Wikiversity:Colloquium

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== Requested update to [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]] ==

Currently, [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]] is a policy that includes a caveat that interface admins are not required long-term and that user right can only be added for a period of up to two weeks. I am proposing that we remove this qualification and allow for indefinite interface admin status. I think this is useful because there are reasons for tweaking the site CSS or JavaScript (e.g. to comply with dark mode), add gadgets (e.g. importing Cat-a-Lot, which I would like to do), or otherwise modifying the site that could plausibly come up on an irregular basis and requiring the overhead of a bureaucrat to add the user rights is inefficient. In particular, I am also going to request this right if the community accepts indefinite interface admins. Thoughts? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:23, 17 August 2025 (UTC)

:And who will then monitor them to make sure they don't damage the project in any way, or abuse the rights acquired in this way? For large projects, this might not be a problem, but for smaller projects like the English Wikiversity, I'm not sure if there are enough users who would say, something is happening here that shouldn't be happening. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:28, 20 August 2025 (UTC)
::Anyone would be who. This argument applies to any person with any advanced rights here. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 10:46, 20 August 2025 (UTC)
:I think it is reasonable to allow for longer periods of access than 2 weeks to interface admin and support adjusting the policy to allow for this flexibility. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:57, 2 December 2025 (UTC)
::+1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:38, 25 January 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] I agree that the two-week requirement could be revised, but wouldn’t people just request access for a specific purpose anyway? Instead of granting indefinite access, they should request the specific time frame they need the rights for—until the planned fixes are completed—and then request an extension if more time is required. We could remove the two-week criterion while still keeping the access explicitly temporary. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:48, 25 January 2026 (UTC)
::I just don't see why this wiki needs to be different than all of the others. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 07:18, 25 January 2026 (UTC)
:::There isn’t really much of a need for a permanent one at this point in time [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 09:53, 25 January 2026 (UTC)
:I quite agree with this proposal, so long as they perform the suggested changes as mentioned here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:06, 26 January 2026 (UTC)
:: Just to clarify, I support '''indefinite interface admin status'''. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:34, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
:I think there is decent consensus for lengthening this, but not necessarily for indefinite permissions, so does anyone object to me revising it to the standard being 120 days instead of two weeks? I'll check back on this thread in three weeks and if there's no objection, I'll make the change. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 20:47, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
::Sure [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:27, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
::Thanks for proposing this, Justin. I agree with the proposal to lengthen the interface admin period from 2 weeks but not indefinitely. Can I check the source(s) for the standard being 120 days (I'm guessing policies on other projects or maybe global policy?)? In any case, I think it is reasonable for us to adopt a similar period. However, note on the current policy discussion page notes from @[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] arguing for shorter periods to lower risk, that's why it is 2 weeks. But if there are projects that need longer access, that should also be accommodated. Maybe we could adjust the policy to specify that ''interface admin rights can be given for 14 to 120 days depending on how long is required and what is supported by the community''. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:29, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:::There was there was no source for 120: it was just more than 14 and less than infinity. The &quot;14 to 120&quot; also seems reasonable. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 14:33, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
::: On some small/medium-sized wikis, such as English Wikibooks and English Wikiquote for example, indefinite interface administrator access for administrators is allowed, but they tend not to make changes to the CSS and JS page changes unless it's truly necessary. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:34, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:::It's a good idea to make the length of this right on request or allow to be prolonged. However, IA should test large changes somewhere else, for example on the en.wv mirror, and only after testing it on the mirror, adapt it to the live version. That means I can't imagine a time-consuming operation right now. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:04, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Sorry, what mirror is this? Are you talking about beta.wv? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 20:32, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::Not beta.wv. Basically somewhere else then on a live wiki. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:59, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::: Wouldn't testing on a user's own common.css page work anyway? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:36, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:Change made here: https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity%3AInterface_administrators&amp;diff=2807543&amp;oldid=2806289 —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 13:35, 4 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Template:AI-generated]] ==

After going through the plethora of ChatGPT-generated pages made by [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] (with many more pages to go), I'd like community input on this proposal to [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence]] that I think would be benefical for the community:
*Resources generated by AI '''must''' be indicated as so through the project box, [[Template:AI-generated]], on either the page or the main resource (if the page is a part of a project).
I do not believe including a small note/reference that a page is AI-generated is sufficient, and I take my thinking from [[WV:Original research|Wikiversity's OR policy]] for OR work: ''Within Wikiversity, all original research should be clearly identified as such''. I believe resources created from AI should also be clearly indicated as such, especially since we are working on whether or not AI-generated resources should be allowed on the website (discussion is [[Wikiversity talk:Artificial intelligence|here]], for reference). This makes it easier for organizational purposes, and in the event ''if'' we ban AI-generated work. 

I've left a message on Lee's talk page over a week ago and did not get a response or acknowledgement, so I'd like for the community's input for this inclusion to the policy. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:53, 26 January 2026 (UTC)

:I believe that existing Wikiversity policies are sufficient. Authors are responsible for the accuracy and usefulness of the content that is published. This policy covers AI-generated content that is: 1) carefully reviewed by the author publishing it, and 2) the source is noted.   [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 19:38, 27 January 2026 (UTC)
::A small reference for pages that are substantially filled with Chat-GPT entries, like [[Real Good Religion]], [[Attributing Blame]], [[Fostering Curiosity]], are not sufficient IMO and a project box would be the best indicator that a page is AI-generated (especially when there is a mixture of human created content AND AI-generated content, as present in a lot of your pages). This is useful, especially considering the notable issues with AI (including hallucinations and fabrication of details), so viewers and support staff are aware. These small notes left on the pages are not as easily viewable as a project box or banner would be. I really don't see the issue with a clear-label guideline. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 22:34, 27 January 2026 (UTC)
::{{ping|Lbeaumont}} I noticed your reversions [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Exploring_Existential_Concerns&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2788278 here] &amp; [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Subjective_Awareness&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2788257 here]. I'd prefer to have a clean conversation regarding this proposition. Please voice your concerns here. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:53, 28 January 2026 (UTC)
:::Regarding Subjective Awareness, I distinctly recall the effort I went to to write that the old-fashioned way. It is true that ChatGPT assisted me in augmenting the list of words suggested as candidate subjective states. This is a small section of the course, is clearly marked, and makes no factual claim. Marking the entire course as AI-generated is misleading. I would have made these comments when I reverted your edit; however, the revert button does not provide that opportunity.
:::Regarding the Exploring Existential Concerns course, please note this was adapted from my EmotionalCompetency.com website, which predates the availability of LLMs. The course does include two links, clearly labeled as ChatGPT-generated. Again, marking the entire course as AI-generated is misleading.
:::On a broader issue, I don't consider your opinions to have established a carefully debated and adopted Wikiversity policy. You went ahead and modified many of my courses over my clearly stated objections. Please let this issue play out more completely before editing my courses further. Thanks.   [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 15:11, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
::::Understood, and I respect your position. I apologize if my edits were seen as overarching. We could change the project box to &quot;a portion of this resource was generated by AI&quot;, or something along those lines. Feel free to revert my changes where you see fit, and I encourage more users to provide their input. EDIT: I've made changes to the template to indicate that a portion of the content has been generated from an LLM. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:50, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
:::::Thanks for this reply. The new banner is unduly large and alarming. There is no need for alarm here. The use of AI is not harmful per se. Like any technology, it can be used to help or to harm. I take care to craft prompts carefully, point the LMM to reliable source materials, and to carefully read and verify the generated text before I publish it. This is all in keeping with long-established Wikiversity policy. We don't want to use a  [[w:One-drop_rule|one-drop rule]] here or cause a [[w:Satanic_panic|satanic panic]]. We can learn our lessons from history here. I don't see any pedagogical reason for establishing a classification of &quot;AI generated&quot;, but if there is a consensus that it is needed, perhaps it can be handled as just another category that learning resources can be assigned to. I would rather focus on identifying any errors in factual claims than on casting pejorative bias toward AI-generated content. An essay on the best practices for using LMM on Wikiveristy would be welcome.   [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 15:58, 30 January 2026 (UTC)
::::::The new banner mimics the banner that is available on the English Wikibooks (see [[b:Template:AI-generated]] &amp; [[b:Template:Uses AI]]), so my revisions aren't unique in this aspect. At this point, I'd welcome other peoples' inputs. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 30 January 2026 (UTC)

