [https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Don_t_Believe_Everything_You_Think/_puVf0woEosC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;printsec=frontcover Don't Believe Everything You Think] - Thomas Edward Kida

== Social Contribution ==

== External links ==

* [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/view/view.php?t=jT6aDSZ7UsGnLdeqRyYg e-Portfolio]
* [https://www.linkedin.com/in/manav-porwal-79b8a26/?originalSubdomain=au LinkedIn Profile]</text>
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      <text bytes="3226" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hey , I am Manav  (pronounced &quot;Maanav&quot;/Mɑnʌv, meaning &quot;human&quot; मानव) .
[[File:Manav Profile Pic.jpg|thumb|220x220px|A better version of me.]]
For as long as I can remember, I knew that I wanted to make a difference in the world. I knew that the first step was to attend an accredited university, and that university happened to be '''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/about-uc University of Canberra]'''.

I am an aspiring Psychologist &amp; COVID19 Response Public Health Support Officer with a positive attitude contributing to the national response to the pandemic. I have extensive experience working with people in various fields of hospitality, construction, public transport, and information awareness.  Looking for a rewarding career that truly makes a difference in people's lives with a high level of passion and energy that motivates others. I volunteer with '''[https://mieact.org.au/ MIEACT]''', '''[https://reachoutcanberra.com.au/ Reach Out Canberra]''' and '''[https://www.lifeline.org.au/ Lifeline]'''.

=== Interests ===

* Cooking
* Painting
* Woodworking
* Photography

=== Qualification ===

* Bachelor of Engineering - Chemical (1996)
* Master of International Business (2000)
* Bachelor of Science in Psychology (2022)
* Certificate IV in Mental Health (2022)

=== My Book Chapter ===
As part of [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit , I am currently working on the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Workplace mental health training|Workplace mental health training]] chapter. We spend one-third of our adult lives working, workplace mental health and well-being are inextricably linked to our overall wellness. As the world faces a mental health crisis, workplaces around the world are changing workplace culture by raising awareness. Check out my book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Workplace mental health training|Workplace mental health training]] if you want to learn more about why '''?????????????????????????????????'''

I'd love to hear any suggestions or feedback you have for improving the chapter. Please feel free to edit, comment, and provide feedback on the chapter throughout the semester.

== Books I Recommend To Inspire Your Reading ==

* [https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/11468377-thinking-fast-and-slow?from_search=true&amp;from_srp=true&amp;qid=R2RZ0XaBga&amp;rank=1 Thinking, Fast and Slow] - Daniel Kahneman
* [https://www.amazon.com/Power-Positive-Thinking-Norman-Vincent/dp/0743234804 The Power of Positive Thinking] - Dr. Norman Vincent Peale
* [https://www.booktopia.com.au/if-you-re-so-smart-why-aren-t-you-happy-raj-raghunathan/book/9781785040412.html?source=pla&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjw9ZGYBhCEARIsAEUXITVOMM23eEpJjbGP6Qp7jWUFiFQEZ5CehtPrBy1UsAX9jQ1bOyqnH_waAt7jEALw_wcB If You're So Smart, Why Aren't You Happy?] - Raj Raghunathan
* [https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Don_t_Believe_Everything_You_Think/_puVf0woEosC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;printsec=frontcover Don't Believe Everything You Think] - Thomas Edward Kida

== Social Contribution ==

== External links ==

* [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/view/view.php?t=jT6aDSZ7UsGnLdeqRyYg e-Portfolio]
* [https://www.linkedin.com/in/manav-porwal-79b8a26/?originalSubdomain=au LinkedIn Profile]</text>
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      <comment>Added Social Contribution</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3704" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hey , I am Manav  (pronounced &quot;Maanav&quot;/Mɑnʌv, meaning &quot;human&quot; , मानव) .
[[File:Manav Profile Pic.jpg|thumb|220x220px|A better version of me.]]
For as long as I can remember, I knew that I wanted to make a difference in the world. I knew that the first step was to attend an accredited university, and that university happened to be '''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/about-uc University of Canberra]'''.

I am an aspiring Psychologist &amp; COVID19 Response Public Health Support Officer with a positive attitude contributing to the national response to the pandemic. I have extensive experience working with people in various fields of hospitality, construction, public transport, and information awareness.  Looking for a rewarding career that truly makes a difference in people's lives with a high level of passion and energy that motivates others. I volunteer with '''[https://mieact.org.au/ MIEACT]''', '''[https://reachoutcanberra.com.au/ Reach Out Canberra]''' and '''[https://www.lifeline.org.au/ Lifeline]'''.

=== Interests ===

* Cooking
* Painting
* Woodworking
* Photography

=== Qualification ===

* Bachelor of Engineering - Chemical (1996)
* Master of International Business (2000)
* Bachelor of Science in Psychology (2022)
* Certificate IV in Mental Health (2022)

=== My book chapter ===
As part of [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit , I am currently working on the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Workplace mental health training|Workplace mental health training]] chapter. We spend one-third of our adult lives working, workplace mental health and well-being are inextricably linked to our overall wellness. As the world faces a mental health crisis, workplaces around the world are changing workplace culture by raising awareness. Check out my book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Workplace mental health training|Workplace mental health training]] if you want to learn more about why '''?????????????????????????????????'''

I'd love to hear any suggestions or feedback you have for improving the chapter. Please feel free to edit, comment, and provide feedback on the chapter throughout the semester.

== Books i recommend to inspire your reading ==

* [https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/11468377-thinking-fast-and-slow?from_search=true&amp;from_srp=true&amp;qid=R2RZ0XaBga&amp;rank=1 Thinking, Fast and Slow] - Daniel Kahneman
* [https://www.amazon.com/Power-Positive-Thinking-Norman-Vincent/dp/0743234804 The Power of Positive Thinking] - Dr. Norman Vincent Peale
* [https://www.booktopia.com.au/if-you-re-so-smart-why-aren-t-you-happy-raj-raghunathan/book/9781785040412.html?source=pla&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjw9ZGYBhCEARIsAEUXITVOMM23eEpJjbGP6Qp7jWUFiFQEZ5CehtPrBy1UsAX9jQ1bOyqnH_waAt7jEALw_wcB If You're So Smart, Why Aren't You Happy?] - Raj Raghunathan
* [https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Don_t_Believe_Everything_You_Think/_puVf0woEosC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;printsec=frontcover Don't Believe Everything You Think] - Thomas Edward Kida

== Social contribution ==

=== Wikiversity ===

* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2020%2FWorkplace_mental_health&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2417707&amp;oldid=2379266 05:49, 23 August 2022 - Fixed spelling error on 2020 Book Chapter -Workplace mental health.]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Happiness%2FHave_a_Happy_Job&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2417942&amp;oldid=1582285 15:20, 23 August 2022 - Fixed grammer on Wikiversity page on Happiness/Have a Happy Job .]

== External links ==

* [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/view/view.php?t=jT6aDSZ7UsGnLdeqRyYg e-Portfolio]
* [https://www.linkedin.com/in/manav-porwal-79b8a26/?originalSubdomain=au LinkedIn Profile]</text>
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Self-efficacy and academic achievement</title>
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What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
 
== Hierarchy (To-Do: Create a Map / Diagram)[edit | edit source] ==

=== [[Social cognitive theory|Social-Cognitive Theory]] &gt; comprised of 6 constructs &gt; self-efficacy, reciprocal determinism, behavioral capability, observational learning, reinforcements, and expectations[edit | edit source] ===

=== Social-Cognitive Theory &gt; [[Self-efficacy|Self-Efficacy]] &gt; Motivational Factor &gt; Influences behaviour[edit | edit source] ===

=== Self-Efficacy &gt; Psychological Construct &gt; Belief System[edit | edit source] ===

=== Self-Efficacy &gt; sites alongside other (non-cognitive characteristic) constructs: grit, locus of control, mindset theory &amp; self regulation &gt; Motivational factor(s) &gt; Feed into academic success[edit | edit source] ===

== Theory[edit | edit source] ==

=== Self-efficacy is.....[edit | edit source] ===

* Albert Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory
* Performance self-efficacy (expectations of future performance derive from familiar past experiences)
* Academic self-efficacy (performance expectations are rendered from generalised competencies in unfamiliar settings)

=== Self-efficacy is '''not'''.....[edit | edit source] ===

* Self-efficacy versus Implicit Theory of Intelligence ( Mindset Theory)
* Self-efficacy versus Self-concept.

=== Structure of Self-Efficacy[edit | edit source] ===

* Sources (mastery experience, social modelling, physiological state, verbal persuasion)
* Effects of Self-efficacy (approach and avoidance; effort and persistence; thinking and decision making; emotionality)

== Academic Self-Efficacy[edit | edit source] ==

=== A direct positive effect on academic achievement[edit | edit source] ===

* Discuss relevant studies

=== As a moderating effector on academic achievement[edit | edit source] ===

* i.e., moderates grade goals &amp; effort regulation (as predictors)

=== As a mediating effector on academic achievement[edit | edit source] ===

* alongside goal setting  

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:


Alhadabi, A., &amp; Karpinski, A.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 25(1), 519-535. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Caviglia-Harris, J., &amp; Maier, K. (2020). It's not all in their heads: the differing role of cognitive factors and non-cognitive traits in undergraduate success. Education Economics, 28(3), 245-262. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09645292.2020.1729702&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Delaney, L., Harmon, C., &amp; Ryan, M. (2013). The role of noncognitive traits in undergraduate study behaviours. Economics of Education Review (32), 181-195. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1016/j.econedurev.2012.07.009&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Han, C.W., Farruggia, S.P., &amp; Solomon, B.J. (2018). Latent profiling university students’ learning strategies use and effects on academic performance and retention, Higher Edu-cation Research &amp; Development, 37(7), 1409-1423. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/07294360.2018.1498460&lt;/nowiki&gt;


{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>ild7x94cq09s6yfx653d8wl2wda4u01</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2417990</id>
      <parentid>2417986</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T01:02:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U943292</username>
        <id>2946502</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Main headings */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="14825" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Self-efficacy and academic achievement.
What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
 
== Hierarchy (To-Do: create a map / diagram)[edit | edit source] ==

=== [[Social cognitive theory|Social-Cognitive Theory]] &gt; comprised of 6 constructs &gt; self-efficacy, reciprocal determinism, behavioral capability, observational learning, reinforcements, and expectations[edit | edit source] ===

=== Social-Cognitive Theory &gt; [[Self-efficacy|Self-Efficacy]] &gt; Motivational Factor &gt; Influences behaviour[edit | edit source] ===

=== Self-Efficacy &gt; Psychological Construct &gt; Belief System[edit | edit source] ===

=== Self-Efficacy &gt; sites alongside other (non-cognitive characteristic) constructs: grit, locus of control, mindset theory &amp; self regulation &gt; Motivational factor(s) &gt; Feed into academic success[edit | edit source] ===
== Theory [edit | edit source] ==

=== [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HnACsrdGZAI Self-efficacy] is.....[edit | edit source] ===

* Albert Bandura's [[wikipedia:Social_cognitive_theory#Self-efficacy|Social Cognitive Theory]].  Bandura (1997) proposed that those with greater self-efficacy ultimately performed better within an academic setting.&lt;ref&gt;Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. ''Psychological Review, 84''(2), 191–215. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* Performance self-efficacy (expectations of future performance derive from familiar past experiences)&lt;ref&gt;Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* Academic self-efficacy (performance expectations are rendered from generalised competencies in unfamiliar settings).  

=== Self-efficacy is '''not'''.....[edit | edit source] ===

* Self-efficacy versus Implicit Theory of Intelligence ( Mindset Theory)
* Self-efficacy versus Self-concept.

=== Structure of self-efficacy[edit | edit source] ===

* Sources (mastery experience, social modelling, physiological state, verbal persuasion)
* Effects of Self-efficacy (approach and avoidance; effort and persistence; thinking and decision making; emotionality)

== Research  [edit | edit source] ==
Those with greater self-efficacy ultimately perform better in academic settings. This is realised through greater motivation and perseverance, and a better use of cognitive resources, so that students are ultimately more likely to engage in behaviours that facilitate achievement. &lt;ref&gt;Maddux, J. E., &amp; Kleiman, E. (2017). Self-efficacy. In R. Biswas-Diener &amp; E. Diener (Eds), ''Noba textbook series: Psychology.'' Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/lib/canberra/detail.action?pq-origsite=primo&amp;docID=4513033&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== A direct positive effect on academic achievement [edit | edit source] ===

* self-efficacy has a direct and positive relationship (''r'' = .33) on academic performance irrespective of any adjoining motivational construct (i.e.. goal setting processes)&lt;ref&gt;Palos, R., Magurean, S., &amp; Petrovici, M. (2019). Self-regulated learning and academic performance - the mediating role of students’ achievement goals. ''Revista de cercetare și intervenție socială, 67'', 234-249. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.67.15&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Self-efficacy's moderating and / or mediating effects on academic achievement  [edit | edit source] ===

* self-efficacy is both supportive and protective: increases the positive effect of mastery and performance-approach goals and reduces the negative effect of avoidance goals on academic performance. &lt;ref&gt;Alhadabi, A., &amp; Karpinski, A.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth,'' ''25''(1), 519-535. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* Honicke and Broadbent (2016) found that goal orientation and effort regulation are additional variables that may both moderate and mediate the relationship of self-efficacy and academic achievement. &lt;ref&gt;Honicke, T., &amp; Broadbent, J. (2016)''.'' The relation of academic self-efficacy to university student academic performance: A systematic review. ''Educational Research Review, 17,'' 63-84. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* self-efficacy alongside grade goals ''(n = 2670, r = 0.35)'' and effort regulation (''n'' = 8862, ''r'' = 0.29) transpired to be the strongest factors (outside cognitive capacity and previous performance) to affect academic performance. &lt;ref&gt;Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== As a predictor in the pursuit of and achievement in... ===
STEM:  Statistics &lt;ref&gt;Vergara, C. R.. Grit, self-efficacy and goal orientation: A correlation to achievement in statistics (2020). ''International Journal of Education and Research, 8''(1)89-106. http://www.ijern.com/journal/2020/January-2020/08.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

== Academic self-efficacy in practice (applications) ==
Importantly, self-efficacy is a '''malleable process,''' this means:

=== At an individual level ===

* A student has authority over their behaviour and motivation.  It is important they be made aware of constructs (outside the traditional confines of intellectual and cognitive ability) that also influence academic success
* the construct can be leveraged to positive effect through the following strategies (explore in more detail....)

=== At an organisational level ===
Academic Institutions - explore (self-efficacy) interventions and programs designed to foster / promote academic success:

* non-cognitive factors have a stronger association to success in initial year(s); interventions should focus on developing the perseverance required to build study skills in the early college years&lt;ref&gt;Caviglia-Harris, J., &amp; Maier, K. (2020). It's not all in their heads: the differing role of cognitive factors and non-cognitive traits in undergraduate success. ''Education Economics'', ''28''(3), 245-262. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09645292.2020.1729702&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;.
* Interventions should include components that target the development of learning strategies, particularly students’ academic goal engagement.&lt;ref&gt;Cheon-woo Han, Susan P. Farruggia &amp; Bonnie J. Solomon (2018)

Latent profiling university students’ learning strategies use and effects on academic performance and retention, Higher Education Research &amp; Development, 37:7, 1409-1423, DOI: 10.1080/07294360.2018.1498460&lt;/ref&gt;

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

Alhadabi, A., &amp; Karpinski, A.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth,'' ''25''(1), 519-535. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. ''Psychological Review, 84''(2), 191–215. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Caviglia-Harris, J., &amp; Maier, K. (2020). It's not all in their heads: the differing role of cognitive factors and non-cognitive traits in undergraduate success. Education Economics, 28(3), 245-262. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09645292.2020.1729702&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Han, C.W., Farruggia, S.P., &amp; Solomon, B.J. (2018). Latent profiling university students’ learning strategies use and effects on academic performance and retention, Higher Edu-cation Research &amp; Development, 37(7), 1409-1423. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/07294360.2018.1498460&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Honicke, T., &amp; Broadbent, J. (2016)''.'' The relation of academic self-efficacy to university student academic performance: A systematic review. ''Educational Research Review, 17,'' 63-84. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Maddux, J. E., &amp; Kleiman, E. (2017). Self-efficacy. In R. Biswas-Diener &amp; E. Diener (Eds), ''Noba textbook series: Psychology.'' Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/lib/canberra/detail.action?pq-origsite=primo&amp;docID=4513033&lt;/nowiki&gt;

''Palos, R., Magurean, S., &amp; Petrovici, M. (2019). Self-regulated learning and academic performance - the mediating role of students’ achievement goals. Revista de cercetare și intervenție socială, 67, 234-249. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.67.15&lt;/nowiki&gt;''

Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Vergara, C. R..  Grit, self-efficacy and goal orientation: A correlation to achievement in statistics (2020). ''International Journal of Education and Research, 8''(1)89-106. http://www.ijern.com/journal/2020/January-2020/08.pdf

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>aqiuh9l972fddxkmu6r9550747s3d5d</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418016</id>
      <parentid>2417990</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T02:19:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U943292</username>
        <id>2946502</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added Table</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15124" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Self-efficacy and academic achievement.
What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
 
== Hierarchy (To-Do: create a map / diagram)[edit | edit source] ==

=== [[Social cognitive theory|Social-Cognitive Theory]] &gt; comprised of 6 constructs &gt; self-efficacy, reciprocal determinism, behavioral capability, observational learning, reinforcements, and expectations[edit | edit source] ===

=== Social-Cognitive Theory &gt; [[Self-efficacy|Self-Efficacy]] &gt; Motivational Factor &gt; Influences behaviour[edit | edit source] ===

=== Self-Efficacy &gt; Psychological Construct &gt; Belief System[edit | edit source] ===

=== Self-Efficacy &gt; sites alongside other (non-cognitive characteristic) constructs: grit, locus of control, mindset theory &amp; self regulation &gt; Motivational factor(s) &gt; Feed into academic success[edit | edit source] ===
== Theory [edit | edit source] ==

=== [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HnACsrdGZAI Self-efficacy] is.....[edit | edit source] ===

* Albert Bandura's [[wikipedia:Social_cognitive_theory#Self-efficacy|Social Cognitive Theory]].  Bandura (1997) proposed that those with greater self-efficacy ultimately performed better within an academic setting.&lt;ref&gt;Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. ''Psychological Review, 84''(2), 191–215. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* Performance self-efficacy (expectations of future performance derive from familiar past experiences)&lt;ref&gt;Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* Academic self-efficacy (performance expectations are rendered from generalised competencies in unfamiliar settings).  