== How do I start making pages? ==
Is there a notability guideline for Wikiversity? What is the sourcing policy for information? What is the Manual of Style? What kind of educational content qualifies for Wikiversity? All the introduction pages are a bit unclear. 
[[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 02:25, 28 January 2026 (UTC)

:{{ping|VidanaliK}} Welcome to Wikiversity! I've left you a welcome message on your talk page. That should help you out. Make sure to especially look at [[Wikiversity:Introduction]]. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 03:11, 28 January 2026 (UTC)
::It says that I can't post more pages because I have apparently exceeded the new page limit. How long does it take before that new page limit expires? [[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 16:57, 28 January 2026 (UTC)
:::This is a restriction for new users so that Wikiversity is not hit with massive spam. As for when this limit will expire, it should be a few days or after a certain number of edits. It's easy to overcome, though I do not have the exact numbers atm. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:08, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
::::OK, I think I got past the limit. [[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 17:21, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
==Why does it feel like Wikiversity is no longer really active anymore?==
I've been looking at recent changes, and both today and yesterday there haven't been many changes that I haven't made; it feels like walking through a ghost town, is this just me or is Wikiversity not really active anymore? [[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 03:54, 30 January 2026 (UTC)

:There is fewer people editing these days compared to the past. Many newcomers tend to edit in Wikipedia instead. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 06:39, 30 January 2026 (UTC)
:It’s a little slow, but I’m happy to know that Wikiversity is a place that I think should provide value even if the activity of editors fluctuates. If it’s any consolation your edits may be encouraging for some anonymous newcomer to start edits on their own! I think it’s hard to build community when there is such a wide variety of interests and a smaller starting userbase. Also sometimes the getting into a particular topic that already exists can be intimidating because some relics (large portals, school, categories, etc.) have intricate, unique and generally messy levels of organization. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 22:16, 9 March 2026 (UTC)
:I'd say it comes down to working hard for Wikiversity, basically if somebody or a group of people will start presenting good ideas and they turn out to be provably stable.
:I even asked Google's &quot;AI Mode&quot;, what is Wikiversity famous for? Unfortunately it could not answer that.
:Simply, we have not made Wikiversity famous by presenting really provable stable ideas yet. My hope is that this time might come. Perhaps even this year 2026!
:Hope dies last. [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 10:12, 27 April 2026 (UTC)

== Inactivity policy for Curators ==

I was wondering if there is a specific inactivity polity for curators (semi-admins) as I am pretty sure the global policy does not apply to them as they are not ''fully'' sysops. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 03:20, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

:Unfortunately, I don't see an inactivity policy, but if we were to create such a new policy for curators, it should be the same for custodians (administrators). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:45, 15 February 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] There is currently none, that I could find, for custodians either. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:47, 17 February 2026 (UTC)
:::I think we should propose a local inactivity policy for custodians (and by extension, curators), which should be at least one year without any edits ''and'' logged actions. However, I don't know which page should it be when the inactivity removal procedure starts. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:53, 17 February 2026 (UTC)
::::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] In theory, there should be a section added at [[WV:Candidates for custodianship]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:55, 17 February 2026 (UTC)
::::: To be consistent with the [[meta:Admin activity review|global period of 2 years inactivity]] for en.wv  [[Wikiversity:Custodianship#Notes|Custodians]] and [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship#How are bureaucrats removed?|Bureaucrats]] we could add something like this to [[Wikiversity:Curators]]:
::::::The maximum time period of inactivity &lt;u&gt;without community review&lt;/u&gt; for curators is two years (consistent with  the [[:meta:Category:Global policies|global policy]] described at [[meta:Admin activity review|Admin activity review]] which applies for [[Wikiversity:Custodianship#Notes|Custodians]] and [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrats]]). After that time a custodian will remove the rights.
::::: -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:51, 27 March 2026 (UTC)
:::::Yup, I agree with Jtneill, there is a policy proposal for Wikiversity:Curators, where it should be logically deployed. The question is if we are ready to aprove the policy. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:43, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::: I agree, but we should notify the colloquium about inactive curators, just like a steward would do for inactive custodians and bureaucrats per [[:m:Admin activity review|AAR]]. What is the minimum timeframe an inactive curator should receive so they can respond they would keep their rights? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:49, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:I incorporated these suggestions into the proposed curators policy. Please review/comment/improve. Summary: 2 years, notify curator's user page, then remove rights after 1 month: [[Wikiversity:Curators#Inactivity]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:59, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] I created [[Template:Inactive curator]] for this. Feel free to make any changes or improvements. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:29, 24 April 2026 (UTC)

== [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence]] to become an official policy ==
{{Archive top|After running for a week, there is consensus, alongside comments, for [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence]] to be implemented as an official policy. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:27, 17 April 2026 (UTC)}}
With the introduction of AI-material, and some material just plain disruptive, its imperative that Wikiversity catches up with its sister projects and implements an official AI policy that we can work with. The recent issue of [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]]'s 50+ articles that contain significantly large AI-generated material has made me came to the Colloquium. This user has also been removing the [[Template:AI-generated]] template from their pages, calling it &quot;misleading&quot;, &quot;alarmist&quot;, and &quot;pejorative&quot; - which is all just simply nonsensical rationales. Not to even mention this user's contributions to the English Wikipedia have been [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_for_deletion/Inner_Development_Goals contested] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_for_deletion/Multipolar_trap removed] a couple of times (for being low-quality and clearly LLM-generated), highlighting the need for an actual policy to be implemented here on Wikiversity. I would like to ping {{ping|Juandev}} and {{ping|Jtneill}} for their thoughts as well, since I'd like this to be implemented as soon as possible. 

Wikiversity has a significant issue with implementing anti-disruptive measures, hence why we have received numerous complaints as a community about our quality. I originally was reverting the removal of the templates, but realized that this is still a proposed policy, which it shouldn't be anymore. It should be a recognized Wikiversity policy. 14:54, 10 March 2026 (UTC) —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:54, 10 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] '''I agree''' that the draft, should become official policy. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:00, 10 March 2026 (UTC)
:I provided a detailed response at: [[Wikiversity talk:Artificial intelligence#Evolving a Wikiversity policy on AI]]
:I will appreaciate it if you consder that carefully. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 22:49, 10 March 2026 (UTC)
:Agree it should become official Wikiversity policy on the condition &lt;u&gt;that point point 5 is about [significant/substantial] LLM-generated text specifically&lt;/u&gt;. Not a good idea to overuse it, it should be added when there is substantial AI-generated text on the page, not for other cases. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 12:37, 11 March 2026 (UTC)
:What policy is being debated? Is it the text on this page, which is pointed to by the general banner, or the text at:   [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence,]]   which is pointed to by the specific banner? Let's begin with coherence on the text being debated. Thanks!  [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 11:49, 17 March 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] This is a call for approval of the new Wikiversity policy. You expressed your opinion [[Wikiversity talk:Artificial intelligence#Evolving a Wikiversity policy on AI|on the talk page of the proposal]], I replied to you and await your response.When creating policies, it is necessary to propose specific solutions. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 14:12, 17 March 2026 (UTC)
:::Toward a Justified and Parsimonious AI Policy 
:::As we collaborate to develop a consensus policy on the use of Large Language Models, it is wise to begin by considering the needs of the various stakeholders to the policy.
:::The stakeholders are:
:::1)     The users, 
:::2)     The source providers, and
:::3)     The editors
:::There may also be others with a minor stake in this policy, including the population at large.
:::The many needs of the users are currently addressed by long-standing [[Wikiversity:Policies|Wikiversity policies]], so we can focus on what, if any, additional needs arise as LLMs are deployed. 
:::As always, users need assurance that propositional statements are accurate. This is covered by the existing policy on [[Wikiversity:Verifiability|verifiably]]. In addition, it is expected by both the users and those that provide materials used as sources for the text are [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|accurately attributed]]. This is also covered by [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|existing policies]].
:::To respect the time and effort of editors, a parsimonious policy will unburden editors from costly requirements that exceed benefits to the users.
:::Finally, it is important to recognize that because attention is our most valuable seizing attention unnecessarily is a form of theft. 
:::The following proposed policy statement results from these considerations:
:::Recommended Policy statement:
:::·       Editors [[Wikiversity:Verifiability|verify the accuracy]] of propositional statements, regardless of the source.
:::·       Editors [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|attribute the source]] of propositional statements. In the case of LLM, cite the LLM model and the prompt used.
:::·       Use of various available templates to mark the use of LLM are optional. Templates that are flexible in noting the type and extend of LLM usage are preferred. Templates that avoid unduly distracting or alarming the user are preferred. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 19:56, 19 March 2026 (UTC)
::::Do we discuss here or there? I have replied you there as your proposal is about that policy so it is tradition to discuss it at the affected talk page. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:59, 19 March 2026 (UTC)
: {{support}} Thanks for the proposed policy development and discussion; also note proposed policy talk page discussion: [[Wikiversity talk:Artificial intelligence]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:05, 24 March 2026 (UTC)
::I think the Wikiversity AI policy shall be official. – [[User:RestoreAccess111|RestoreAccess111]] &lt;sup style=&quot;font-family:Arimo, Arial;&quot;&gt;[[User talk:RestoreAccess111|Talk!]]&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;sup style=&quot;font-family:Times New Roman, Tinos;&quot;&gt;[[Special:Contributions/RestoreAccess111|Watch!]]&lt;/sup&gt; 06:11, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== New titles for user right nominations ==
&lt;div class=&quot;cd-moveMark&quot;&gt;''Moved from [[Wikiversity talk:Candidates for Custodianship#New titles for user right nominations]].  [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:20, 17 April 2026 (UTC)''&lt;/div&gt;

I would like to propose the following retitles should a user be nominated for any of the following user rights:
* Curator: Candidates for Curatorship
* Bureaucrat: Candidates for Bureaucratship
The reason is that many curator (and probably bureaucrat) requests have run solely under {{tq|Candidates for Custodianship}}, but that title might sound misleading (especially in regards to the permission a user is requesting). CheckUser and Oversight (suppressor) are not included above since no user was nominated for these sensitive permissions, probably. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:30, 19 March 2026 (UTC)

:And it's not that when someone at the beginning misplaced the request, no one thought to move it and the others copied it. Even today, it would be possible to simply take it all and move it. Otherwise, for me, the more fundamental problem is that there is [[Wikiversity:Curators|no approved policy for curators]] than where the requests are based. Curators then operate in a certain vacuum and if one of them &quot;breaks out of the chain&quot;, the average user doesn't have many transparent tools to deal with it, because there is no policy. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:02, 19 March 2026 (UTC)
::I am not talking about the curator page (policy proposal). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:08, 21 March 2026 (UTC)
: @[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] I'll see if I can do an overhaul of [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]], just like I recently did with the Requests for adminship page on English Wikiquote. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:17, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
:Yes, great idea - ideally there will be separate &quot;Candidates for ...&quot; pages for each user right group. The most important for now is to separate curator and custodian pages as CN suggests. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:39, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
:So maybe I previously misunderstood. Are you proposing separated pages for nominations (i.e. [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship]], [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship]], [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]])? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:30, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:33, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:::I see, then I am fine with that @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]. Sorry for misunderstanding. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:35, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

I've split the user rights nomination pages into:
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for CheckUser]]
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship]]

Please review. There are likely several links to update, text to adjust, categories to manage, short-cuts to fix etc. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:22, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

:Thanks, great job @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]. I am wondering if we need to move archived nominations too, or if we are OK with the actual state. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:08, 10 May 2026 (UTC)
::Yes, I think that would be helpful. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:46, 10 May 2026 (UTC)
:An svg icon for [[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curators]] would also be helpful. We have them for other user rights: [[c:Category:Wikiversity user rights icons]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:54, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