=== Self-efficacy is '''not'''.....[edit | edit source] ===

* Self-efficacy versus Implicit Theory of Intelligence ( Mindset Theory)
* Self-efficacy versus Self-concept.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Self-efficacy Dif
!Construct            
!Author(s)        
!Derived From  
!Definition            
!Primary Differences (to self-efficacy)            
!Other                    
|-
|Self-efficacy
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Mindset Theory
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Self-Concept 
|
|
|
|
|
|}

=== Structure of self-efficacy[edit | edit source] ===

* Sources (mastery experience, social modelling, physiological state, verbal persuasion)
* Effects of Self-efficacy (approach and avoidance; effort and persistence; thinking and decision making; emotionality)

== Research  [edit | edit source] ==
Those with greater self-efficacy ultimately perform better in academic settings. This is realised through greater motivation and perseverance, and a better use of cognitive resources, so that students are ultimately more likely to engage in behaviours that facilitate achievement. &lt;ref&gt;Maddux, J. E., &amp; Kleiman, E. (2017). Self-efficacy. In R. Biswas-Diener &amp; E. Diener (Eds), ''Noba textbook series: Psychology.'' Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/lib/canberra/detail.action?pq-origsite=primo&amp;docID=4513033&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== A direct positive effect on academic achievement [edit | edit source] ===

* self-efficacy has a direct and positive relationship (''r'' = .33) on academic performance irrespective of any adjoining motivational construct (i.e.. goal setting processes)&lt;ref&gt;Palos, R., Magurean, S., &amp; Petrovici, M. (2019). Self-regulated learning and academic performance - the mediating role of students’ achievement goals. ''Revista de cercetare și intervenție socială, 67'', 234-249. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.67.15&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Self-efficacy's moderating and / or mediating effects on academic achievement  [edit | edit source] ===

* self-efficacy is both supportive and protective: increases the positive effect of mastery and performance-approach goals and reduces the negative effect of avoidance goals on academic performance. &lt;ref&gt;Alhadabi, A., &amp; Karpinski, A.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth,'' ''25''(1), 519-535. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* Honicke and Broadbent (2016) found that goal orientation and effort regulation are additional variables that may both moderate and mediate the relationship of self-efficacy and academic achievement. &lt;ref&gt;Honicke, T., &amp; Broadbent, J. (2016)''.'' The relation of academic self-efficacy to university student academic performance: A systematic review. ''Educational Research Review, 17,'' 63-84. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* self-efficacy alongside grade goals ''(n = 2670, r = 0.35)'' and effort regulation (''n'' = 8862, ''r'' = 0.29) transpired to be the strongest factors (outside cognitive capacity and previous performance) to affect academic performance. &lt;ref&gt;Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== As a predictor in the pursuit of and achievement in... ===
STEM:  Statistics &lt;ref&gt;Vergara, C. R.. Grit, self-efficacy and goal orientation: A correlation to achievement in statistics (2020). ''International Journal of Education and Research, 8''(1)89-106. http://www.ijern.com/journal/2020/January-2020/08.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

== Academic self-efficacy in practice (applications) ==
Importantly, self-efficacy is a '''malleable process,''' this means:

=== At an individual level ===

* A student has authority over their behaviour and motivation.  It is important they be made aware of constructs (outside the traditional confines of intellectual and cognitive ability) that also influence academic success
* the construct can be leveraged to positive effect through the following strategies (explore in more detail....)

=== At an organisational level ===
Academic Institutions - explore (self-efficacy) interventions and programs designed to foster / promote academic success:

* non-cognitive factors have a stronger association to success in initial year(s); interventions should focus on developing the perseverance required to build study skills in the early college years&lt;ref&gt;Caviglia-Harris, J., &amp; Maier, K. (2020). It's not all in their heads: the differing role of cognitive factors and non-cognitive traits in undergraduate success. ''Education Economics'', ''28''(3), 245-262. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09645292.2020.1729702&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;.
* Interventions should include components that target the development of learning strategies, particularly students’ academic goal engagement.&lt;ref&gt;Cheon-woo Han, Susan P. Farruggia &amp; Bonnie J. Solomon (2018)

Latent profiling university students’ learning strategies use and effects on academic performance and retention, Higher Education Research &amp; Development, 37:7, 1409-1423, DOI: 10.1080/07294360.2018.1498460&lt;/ref&gt;

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

Alhadabi, A., &amp; Karpinski, A.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth,'' ''25''(1), 519-535. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. ''Psychological Review, 84''(2), 191–215. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Caviglia-Harris, J., &amp; Maier, K. (2020). It's not all in their heads: the differing role of cognitive factors and non-cognitive traits in undergraduate success. Education Economics, 28(3), 245-262. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09645292.2020.1729702&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Han, C.W., Farruggia, S.P., &amp; Solomon, B.J. (2018). Latent profiling university students’ learning strategies use and effects on academic performance and retention, Higher Edu-cation Research &amp; Development, 37(7), 1409-1423. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/07294360.2018.1498460&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Honicke, T., &amp; Broadbent, J. (2016)''.'' The relation of academic self-efficacy to university student academic performance: A systematic review. ''Educational Research Review, 17,'' 63-84. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Maddux, J. E., &amp; Kleiman, E. (2017). Self-efficacy. In R. Biswas-Diener &amp; E. Diener (Eds), ''Noba textbook series: Psychology.'' Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/lib/canberra/detail.action?pq-origsite=primo&amp;docID=4513033&lt;/nowiki&gt;

''Palos, R., Magurean, S., &amp; Petrovici, M. (2019). Self-regulated learning and academic performance - the mediating role of students’ achievement goals. Revista de cercetare și intervenție socială, 67, 234-249. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.67.15&lt;/nowiki&gt;''

Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Vergara, C. R..  Grit, self-efficacy and goal orientation: A correlation to achievement in statistics (2020). ''International Journal of Education and Research, 8''(1)89-106. http://www.ijern.com/journal/2020/January-2020/08.pdf

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>bkzavnj10ljikhr72kmlbd4067c94xd</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418101</id>
      <parentid>2418016</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:24:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U943292</username>
        <id>2946502</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15163" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Self-efficacy and academic achievement.
What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
 
== Hierarchy (To-Do: create a map / diagram)[edit | edit source] ==

=== [[Social cognitive theory|Social-Cognitive Theory]] &gt; comprised of 6 constructs &gt; self-efficacy, reciprocal determinism, behavioral capability, observational learning, reinforcements, and expectations[edit | edit source] ===

=== Social-Cognitive Theory &gt; [[Self-efficacy|Self-Efficacy]] &gt; Motivational Factor &gt; Influences behaviour[edit | edit source] ===

=== Self-Efficacy &gt; Psychological Construct &gt; Belief System[edit | edit source] ===

=== Self-Efficacy &gt; sites alongside other (non-cognitive characteristic) constructs: grit, locus of control, mindset theory &amp; self regulation &gt; Motivational factor(s) &gt; Feed into academic success[edit | edit source] ===
== Theory [edit | edit source] ==

=== [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HnACsrdGZAI Self-efficacy] is.....[edit | edit source] ===

* Albert Bandura's [[wikipedia:Social_cognitive_theory#Self-efficacy|Social Cognitive Theory]].  Bandura (1997) proposed that those with greater self-efficacy ultimately performed better within an academic setting.&lt;ref&gt;Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. ''Psychological Review, 84''(2), 191–215. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* Performance self-efficacy (expectations of future performance derive from familiar past experiences)&lt;ref&gt;Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* Academic self-efficacy (performance expectations are rendered from generalised competencies in unfamiliar settings).  

=== Self-efficacy is '''not'''.....[edit | edit source] ===

* Self-efficacy versus Implicit Theory of Intelligence ( Mindset Theory)
* Self-efficacy versus Self-concept.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Self-efficacy: As differentiated from similar constructs
!Construct            
!Author(s)        
!Derived From  
!Definition            
!Primary Differences (to self-efficacy)            
!Other                    
|-
|Self-efficacy
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Mindset Theory
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Self-Concept 
|
|
|
|
|
|}

=== Structure of self-efficacy[edit | edit source] ===

* Sources (mastery experience, social modelling, physiological state, verbal persuasion)
* Effects of Self-efficacy (approach and avoidance; effort and persistence; thinking and decision making; emotionality)

== Research  [edit | edit source] ==
Those with greater self-efficacy ultimately perform better in academic settings. This is realised through greater motivation and perseverance, and a better use of cognitive resources, so that students are ultimately more likely to engage in behaviours that facilitate achievement. &lt;ref&gt;Maddux, J. E., &amp; Kleiman, E. (2017). Self-efficacy. In R. Biswas-Diener &amp; E. Diener (Eds), ''Noba textbook series: Psychology.'' Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/lib/canberra/detail.action?pq-origsite=primo&amp;docID=4513033&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== A direct positive effect on academic achievement [edit | edit source] ===

* self-efficacy has a direct and positive relationship (''r'' = .33) on academic performance irrespective of any adjoining motivational construct (i.e.. goal setting processes)&lt;ref&gt;Palos, R., Magurean, S., &amp; Petrovici, M. (2019). Self-regulated learning and academic performance - the mediating role of students’ achievement goals. ''Revista de cercetare și intervenție socială, 67'', 234-249. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.67.15&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Self-efficacy's moderating and / or mediating effects on academic achievement  [edit | edit source] ===

* self-efficacy is both supportive and protective: increases the positive effect of mastery and performance-approach goals and reduces the negative effect of avoidance goals on academic performance. &lt;ref&gt;Alhadabi, A., &amp; Karpinski, A.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth,'' ''25''(1), 519-535. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* Honicke and Broadbent (2016) found that goal orientation and effort regulation are additional variables that may both moderate and mediate the relationship of self-efficacy and academic achievement. &lt;ref&gt;Honicke, T., &amp; Broadbent, J. (2016)''.'' The relation of academic self-efficacy to university student academic performance: A systematic review. ''Educational Research Review, 17,'' 63-84. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* self-efficacy alongside grade goals ''(n = 2670, r = 0.35)'' and effort regulation (''n'' = 8862, ''r'' = 0.29) transpired to be the strongest factors (outside cognitive capacity and previous performance) to affect academic performance. &lt;ref&gt;Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== As a predictor in the pursuit of and achievement in... ===
STEM:  Statistics &lt;ref&gt;Vergara, C. R.. Grit, self-efficacy and goal orientation: A correlation to achievement in statistics (2020). ''International Journal of Education and Research, 8''(1)89-106. http://www.ijern.com/journal/2020/January-2020/08.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

== Academic self-efficacy in practice (applications) ==
Importantly, self-efficacy is a '''malleable process,''' this means:

=== At an individual level ===

* A student has authority over their behaviour and motivation.  It is important they be made aware of constructs (outside the traditional confines of intellectual and cognitive ability) that also influence academic success
* the construct can be leveraged to positive effect through the following strategies (explore in more detail....)

=== At an organisational level ===
Academic Institutions - explore (self-efficacy) interventions and programs designed to foster / promote academic success:

* non-cognitive factors have a stronger association to success in initial year(s); interventions should focus on developing the perseverance required to build study skills in the early college years&lt;ref&gt;Caviglia-Harris, J., &amp; Maier, K. (2020). It's not all in their heads: the differing role of cognitive factors and non-cognitive traits in undergraduate success. ''Education Economics'', ''28''(3), 245-262. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09645292.2020.1729702&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;.
* Interventions should include components that target the development of learning strategies, particularly students’ academic goal engagement.&lt;ref&gt;Cheon-woo Han, Susan P. Farruggia &amp; Bonnie J. Solomon (2018)

Latent profiling university students’ learning strategies use and effects on academic performance and retention, Higher Education Research &amp; Development, 37:7, 1409-1423, DOI: 10.1080/07294360.2018.1498460&lt;/ref&gt;

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

Alhadabi, A., &amp; Karpinski, A.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth,'' ''25''(1), 519-535. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. ''Psychological Review, 84''(2), 191–215. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Caviglia-Harris, J., &amp; Maier, K. (2020). It's not all in their heads: the differing role of cognitive factors and non-cognitive traits in undergraduate success. Education Economics, 28(3), 245-262. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09645292.2020.1729702&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Han, C.W., Farruggia, S.P., &amp; Solomon, B.J. (2018). Latent profiling university students’ learning strategies use and effects on academic performance and retention, Higher Edu-cation Research &amp; Development, 37(7), 1409-1423. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/07294360.2018.1498460&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Honicke, T., &amp; Broadbent, J. (2016)''.'' The relation of academic self-efficacy to university student academic performance: A systematic review. ''Educational Research Review, 17,'' 63-84. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Maddux, J. E., &amp; Kleiman, E. (2017). Self-efficacy. In R. Biswas-Diener &amp; E. Diener (Eds), ''Noba textbook series: Psychology.'' Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/lib/canberra/detail.action?pq-origsite=primo&amp;docID=4513033&lt;/nowiki&gt;

''Palos, R., Magurean, S., &amp; Petrovici, M. (2019). Self-regulated learning and academic performance - the mediating role of students’ achievement goals. Revista de cercetare și intervenție socială, 67, 234-249. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.67.15&lt;/nowiki&gt;''

Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Vergara, C. R..  Grit, self-efficacy and goal orientation: A correlation to achievement in statistics (2020). ''International Journal of Education and Research, 8''(1)89-106. http://www.ijern.com/journal/2020/January-2020/08.pdf

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>6vv1chvr8ybu31i15624nasczshif2z</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418130</id>
      <parentid>2418101</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T06:09:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U943292</username>
        <id>2946502</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15304" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Self-efficacy and academic achievement.
What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
 
== Hierarchy (To-Do: create a map / diagram)[edit | edit source] ==

=== [[Social cognitive theory|Social-Cognitive Theory]] &gt; comprised of 6 constructs &gt; self-efficacy, reciprocal determinism, behavioral capability, observational learning, reinforcements, and expectations[edit | edit source] ===

=== Social-Cognitive Theory &gt; [[Self-efficacy|Self-Efficacy]] &gt; Motivational Factor &gt; Influences behaviour[edit | edit source] ===

=== Self-Efficacy &gt; Psychological Construct &gt; Belief System[edit | edit source] ===

=== Self-Efficacy &gt; sites alongside other (non-cognitive characteristic) constructs: grit, locus of control, mindset theory &amp; self regulation &gt; Motivational factor(s) &gt; Feed into academic success[edit | edit source] ===
== Theory [edit | edit source] ==

=== [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HnACsrdGZAI Self-efficacy] is.....[edit | edit source] ===

* Albert Bandura's [[wikipedia:Social_cognitive_theory#Self-efficacy|Social Cognitive Theory]].  Bandura (1997) proposed that those with greater self-efficacy ultimately performed better within an academic setting.&lt;ref&gt;Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. ''Psychological Review, 84''(2), 191–215. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* Performance self-efficacy (expectations of future performance derive from familiar past experiences)&lt;ref&gt;Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* Academic self-efficacy (performance expectations are rendered from generalised competencies in unfamiliar settings).  