== Technical Request:  Courtesy link.. ==

[[Template_talk:Information#Background_must_have_color_defined_as_well]] [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:43, 20 March 2026 (UTC)
: I can't edit the template directly as it need an sysop/interface admin to do it. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:43, 20 March 2026 (UTC)
:: Also if the Template field of - https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:LintErrors/night-mode-unaware-background-color is examined, there is poential for an admin to clear a substantial proportion of these by implmenting a simmilar fix to the indciated templates (and underlying stylesheets). It would be nice to clear things like Project box and others, as many other templates (and thus pages depend on them.) :)
[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:43, 20 March 2026 (UTC)

:I think it would be best to grant you interface admin rights for a short period of time to make these changes. However, I still have doubts about the suitability of this solution, which may cause other problems and no one has explained to me why dark mode has to be implemented this way @[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:43, 20 March 2026 (UTC)

: I would have reservations about holding such rights, which is why I was trying to do what I could without needing them. However if it is the only way to get the required changes made, I would suggest asking on Wikipedia to find technical editors, willing to undertake the changes needed. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 09:32, 21 March 2026 (UTC)

== WikiEducator has closed ==

Some of you may know of a similar project to Wikiversity, called [https://wikieducator.org/Main_Page WikiEducator], championed by [https://oerfoundation.org/about/staff/wayne-mackintosh/ Wayne Mackintosh][https://www.linkedin.com/posts/waynemackintosh_important-notice-about-the-oer-foundation-activity-7405113051688931329-Nhm9/][https://openeducation.nz/killed-not-starved/].

It seems [https://openeducation.nz/terminating-oer-foundation their foundation has closed] and they are no longer operating.

They had done quite a bit of outreach (e.g., in the Pacific and Africa) to get educators using wiki.

The WikiEducator content is still available in MediaWiki - and potentially could be imported to Wikiversity ([https://wikieducator.org/WikiEducator:Copyrights CC-BY-SA] is the default license).

The closing of WikiEducator arguably makes the nurturing of Wikiversity even more important.

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:09, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

:I was never active there. If anyone has an account or is otherwise in contact, we may want to copy relevant information here or even at [[:outreach:]]. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 04:46, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

:: I reached out to [[User:Mackiwg~enwikiversity|Wayne]] in January, and he responded briefly but positively (while travelling).  I wrote to the low-traffic wikieducator mailing list today and got a nice [https://groups.google.com/g/wikieducator/c/r_yIyUw6ZIA reply] from [[user:SteveFoerster|Steve Foerster]] who's interested in helping. If we can figure out a migration path it would be great to adopt at least the main namespace pages here.  
:: A few questions that come to mind: 
:: - would people want to create matching user accounts
:: - are there any namespaces (user/talk?) that should not be moved over
:: We could look at how this was done for the [[m:Wikivoyage/Migration]] wikivoyage migration. &lt;span style=&quot;padding:0 2px 0 2px;background-color:white;color:#bbb;&quot;&gt;&amp;ndash;[[User:Sj|SJ]][[User Talk:Sj|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ff9900;&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/span&gt; 04:27, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
:::That's fantastic, SJ, that you've reached out and that Wayne, Steve, and Jim are receptive—and that you can help! -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:52, 1 May 2026 (UTC)

== Wikinews is ending ==

Apparently mainly due to low editorial activity, low public interest, but also failure to achieve the goals from the proposal for the creation of the project, the Wikinews project is ending after years of discussions ([[Meta:Proposal for Closing Wikinews|some reading]]).

And I would be interested to see how Wikiversity is doing in the monitored metrics. We probably have more editors than Wikinews had, but what about consumers and achieving the goals? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 19:14, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

:Wikiversity's biggest issue in recent times was the hosting of low-quality, trash content. Thankfully we've done a great job in removing pseudoscience and other embarrassingly trash content (Wikidebates, for example), but the biggest concern moving forward is proper maintenance IMO. I've caught several pseudoscience pages being created within the last few months that could easily have flown under the radar (ex, [[The Kelemen Dilemma: Causal Collapse and Axiomatic Instability]]), so I'd urge our custodians/curators to be on the lookout for this type of content. Usually an AI-overview can point this type of content out relatively well.
:In terms of visibility, I believe Wikiversity is a high-traffic project. I remember my [[Mathematical Properties]] showing up on the first page of Google when searching up &quot;math properties&quot; for the longest time (and is still showing up in the first page 'till this day!). Besides, Wikinews hosted a lot of short-term content (the nature of news articles), while Wikiversity hosts content that can still be useful a decade later (ex, [[A Reader's Guide to Annotation]]). 
:I think we are on a better path than we were a few months ago, and I do want to thank everyone here who has been helping out with maintaining our website! —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 20:48, 1 April 2026 (UTC)
:For what it's worth, the group that did that study has since disbanded, so no one is monitoring the other sister projects in the same way. Additionally, Wikinews had some catastrophic server issues due to the maintenance of [[:m:Extension:DynamicPageList]] which don't apply here. Your questions are still worth addressing, but I just wanted to cut off any concern at the pass about Wikiversity being in the same precarious situation. Wikiversity is definitely the biggest &quot;lagging behind&quot; or &quot;failure&quot; project now that Wikinews is being shuttered, but I don't see any near- or medium-term pathway to closing Wikiversity. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:46, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

:[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-03-31/News and notes|Entirety of Wikinews to be shut down]] (Wikipedia Signpost) -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:03, 11 April 2026 (UTC)

== Action Required: Update templates/modules for electoral maps (Migrating from P1846 to P14226) ==

Hello everyone,

This is a notice regarding an ongoing data migration on Wikidata that may affect your election-related templates and Lua modules (such as &lt;code&gt;Module:Itemgroup/list&lt;/code&gt;).

'''The Change:'''&lt;br /&gt;
Currently, many templates pull electoral maps from Wikidata using the property [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]], combined with the qualifier [[:d:Property:P180|P180]]: [[:d:Q19571328|Q19571328]]. 

We are migrating this data (across roughly 4,000 items) to a newly created, dedicated property: '''[[:d:Property:P14226|P14226]]'''.

'''What You Need To Do:'''&lt;br /&gt;
To ensure your templates and infoboxes do not break or lose their maps, please update your local code to fetch data from [[:d:Property:P14226|P14226]] instead of the old [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]] + [[:d:Property:P180|P180]] structure. A [[m:Wikidata/Property Migration: P1846 to P14226/List|list of pages]] was generated using Wikimedia Global Search.

'''Deadline:'''&lt;br /&gt;
We are temporarily retaining the old data on [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]] to allow for a smooth transition. However, to complete the data cleanup on Wikidata, the old [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]] statements will be removed after '''May 1, 2026'''. Please update your modules and templates before this date to prevent any disruption to your wiki's election articles.