=== Self-efficacy is '''not'''.....[edit | edit source] ===

* Self-efficacy versus Implicit Theory of Intelligence ( Mindset Theory)
* Self-efficacy versus Self-concept.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Self-efficacy: As differentiated from similar constructs
!Construct            
!Author(s)                                         .        
!Derived From (Theoretical basis)                                           .  
!Definition                                                             .            
!Primary Differences (to self-efficacy)            
|-
|Self-efficacy
.
|
|
|
|
|-
|Mindset Theory
.
|
|
|
|
|-
|Self-Concept
. 
|
|
|
|
|}

=== Structure of self-efficacy[edit | edit source] ===

* Sources (mastery experience, social modelling, physiological state, verbal persuasion)
* Effects of Self-efficacy (approach and avoidance; effort and persistence; thinking and decision making; emotionality)

== Research  [edit | edit source] ==
Those with greater self-efficacy ultimately perform better in academic settings. This is realised through greater motivation and perseverance, and a better use of cognitive resources, so that students are ultimately more likely to engage in behaviours that facilitate achievement. &lt;ref&gt;Maddux, J. E., &amp; Kleiman, E. (2017). Self-efficacy. In R. Biswas-Diener &amp; E. Diener (Eds), ''Noba textbook series: Psychology.'' Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/lib/canberra/detail.action?pq-origsite=primo&amp;docID=4513033&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== A direct positive effect on academic achievement [edit | edit source] ===

* self-efficacy has a direct and positive relationship (''r'' = .33) on academic performance irrespective of any adjoining motivational construct (i.e.. goal setting processes)&lt;ref&gt;Palos, R., Magurean, S., &amp; Petrovici, M. (2019). Self-regulated learning and academic performance - the mediating role of students’ achievement goals. ''Revista de cercetare și intervenție socială, 67'', 234-249. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.67.15&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Self-efficacy's moderating and / or mediating effects on academic achievement  [edit | edit source] ===

* self-efficacy is both supportive and protective: increases the positive effect of mastery and performance-approach goals and reduces the negative effect of avoidance goals on academic performance. &lt;ref&gt;Alhadabi, A., &amp; Karpinski, A.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth,'' ''25''(1), 519-535. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* Honicke and Broadbent (2016) found that goal orientation and effort regulation are additional variables that may both moderate and mediate the relationship of self-efficacy and academic achievement. &lt;ref&gt;Honicke, T., &amp; Broadbent, J. (2016)''.'' The relation of academic self-efficacy to university student academic performance: A systematic review. ''Educational Research Review, 17,'' 63-84. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* self-efficacy alongside grade goals ''(n = 2670, r = 0.35)'' and effort regulation (''n'' = 8862, ''r'' = 0.29) transpired to be the strongest factors (outside cognitive capacity and previous performance) to affect academic performance. &lt;ref&gt;Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== As a predictor in the pursuit of and achievement in... ===
STEM:  Statistics &lt;ref&gt;Vergara, C. R.. Grit, self-efficacy and goal orientation: A correlation to achievement in statistics (2020). ''International Journal of Education and Research, 8''(1)89-106. http://www.ijern.com/journal/2020/January-2020/08.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

== Academic self-efficacy in practice (applications) ==
Importantly, self-efficacy is a '''malleable process,''' this means:

=== At an individual level ===

* A student has authority over their behaviour and motivation.  It is important they be made aware of constructs (outside the traditional confines of intellectual and cognitive ability) that also influence academic success
* the construct can be leveraged to positive effect through the following strategies (explore in more detail....)

=== At an organisational level ===
Academic Institutions - explore (self-efficacy) interventions and programs designed to foster / promote academic success:

* non-cognitive factors have a stronger association to success in initial year(s); interventions should focus on developing the perseverance required to build study skills in the early college years&lt;ref&gt;Caviglia-Harris, J., &amp; Maier, K. (2020). It's not all in their heads: the differing role of cognitive factors and non-cognitive traits in undergraduate success. ''Education Economics'', ''28''(3), 245-262. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09645292.2020.1729702&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;.
* Interventions should include components that target the development of learning strategies, particularly students’ academic goal engagement.&lt;ref&gt;Cheon-woo Han, Susan P. Farruggia &amp; Bonnie J. Solomon (2018)

Latent profiling university students’ learning strategies use and effects on academic performance and retention, Higher Education Research &amp; Development, 37:7, 1409-1423, DOI: 10.1080/07294360.2018.1498460&lt;/ref&gt;

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

Alhadabi, A., &amp; Karpinski, A.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth,'' ''25''(1), 519-535. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. ''Psychological Review, 84''(2), 191–215. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Caviglia-Harris, J., &amp; Maier, K. (2020). It's not all in their heads: the differing role of cognitive factors and non-cognitive traits in undergraduate success. Education Economics, 28(3), 245-262. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09645292.2020.1729702&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Han, C.W., Farruggia, S.P., &amp; Solomon, B.J. (2018). Latent profiling university students’ learning strategies use and effects on academic performance and retention, Higher Edu-cation Research &amp; Development, 37(7), 1409-1423. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/07294360.2018.1498460&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Honicke, T., &amp; Broadbent, J. (2016)''.'' The relation of academic self-efficacy to university student academic performance: A systematic review. ''Educational Research Review, 17,'' 63-84. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Maddux, J. E., &amp; Kleiman, E. (2017). Self-efficacy. In R. Biswas-Diener &amp; E. Diener (Eds), ''Noba textbook series: Psychology.'' Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/lib/canberra/detail.action?pq-origsite=primo&amp;docID=4513033&lt;/nowiki&gt;

''Palos, R., Magurean, S., &amp; Petrovici, M. (2019). Self-regulated learning and academic performance - the mediating role of students’ achievement goals. Revista de cercetare și intervenție socială, 67, 234-249. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.67.15&lt;/nowiki&gt;''

Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Vergara, C. R..  Grit, self-efficacy and goal orientation: A correlation to achievement in statistics (2020). ''International Journal of Education and Research, 8''(1)89-106. http://www.ijern.com/journal/2020/January-2020/08.pdf

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>10uxso3bs56tcej4mh47sc4d5hgo4ef</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418225</id>
      <parentid>2418130</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:16:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U943292</username>
        <id>2946502</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15921" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Self-efficacy and academic achievement.
What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
 
== Hierarchy (To-Do: create a map )[edit | edit source] ==

=== [[Social cognitive theory|Social-Cognitive Theory]] &gt; comprised of 6 constructs &gt; self-efficacy, reciprocal determinism, behavioural capability, observational learning, reinforcements, and expectations [edit | edit source] ===

=== Social-Cognitive Theory &gt; [[Self-efficacy|Self-Efficacy]] &gt; Motivational Factor &gt; Influences behaviour [edit | edit source] ===

=== Self-Efficacy &gt; Psychological Construct &gt; Belief System [edit | edit source] ===

=== Self-Efficacy &gt; sites alongside other (non-cognitive characteristic) constructs: grit, locus of control, mindset theory &amp; self regulation &gt; as Motivational factor(s) &gt; which feed into academic success [edit | edit source] ===
== Theory [edit | edit source] ==

=== [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HnACsrdGZAI Self-efficacy] is.....[edit | edit source] ===

* Fits within Albert Bandura's [[wikipedia:Social_cognitive_theory#Self-efficacy|Social Cognitive Theory]] (SCT).  Bandura (1997) proposed that those with greater self-efficacy ultimately performed better within an academic setting.&lt;ref&gt;Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. ''Psychological Review, 84''(2), 191–215. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''Performance''' self-efficacy (expectations of future performance derive from familiar past experiences)&lt;ref&gt;Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''Academic''' self-efficacy (performance expectations are rendered from generalised competencies in unfamiliar settings).  

=== Self-efficacy is '''not'''.....[edit | edit source] ===

* Self-efficacy versus Implicit Theory of Intelligence ( Mindset Theory)
* Self-efficacy versus Self-concept.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Self-efficacy: As differentiated from similar constructs
!Construct            
!Author(s)                                         .        
!Derived from (Theoretical basis)                                           .  
!Definition                                                             .            
!Shared relationship(s)                                                   .   
!Primary Differences                                                   .            
|-
|Self-efficacy
.
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Mindset Theory
.
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Self-Concept
. 
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Self-Regulation
.
|
|
|
|
|
|}

=== Structure of self-efficacy[edit | edit source] ===

* Sources (mastery experience, social modelling, physiological state, verbal persuasion)
* Effects of Self-efficacy (approach and avoidance; effort and persistence; thinking and decision making; emotionality)

== Research  [edit | edit source] ==
Those with greater self-efficacy ultimately perform better in academic settings. This is realised through greater motivation and perseverance, and a better use of cognitive resources, so that students are ultimately more likely to engage in behaviours that facilitate achievement. &lt;ref&gt;Maddux, J. E., &amp; Kleiman, E. (2017). Self-efficacy. In R. Biswas-Diener &amp; E. Diener (Eds), ''Noba textbook series: Psychology.'' Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/lib/canberra/detail.action?pq-origsite=primo&amp;docID=4513033&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== A direct positive effect on academic achievement [edit | edit source] ===

* self-efficacy has a direct and positive relationship (''r'' = .33) on academic performance irrespective of any adjoining motivational construct (i.e.. goal setting processes)&lt;ref&gt;Palos, R., Magurean, S., &amp; Petrovici, M. (2019). Self-regulated learning and academic performance - the mediating role of students’ achievement goals. ''Revista de cercetare și intervenție socială, 67'', 234-249. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.67.15&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Self-efficacy's moderating and / or mediating effects on academic achievement  [edit | edit source] ===

* self-efficacy is both supportive and protective: increases the positive effect of mastery and performance-approach goals and reduces the negative effect of avoidance goals on academic performance. &lt;ref&gt;Alhadabi, A., &amp; Karpinski, A.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth,'' ''25''(1), 519-535. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* Honicke and Broadbent (2016) found that goal orientation and effort regulation are additional variables that may both moderate and mediate the relationship of self-efficacy and academic achievement. &lt;ref&gt;Honicke, T., &amp; Broadbent, J. (2016)''.'' The relation of academic self-efficacy to university student academic performance: A systematic review. ''Educational Research Review, 17,'' 63-84. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* self-efficacy alongside grade goals ''(n = 2670, r = 0.35)'' and effort regulation (''n'' = 8862, ''r'' = 0.29) transpired to be the strongest factors (outside cognitive capacity and previous performance) to affect academic performance. &lt;ref&gt;Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== As a predictor in the pursuit of and achievement in... ===

* STEM:  Statistics &lt;ref&gt;Vergara, C. R.. Grit, self-efficacy and goal orientation: A correlation to achievement in statistics (2020). ''International Journal of Education and Research, 8''(1)89-106. http://www.ijern.com/journal/2020/January-2020/08.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; &amp; Mathematics&lt;ref&gt;My references. Locked 1. &lt;/ref&gt;
* Writing

== Academic self-efficacy in practice (applications) ==
Importantly, self-efficacy is a '''malleable process,''' this means change can be enacted:

=== At an individual level ===
A student has authority over their behaviour and motivation.  It is important they be made aware of constructs (outside the traditional confines of intellectual and cognitive ability) that also influence academic success.  

* Malleability via metacognition (incl. the Dunning-Kruger effect). &lt;ref&gt;My references. Locked 1. &lt;/ref&gt;

* Malleability via Agency.  SCT - self as agent - four features: intentionality, forethought, self-reactiveness (self-regulation), and self-reflectiveness (self-efficacy)&lt;ref&gt;My references. locked 2&lt;/ref&gt;
* Subsequent awareness (of SE) can be leveraged to positive effect though strategies such as logical reasoning &lt;ref&gt;My references. Locked 1. &lt;/ref&gt;

=== At an organisational level ===
Academic Institutions - explore (self-efficacy) interventions and programs designed to foster / promote academic success:

* non-cognitive factors have a stronger association to success in initial year(s); interventions should focus on developing the perseverance required to build study skills in the early college years&lt;ref&gt;Caviglia-Harris, J., &amp; Maier, K. (2020). It's not all in their heads: the differing role of cognitive factors and non-cognitive traits in undergraduate success. ''Education Economics'', ''28''(3), 245-262. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09645292.2020.1729702&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;.
* Interventions should include components that target the development of learning strategies, particularly students’ academic goal engagement.&lt;ref&gt;Cheon-woo Han, Susan P. Farruggia &amp; Bonnie J. Solomon (2018)

Latent profiling university students’ learning strategies use and effects on academic performance and retention, Higher Education Research &amp; Development, 37:7, 1409-1423, DOI: 10.1080/07294360.2018.1498460&lt;/ref&gt;


Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

Alhadabi, A., &amp; Karpinski, A.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth,'' ''25''(1), 519-535. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. ''Psychological Review, 84''(2), 191–215. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Caviglia-Harris, J., &amp; Maier, K. (2020). It's not all in their heads: the differing role of cognitive factors and non-cognitive traits in undergraduate success. Education Economics, 28(3), 245-262. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09645292.2020.1729702&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Han, C.W., Farruggia, S.P., &amp; Solomon, B.J. (2018). Latent profiling university students’ learning strategies use and effects on academic performance and retention, Higher Edu-cation Research &amp; Development, 37(7), 1409-1423. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/07294360.2018.1498460&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Honicke, T., &amp; Broadbent, J. (2016)''.'' The relation of academic self-efficacy to university student academic performance: A systematic review. ''Educational Research Review, 17,'' 63-84. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Maddux, J. E., &amp; Kleiman, E. (2017). Self-efficacy. In R. Biswas-Diener &amp; E. Diener (Eds), ''Noba textbook series: Psychology.'' Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/lib/canberra/detail.action?pq-origsite=primo&amp;docID=4513033&lt;/nowiki&gt;

''Palos, R., Magurean, S., &amp; Petrovici, M. (2019). Self-regulated learning and academic performance - the mediating role of students’ achievement goals. Revista de cercetare și intervenție socială, 67, 234-249. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.67.15&lt;/nowiki&gt;''

Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Vergara, C. R..  Grit, self-efficacy and goal orientation: A correlation to achievement in statistics (2020). ''International Journal of Education and Research, 8''(1)89-106. http://www.ijern.com/journal/2020/January-2020/08.pdf

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>naxopk8dbi2sv5gmdg80o74d796p52s</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418236</id>
      <parentid>2418225</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:49:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Adjust title layout and add categories</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15837" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Self-efficacy and academic achievement:&lt;br&gt;What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
 
== Hierarchy (To-Do: create a map )==

=== [[Social cognitive theory|Social-Cognitive Theory]] &gt; comprised of 6 constructs &gt; self-efficacy, reciprocal determinism, behavioural capability, observational learning, reinforcements, and expectations ===

=== Social-Cognitive Theory &gt; [[Self-efficacy|Self-Efficacy]] &gt; Motivational Factor &gt; Influences behaviour ===

=== Self-Efficacy &gt; Psychological Construct &gt; Belief System ===

=== Self-Efficacy &gt; sites alongside other (non-cognitive characteristic) constructs: grit, locus of control, mindset theory &amp; self regulation &gt; as Motivational factor(s) &gt; which feed into academic success ===
== Theory ==

=== [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HnACsrdGZAI Self-efficacy] is..... ===

* Fits within Albert Bandura's [[wikipedia:Social_cognitive_theory#Self-efficacy|Social Cognitive Theory]] (SCT).  Bandura (1997) proposed that those with greater self-efficacy ultimately performed better within an academic setting.&lt;ref&gt;Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. ''Psychological Review, 84''(2), 191–215. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''Performance''' self-efficacy (expectations of future performance derive from familiar past experiences)&lt;ref&gt;Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''Academic''' self-efficacy (performance expectations are rendered from generalised competencies in unfamiliar settings).  

=== Self-efficacy is '''not'''..... ===

* Self-efficacy versus Implicit Theory of Intelligence ( Mindset Theory)
* Self-efficacy versus Self-concept.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Self-efficacy: As differentiated from similar constructs
!Construct            
!Author(s)                                         .        
!Derived from (Theoretical basis)                                           .  
!Definition                                                             .            
!Shared relationship(s)                                                   .   
!Primary Differences                                                   .            
|-
|Self-efficacy
.
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Mindset Theory
.
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Self-Concept
. 
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Self-Regulation
.
|
|
|
|
|
|}

=== Structure of self-efficacy ===

* Sources (mastery experience, social modelling, physiological state, verbal persuasion)
* Effects of Self-efficacy (approach and avoidance; effort and persistence; thinking and decision making; emotionality)

== Research ==
Those with greater self-efficacy ultimately perform better in academic settings. This is realised through greater motivation and perseverance, and a better use of cognitive resources, so that students are ultimately more likely to engage in behaviours that facilitate achievement. &lt;ref&gt;Maddux, J. E., &amp; Kleiman, E. (2017). Self-efficacy. In R. Biswas-Diener &amp; E. Diener (Eds), ''Noba textbook series: Psychology.'' Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/lib/canberra/detail.action?pq-origsite=primo&amp;docID=4513033&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== A direct positive effect on academic achievement ===

* self-efficacy has a direct and positive relationship (''r'' = .33) on academic performance irrespective of any adjoining motivational construct (i.e.. goal setting processes)&lt;ref&gt;Palos, R., Magurean, S., &amp; Petrovici, M. (2019). Self-regulated learning and academic performance - the mediating role of students’ achievement goals. ''Revista de cercetare și intervenție socială, 67'', 234-249. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.67.15&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Self-efficacy's moderating and / or mediating effects on academic achievement ===

* self-efficacy is both supportive and protective: increases the positive effect of mastery and performance-approach goals and reduces the negative effect of avoidance goals on academic performance. &lt;ref&gt;Alhadabi, A., &amp; Karpinski, A.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth,'' ''25''(1), 519-535. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* Honicke and Broadbent (2016) found that goal orientation and effort regulation are additional variables that may both moderate and mediate the relationship of self-efficacy and academic achievement. &lt;ref&gt;Honicke, T., &amp; Broadbent, J. (2016)''.'' The relation of academic self-efficacy to university student academic performance: A systematic review. ''Educational Research Review, 17,'' 63-84. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* self-efficacy alongside grade goals ''(n = 2670, r = 0.35)'' and effort regulation (''n'' = 8862, ''r'' = 0.29) transpired to be the strongest factors (outside cognitive capacity and previous performance) to affect academic performance. &lt;ref&gt;Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== As a predictor in the pursuit of and achievement in... ===

* STEM:  Statistics &lt;ref&gt;Vergara, C. R.. Grit, self-efficacy and goal orientation: A correlation to achievement in statistics (2020). ''International Journal of Education and Research, 8''(1)89-106. http://www.ijern.com/journal/2020/January-2020/08.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; &amp; Mathematics&lt;ref&gt;My references. Locked 1. &lt;/ref&gt;
* Writing

== Academic self-efficacy in practice (applications) ==
Importantly, self-efficacy is a '''malleable process,''' this means change can be enacted:

=== At an individual level ===
A student has authority over their behaviour and motivation. &amp;nbsp;It is important they be made aware of constructs (outside the traditional confines of intellectual and cognitive ability) that also influence academic success.  