Let us know if you have any questions or need assistance with the query logic. Thank you for your help! [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] using [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 17:11, 3 April 2026 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&amp;oldid=29941252 --&gt;
:I didnt find such properties, so we are probably fine. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:00, 12 April 2026 (UTC)
:: +1 (agreed). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:19, 12 April 2026 (UTC)

== Enable the abuse filter block action? ==

In light of [[Special:AbuseLog/80178]] (coupon spam), I would like to propose enabling the block action for the abuse filter. Only custodians will be able to enable and disable that action on an abuse filter, and it is useful to block ongoing vandalism. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:12, 13 April 2026 (UTC)

:Seems like a good idea, almost all of the users which create such pages are spambots so this shouldn’t be a problem. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:41, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
:Can you explain some more (I am new to abuse filters)? It looks like the attempted edit was prevented? Which abuse filter?
:Note on your suggestion, have also reactivated Antispam Filter 12 - see [[WV:RCA]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:45, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
:: I am proposing that we activate the abuse filter block action, which if a user triggers an abuse filter, it would actually block the user in question - the same mechanism that a custodian would use to block users. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:11, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
:::OK, thankyou, that makes sense. And, reviewing the abuse filter 12 log, it would be helpful because it would prevent the need for manual blocking. But I don't see a setting for autoblocking? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 23:14, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
:::: I think it probably adds an autoblock. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:43, 16 April 2026 (UTC)
: [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]], given that a little bit more than a week has passed and there is minimal consensus to activate the abuse filter block action, I filed [[phab:T424053]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:05, 21 April 2026 (UTC)
::Thank-you for doing this. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:03, 24 April 2026 (UTC)

== Advice needed: A Neurodiversity-inspired Idea/observation ==

If I want the greatest participation of others to &quot;provide constructive criticism to my idea&quot; or to &quot;shoot down my idea&quot; or &quot;idea&quot;.

What I've called it so far is &quot;The Neurodiversity-inspired Idea&quot;. At other times I used more sensationalist wording but here on Wikiversity I don't dare do that. I actually woke up with thinking about putting this into my userspace draft: &quot;Personal Observations Made By Meeting Autistic and Non-Autistic Adults&quot;.

My ultimate goal is to stop blathering about my &quot;idea&quot; to friend and family without feeling my &quot;methodology&quot; is going into any progressive direction whatsoever. My latest encounter was somewhat constructive though. A friend of a friend who worked with people presenting ideas in attempting to getting grants. I don't want a grant. I just want to figure out how I can express my &quot;idea&quot; in a way so that I can more clearly figure out what flaws it got.

At the same time I tend to overthink. If anyone thinks etherpad might be a good place and considering Wikimedia already got an etherpad at https://etherpad.wikimedia.org/ if anyone feels like they know me better in the future feel free to suggest a &quot;session&quot; on etherpad.

'''If I don't receive a reply to this in 1 week's time I will begin to explore this &quot;idea&quot; into my userspace''' unless you replied and refrained me from doing so, of course. Then maybe after &quot;developing it there&quot; I might reference it to you another future time here in the Colloquium, with my &quot;idea&quot; still in my userspace draft. This &quot;idea&quot; is sort of a burden, I'm happy I've made the choice to get rid of it and hopefully move on with my life, unless there is something to this &quot;idea&quot;. 

My failure is probably evident: I feel I haven't told you anything. Same happened to when I talked to friends and family. In danger of overthinking it further I'll publish this right now. I need to &quot;keep it together&quot; [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 10:36, 16 April 2026 (UTC)

:Good on you putting it out there ... and hitting publish :). I'd say go for it (no need to wait), give birth to your idea and share about it here and elsewhere. Let it take shape and see where it might go. In many ways, this is exactly what an open collaborative learning community should be doing. Others might not know well how to respond, so perhaps consider creating some questions to accompany the idea. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:21, 16 April 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you for encouraging me in developing the idea.
::I have created a &quot;questions&quot; section in the draft which is visible in the table of contents now. My brain was &quot;frozen&quot; today metaphorically speaking in that I felt I had like a &quot;writer's block&quot; so the draft has more &quot;AI/LLM&quot; content than before. I used the LLM for generating questions. The answers are so far human-only.
::I've also created a subsection where I could add the prompts that made the LLM generate the questions. That could help people make better prompts perhaps. I've described what it is about inside of it and there are some chaotically written notes.
::[[Draft:The_Neurodiversity-inspired_Idea#Questions_that_might_encourage_the_development_of_this_idea_and_its_methodology]]
::My draft is missing stuff. Any questions that you contribute to my draft will probably help me and if I don't understand the questions I'll probably notify you and also at the same time &quot;feed them&quot; to an LLM and ask in my input like &quot;explain in simple words what this question means, what is it searching for?&quot; etc. while I wait for an answer. If you have any more feedback please give it to me here or on the Draft page, its talk page or my user talk page. Thank you for helping me! [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 21:20, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
::Today I woke up with not only thinking about supplying questions along with the &quot;idea&quot; but also answers. ie. Is it possible to &quot;test&quot; this idea? Is it possible to create one or multiple hypotheses based on this &quot;idea&quot;?(etc.) I've thought about this before in this &quot;idea&quot; but since I'm beginning to add to Wikiversity what was previously 'locked in my mind' it's also easier for me to see what I've done so far. Thank you for this comment! [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 09:11, 23 April 2026 (UTC)
:May I think that you should not add deadlines ; being read, and rising interest for collaboration, or even simply for exchange of thoughts, such an effective meeting event loads a huge bunch of unprobability, which time can help to… somehow diminish. Maybe, I would advice you having a central place for developping your ideas, your needs, your advances, maybe a page in your own user zone, and from time to time, depending your feeling, it could be every trimester or so, or more frequently, you could write a short account of progress (or even of no progress), or a call for participation, in such a place as this present one ; I think that will increase much exposure of your projet. Maybe also, if you can find a project name, not necessarily very meaningfull by itseilf (at least it will gain signification with time, as your project develops), that will serve as a kind-of hook, and make your announcement titles more visible. Best regards (and my excuses for my poor command of English, which seems to be unplease an anti-abuse filter, &quot;Questionable Language (profanity)&quot;, which I don't understand…). My few cents. --  [[User:Eric.LEWIN|Eric.LEWIN]] ([[User talk:Eric.LEWIN|discussion]] • [[Special:Contributions/Eric.LEWIN|contributions]]) 10:06, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
::Sorry about the false positive on the profanity filter - I've fixed it. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:26, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:::&quot;May I think that you should not add deadlines ; being read, and rising interest for collaboration, or even simply for exchange of thoughts, such an effective meeting event loads a huge bunch of unprobability, which time can help to… somehow diminish.&quot;
::Thank you Eric for this comment. Trust in time is how I interpret it. I should not feel like I need to be in a hurry. I'll try to give this time. Thank you!
:::&quot;Maybe, I would advice you having a central place for developping your ideas, your needs, your advances, maybe a page in your own user zone, and from time to time, depending your feeling, it could be every trimester or so, or more frequently, you could write a short account of progress (or even of no progress), or a call for participation, in such a place as this present one ; I think that will increase much exposure of your projet.&quot;
::A central place for developing or making &quot;project notes&quot; regarding the Neurodiversity idea on my userspace, I might need that, like a diary or &quot;project notes&quot; of the Neurodiversity idea similar to my course notes regarding my experience with Coursera.
::Any actions I take are going to be related to my Userspace from now on but I'll also update the draft when necessary. Now in the beginning I might be working daily to once every 3 days on both the draft and the daily notes I plan to make.
:::&quot;Maybe also, if you can find a project name, not necessarily very meaningfull by itseilf (at least it will gain signification with time, as your project develops), that will serve as a kind-of hook, and make your announcement titles more visible.&quot;
::Thank you for the advice. I was brainstorming yesterday about it. I concluded that since I've not yet developed a methodology that adheres to &quot;Do no harm&quot; and this is my first time working my &quot;idea&quot; into a way that is compatible with how projects develop on English Wikiversity this is new to me. My methodology isn't developed and therefore trying to get attention to my project through a name can wait. Yesterday I figured out a silly title that has nothing to do with the project: &quot;Planetary Awareness Potato Cabbage Rolls&quot; or something like that. Google output read that no such thing exists so I wanted it mainly to be unique. I don't want to raise attention that I'm unsure whether I'll actually be capable of developing a methodology for but project notes is my best bet so far in tracking my progress. Every day I think about this &quot;idea&quot; but I need to improve the important parts.
:::&quot;Best regards (and my excuses for my poor command of English, which seems to be unplease an anti-abuse filter, &quot;Questionable Language (profanity)&quot;, which I don't understand…). My few cents.&quot;
::You added great points and I felt that I was helped by you! I encourage you to post again and I can understand that interacting with any kind of automated filter can be discouraging and can be for me too! Thank you for giving me feedback! [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 16:01, 18 April 2026 (UTC)