* Malleability via metacognition (incl. the Dunning-Kruger effect). &lt;ref&gt;My references. Locked 1. &lt;/ref&gt;

* Malleability via Agency.  SCT - self as agent - four features: intentionality, forethought, self-reactiveness (self-regulation), and self-reflectiveness (self-efficacy)&lt;ref&gt;My references. locked 2&lt;/ref&gt;
* Subsequent awareness (of SE) can be leveraged to positive effect though strategies such as logical reasoning &lt;ref&gt;My references. Locked 1. &lt;/ref&gt;

=== At an organisational level ===
Academic Institutions - explore (self-efficacy) interventions and programs designed to foster / promote academic success:

* non-cognitive factors have a stronger association to success in initial year(s); interventions should focus on developing the perseverance required to build study skills in the early college years&lt;ref&gt;Caviglia-Harris, J., &amp; Maier, K. (2020). It's not all in their heads: the differing role of cognitive factors and non-cognitive traits in undergraduate success. ''Education Economics'', ''28''(3), 245-262. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09645292.2020.1729702&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;.
* Interventions should include components that target the development of learning strategies, particularly students’ academic goal engagement.&lt;ref&gt;Cheon-woo Han, Susan P. Farruggia &amp; Bonnie J. Solomon (2018)

Latent profiling university students’ learning strategies use and effects on academic performance and retention, Higher Education Research &amp; Development, 37:7, 1409-1423, DOI: 10.1080/07294360.2018.1498460&lt;/ref&gt;


Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

Alhadabi, A., &amp; Karpinski, A.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth,'' ''25''(1), 519-535. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. ''Psychological Review, 84''(2), 191–215. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Caviglia-Harris, J., &amp; Maier, K. (2020). It's not all in their heads: the differing role of cognitive factors and non-cognitive traits in undergraduate success. Education Economics, 28(3), 245-262. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09645292.2020.1729702&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Han, C.W., Farruggia, S.P., &amp; Solomon, B.J. (2018). Latent profiling university students’ learning strategies use and effects on academic performance and retention, Higher Edu-cation Research &amp; Development, 37(7), 1409-1423. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/07294360.2018.1498460&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Honicke, T., &amp; Broadbent, J. (2016)''.'' The relation of academic self-efficacy to university student academic performance: A systematic review. ''Educational Research Review, 17,'' 63-84. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Maddux, J. E., &amp; Kleiman, E. (2017). Self-efficacy. In R. Biswas-Diener &amp; E. Diener (Eds), ''Noba textbook series: Psychology.'' Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/lib/canberra/detail.action?pq-origsite=primo&amp;docID=4513033&lt;/nowiki&gt;

''Palos, R., Magurean, S., &amp; Petrovici, M. (2019). Self-regulated learning and academic performance - the mediating role of students’ achievement goals. Revista de cercetare și intervenție socială, 67, 234-249. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.67.15&lt;/nowiki&gt;''

Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Vergara, C. R..  Grit, self-efficacy and goal orientation: A correlation to achievement in statistics (2020). ''International Journal of Education and Research, 8''(1)89-106. http://www.ijern.com/journal/2020/January-2020/08.pdf

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Achievement]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-efficacy]]</text>
      <sha1>dnrf87g1xhdbj3zibpoc76t4xk2g7n2</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418239</id>
      <parentid>2418236</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:52:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15836" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Self-efficacy and academic achievement:&lt;br&gt;What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
 
== Hierarchy (To-Do: create a map )==

=== [[Social cognitive theory|Social-Cognitive Theory]] &gt; comprised of 6 constructs &gt; self-efficacy, reciprocal determinism, behavioural capability, observational learning, reinforcements, and expectations ===

=== Social-Cognitive Theory &gt; [[Self-efficacy|Self-Efficacy]] &gt; Motivational Factor &gt; Influences behaviour ===

=== Self-Efficacy &gt; Psychological Construct &gt; Belief System ===

=== Self-Efficacy &gt; sites alongside other (non-cognitive characteristic) constructs: grit, locus of control, mindset theory &amp; self regulation &gt; as Motivational factor(s) &gt; which feed into academic success ===
== Theory ==

=== [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HnACsrdGZAI Self-efficacy] is..... ===

* Fits within Albert Bandura's [[wikipedia:Social_cognitive_theory#Self-efficacy|Social Cognitive Theory]] (SCT).  Bandura (1997) proposed that those with greater self-efficacy ultimately performed better within an academic setting.&lt;ref&gt;Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. ''Psychological Review, 84''(2), 191–215. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''Performance''' self-efficacy (expectations of future performance derive from familiar past experiences)&lt;ref&gt;Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''Academic''' self-efficacy (performance expectations are rendered from generalised competencies in unfamiliar settings).  

=== Self-efficacy is '''not'''..... ===

* Self-efficacy versus Implicit Theory of Intelligence ( Mindset Theory)
* Self-efficacy versus Self-concept.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Self-efficacy: As differentiated from similar constructs
!Construct            
!Author(s)                                         .        
!Derived from (Theoretical basis)                                           .  
!Definition                                                             .            
!Shared relationship(s)                                                   .   
!Primary Differences                                                   .            
|-
|Self-efficacy
.
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Mindset Theory
.
|
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|-
|Self-Concept
. 
|
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|-
|Self-Regulation
.
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|}

=== Structure of self-efficacy ===

* Sources (mastery experience, social modelling, physiological state, verbal persuasion)
* Effects of Self-efficacy (approach and avoidance; effort and persistence; thinking and decision making; emotionality)

== Research ==
Those with greater self-efficacy ultimately perform better in academic settings. This is realised through greater motivation and perseverance, and a better use of cognitive resources, so that students are ultimately more likely to engage in behaviours that facilitate achievement. &lt;ref&gt;Maddux, J. E., &amp; Kleiman, E. (2017). Self-efficacy. In R. Biswas-Diener &amp; E. Diener (Eds), ''Noba textbook series: Psychology.'' Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/lib/canberra/detail.action?pq-origsite=primo&amp;docID=4513033&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== A direct positive effect on academic achievement ===

* self-efficacy has a direct and positive relationship (''r'' = .33) on academic performance irrespective of any adjoining motivational construct (i.e.. goal setting processes)&lt;ref&gt;Palos, R., Magurean, S., &amp; Petrovici, M. (2019). Self-regulated learning and academic performance - the mediating role of students’ achievement goals. ''Revista de cercetare și intervenție socială, 67'', 234-249. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.67.15&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Self-efficacy's moderating and / or mediating effects on academic achievement ===

* self-efficacy is both supportive and protective: increases the positive effect of mastery and performance-approach goals and reduces the negative effect of avoidance goals on academic performance. &lt;ref&gt;Alhadabi, A., &amp; Karpinski, A.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth,'' ''25''(1), 519-535. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* Honicke and Broadbent (2016) found that goal orientation and effort regulation are additional variables that may both moderate and mediate the relationship of self-efficacy and academic achievement. &lt;ref&gt;Honicke, T., &amp; Broadbent, J. (2016)''.'' The relation of academic self-efficacy to university student academic performance: A systematic review. ''Educational Research Review, 17,'' 63-84. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* self-efficacy alongside grade goals ''(n = 2670, r = 0.35)'' and effort regulation (''n'' = 8862, ''r'' = 0.29) transpired to be the strongest factors (outside cognitive capacity and previous performance) to affect academic performance. &lt;ref&gt;Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== As a predictor in the pursuit of and achievement in... ===

* STEM:  Statistics &lt;ref&gt;Vergara, C. R.. Grit, self-efficacy and goal orientation: A correlation to achievement in statistics (2020). ''International Journal of Education and Research, 8''(1)89-106. http://www.ijern.com/journal/2020/January-2020/08.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; &amp; Mathematics&lt;ref&gt;My references. Locked 1. &lt;/ref&gt;
* Writing

== Academic self-efficacy in practice (applications) ==
Importantly, self-efficacy is a '''malleable process,''' this means change can be enacted:

=== At an individual level ===
A student has authority over their behaviour and motivation. &amp;nbsp;It is important they be made aware of constructs (outside the traditional confines of intellectual and cognitive ability) that also influence academic success.  

* Malleability via metacognition (incl. the Dunning-Kruger effect). &lt;ref&gt;My references. Locked 1. &lt;/ref&gt;

* Malleability via Agency.  SCT - self as agent - four features: intentionality, forethought, self-reactiveness (self-regulation), and self-reflectiveness (self-efficacy)&lt;ref&gt;My references. locked 2&lt;/ref&gt;
* Subsequent awareness (of SE) can be leveraged to positive effect though strategies such as logical reasoning &lt;ref&gt;My references. Locked 1. &lt;/ref&gt;

=== At an organisational level ===
Academic Institutions - explore (self-efficacy) interventions and programs designed to foster / promote academic success:

* non-cognitive factors have a stronger association to success in initial year(s); interventions should focus on developing the perseverance required to build study skills in the early college years&lt;ref&gt;Caviglia-Harris, J., &amp; Maier, K. (2020). It's not all in their heads: the differing role of cognitive factors and non-cognitive traits in undergraduate success. ''Education Economics'', ''28''(3), 245-262. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09645292.2020.1729702&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;.
* Interventions should include components that target the development of learning strategies, particularly students’ academic goal engagement.&lt;ref&gt;Cheon-woo Han, Susan P. Farruggia &amp; Bonnie J. Solomon (2018)

Latent profiling university students’ learning strategies use and effects on academic performance and retention, Higher Education Research &amp; Development, 37:7, 1409-1423, DOI: 10.1080/07294360.2018.1498460&lt;/ref&gt;


Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

Alhadabi, A., &amp; Karpinski, A.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth,'' ''25''(1), 519-535. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. ''Psychological Review, 84''(2), 191–215. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Caviglia-Harris, J., &amp; Maier, K. (2020). It's not all in their heads: the differing role of cognitive factors and non-cognitive traits in undergraduate success. Education Economics, 28(3), 245-262. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09645292.2020.1729702&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Han, C.W., Farruggia, S.P., &amp; Solomon, B.J. (2018). Latent profiling university students’ learning strategies use and effects on academic performance and retention, Higher Edu-cation Research &amp; Development, 37(7), 1409-1423. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/07294360.2018.1498460&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Honicke, T., &amp; Broadbent, J. (2016)''.'' The relation of academic self-efficacy to university student academic performance: A systematic review. ''Educational Research Review, 17,'' 63-84. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Maddux, J. E., &amp; Kleiman, E. (2017). Self-efficacy. In R. Biswas-Diener &amp; E. Diener (Eds), ''Noba textbook series: Psychology.'' Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/lib/canberra/detail.action?pq-origsite=primo&amp;docID=4513033&lt;/nowiki&gt;

''Palos, R., Magurean, S., &amp; Petrovici, M. (2019). Self-regulated learning and academic performance - the mediating role of students’ achievement goals. Revista de cercetare și intervenție socială, 67, 234-249. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.67.15&lt;/nowiki&gt;''

Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Vergara, C. R..  Grit, self-efficacy and goal orientation: A correlation to achievement in statistics (2020). ''International Journal of Education and Research, 8''(1)89-106. http://www.ijern.com/journal/2020/January-2020/08.pdf

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Achievement]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-efficacy]]</text>
      <sha1>a5s65xwpz8e4u6a72ksag4h6uezpbw5</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418252</id>
      <parentid>2418239</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T11:10:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U943292</username>
        <id>2946502</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="17243" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Self-efficacy and academic achievement:&lt;br&gt;What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
 
== Hierarchy (To-Do: create a map )==

=== [[Social cognitive theory|Social-Cognitive Theory]] &gt; comprised of 6 constructs &gt; self-efficacy, reciprocal determinism, behavioural capability, observational learning, reinforcements, and expectations ===

=== Social-Cognitive Theory &gt; [[Self-efficacy|Self-Efficacy]] &gt; Motivational Factor &gt; Influences behaviour ===

=== Self-Efficacy &gt; Psychological Construct &gt; Belief System ===

=== Self-Efficacy &gt; sites alongside other (non-cognitive characteristic) constructs: grit, locus of control, mindset theory &amp; self regulation &gt; as Motivational factor(s) &gt; which feed into academic success ===
== Theory ==

=== [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HnACsrdGZAI Self-efficacy] is..... ===

* Fits within Albert Bandura's [[wikipedia:Social_cognitive_theory#Self-efficacy|Social Cognitive Theory]] (SCT).  Bandura (1997) proposed that those with greater self-efficacy ultimately performed better within an academic setting.&lt;ref&gt;Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. ''Psychological Review, 84''(2), 191–215. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''Performance''' self-efficacy (expectations of future performance derive from familiar past experiences)&lt;ref&gt;Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''Academic''' self-efficacy (performance expectations are rendered from generalised competencies in unfamiliar settings).  

=== Self-efficacy is '''not'''..... ===

* Self-efficacy versus Implicit Theory of Intelligence ( Mindset Theory)
* Self-efficacy versus Self-concept.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Self-efficacy: As differentiated from similar constructs
!Construct            
!Author(s)                                         .        
!Derived from (Theoretical basis)                                           .  
!Definition                                                             .            
!Shared relationship(s)                                                   .   
!Primary Differences                                                   .            
|-
|Self-efficacy
.
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Mindset Theory
.
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Self-Concept
. 
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Self-Regulation
.
|
|
|
|
|
|}

=== Structure of self-efficacy ===

* Sources (mastery experience, social modelling, physiological state, verbal persuasion)
* Effects of Self-efficacy (approach and avoidance; effort and persistence; thinking and decision making; emotionality)

== Research ==
Those with greater self-efficacy ultimately perform better in academic settings. This is realised through greater motivation and perseverance, and a better use of cognitive resources, so that students are ultimately more likely to engage in behaviours that facilitate achievement. &lt;ref&gt;Maddux, J. E., &amp; Kleiman, E. (2017). Self-efficacy. In R. Biswas-Diener &amp; E. Diener (Eds), ''Noba textbook series: Psychology.'' Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/lib/canberra/detail.action?pq-origsite=primo&amp;docID=4513033&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== A direct positive effect on academic achievement ===

* self-efficacy has a direct and positive relationship (''r'' = .33) on academic performance irrespective of any adjoining motivational construct (i.e.. goal setting processes)&lt;ref&gt;Palos, R., Magurean, S., &amp; Petrovici, M. (2019). Self-regulated learning and academic performance - the mediating role of students’ achievement goals. ''Revista de cercetare și intervenție socială, 67'', 234-249. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.67.15&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Self-efficacy's moderating and / or mediating effects on academic achievement ===

* self-efficacy is both supportive and protective: increases the positive effect of mastery and performance-approach goals and reduces the negative effect of avoidance goals on academic performance. &lt;ref&gt;Alhadabi, A., &amp; Karpinski, A.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth,'' ''25''(1), 519-535. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* Honicke and Broadbent (2016) found that goal orientation and effort regulation are additional variables that may both moderate and mediate the relationship of self-efficacy and academic achievement. &lt;ref&gt;Honicke, T., &amp; Broadbent, J. (2016)''.'' The relation of academic self-efficacy to university student academic performance: A systematic review. ''Educational Research Review, 17,'' 63-84. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
* self-efficacy alongside grade goals ''(n = 2670, r = 0.35)'' and effort regulation (''n'' = 8862, ''r'' = 0.29) transpired to be the strongest factors (outside cognitive capacity and previous performance) to affect academic performance. &lt;ref&gt;Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== As a predictor in the pursuit of and achievement in... ===

* STEM:  Statistics &lt;ref&gt;Vergara, C. R.. Grit, self-efficacy and goal orientation: A correlation to achievement in statistics (2020). ''International Journal of Education and Research, 8''(1)89-106. http://www.ijern.com/journal/2020/January-2020/08.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; &amp; Mathematics&lt;ref&gt;My references. Locked 1. &lt;/ref&gt;
* Writing

=== Self-efficacy: Measurement and multidimensionality ===
The Multidimensional Scales of Perceived Self-Efficacy (MSPSE&lt;ref&gt;[https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Multidimensional+scales+of+perceived+academic+efficacy&amp;author=A+Bandura&amp;publication_year=1990&amp;]&lt;/ref&gt;) were developed by Bandura with the aim of measuring nine different dimensions: social resources, academic achievement, self-regulated learning, leisure-time skills and extracurricular activities, self-regulatory efficacy (to resist peer pressure for high risk behaviours), self-efficacy to meet others’ expectations, social self-efficacy, self-assertive efficacy, and enlisting parental and community support.