== Add some user rights to the curator user group? ==

By default, only custodians have the ability to mark new pages as patrolled (&lt;code&gt;patrol&lt;/code&gt;) and have their own page creations automatically marked as patrolled (&lt;code&gt;autopatrol&lt;/code&gt;). I am proposing both of the following:
* Curators can mark new pages as patrolled, helping on reducing the backlog of new, unpatrolled pages.
* New pages made by curators will be automatically marked as patrolled by the MediaWiki software.
Before we implement this, I would suggest implementing a proposed guideline for marking new pages as patrolled for curators and custodians.

Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:32, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

:Agree, &lt;s&gt;also can we also allow curators to undelete pages since they already have the rights to delete them?&lt;/s&gt; [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:54, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
::I think the requirement that undelete NOT be included came from above (meta / stewards / central office). Having access to the undelete page gives access to information that is restricted by their policies to admins (custodians and bureaucrats). -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 20:12, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
::: [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]], unless if requests for curator and custodian should be RfA-like processes (that is, including voting and comments), then I have to agree with Dave above. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:03, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Oh, I didn’t realise that. Withdrawing my comment.. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:08, 19 April 2026 (UTC)
:{{support}} Seems reasonable and would reduce overhead. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 14:35, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
:'''Agree''', implement it also to [[Wikiversity:Curators]] proposal please. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:11, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
: I went ahead and filed [[phab:T424445]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:39, 26 April 2026 (UTC)

== [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curators and curators policy]] ==
{{archive top|There is strong consensus, so [[Wikiversity:Curators]] is now a policy. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:15, 9 May 2026 (UTC)}}
How does it come, that Wikiversity has curators, but Curators policy is still being proposed? How do the curators exists and act if the policy about them havent been approved yet? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:33, 16 October 2025 (UTC)

:It looks as if it is not just curators. The policy on Bureaucratship is still being proposed as well. See [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]]. —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;&quot;&gt;RailwayEnthusiast2025&lt;/span&gt;]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#59a53f&quot;&gt;''talk with me!''&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:33, 27 October 2025 (UTC)

:I think its just the nature of a small WMF sister project in that there are lots of drafts, gaps, and potential improvements. In this case, these community would need to vote on those proposed Wikiversity staff policies if we think they're ready. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:08, 3 December 2025 (UTC)
:What? I thought you were getting it approved, Juandev... :) [[User:I&amp;#39;m Mr. Chris|I&amp;#39;m Mr. Chris]] ([[User talk:I&amp;#39;m Mr. Chris|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/I&amp;#39;m Mr. Chris|contribs]]) 14:20, 12 February 2026 (UTC)
::Yeah I think this one is important too and we need to aprove it too @[[User:I'm Mr. Chris|I'm Mr. Chris]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:56, 12 February 2026 (UTC)
:::I thinks its ready to made into a policy, it seems to be complete and informative about what the rights does and how to get it. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 03:08, 15 February 2026 (UTC)
::::Agree -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:00, 27 March 2026 (UTC)

Let's make this the official discussion about adopting the [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators policy]] policy. Your comments are invited and welcome. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:40, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
: There were two similar Colloquium threads in separate places about the proposed curators policy. So I've moved them to be adjacent. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:42, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== Wikiversity:Curators to become a policy ==
{{archive top|There is strong consensus, so [[Wikiversity:Curators]] is now a policy. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:16, 9 May 2026 (UTC)}}
I've looked at the discussions about the Curators policy, I've looked at the practices, and it seems to me that there is no dispute about the wording of the policy, and what's more, the community has been using this proposal as if it were an offical policy for several years. Therefore, I propose that [[Wikiversity:Curators]] become a policy. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:35, 18 April 2026 (UTC)

:{{support}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:54, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
:{{support}} —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 20:21, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
: {{support|Yes, please}}. Especially after when I and PieWriter proposed above, I agree. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:27, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:: @[[User:Juandev|Juandev]]; as of now, curators now have the user rights &lt;code&gt;autopatrol&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;patrol&lt;/code&gt;. Perhaps we should also include that in [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]]? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:07, 30 April 2026 (UTC)
:::You meant [[Wikiversity:Curators]] @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:15, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:::: I agree that we must develop what rules curators should follow when marking new pages as patrolled; the same can be added for custodians since they can also mark new pages as patrolled. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:37, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:::::I see, well I think you can just add this to the policy. It is not major change and it probably reflects actual practice or actual technical possibilities for those flags. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:20, 7 May 2026 (UTC)
:{{support}} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:42, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
:{{Support}} per nom. [[User:PhilDaBirdMan|PhilDaBirdMan]] ([[User talk:PhilDaBirdMan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PhilDaBirdMan|contribs]]) 13:32, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
{{Archive bottom}}

== Inactive curators ==

Hello, even though [[Wikiversity:Curators]] is not a policy yet, there are curators listed here that have been inactive for two years or more:
* {{user|Cody naccarato}} (last edit on 13 Dec 2022, last logged action on 10 Dec 2022)
* {{user|Praxidicae}} (last edit on 10 Sep 2022, last logged action on 12 Sep 2022)
[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:14, 19 April 2026 (UTC)

:Yup, I would remove the rights. To get the rights back if theyll come back should not be a big deal. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:08, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:: When they don't reply by May 19, feel free (or any custodian) to do so. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:28, 25 April 2026 (UTC)

== Is anyone interested in Neurodiversity? ==

Is anyone interested in Neurodiversity? Is there anyone here who is interested for Neurodiversity to be &quot;something more&quot; than it already is? Does anyone here consider Neurodiversity one of the &quot;harder topics&quot; to work on or discuss? Does anyone here have an opinion about the [[Neurodiversity Movement]]? So these questions don't appear like &quot;out of a vacuum&quot; I can tell you a bit about my background:

Many years ago I got a psychiatric diagnosis &quot;Asperger's&quot;. After I stepped out of the office and my Äsperger's was 'concluded', I stepped out into the street and thought my first negative thought(but the positive thought followed after). The thought was about concentration camps in the second world war and that the world seemed to be going into the direction of &quot;labeling others&quot;. I was unsure whether this was &quot;real science&quot; and sort of &quot;challenged myself&quot; to make up my own mind after meeting people that had been given this diagnosis. The more adults with this diagnosis I met the more I started seeing &quot;patterns&quot;.

Was it a coincidence that the first person with Asperger's I met reminded me about my father later after I had plenty of times of experience with interacting with him? None of the people I interacted with online through IRC text chat...I felt I got any clue about how &quot;their brains work&quot;. Only when I met one person from the Asperger's chat community in person we both realized that whatever we experienced was akin to the &quot;chaos theory&quot;. He told me about &quot;chaos theory&quot; while I didn't know even what that term meant but I guess I 'read between the lines'. My question that I linger on still today is &quot;did he understand about me what I think I understood about him?&quot;? That our brains had the same configuration? Most autistic adults who meet other autistic adults usually get disappointed. They think the diagnosis will help them meet somebody like themselves and then they realize the great diversity in the autistic spectrum created by Psychiatry.

I later stopped interacting with autistic communities that much, I felt that it did not benefit me. Also Neurodiversity's &quot;neurotypes&quot; interested me for a while until I realized I had &quot;misunderstood everything&quot; about them and how they are used in the Neurodiversity Movement or &quot;Neurodiversity community&quot; if that even can precisely be defined? I doubt it but if you want to contribute to the [[Neurodiversity Movement]]. My previous attempts failed as I got more and more confused. I think a community project needs a community. With a lack of that I don't think it is worth my time. If any of you would like to work on that project let me know on my talk page.

So I was kinda lost and was talking to my friend and psychologist and I realized if I never talk about my idea to anyone in a &quot;comprehensive way&quot; or show that it matters to me nothing is going to ever happen. So I started talking about my &quot;idea&quot; more. Nobody could understand the &quot;idea&quot; because I had not developed my skills regarding where to start...although the process had already started &quot;automatically&quot; and that's why I often think of &quot;well my brain sort of activated me&quot;. I don't feel like I did have a plan and this idea happened. It happened &quot;by itself&quot;. My brain reacted to what I was seeing in a video or stream.

I value interaction highly in this idea. I think it would be helpful to make a community of people who are not paranoid about stuff that can express itself like &quot;don't analyze me!&quot;, &quot;don't compare me to anyone!&quot;. 

On the contrary, more often than not those adults who were diagnosed were actually openly comparing themselves with each other and I think that is healthy in a &quot;science&quot; way if done the &quot;right way&quot; which probably means &quot;Do no harm&quot;.

I found video material is important but I'm very unsure if uploading own video material to Wikimedia Commons would constitute a &quot;reasonable&quot; use of the resources there. Maybe somebody here needs to ask more questions to me that I should answer before that happens. I also know the '''be bold''' so I could just do what I think might be ok. Though I work better in a group as long as I know what &quot;group configurations&quot; help me. This is in a non-profit way. Since the state supported me this might be a way I am trying to &quot;give back&quot; to the state and &quot;the world&quot;. May seem overly ambitious and crazy but this thing gives me energy. It gives me hope when trying to develop this idea. [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 10:47, 23 April 2026 (UTC)

:Thanks for sharing. There is plenty of room for neurodiversity community learning. However, the challenge I think is that the intersection of those interested in (a) ND, and (b) English Wikiversity might be very small (e.g., 1!) at this point in time.
:But don't give up hope. For example, Wikipedia has many more ND-interested editors; maybe consider reaching out to see who might be interested:
:[[w:Category:Wikipedians interested in neurodiversity]]
:You could also start an equivalent category here:
:[[:Category:Wikiversitarians interested in neurodiversity]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:46, 6 May 2026 (UTC)

== Request for comment (global AI policy) ==

&lt;bdi lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;A [[:m:Requests for comment/Artificial intelligence policy|request for comment]] is currently being held to decide on a global AI policy. {{int:Feedback-thanks-title}} [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 00:58, 26 April 2026 (UTC)&lt;/bdi&gt;
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Codename Noreste@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&amp;oldid=30424282 --&gt;

== Coming over From wikinews ==

Any chance someone could help me if you are allowed to write news articles here since wikinews is going read only mode soon, thank you! [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 22:43, 1 May 2026 (UTC)

:The scope of Wikiversity is very broad and is basically about more-or-less any learning material. We have made it a point to not have duplicative content of other WMF projects, but since Wikinews is being shuttered, I personally am fine with writing news articles here. One thing that is not controversial at all is a learning resource &lt;em&gt;about&lt;/em&gt; how to write news: that could be hugely useful here and could involve the process of writing news stories to learn and to share back and forth with an editor or fact-checker. In fact, I'd support an entire namespace dedicated to keeping the notion of Wikinews alive here. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:38, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you so much! How do I start? Cheers! @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 01:07, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
:::I think it's premature to start just making news articles en masse, but if you want to start discussing the topic of citizen journalism, you can do that now. [[:Category:Journalism]] already has some material, so you can start by seeing what we already have, how you can refine that, etc. You can definitely have learning resources with collaborators who want to learn about journalism ASAP. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 01:24, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
::::thanks. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 01:38, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
::::If I could try and start one News Article could you please tell me how to go about it? Like what style of writing like Wikinews or something else? Thank you Justin! @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 01:48, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
:::::Honestly, there are very few policies and guidelines here. I think the best way to write a news story would be in a manner that is obvious and instructive. So, for instance, it's common to use the &quot;pyramid style&quot; when you're writing news, so if you were to write a story that makes it very clear that you are using that approach, that would be helpful. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:08, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
::::::cool thanks. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 02:13, 2 May 2026 (UTC)