Subsequent exploratory factorial analyses, like Miller et all (1999) have seen these nine dimensions condensed into various second-order-factor structures, such as: ''Social Self-Efficacy'', ''Task Management Efficacy'', and ''Academic Efficacy'' &lt;ref&gt;Miller JW, Coombs WT, &amp; Fuqua DR (1999). An examination of psychometric properties of Bandura’s multidimensional scales of perceived self-efficacy. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development. 1999; 31: 186–196.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Academic self-efficacy in practice (applications) ==
Importantly, self-efficacy is a '''malleable process,''' this means change can be enacted:

=== At an individual level ===
A student has authority over their behaviour and motivation. &amp;nbsp;It is important they be made aware of constructs (outside the traditional confines of intellectual and cognitive ability) that also influence academic success.  

* Malleability via metacognition (incl. the Dunning-Kruger effect). &lt;ref&gt;My references. Locked 1. &lt;/ref&gt;

* Malleability via Agency.  SCT - self as agent - four features: intentionality, forethought, self-reactiveness (self-regulation), and self-reflectiveness (self-efficacy)&lt;ref&gt;My references. locked 2&lt;/ref&gt;
* Subsequent awareness (of SE) can be leveraged to positive effect though strategies such as logical reasoning &lt;ref&gt;My references. Locked 1. &lt;/ref&gt;

=== At an organisational level ===
Academic Institutions - explore (self-efficacy) interventions and programs designed to foster / promote academic success:

* non-cognitive factors have a stronger association to success in initial year(s); interventions should focus on developing the perseverance required to build study skills in the early college years&lt;ref&gt;Caviglia-Harris, J., &amp; Maier, K. (2020). It's not all in their heads: the differing role of cognitive factors and non-cognitive traits in undergraduate success. ''Education Economics'', ''28''(3), 245-262. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09645292.2020.1729702&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;.
* Interventions should include components that target the development of learning strategies, particularly students’ academic goal engagement.&lt;ref&gt;Cheon-woo Han, Susan P. Farruggia &amp; Bonnie J. Solomon (2018)

Latent profiling university students’ learning strategies use and effects on academic performance and retention, Higher Education Research &amp; Development, 37:7, 1409-1423, DOI: 10.1080/07294360.2018.1498460&lt;/ref&gt;


Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

Alhadabi, A., &amp; Karpinski, A.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth,'' ''25''(1), 519-535. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. ''Psychological Review, 84''(2), 191–215. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Caviglia-Harris, J., &amp; Maier, K. (2020). It's not all in their heads: the differing role of cognitive factors and non-cognitive traits in undergraduate success. Education Economics, 28(3), 245-262. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09645292.2020.1729702&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Han, C.W., Farruggia, S.P., &amp; Solomon, B.J. (2018). Latent profiling university students’ learning strategies use and effects on academic performance and retention, Higher Edu-cation Research &amp; Development, 37(7), 1409-1423. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/07294360.2018.1498460&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Honicke, T., &amp; Broadbent, J. (2016)''.'' The relation of academic self-efficacy to university student academic performance: A systematic review. ''Educational Research Review, 17,'' 63-84. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Maddux, J. E., &amp; Kleiman, E. (2017). Self-efficacy. In R. Biswas-Diener &amp; E. Diener (Eds), ''Noba textbook series: Psychology.'' Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/lib/canberra/detail.action?pq-origsite=primo&amp;docID=4513033&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Miller JW, Coombs WT, &amp; Fuqua DR (1999). An examination of psychometric properties of Bandura’s multidimensional scales of perceived self-efficacy. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development. 1999; 31: 186–196

''Palos, R., Magurean, S., &amp; Petrovici, M. (2019). Self-regulated learning and academic performance - the mediating role of students’ achievement goals. Revista de cercetare și intervenție socială, 67, 234-249. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.67.15&lt;/nowiki&gt;''

Richardson, M., Abraham, C., &amp; Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''138''(2), 353–387. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Vergara, C. R..  Grit, self-efficacy and goal orientation: A correlation to achievement in statistics (2020). ''International Journal of Education and Research, 8''(1)89-106. http://www.ijern.com/journal/2020/January-2020/08.pdf

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Achievement]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-efficacy]]</text>
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      <comment>hobbies</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="961" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hello and welcome to my page! My name is Zoe and I am a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am studying a double degree of [[wikipedia:Psychology|Psychology]] and [[wikipedia:Business|Business]] while on a working holiday in Byron Bay. This semester I am enrolled in [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] and am looking forward to learning about this subject over the next few months.

=== Hobbies ===
In my spare time when I am not working between my two jobs or studying, you will find me either walking along the beach or catching up with my best friend [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|Georgia]] who is also enrolled in this unit.


My interests include:

* Walking my dog, Molly
* Listening to the Happy Hour Podcast
* Going to the beach

== Book Chapter ==
The book chapter that I am working on is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Honesty motivation|honesty motivation]]

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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  <page>
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      <comment>topic</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="488" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I am a student of ''[[w:Psychology|Psychology]]'' and ''[[wikipedia:Counseling_psychology|Counselling]]'' at the '''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]'''.

I am studying [[motivation and emotion]] this semester.

=== Hobbies ===

* Yoga

* Writing

* Camping with my husband in our 1975 T2 Kombi, ''Vernie'' 

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Self-hel|Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <comment>topic</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="479" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I am a student of ''[[w:Psychology|Psychology]]'' and ''[[wikipedia:Counseling_psychology|Counselling]]'' at the '''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]'''.

I am studying [[motivation and emotion]] this semester.

=== Hobbies ===

* Yoga

* Writing

* Camping with my husband in our 1975 T2 Kombi, ''Vernie'' 

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Self-help|Motivation and emotion]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-24T02:03:43Z</timestamp>
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        <id>2947652</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Book chapter I'm working on */ self help</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="544" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I am a student of ''[[w:Psychology|Psychology]]'' and ''[[wikipedia:Counseling_psychology|Counselling]]'' at the '''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]'''.

I am studying [[motivation and emotion]] this semester.

=== Hobbies ===

* Yoga

* Writing

* Camping with my husband in our 1975 T2 Kombi, ''Vernie'' 

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Self-help&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1 Motivation and emotion]

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <id>2418020</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Cedevlin9</username>
        <id>2947652</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Book chapter I'm working on */ self help</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="479" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I am a student of ''[[w:Psychology|Psychology]]'' and ''[[wikipedia:Counseling_psychology|Counselling]]'' at the '''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]'''.

I am studying [[motivation and emotion]] this semester.

=== Hobbies ===

* Yoga

* Writing

* Camping with my husband in our 1975 T2 Kombi, ''Vernie'' 

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Self-help|Motivation and emotion]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Cedevlin9</username>
        <id>2947652</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Book chapter I'm working on */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="535" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I am a student of ''[[w:Psychology|Psychology]]'' and ''[[wikipedia:Counseling_psychology|Counselling]]'' at the '''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]'''.

I am studying [[motivation and emotion]] this semester.

=== Hobbies ===

* Yoga

* Writing

* Camping with my husband in our 1975 T2 Kombi, ''Vernie'' 

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Self Help|https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Self-help&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1]]


== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Cedevlin9</username>
        <id>2947652</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Book chapter I'm working on */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="455" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I am a student of ''[[w:Psychology|Psychology]]'' and ''[[wikipedia:Counseling_psychology|Counselling]]'' at the '''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]'''.

I am studying [[motivation and emotion]] this semester.

=== Hobbies ===

* Yoga

* Writing

* Camping with my husband in our 1975 T2 Kombi, ''Vernie'' 

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Self-help]]
== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <comment>/* References */</comment>
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      <text bytes="11297" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Social cure - What is the social cure and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

=='''Overview'''==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, [[File:-Friends Forever -Life Long -Friends 4 life -Together -Friends -Reunion -Memories.jpg|thumb|''Figure'' 1. Group of Friends]]low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as 

anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the 

usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure

can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing.{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== '''Social Cure''' ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

=== Dynamics of Social Cure ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:
* Increased social activity/interaction positively effecting mental health and wellbeing - Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., &amp; Steffens, N. K. (2017).
*

=== '''Importance of Groups''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:

=== '''Social Networking''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Mental health|Mental Health]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}Currie, C., Zanotti, C., Morgan, A., Currie, D., De Looze, M., Roberts, C., Samdal, O., Smith, O. R., &amp; Barnekow, V. (2009). Social determinants of health and well-being among young people. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: international report from the, 2010, 271. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39900069/Social_determinants_of_health_and_well-b20151111-27604-w42wjb-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1661148517&amp;Signature=hG-B6MV1OU2j9Et0tU2yTeQ4ye1~FfSbJF783dpZC5v3CjDVVrlzLGXWKFOw58R6Lwt~4mfP3l3D5ixHOKRz5zVIv1DG5GLFpRBy0-fvyab90PhRaZ97Mi-0z0kQxZ9yl5AVpFHxpcrw2-u-R~DnPpkXg2nt4LBUatVcQcvNOClO6lSmUroQ2PASg9FNmHDBR03JNNlIGhqr62KoBjPyyZSUS~DXZE~D69dnFLqLRWvGCoMP1c0pJRM0DW3QmmNI1tZzrdY1HrllFK-Yky2YLn8TkS5KRcWLRYfqYrKg5od5vQqUKO6xg4IRAJk7Sw~A3iOohm6blOGoMnSNWKopyQ__&amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA]

Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., &amp; Steffens, N. K. (2017). Advancing the social identity approach to health and well‐being: Progressing the social cure research agenda. European journal of social psychology, 47(7), 789-802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2333 

Hajak, V. L., Sardana, S., Verdeli, H., &amp; Grimm, S. (2021). A systematic review of factors affecting mental health and well-being of asylum seekers and refugees in Germany. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 643704. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.643704/full&lt;nowiki/&gt;{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

* [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jolanda-Jetten/publication/247446655_The_Social_Cure/links/58d0b571a6fdcc344b0c1364/The-Social-Cure.pdf The Social Cure] (Book by Jolanda Jetten)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>2zz5p3z80r6329xqa2g0e9mehv0f8i4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418053</id>
      <parentid>2418051</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:14:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3215976</username>
        <id>2947554</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11321" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Social cure - What is the social cure and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

=='''Overview'''==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, [[File:-Friends Forever -Life Long -Friends 4 life -Together -Friends -Reunion -Memories.jpg|thumb|''Figure'' 1. Group of Friends]]low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as 

anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the 

usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure

can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing.{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== '''Social Cure''' ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

=== Dynamics of Social Cure ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:
* Increased social activity/interaction positively effecting mental health and wellbeing - Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., &amp; Steffens, N. K. (2017).
*

=== '''Importance of Groups''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:

=== '''Social Networking''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Mental health|Mental Health]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

{{Hanging indent|1=
Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}Currie, C., Zanotti, C., Morgan, A., Currie, D., De Looze, M., Roberts, C., Samdal, O., Smith, O. R., &amp; Barnekow, V. (2009). Social determinants of health and well-being among young people. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: international report from the, 2010, 271. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39900069/Social_determinants_of_health_and_well-b20151111-27604-w42wjb-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1661148517&amp;Signature=hG-B6MV1OU2j9Et0tU2yTeQ4ye1~FfSbJF783dpZC5v3CjDVVrlzLGXWKFOw58R6Lwt~4mfP3l3D5ixHOKRz5zVIv1DG5GLFpRBy0-fvyab90PhRaZ97Mi-0z0kQxZ9yl5AVpFHxpcrw2-u-R~DnPpkXg2nt4LBUatVcQcvNOClO6lSmUroQ2PASg9FNmHDBR03JNNlIGhqr62KoBjPyyZSUS~DXZE~D69dnFLqLRWvGCoMP1c0pJRM0DW3QmmNI1tZzrdY1HrllFK-Yky2YLn8TkS5KRcWLRYfqYrKg5od5vQqUKO6xg4IRAJk7Sw~A3iOohm6blOGoMnSNWKopyQ__&amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA]

Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., &amp; Steffens, N. K. (2017). Advancing the social identity approach to health and well‐being: Progressing the social cure research agenda. European journal of social psychology, 47(7), 789-802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2333 

Hajak, V. L., Sardana, S., Verdeli, H., &amp; Grimm, S. (2021). A systematic review of factors affecting mental health and well-being of asylum seekers and refugees in Germany. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 643704. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.643704/full&lt;nowiki/&gt;{{tip|
}}
Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

* [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jolanda-Jetten/publication/247446655_The_Social_Cure/links/58d0b571a6fdcc344b0c1364/The-Social-Cure.pdf The Social Cure] (Book by Jolanda Jetten)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>o5c6vtzjixpex2huo3pwxpr1xmwbniv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418054</id>
      <parentid>2418053</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:15:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3215976</username>
        <id>2947554</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11298" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Social cure - What is the social cure and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

=='''Overview'''==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, [[File:-Friends Forever -Life Long -Friends 4 life -Together -Friends -Reunion -Memories.jpg|thumb|''Figure'' 1. Group of Friends]]low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as 

anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the 

usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure

can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing.{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== '''Social Cure''' ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

=== Dynamics of Social Cure ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:
* Increased social activity/interaction positively effecting mental health and wellbeing - Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., &amp; Steffens, N. K. (2017).
*

=== '''Importance of Groups''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:

=== '''Social Networking''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Mental health|Mental Health]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

{{Hanging indent|1=
Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}Currie, C., Zanotti, C., Morgan, A., Currie, D., De Looze, M., Roberts, C., Samdal, O., Smith, O. R., &amp; Barnekow, V. (2009). Social determinants of health and well-being among young people. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: international report from the, 2010, 271. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39900069/Social_determinants_of_health_and_well-b20151111-27604-w42wjb-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1661148517&amp;Signature=hG-B6MV1OU2j9Et0tU2yTeQ4ye1~FfSbJF783dpZC5v3CjDVVrlzLGXWKFOw58R6Lwt~4mfP3l3D5ixHOKRz5zVIv1DG5GLFpRBy0-fvyab90PhRaZ97Mi-0z0kQxZ9yl5AVpFHxpcrw2-u-R~DnPpkXg2nt4LBUatVcQcvNOClO6lSmUroQ2PASg9FNmHDBR03JNNlIGhqr62KoBjPyyZSUS~DXZE~D69dnFLqLRWvGCoMP1c0pJRM0DW3QmmNI1tZzrdY1HrllFK-Yky2YLn8TkS5KRcWLRYfqYrKg5od5vQqUKO6xg4IRAJk7Sw~A3iOohm6blOGoMnSNWKopyQ__&amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA]

Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., &amp; Steffens, N. K. (2017). Advancing the social identity approach to health and well‐being: Progressing the social cure research agenda. European journal of social psychology, 47(7), 789-802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2333 

Hajak, V. L., Sardana, S., Verdeli, H., &amp; Grimm, S. (2021). A systematic review of factors affecting mental health and well-being of asylum seekers and refugees in Germany. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 643704. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.643704/full&lt;nowiki/&gt;{{tip|
}}
Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

* [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jolanda-Jetten/publication/247446655_The_Social_Cure/links/58d0b571a6fdcc344b0c1364/The-Social-Cure.pdf The Social Cure] (Book by Jolanda Jetten)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>ees5i06mfptvahwl437z0u5o7iidkah</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418055</id>
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      <contributor>
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      <text bytes="10898" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Social cure - What is the social cure and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

=='''Overview'''==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, [[File:-Friends Forever -Life Long -Friends 4 life -Together -Friends -Reunion -Memories.jpg|thumb|''Figure'' 1. Group of Friends]]low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as 

anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the 

usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure

can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing.{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== '''Social Cure''' ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

=== Dynamics of Social Cure ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:
* Increased social activity/interaction positively effecting mental health and wellbeing - Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., &amp; Steffens, N. K. (2017).
*

=== '''Importance of Groups''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:

=== '''Social Networking''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Mental health|Mental Health]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}Currie, C., Zanotti, C., Morgan, A., Currie, D., De Looze, M., Roberts, C., Samdal, O., Smith, O. R., &amp; Barnekow, V. (2009). Social determinants of health and well-being among young people. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: international report from the, 2010, 271. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39900069/Social_determinants_of_health_and_well-b20151111-27604-w42wjb-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1661148517&amp;Signature=hG-B6MV1OU2j9Et0tU2yTeQ4ye1~FfSbJF783dpZC5v3CjDVVrlzLGXWKFOw58R6Lwt~4mfP3l3D5ixHOKRz5zVIv1DG5GLFpRBy0-fvyab90PhRaZ97Mi-0z0kQxZ9yl5AVpFHxpcrw2-u-R~DnPpkXg2nt4LBUatVcQcvNOClO6lSmUroQ2PASg9FNmHDBR03JNNlIGhqr62KoBjPyyZSUS~DXZE~D69dnFLqLRWvGCoMP1c0pJRM0DW3QmmNI1tZzrdY1HrllFK-Yky2YLn8TkS5KRcWLRYfqYrKg5od5vQqUKO6xg4IRAJk7Sw~A3iOohm6blOGoMnSNWKopyQ__&amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA]

Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., &amp; Steffens, N. K. (2017). Advancing the social identity approach to health and well‐being: Progressing the social cure research agenda. European journal of social psychology, 47(7), 789-802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2333 

Hajak, V. L., Sardana, S., Verdeli, H., &amp; Grimm, S. (2021). A systematic review of factors affecting mental health and well-being of asylum seekers and refugees in Germany. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 643704. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.643704/full&lt;nowiki/&gt;{{tip|
}}
Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

* [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jolanda-Jetten/publication/247446655_The_Social_Cure/links/58d0b571a6fdcc344b0c1364/The-Social-Cure.pdf The Social Cure] (Book by Jolanda Jetten)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>moctbucc2p0jaysb73o9byg7l64stvl</sha1>
    </revision>
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      <text bytes="10829" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Social cure - What is the social cure and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

=='''Overview'''==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, [[File:-Friends Forever -Life Long -Friends 4 life -Together -Friends -Reunion -Memories.jpg|thumb|''Figure'' 1. Group of Friends]]low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as 

anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the 

usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure

can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing.{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== '''Social Cure''' ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

=== Dynamics of Social Cure ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:
* Increased social activity/interaction positively effecting mental health and wellbeing - (Jetten, J. et al, 2017).
*

=== '''Importance of Groups''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:

=== '''Social Networking''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Mental health|Mental Health]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}Currie, C., Zanotti, C., Morgan, A., Currie, D., De Looze, M., Roberts, C., Samdal, O., Smith, O. R., &amp; Barnekow, V. (2009). Social determinants of health and well-being among young people. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: international report from the, 2010, 271. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39900069/Social_determinants_of_health_and_well-b20151111-27604-w42wjb-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1661148517&amp;Signature=hG-B6MV1OU2j9Et0tU2yTeQ4ye1~FfSbJF783dpZC5v3CjDVVrlzLGXWKFOw58R6Lwt~4mfP3l3D5ixHOKRz5zVIv1DG5GLFpRBy0-fvyab90PhRaZ97Mi-0z0kQxZ9yl5AVpFHxpcrw2-u-R~DnPpkXg2nt4LBUatVcQcvNOClO6lSmUroQ2PASg9FNmHDBR03JNNlIGhqr62KoBjPyyZSUS~DXZE~D69dnFLqLRWvGCoMP1c0pJRM0DW3QmmNI1tZzrdY1HrllFK-Yky2YLn8TkS5KRcWLRYfqYrKg5od5vQqUKO6xg4IRAJk7Sw~A3iOohm6blOGoMnSNWKopyQ__&amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA]

Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., &amp; Steffens, N. K. (2017). Advancing the social identity approach to health and well‐being: Progressing the social cure research agenda. European journal of social psychology, 47(7), 789-802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2333 

Hajak, V. L., Sardana, S., Verdeli, H., &amp; Grimm, S. (2021). A systematic review of factors affecting mental health and well-being of asylum seekers and refugees in Germany. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 643704. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.643704/full&lt;nowiki/&gt;{{tip|
}}
Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

* [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jolanda-Jetten/publication/247446655_The_Social_Cure/links/58d0b571a6fdcc344b0c1364/The-Social-Cure.pdf The Social Cure] (Book by Jolanda Jetten)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>qh2fr43leaej7k2x3yzf62duyw9u9au</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418058</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:21:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3215976</username>
        <id>2947554</id>
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      <comment>/* References */</comment>
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      <text bytes="10537" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Social cure - What is the social cure and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

=='''Overview'''==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, [[File:-Friends Forever -Life Long -Friends 4 life -Together -Friends -Reunion -Memories.jpg|thumb|''Figure'' 1. Group of Friends]]low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as 

anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the 

usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure

can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing.{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== '''Social Cure''' ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

=== Dynamics of Social Cure ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:
* Increased social activity/interaction positively effecting mental health and wellbeing - (Jetten, J. et al, 2017).
*

=== '''Importance of Groups''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:

=== '''Social Networking''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Mental health|Mental Health]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Currie, C., Zanotti, C., Morgan, A., Currie, D., De Looze, M., Roberts, C., Samdal, O., Smith, O. R., &amp; Barnekow, V. (2009). Social determinants of health and well-being among young people. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: international report from the, 2010, 271. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39900069/Social_determinants_of_health_and_well-b20151111-27604-w42wjb-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1661148517&amp;Signature=hG-B6MV1OU2j9Et0tU2yTeQ4ye1~FfSbJF783dpZC5v3CjDVVrlzLGXWKFOw58R6Lwt~4mfP3l3D5ixHOKRz5zVIv1DG5GLFpRBy0-fvyab90PhRaZ97Mi-0z0kQxZ9yl5AVpFHxpcrw2-u-R~DnPpkXg2nt4LBUatVcQcvNOClO6lSmUroQ2PASg9FNmHDBR03JNNlIGhqr62KoBjPyyZSUS~DXZE~D69dnFLqLRWvGCoMP1c0pJRM0DW3QmmNI1tZzrdY1HrllFK-Yky2YLn8TkS5KRcWLRYfqYrKg5od5vQqUKO6xg4IRAJk7Sw~A3iOohm6blOGoMnSNWKopyQ__&amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA]

Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., &amp; Steffens, N. K. (2017). Advancing the social identity approach to health and well‐being: Progressing the social cure research agenda. European journal of social psychology, 47(7), 789-802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2333 

Hajak, V. L., Sardana, S., Verdeli, H., &amp; Grimm, S. (2021). A systematic review of factors affecting mental health and well-being of asylum seekers and refugees in Germany. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 643704. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.643704/full&lt;nowiki/&gt;{{tip|
}}
Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

* [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jolanda-Jetten/publication/247446655_The_Social_Cure/links/58d0b571a6fdcc344b0c1364/The-Social-Cure.pdf The Social Cure] (Book by Jolanda Jetten)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>k5vlyx61v5qqpbi0510mb3vhpy6d1ww</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418059</id>
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        <id>2947554</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10538" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Social cure - What is the social cure and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

=='''Overview'''==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, [[File:-Friends Forever -Life Long -Friends 4 life -Together -Friends -Reunion -Memories.jpg|thumb|''Figure'' 1. Group of Friends]]low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as 

anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the 

usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure

can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing.{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== '''Social Cure''' ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

=== Dynamics of Social Cure ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:
* Increased social activity/interaction positively effecting mental health and wellbeing - (Jetten, J. et al, 2017).
*

=== '''Importance of Groups''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:

=== '''Social Networking''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Mental health|Mental Health]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1= 

Currie, C., Zanotti, C., Morgan, A., Currie, D., De Looze, M., Roberts, C., Samdal, O., Smith, O. R., &amp; Barnekow, V. (2009). Social determinants of health and well-being among young people. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: international report from the, 2010, 271. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39900069/Social_determinants_of_health_and_well-b20151111-27604-w42wjb-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1661148517&amp;Signature=hG-B6MV1OU2j9Et0tU2yTeQ4ye1~FfSbJF783dpZC5v3CjDVVrlzLGXWKFOw58R6Lwt~4mfP3l3D5ixHOKRz5zVIv1DG5GLFpRBy0-fvyab90PhRaZ97Mi-0z0kQxZ9yl5AVpFHxpcrw2-u-R~DnPpkXg2nt4LBUatVcQcvNOClO6lSmUroQ2PASg9FNmHDBR03JNNlIGhqr62KoBjPyyZSUS~DXZE~D69dnFLqLRWvGCoMP1c0pJRM0DW3QmmNI1tZzrdY1HrllFK-Yky2YLn8TkS5KRcWLRYfqYrKg5od5vQqUKO6xg4IRAJk7Sw~A3iOohm6blOGoMnSNWKopyQ__&amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA]

Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., &amp; Steffens, N. K. (2017). Advancing the social identity approach to health and well‐being: Progressing the social cure research agenda. European journal of social psychology, 47(7), 789-802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2333 

Hajak, V. L., Sardana, S., Verdeli, H., &amp; Grimm, S. (2021). A systematic review of factors affecting mental health and well-being of asylum seekers and refugees in Germany. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 643704. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.643704/full&lt;nowiki/&gt;{{tip|
}}
Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

* [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jolanda-Jetten/publication/247446655_The_Social_Cure/links/58d0b571a6fdcc344b0c1364/The-Social-Cure.pdf The Social Cure] (Book by Jolanda Jetten)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>ode3ledyz4k7eh4p7zpkn1uvvg4a3gc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418061</id>
      <parentid>2418059</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:23:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3215976</username>
        <id>2947554</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10538" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Social cure - What is the social cure and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

=='''Overview'''==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, [[File:-Friends Forever -Life Long -Friends 4 life -Together -Friends -Reunion -Memories.jpg|thumb|''Figure'' 1. Group of Friends]]low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as 

anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the 

usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure

can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing.{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== '''Social Cure''' ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

=== Dynamics of Social Cure ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:
* Increased social activity/interaction positively effecting mental health and wellbeing - (Jetten, J. et al, 2017).
*

=== '''Importance of Groups''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:

=== '''Social Networking''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Mental health|Mental Health]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

{{Hanging indent|1= 
Currie, C., Zanotti, C., Morgan, A., Currie, D., De Looze, M., Roberts, C., Samdal, O., Smith, O. R., &amp; Barnekow, V. (2009). Social determinants of health and well-being among young people. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: international report from the, 2010, 271. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39900069/Social_determinants_of_health_and_well-b20151111-27604-w42wjb-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1661148517&amp;Signature=hG-B6MV1OU2j9Et0tU2yTeQ4ye1~FfSbJF783dpZC5v3CjDVVrlzLGXWKFOw58R6Lwt~4mfP3l3D5ixHOKRz5zVIv1DG5GLFpRBy0-fvyab90PhRaZ97Mi-0z0kQxZ9yl5AVpFHxpcrw2-u-R~DnPpkXg2nt4LBUatVcQcvNOClO6lSmUroQ2PASg9FNmHDBR03JNNlIGhqr62KoBjPyyZSUS~DXZE~D69dnFLqLRWvGCoMP1c0pJRM0DW3QmmNI1tZzrdY1HrllFK-Yky2YLn8TkS5KRcWLRYfqYrKg5od5vQqUKO6xg4IRAJk7Sw~A3iOohm6blOGoMnSNWKopyQ__&amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA]

Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., &amp; Steffens, N. K. (2017). Advancing the social identity approach to health and well‐being: Progressing the social cure research agenda. European journal of social psychology, 47(7), 789-802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2333 

Hajak, V. L., Sardana, S., Verdeli, H., &amp; Grimm, S. (2021). A systematic review of factors affecting mental health and well-being of asylum seekers and refugees in Germany. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 643704. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.643704/full&lt;nowiki/&gt;{{tip|}}

Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

* [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jolanda-Jetten/publication/247446655_The_Social_Cure/links/58d0b571a6fdcc344b0c1364/The-Social-Cure.pdf The Social Cure] (Book by Jolanda Jetten)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>q6jh2tnm3w6edepwf048ijd2pbsdpf4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418066</id>
      <parentid>2418061</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:27:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3215976</username>
        <id>2947554</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Dynamics of Social Cure */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10534" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Social cure - What is the social cure and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

=='''Overview'''==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, [[File:-Friends Forever -Life Long -Friends 4 life -Together -Friends -Reunion -Memories.jpg|thumb|''Figure'' 1. Group of Friends]]low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as 

anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the 

usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure

can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing.{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== '''Social Cure''' ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

=== Dynamics of Social Cure ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:
* Increased social activity/interaction positively effecting mental health and wellbeing - (Jetten et al, 2017).
*

=== '''Importance of Groups''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:

=== '''Social Networking''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Mental health|Mental Health]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

{{Hanging indent|1= 
Currie, C., Zanotti, C., Morgan, A., Currie, D., De Looze, M., Roberts, C., Samdal, O., Smith, O. R., &amp; Barnekow, V. (2009). Social determinants of health and well-being among young people. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: international report from the, 2010, 271. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39900069/Social_determinants_of_health_and_well-b20151111-27604-w42wjb-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1661148517&amp;Signature=hG-B6MV1OU2j9Et0tU2yTeQ4ye1~FfSbJF783dpZC5v3CjDVVrlzLGXWKFOw58R6Lwt~4mfP3l3D5ixHOKRz5zVIv1DG5GLFpRBy0-fvyab90PhRaZ97Mi-0z0kQxZ9yl5AVpFHxpcrw2-u-R~DnPpkXg2nt4LBUatVcQcvNOClO6lSmUroQ2PASg9FNmHDBR03JNNlIGhqr62KoBjPyyZSUS~DXZE~D69dnFLqLRWvGCoMP1c0pJRM0DW3QmmNI1tZzrdY1HrllFK-Yky2YLn8TkS5KRcWLRYfqYrKg5od5vQqUKO6xg4IRAJk7Sw~A3iOohm6blOGoMnSNWKopyQ__&amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA]

Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., &amp; Steffens, N. K. (2017). Advancing the social identity approach to health and well‐being: Progressing the social cure research agenda. European journal of social psychology, 47(7), 789-802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2333 

Hajak, V. L., Sardana, S., Verdeli, H., &amp; Grimm, S. (2021). A systematic review of factors affecting mental health and well-being of asylum seekers and refugees in Germany. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 643704. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.643704/full&lt;nowiki/&gt;{{tip|}}

Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

* [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jolanda-Jetten/publication/247446655_The_Social_Cure/links/58d0b571a6fdcc344b0c1364/The-Social-Cure.pdf The Social Cure] (Book by Jolanda Jetten)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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__TOC__

=='''Overview'''==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, [[File:-Friends Forever -Life Long -Friends 4 life -Together -Friends -Reunion -Memories.jpg|thumb|''Figure'' 1. Group of Friends]]low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as 

anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the 

usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure

can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing.{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== '''Social Cure''' ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

=== Dynamics of Social Cure ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:
* Increased social activity/interaction positively effecting mental health and wellbeing - (Jetten et al, 2017).
*

=== '''Importance of Groups''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:

=== '''Social Networking''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Mental health|Mental Health]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= 
Currie, C., Zanotti, C., Morgan, A., Currie, D., De Looze, M., Roberts, C., Samdal, O., Smith, O. R., &amp; Barnekow, V. (2009). Social determinants of health and well-being among young people. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: international report from the, 2010, 271. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39900069/Social_determinants_of_health_and_well-b20151111-27604-w42wjb-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1661148517&amp;Signature=hG-B6MV1OU2j9Et0tU2yTeQ4ye1~FfSbJF783dpZC5v3CjDVVrlzLGXWKFOw58R6Lwt~4mfP3l3D5ixHOKRz5zVIv1DG5GLFpRBy0-fvyab90PhRaZ97Mi-0z0kQxZ9yl5AVpFHxpcrw2-u-R~DnPpkXg2nt4LBUatVcQcvNOClO6lSmUroQ2PASg9FNmHDBR03JNNlIGhqr62KoBjPyyZSUS~DXZE~D69dnFLqLRWvGCoMP1c0pJRM0DW3QmmNI1tZzrdY1HrllFK-Yky2YLn8TkS5KRcWLRYfqYrKg5od5vQqUKO6xg4IRAJk7Sw~A3iOohm6blOGoMnSNWKopyQ__&amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA]

Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., &amp; Steffens, N. K. (2017). Advancing the social identity approach to health and well‐being: Progressing the social cure research agenda. European journal of social psychology, 47(7), 789-802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2333 

Hajak, V. L., Sardana, S., Verdeli, H., &amp; Grimm, S. (2021). A systematic review of factors affecting mental health and well-being of asylum seekers and refugees in Germany. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 643704. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.643704/full&lt;nowiki

Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

* [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jolanda-Jetten/publication/247446655_The_Social_Cure/links/58d0b571a6fdcc344b0c1364/The-Social-Cure.pdf The Social Cure] (Book by Jolanda Jetten)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

=='''Overview'''==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, [[File:-Friends Forever -Life Long -Friends 4 life -Together -Friends -Reunion -Memories.jpg|thumb|''Figure'' 1. Group of Friends]]low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as 

anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the 

usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure

can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing.{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== '''Social Cure''' ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

=== Dynamics of Social Cure ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:
* Increased social activity/interaction positively effecting mental health and wellbeing - (Jetten et al, 2017).
*

=== '''Importance of Groups''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:

=== '''Social Networking''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Mental health|Mental Health]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= 
Currie, C., Zanotti, C., Morgan, A., Currie, D., De Looze, M., Roberts, C., Samdal, O., Smith, O. R., &amp; Barnekow, V. (2009). Social determinants of health and well-being among young people. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: international report from the, 2010, 271. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39900069/Social_determinants_of_health_and_well-b20151111-27604-w42wjb-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1661148517&amp;Signature=hG-B6MV1OU2j9Et0tU2yTeQ4ye1~FfSbJF783dpZC5v3CjDVVrlzLGXWKFOw58R6Lwt~4mfP3l3D5ixHOKRz5zVIv1DG5GLFpRBy0-fvyab90PhRaZ97Mi-0z0kQxZ9yl5AVpFHxpcrw2-u-R~DnPpkXg2nt4LBUatVcQcvNOClO6lSmUroQ2PASg9FNmHDBR03JNNlIGhqr62KoBjPyyZSUS~DXZE~D69dnFLqLRWvGCoMP1c0pJRM0DW3QmmNI1tZzrdY1HrllFK-Yky2YLn8TkS5KRcWLRYfqYrKg5od5vQqUKO6xg4IRAJk7Sw~A3iOohm6blOGoMnSNWKopyQ__&amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA]

Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., &amp; Steffens, N. K. (2017). Advancing the social identity approach to health and well‐being: Progressing the social cure research agenda. European journal of social psychology, 47(7), 789-802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2333 

Hajak, V. L., Sardana, S., Verdeli, H., &amp; Grimm, S. (2021). A systematic review of factors affecting mental health and well-being of asylum seekers and refugees in Germany. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 643704. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.643704/full

** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

* [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jolanda-Jetten/publication/247446655_The_Social_Cure/links/58d0b571a6fdcc344b0c1364/The-Social-Cure.pdf The Social Cure] (Book by Jolanda Jetten)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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        <id>2947554</id>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

=='''Overview'''==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, [[File:-Friends Forever -Life Long -Friends 4 life -Together -Friends -Reunion -Memories.jpg|thumb|''Figure'' 1. Group of Friends]]low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as 

anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the 

usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure

can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing.{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== '''Social Cure''' ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

=== Dynamics of Social Cure ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:
* Increased social activity/interaction positively effecting mental health and wellbeing - (Jetten et al, 2017).
*

=== '''Importance of Groups''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:

=== '''Social Networking''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Mental health|Mental Health]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= 
Currie, C., Zanotti, C., Morgan, A., Currie, D., De Looze, M., Roberts, C., Samdal, O., Smith, O. R., &amp; Barnekow, V. (2009). Social determinants of health and well-being among young people. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: international report from the, 2010, 271. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39900069/Social_determinants_of_health_and_well-b20151111-27604-w42wjb-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1661148517&amp;Signature=hG-B6MV1OU2j9Et0tU2yTeQ4ye1~FfSbJF783dpZC5v3CjDVVrlzLGXWKFOw58R6Lwt~4mfP3l3D5ixHOKRz5zVIv1DG5GLFpRBy0-fvyab90PhRaZ97Mi-0z0kQxZ9yl5AVpFHxpcrw2-u-R~DnPpkXg2nt4LBUatVcQcvNOClO6lSmUroQ2PASg9FNmHDBR03JNNlIGhqr62KoBjPyyZSUS~DXZE~D69dnFLqLRWvGCoMP1c0pJRM0DW3QmmNI1tZzrdY1HrllFK-Yky2YLn8TkS5KRcWLRYfqYrKg5od5vQqUKO6xg4IRAJk7Sw~A3iOohm6blOGoMnSNWKopyQ__&amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA]

Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., &amp; Steffens, N. K. (2017). Advancing the social identity approach to health and well‐being: Progressing the social cure research agenda. European journal of social psychology, 47(7), 789-802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2333 

Hajak, V. L., Sardana, S., Verdeli, H., &amp; Grimm, S. (2021). A systematic review of factors affecting mental health and well-being of asylum seekers and refugees in Germany. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 643704. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.643704/full
}}
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

* [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jolanda-Jetten/publication/247446655_The_Social_Cure/links/58d0b571a6fdcc344b0c1364/The-Social-Cure.pdf The Social Cure] (Book by Jolanda Jetten)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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__TOC__

=='''Overview'''==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, [[File:-Friends Forever -Life Long -Friends 4 life -Together -Friends -Reunion -Memories.jpg|thumb|''Figure'' 1. Group of Friends]]low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as 

anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the 

usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure

can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing.{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== '''Social Cure''' ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

=== Dynamics of Social Cure ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:
* Increased social activity/interaction positively effecting mental health and wellbeing - (Jetten et al, 2017).
*

=== '''Importance of Groups''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:

=== '''Social Networking''' ===
Theory:

Research:

Application/examples:{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Mental health|Mental Health]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= 
Currie, C., Zanotti, C., Morgan, A., Currie, D., De Looze, M., Roberts, C., Samdal, O., Smith, O. R., &amp; Barnekow, V. (2009). Social determinants of health and well-being among young people. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: international report from the, 2010, 271. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39900069/Social_determinants_of_health_and_well-b20151111-27604-w42wjb-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1661148517&amp;Signature=hG-B6MV1OU2j9Et0tU2yTeQ4ye1~FfSbJF783dpZC5v3CjDVVrlzLGXWKFOw58R6Lwt~4mfP3l3D5ixHOKRz5zVIv1DG5GLFpRBy0-fvyab90PhRaZ97Mi-0z0kQxZ9yl5AVpFHxpcrw2-u-R~DnPpkXg2nt4LBUatVcQcvNOClO6lSmUroQ2PASg9FNmHDBR03JNNlIGhqr62KoBjPyyZSUS~DXZE~D69dnFLqLRWvGCoMP1c0pJRM0DW3QmmNI1tZzrdY1HrllFK-Yky2YLn8TkS5KRcWLRYfqYrKg5od5vQqUKO6xg4IRAJk7Sw~A3iOohm6blOGoMnSNWKopyQ__&amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA]

Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., &amp; Steffens, N. K. (2017). Advancing the social identity approach to health and well‐being: Progressing the social cure research agenda. European journal of social psychology, 47(7), 789-802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2333 

Hajak, V. L., Sardana, S., Verdeli, H., &amp; Grimm, S. (2021). A systematic review of factors affecting mental health and well-being of asylum seekers and refugees in Germany. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 643704. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.643704/full
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

* [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jolanda-Jetten/publication/247446655_The_Social_Cure/links/58d0b571a6fdcc344b0c1364/The-Social-Cure.pdf The Social Cure] (Book by Jolanda Jetten)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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      <text bytes="1276" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me:''' ==
&lt;mapframe latitude=&quot;-28.420391&quot; longitude=&quot;136.757813&quot; zoom=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;200&quot; height=&quot;109&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;{
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Hello, my name is Susan, I live in Canberra and I am currently studying Science in Psychology.                   

I consist the intention of furthering my studies once I graduate from my current degree.                   

I enjoy reading books which is something that developed during covid-19.

I assume the pandemic was a blessing and a curse in my perspective.
[[File:Parliament House at dusk, Canberra ACT.jpg|thumb|Parliament of Australia]]


I am also passionate about physical activities particularly long-distance running, hiking, and playing tennis with my siblings.

The challenge of strengthening my cardio and looking physically fit is what inspires me to proceed with engaging in these activities.

I occasionally find my attention captured by Australian politics, it’s interesting to know what’s happening in our government.

Finally, I am a part time employee.</text>
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      <comment>Dave Braunschweig moved page [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Indigenous Australian emotionality]]: Moving under learning project</comment>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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      <text bytes="897" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi my name is Sophia. I am a student at the University of Canberra. I am currently in my third year of my Bachelor of Science and Psychology, majoring in counselling. 

I plan to continue studying after I complete my Bachelor, with the goal of becoming a clinical psychologist. &lt;blockquote&gt;“I think that hate is a feeling that can only exist where there is no understanding.”  - Tennessee Williams, Sweet Bird of Youth&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Interests and Hobbies ===

* Reading - I especially enjoy the fantasy genre
* Gaming 
* Watercolour painting
* Writing and Journalling
* Baking

== Book Chapter ==
I will be working on a book chapter that delves into the topic of [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Antidepressants and motivation|Antidepressants and motivation]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation?

== Social Contributions ==
Watch this space :)</text>
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&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] Cizreligenç!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity.

To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may
&lt;!-- The Left column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]].
* Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]].
* [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]].
* Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity.
* [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left.
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- The Right column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier.
* Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity.
* Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations.
* Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]].
* [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|&lt;kbd&gt;#wikiversity&lt;/kbd&gt;]].
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 20:58, 23 August 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] Cizreligenç!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity.

To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may
&lt;!-- The Left column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]].
* Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]].
* [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]].
* Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity.
* [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left.
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- The Right column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier.
* Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity.
* Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations.
* Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]].
* [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|&lt;kbd&gt;#wikiversity&lt;/kbd&gt;]].
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 20:58, 23 August 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Template:Welcome --&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

== Wikiversity in Other Languages ==

This is the English Wikiversity. For Wikiversity in other languages, see [[meta:Wikiversity]]. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 20:59, 23 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
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&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] Halslam1!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity.

To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may
&lt;!-- The Left column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]].
* Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]].
* [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]].
* Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity.
* [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left.
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- The Right column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier.
* Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity.
* Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations.
* Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]].
* [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|&lt;kbd&gt;#wikiversity&lt;/kbd&gt;]].
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:00, 23 August 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Template:Welcome --&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}</text>
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'''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] ErikTWallace!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity.

To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may
&lt;!-- The Left column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]].
* Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]].
* [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]].
* Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity.
* [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left.
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- The Right column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier.
* Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity.
* Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations.
* Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]].
* [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|&lt;kbd&gt;#wikiversity&lt;/kbd&gt;]].
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:00, 23 August 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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'''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] Molzaroid!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity.

To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may
&lt;!-- The Left column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]].
* Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]].
* [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]].
* Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity.
* [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left.
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- The Right column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier.
* Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity.
* Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations.
* Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]].
* [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|&lt;kbd&gt;#wikiversity&lt;/kbd&gt;]].
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:01, 23 August 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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|Description=5MRV.3B: Stationary Random Process Examples (20220823 - 20220822)
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{{Information
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== Licensing ==
{{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}</text>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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      <text bytes="129" xml:space="preserve">'''About me''' 

Hello! I am a student at the university of Canberra I am currently studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology.</text>
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Hello! I am a student at the university of Canberra I am currently studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology.

=== Hobbies ===

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <comment>Hobbies</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="267" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
Hello! I am a student at the university of Canberra I am currently studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology.

=== Hobbies ===

* Gym 
* Pilates
* Walking
* Shopping 
* Travelling 

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <comment>Added links</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="315" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
Hello! I am a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] I am currently studying a Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]].

=== Hobbies ===

* Gym 
* Pilates
* Walking
* Shopping 
* Travelling 

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>sp8p75yjikia6tbbbyetb5o3gpzobo6</sha1>
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      <comment>/* Book chapter I'm working on */  Links</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="391" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
Hello! I am a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] I am currently studying a Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]].

=== Hobbies ===

* Gym 
* Pilates
* Walking
* Shopping 
* Travelling 

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Wanting and liking|Wanting and Liking]] 

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <comment>practice with images</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="463" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
Hello! I am a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] I am currently studying a Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]].
[[File:Active Pass and Galiano Island 2.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. practice ]]

=== Hobbies ===

* Gym 
* Pilates
* Walking
* Shopping 
* Travelling 

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Wanting and liking|Wanting and Liking]] 

== Social contributions ==</text>
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        <id>2947958</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="391" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
Hello! I am a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] I am currently studying a Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]].

=== Hobbies ===

* Gym 
* Pilates
* Walking
* Shopping 
* Travelling 

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Wanting and liking|Wanting and Liking]] 

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="8469" xml:space="preserve"> {{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>rvmx4r8uvndeai5otlivmh3og3xuaay</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
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      <parentid>2417997</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:34:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Micabaker1</username>
        <id>2947519</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8236" xml:space="preserve"> {{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==

* What is Colonisation in Australia
** History of colonisation in Australia.
** What are the effects of colonisation on Aboriginal people?
* What emotional responses are involved in Australian colonisation?
** Definition of emotion responses. 
** What are emotional responses of first peoples?
** What are the present emotional responses?
** What are the emotional responses of white people? 
** How do these emotions affect the situation? 
* What is postcolonial guilt?
** Definition of postcolonial guilt
** What emotional responses are present?
** How does postcolonial guilt affect present times?
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is Colonisation in Australia?
* What emotional responses are involved in Australian colonisation? 
* What is postcolonial guilt?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==What is Colonisation is Australia?==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>hwtwhptzsx4pvbcmi4olx66n5u7lzeh</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418081</id>
      <parentid>2418080</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:34:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Micabaker1</username>
        <id>2947519</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What is Colonisation is Australia? */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8249" xml:space="preserve"> {{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==

* What is Colonisation in Australia
** History of colonisation in Australia.
** What are the effects of colonisation on Aboriginal people?
* What emotional responses are involved in Australian colonisation?
** Definition of emotion responses. 
** What are emotional responses of first peoples?
** What are the present emotional responses?
** What are the emotional responses of white people? 
** How do these emotions affect the situation? 
* What is postcolonial guilt?
** Definition of postcolonial guilt
** What emotional responses are present?
** How does postcolonial guilt affect present times?
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is Colonisation in Australia?
* What emotional responses are involved in Australian colonisation? 
* What is postcolonial guilt?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==What is Colonisation in Australia?==
== ==
== == 
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>bnkfjdax1leca05yhaiqor2coi57lhx</sha1>
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      <id>2418082</id>
      <parentid>2418081</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:36:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Micabaker1</username>
        <id>2947519</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8341" xml:space="preserve"> {{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==

* What is Colonisation in Australia
** History of colonisation in Australia.
** What are the effects of colonisation on Aboriginal people?
* What emotional responses are involved in Australian colonisation?
** Definition of emotion responses. 
** What are emotional responses of first peoples?
** What are the present emotional responses?
** What are the emotional responses of white people? 
** How do these emotions affect the situation? 
* What is postcolonial guilt?
** Definition of postcolonial guilt
** What emotional responses are present?
** How does postcolonial guilt affect present times?
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is Colonisation in Australia?
* What emotional responses are involved in Australian colonisation? 
* What is postcolonial guilt?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==What is Colonisation in Australia?==
== What Emotional Response are Involved in Australian Colonisation?==
== What is Postcolonial Guilt? == 
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>cq1wj250qns4latbfc9l15u5qy44ouw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418083</id>
      <parentid>2418082</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:36:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Micabaker1</username>
        <id>2947519</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What is Colonisation in Australia? */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8349" xml:space="preserve"> {{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==

* What is Colonisation in Australia
** History of colonisation in Australia.
** What are the effects of colonisation on Aboriginal people?
* What emotional responses are involved in Australian colonisation?
** Definition of emotion responses. 
** What are emotional responses of first peoples?
** What are the present emotional responses?
** What are the emotional responses of white people? 
** How do these emotions affect the situation? 
* What is postcolonial guilt?
** Definition of postcolonial guilt
** What emotional responses are present?
** How does postcolonial guilt affect present times?
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is Colonisation in Australia?
* What emotional responses are involved in Australian colonisation? 
* What is postcolonial guilt?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==What is Colonisation in Australia?==
hahaha

== What Emotional Response are Involved in Australian Colonisation?==
== What is Postcolonial Guilt? == 
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>2obhsgznpv2lnoxt35q6xxwv26g7ikc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418084</id>
      <parentid>2418083</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:37:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Micabaker1</username>
        <id>2947519</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What Emotional Response are Involved in Australian Colonisation? */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8358" xml:space="preserve"> {{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==

* What is Colonisation in Australia
** History of colonisation in Australia.
** What are the effects of colonisation on Aboriginal people?
* What emotional responses are involved in Australian colonisation?
** Definition of emotion responses. 
** What are emotional responses of first peoples?
** What are the present emotional responses?
** What are the emotional responses of white people? 
** How do these emotions affect the situation? 
* What is postcolonial guilt?
** Definition of postcolonial guilt
** What emotional responses are present?
** How does postcolonial guilt affect present times?
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is Colonisation in Australia?
* What emotional responses are involved in Australian colonisation? 
* What is postcolonial guilt?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==What is Colonisation in Australia?==
hahaha

== What Emotional Response are Involved in Australian Colonisation?==
teheheh

== What is Postcolonial Guilt? == 
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>pdm69ue4u0ccxow7j7cpp3u6vjeps57</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418142</id>
      <parentid>2418084</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T06:31:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Micabaker1</username>
        <id>2947519</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What is Colonisation in Australia? */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8632" xml:space="preserve"> {{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==

* What is Colonisation in Australia
** History of colonisation in Australia.
** What are the effects of colonisation on Aboriginal people?
* What emotional responses are involved in Australian colonisation?
** Definition of emotion responses. 
** What are emotional responses of first peoples?
** What are the present emotional responses?
** What are the emotional responses of white people? 
** How do these emotions affect the situation? 
* What is postcolonial guilt?
** Definition of postcolonial guilt
** What emotional responses are present?
** How does postcolonial guilt affect present times?
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is Colonisation in Australia?
* What emotional responses are involved in Australian colonisation? 
* What is postcolonial guilt?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==What is Colonisation in Australia?==

* Colonisation is the process or action of settling among and establishing control over the indigenous people of a country or land. 
** Colonisation in Australia dispossessed first nations people of their traditional lands and suppressed their culture. In Australia, colonisation began with the arrival of the First Fleet in 1788, this was the beginning of the Aboriginal genocide. (Tatz, 1999)
** Effects of colonisation on first nation's people is devastating and ongoing, with generational trauma (Raphael, B., Swan, P., &amp; Martinek, N., 1998).
**

== What Emotional Response are Involved in Australian Colonisation?==
teheheh

== What is Postcolonial Guilt? == 
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Maddison, S. (2012). Postcolonial guilt and national identity: Historical injustice and the Australian settler state. Social Identities, 18(6), 695–709. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630.2012.709000

Raphael, B., Swan, P., &amp; Martinek, N. (1998). Intergenerational aspects of trauma for Australian Aboriginal people. In International handbook of multigenerational legacies of trauma (pp. 327-339). Springer, Boston, MA.

Tatz, C. (1999). Genocide in Australia. Journal of Genocide Research, 1(3), 315–352. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623529908413964
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>i7mah3nw5n2luh762tzahz2hlgjkptt</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Self-help</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>286683</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418019</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T02:32:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cedevlin9</username>
        <id>2947652</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>template</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8468" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>thp5r91aziue2l80cis4wxipwwn2uzy</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Window of tolerance</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>286684</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418025</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T02:40:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U943292</username>
        <id>2946502</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Social Contribution - Two suggestions / ideas */ new section</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1032" xml:space="preserve">== Social Contribution - Two suggestions / ideas ==

Hi,  I know this is really early on in the piece, i.e., this is far from your end version. 

# Thought I'd flag that your 4th main heading 'Case Study' should maybe read as 'Case study' as per heading casing.
# I realise your focus is probably around trauma (both as the instigator and subsequent treatment thereof). But...just thought I'd mention that there's some interesting theory / research / treatment around the relationship: window of tolerance - affective experience dysregulatiion =  addiction. Something around Affect Regulation Training (ART) on Alcohol Use Disorder could make for an (additional) interesting case study or may be used as an example in your psychotherapeutic practices component?  See https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3773302/ and https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306460320307826.  

[[User:U943292|U943292]] ([[User talk:U943292|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U943292|contribs]]) 02:40, 24 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>aajztbvm58p32c9qrhju537yoc1jram</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:U3207862</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>286685</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418063</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:26:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Welcome</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2720" xml:space="preserve">{{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] U3207862!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity.

To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may
&lt;!-- The Left column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]].
* Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]].
* [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]].
* Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity.
* [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left.
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- The Right column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier.
* Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity.
* Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations.
* Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]].
* [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|&lt;kbd&gt;#wikiversity&lt;/kbd&gt;]].
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:25, 24 August 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Template:Welcome --&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}</text>
      <sha1>akool8scd1vqxsrepjqwodq1c3ks6i9</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Neuroimaging and mood disorders</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>286686</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418085</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:41:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jdebear</username>
        <id>2948147</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{title|Neuroimaging and mood disorders:&lt;br&gt;How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? }} {{MECR3|LINK TO MM P}} __TOC__  ==Overview== Intro to the topic, discuss the prevalence of mood disorders, challenges diagnosing &amp; treating mental health conditions, lead into this chapter discusses ..........   {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions:''' * What are mood disorders? * What is neuroimaging? * Diagnosing mood disorders with neuroimaging a...&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2288" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Neuroimaging and mood disorders:&lt;br&gt;How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? }}
{{MECR3|LINK TO MM P}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Intro to the topic, discuss the prevalence of mood disorders, challenges diagnosing &amp; treating mental health conditions, lead into this chapter discusses .......... 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are mood disorders?
* What is neuroimaging?
* Diagnosing mood disorders with neuroimaging analysis
* Assisting mood disorder treatment with neuroimaging analysis
* Criticisms of neuroimaging analysis for treating mood disorders
* Limitations of current research

* {{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What are mood disorders?==


{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|6}}}|title= Mood Disorder Case study 1.1 [[File:Magnifying-glass.svg|left|35px]] }}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;

Example of a person living with bipolar disorder. 

&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}


== What is neuroimaging? ==
Zap, brrr, beep went the brain scan. 
It looks like your underactive prefrontal cortex is doing all that it can.
The analysis here shows why you're impulsive, my man. 

=== Mood disorders and neuroimaging ===

- Discuss combined findings 

=== Mood disorders diagnosis and neuroimaging ===

=== Mood disorder treatment and neuroimaging ===


{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|8}}}|title= Did you know? [[File:Magnifying-glass.svg|left|35px]] }}
Insert fun fact here. 
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}


{{Robelbox|theme=7|width=40%|title=Practice Quiz|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

Some question for you
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Wrong
- Wrong
+ Right
- Wrong

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}


== Conclusion ==
This chapter looked at   


In conclusion, 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Key points:'''
* Key Point 1 
* Key Point 2 
* Key Point 3 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==See also==
- Link to external article

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). ''Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.)''. Washington, DC: Publisher.


}}

==External links==


[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mood Disorders]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroimaging]]</text>
      <sha1>ivy5gxacdsnr1i50wni5k8chb7xo34b</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418086</id>
      <parentid>2418085</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T04:42:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jdebear</username>
        <id>2948147</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What is neuroimaging? */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2286" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Neuroimaging and mood disorders:&lt;br&gt;How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? }}
{{MECR3|LINK TO MM P}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Intro to the topic, discuss the prevalence of mood disorders, challenges diagnosing &amp; treating mental health conditions, lead into this chapter discusses .......... 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are mood disorders?
* What is neuroimaging?
* Diagnosing mood disorders with neuroimaging analysis
* Assisting mood disorder treatment with neuroimaging analysis
* Criticisms of neuroimaging analysis for treating mood disorders
* Limitations of current research

* {{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What are mood disorders?==


{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|6}}}|title= Mood Disorder Case study 1.1 [[File:Magnifying-glass.svg|left|35px]] }}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;

Example of a person living with bipolar disorder. 

&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}


== What is neuroimaging? ==
Zap, brrr, beep went the brain scan. 
It looks like your underactive prefrontal cortex is doing all that it can.
The analysis here shows why you're impulsive, my man. 

=== Mood disorders and neuroimaging ===

- Discuss combined findings 

=== Mood disorders diagnosis and neuroimaging ===

=== Mood disorder treatment and neuroimaging ===


{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|8}}}|title= Did you know? [[File:Magnifying-glass.svg|left|35px]] }}
Insert fun fact here. 
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}


{{Robelbox|theme=7|width=40%|title=Practice Quiz|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

Some question for you
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Wrong
- Wrong
+ Right
- Wrong

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}

== Conclusion ==
This chapter looked at   


In conclusion, 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Key points:'''
* Key Point 1 
* Key Point 2 
* Key Point 3 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==See also==
- Link to external article

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). ''Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.)''. Washington, DC: Publisher.


}}

==External links==


[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mood Disorders]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroimaging]]</text>
      <sha1>5x1txywp181zvirde7jh891bjy3mfgb</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Courage motivation, motivation, and emotion</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>286687</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418108</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:34:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3213549</username>
        <id>2946564</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Social Contribution  */ new section</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="602" xml:space="preserve">== Social Contribution  ==

Hi! Your book chapter is looking like it's getting along really well, loving the plan! I was looking and found this really interesting article on courage and how it affects leadership! Hopefully, this helps you out a little! Link: [https://web.s.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=0&amp;sid=94bf88cf-7ca8-4bf0-bf4b-33fc1934731f%40redis Relationships between Authentic Leadership, Moral Courage, and ethical and Pro-Social Behaviors.] [[User:U3213549|U3213549]] ([[User talk:U3213549|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3213549|contribs]]) 05:34, 24 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>mnmzwv8gqp3gelbj7bsya45y956skju</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>286688</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418112</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T05:44:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hanarose123</username>
        <id>2946863</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Social Contribution */ new section</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="461" xml:space="preserve">== Social Contribution ==

Hi there! Your book chapter plan is looking really interesting, can't wait to read the chapter! Here is an interesting article on Communication Styles with Hostage Negotiation which might be helpful for your chapter! https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J173v06n01_03. Good luck! [[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]] ([[User talk:Hanarose123|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hanarose123|contribs]]) 05:44, 24 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>7nwedds5hg26linwt480y3qon9yv9lk</sha1>
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  </page>
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      <comment>{{Information1
|Description = A map of the whole disc of the Sun was also made with a single ALMA antenna, using a technique called fast-scanning, at a wavelength of 1.25 mm.
|Source = The image appears on a website entitled, &quot;Frozen Annals Greenland Ice Cap Research&quot; at http://www.iceandclimate.nbi.ku.dk/publications/FrozenAnnals.pdf/.
|Date = 17 January 2017
|Author = ALMA / ESO / NAOJ / NRAO
|Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show a map of the who...</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="713" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
{{Information1
|Description = A map of the whole disc of the Sun was also made with a single ALMA antenna, using a technique called fast-scanning, at a wavelength of 1.25 mm.
|Source = The image appears on a website entitled, &quot;Frozen Annals Greenland Ice Cap Research&quot; at http://www.iceandclimate.nbi.ku.dk/publications/FrozenAnnals.pdf/.
|Date = 17 January 2017
|Author = ALMA / ESO / NAOJ / NRAO
|Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show a map of the whole disc of the Sun made with a single ALMA antenna, using a technique called fast-scanning, at a wavelength of 1.25 mm.
|Permission = Fair Use
}}
{{Fairuse}}

[[Category:Submillimeter astronomy images]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Reward system, motivation, and emotion</title>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1138" xml:space="preserve">== Resources ==

Hi, 
Here are some resources you might find useful

Baik, J. (2020). Stress and the dopaminergic reward system. ''Experimental &amp; Molecular Medicine, 52''(12), 1879–1890. https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-020-00532-4

Love, T. M. (2014). Oxytocin, motivation and the role of dopamine. Pharmacology, ''Biochemistry and Behavior, 119'', 49–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2013.06.011

Avena, N. M., &amp; Bocarsly, M. E. (2012). Dysregulation of brain reward systems in eating disorders: Neurochemical information from animal models of binge eating, bulimia nervosa, and anorexia nervosa. ''Neuropharmacology, 63''(1), 87–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.11.010

Salamone, J. D., Correa, M., Ferrigno, S., Yang, J.-H., Rotolo, R. A., &amp; Presby, R. E. (2018). The Psychopharmacology of Effort-Related Decision Making: Dopamine, Adenosine, and Insights into the Neurochemistry of Motivation. ''Pharmacological Reviews, 70''(4), 747–762. https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.117.015107

[[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 07:20, 24 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
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    <title>Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional development</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book]]&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="40" xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals</title>
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        <id>2947575</id>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{subst:ME/BCS}}&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8468" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>pd48nbnib960e00n81nypb0enkl8y47</sha1>
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    <revision>
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      <parentid>2418190</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T08:04:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3055143</username>
        <id>2947575</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8834" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Compassion Fatigue in Mental Health Professionals:&lt;br&gt;What causes compassion fatigue in mental health professionals and how can it be prevented?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x

Cocker, F., &amp; Joss, N. (2016). Compassion Fatigue among Healthcare, Emergency and Community Service Workers: A Systematic Review. International journal of environmental research and public health, 13(6), 618. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13060618
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>lrg2a4mwaoxpyqr8nzr8telp88nn57e</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418193</id>
      <parentid>2418192</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T08:08:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3055143</username>
        <id>2947575</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8838" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Compassion Fatigue in Mental Health Professionals:&lt;br&gt;What causes compassion fatigue in mental health professionals and how can it be prevented?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x

Cocker, F., &amp; Joss, N. (2016). Compassion fatigue among healthcare, emergency and community service workers: A systematic review. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', 13(6), 618. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13060618
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>4tbny36ff7i40i2pphv8eqppv45wd5p</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418204</id>
      <parentid>2418193</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T08:36:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3055143</username>
        <id>2947575</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9259" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Compassion Fatigue in Mental Health Professionals:&lt;br&gt;What causes compassion fatigue in mental health professionals and how can it be prevented?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is compassion fatigue?
* What are the impacts of compassion fatigue? 
* How can we prevent compassion fatigue?  
* How can we address and respond to compassion fatigue? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is Compassion Fatigue? ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

* 'Cost of Caring'
* Relationship to burn out and PTSD. 
* Secondary Traumatic Stress Disorder (STSD)?
* Symptoms of Compassion Fatigue. 

== Impacts of Compassion Fatigue ==

* Blocked care (loss of compassion)
* Exhaustion 
* Impact on emotional well-being
* Impact on motivation to continue work/ Desire to leave profession/avoid work

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x

Cocker, F., &amp; Joss, N. (2016). Compassion fatigue among healthcare, emergency and community service workers: A systematic review. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', 13(6), 618. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13060618
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>0efnhvofyaax1rtzsx3mix6no3wdm9e</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:CaityDcr1603</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>286694</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418195</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T08:13:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CaityDcr1603</username>
        <id>2947579</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;[[File:Thisisme22.jpg|thumb|This is me, Welcome to my page ]]&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="61" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Thisisme22.jpg|thumb|This is me, Welcome to my page ]]</text>
      <sha1>dq1mp7h46vb9ha3o6e8zdjr8z1apl5s</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418196</id>
      <parentid>2418195</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T08:14:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CaityDcr1603</username>
        <id>2947579</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="124" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Thisisme22.jpg|thumb|This is me, Welcome to my page ]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Mindfulness and creativity]]</text>
      <sha1>crohm803fu76hnnia97okrn1vuit4hk</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Zoom fatigue</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>286695</id>
    <redirect title="Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Video conferencing fatigue" />
    <revision>
      <id>2418202</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T08:35:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Jtneill moved page [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Zoom fatigue]] to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Video conferencing fatigue]]</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="73" xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Video conferencing fatigue]]</text>
      <sha1>nyah1ffdzucngm8vvstcoq0yj0ufz9e</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Humour, leadership, and work</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>286696</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418227</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:29:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CNK.20</username>
        <id>2947582</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Wording of title of topic */ new section</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="621" xml:space="preserve">== Wording of title of topic ==

Heya, love how you have all the points already listed out even though it is just the early stages if your page. I do suggest though that you just use &quot; Humour, leadership and work: How does humour influence workplace motivation?&quot; rather than &quot;HUMOUR, leadership, and work:
HOW does Humour influence workplace motivation?&quot; Since it looks a bit neater and more presentable. Totally understandable if you want to do your title like that to attract more attention. [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]] ([[User talk:CNK.20|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CNK.20|contribs]]) 10:29, 24 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>m8kwth4i386v3jllstee76fy10dyi44</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Help-seeking among boys</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>286697</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418232</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:40:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CNK.20</username>
        <id>2947582</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Links to self-help resources */ new section</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="569" xml:space="preserve">== Links to self-help resources ==

Hello, wow. You've got a lot on your page which is amazing. 
I'm looking forward to reading it actually. 
I d suggest that you add some self-help resources that students can reach out to if they find difficult to speak about their emotions or anything. 
Link like 
- Beyond blue
- Health talk australia

I also suggest you add some tips on how to speak up, here's a link 
https://tuneinnow.com.au/module_3 [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]] ([[User talk:CNK.20|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CNK.20|contribs]]) 10:40, 24 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>lfubpgur74ut6dbmy20eel8m1k7b70m</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:U3200956</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>286698</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418242</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T10:54:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Welcome</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2594" xml:space="preserve">{{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] U3200956!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity.

To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may
&lt;!-- The Left column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
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* Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity.
* [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left.
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&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:54, 24 August 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Template:Welcome --&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}</text>
      <sha1>mecsbb58jjjdgq0ytm40s2hbqzxqnqf</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Male</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>286699</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418251</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T11:08:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Gender]]&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="47" xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Gender]]</text>
      <sha1>gg111fdyskpg75wkxljymx3s1k6otmh</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Resentment</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>286700</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418260</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T11:18:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{subst:Heading casing}}&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="681" xml:space="preserve">== Heading casing ==
{| style=&quot;float: center; background:transparent;&quot;
|-
| [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]]
| {{#if:|Hi [[User:{{{1}}}|{{{1}}}]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-determination theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
rather than
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]]

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:18, 24 August 2022 (UTC)
|}</text>
      <sha1>j8npb27jkoqn1z1s2lntpmn9xovdt9f</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>UserGeorgiaFairweather</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>286701</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2418262</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T11:23:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3200859</username>
        <id>2947964</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;ff&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2" xml:space="preserve">ff</text>
      <sha1>rqhguiaic8zs39pzuznlo4fshrsi7r0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2418265</id>
      <parentid>2418262</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-24T11:37:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mykola7</username>
        <id>2871342</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Requesting deletion</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="22" xml:space="preserve">{{delete|Test page}}ff</text>
      <sha1>hmtqfcvx5ce1xq75o4wkotp6frugqe1</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
</mediawiki>