== Language learning  ==

toki! I am trying to add or see what the toki pona language learning stuff on here is but I don't see anything that is language learning for anything. [[User:Jan Imon|Jan Imon]] ([[User talk:Jan Imon|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jan Imon|contribs]]) 23:13, 2 May 2026 (UTC) —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:29, 3 May 2026 (UTC)

:We have language materials ([[:Category:Languages]], [[World Languages]], [[Portal:Foreign Language Learning]], [[Portal:Multilingual Studies]]). They are not as developed as I think we would all like and there's not any coverage of Toki Pona, but in principle, we could and would like that. You can also see [[:b:Subject:Languages]] at our sister project Wikibooks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:33, 3 May 2026 (UTC)

== Timeline format? ==

I’ve been working on the World War II articles, including the [[World War II/Timeline|timeline]], and is there a specific timeline format that should be used? Right now it’s just a table, and there’s no separation between different periods/phases of the war.

I don’t want to use [[mw:Extension:EasyTimeline]] because this will be displaying dates and not time periods. [[User:PhilDaBirdMan|PhilDaBirdMan]] ([[User talk:PhilDaBirdMan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PhilDaBirdMan|contribs]]) 01:35, 4 May 2026 (UTC)

:I dont think we have a policy or guideline, how to format a timeline. But you may try to browes wikiversity by Google if someone was dealing with this in the past somewhow @[[User:PhilDaBirdMan|PhilDaBirdMan]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:23, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
::+1 - there's no specific guideline on how to format a timeline, it's really up to you. In my opinion I think the timeline is good. I'd personally bold the dates just to make it easier to separate it from the event description, but that's my personal 2 cents. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:18, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:::I’ll probably remove links to the dates/years, they’re just Wikipedia pages that shouldn’t be over linked to. [[User:PhilDaBirdMan|PhilDaBirdMan]] ([[User talk:PhilDaBirdMan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PhilDaBirdMan|contribs]]) 00:39, 6 May 2026 (UTC)

== Interface administrator for Codename Noreste ==

Hello, everyone. I am requesting interface administrator access on this wiki.

The main reasoning is that I would benefit from having the user right &lt;code&gt;editinterface&lt;/code&gt;, which would allow me to make dark mode changes to pages in the MediaWiki namespace, add &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;mw-parser-output&quot;&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; to some interface pages using templates, handle interface-protected edit requests, and similar stuff. Additionally, I have some knowledge of CSS, and I would like to assist with modifying CSS pages whenever necessary, such as moving MediaWiki common.css code to TemplateStyles CSS pages.

I am requesting the maximum time that is allowed per the [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators|policy]], and I have 2FA enabled on my account. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:55, 6 May 2026 (UTC)

*{{support}} Globally trusted user. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 01:07, 6 May 2026 (UTC)
*{{support}} Trusted and knowledgeable. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:35, 6 May 2026 (UTC)
*{{support}} WV would benefit from this. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 08:32, 6 May 2026 (UTC)
*{{support}} --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:13, 7 May 2026 (UTC)

:{{Comment}} Could @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] delete [[MediaWiki:Gadget-WikiSign.js]], which was requested to be deleted @[[User:Koavf|Justin]], @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]]? I dont think we need it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:40, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::Yes - clearly no longer used -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:18, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::: I can't delete it because I don't have the required permissions to do so.
::: On a side note, if this project has a need for permanent interface administrators, I would suggest that we have a minimum of two IAs, similar to how there must be two CUs and/or suppressors (or none). Maybe Koavf can be a good candidate if I am elected for permanent interface adminship, and I believe that permission shouldn't be removed from someone's own account. Instead, a bureaucrat should do it. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:20, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::::I am willing and happy to do it, unfortunately, we do not have an appetite for indef IAs and just had a discussion that resulted in a [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Interface_administrators&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2807543 consensus that we can have IAs that have the user rights for 14 to 120 days]. So once you have the rights, please make sure to gopher it. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:54, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
:::::@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] give it time. Look at me, I was in favor of shorter time, now I am looking back to times, when custodians could do it without the need of extra flag. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:31, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::::::Here's hoping. I think it would reduce administrative overhead, but that's just me and I'm not a bureaucrat here. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:33, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::::Complicated. Where are the times, admins could do everything! [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:27, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]] to become a policy ==

Following the recent approval of [[Wikiversity:Curators]] as a policy, I think [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]] may also be ready for policy status.

Please share your views about whether bureaucratship is ready to become a policy, or whether further revisions are needed.

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:58, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
: I added a logo about that user group, but other than that, it looks good to me. {{support}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:38, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
:I think that the consensus on this policy is proven by years of using it without further changes. But I I have to say weather I agree with this to become a policy, than of course {{support}}. It works and there were no major issues with it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:45, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
:{{support}} no issues. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:51, 10 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
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== Requested update to [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]] ==

Currently, [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]] is a policy that includes a caveat that interface admins are not required long-term and that user right can only be added for a period of up to two weeks. I am proposing that we remove this qualification and allow for indefinite interface admin status. I think this is useful because there are reasons for tweaking the site CSS or JavaScript (e.g. to comply with dark mode), add gadgets (e.g. importing Cat-a-Lot, which I would like to do), or otherwise modifying the site that could plausibly come up on an irregular basis and requiring the overhead of a bureaucrat to add the user rights is inefficient. In particular, I am also going to request this right if the community accepts indefinite interface admins. Thoughts? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:23, 17 August 2025 (UTC)

:And who will then monitor them to make sure they don't damage the project in any way, or abuse the rights acquired in this way? For large projects, this might not be a problem, but for smaller projects like the English Wikiversity, I'm not sure if there are enough users who would say, something is happening here that shouldn't be happening. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:28, 20 August 2025 (UTC)
::Anyone would be who. This argument applies to any person with any advanced rights here. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 10:46, 20 August 2025 (UTC)
:I think it is reasonable to allow for longer periods of access than 2 weeks to interface admin and support adjusting the policy to allow for this flexibility. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:57, 2 December 2025 (UTC)
::+1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:38, 25 January 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] I agree that the two-week requirement could be revised, but wouldn’t people just request access for a specific purpose anyway? Instead of granting indefinite access, they should request the specific time frame they need the rights for—until the planned fixes are completed—and then request an extension if more time is required. We could remove the two-week criterion while still keeping the access explicitly temporary. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:48, 25 January 2026 (UTC)
::I just don't see why this wiki needs to be different than all of the others. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 07:18, 25 January 2026 (UTC)
:::There isn’t really much of a need for a permanent one at this point in time [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 09:53, 25 January 2026 (UTC)
:I quite agree with this proposal, so long as they perform the suggested changes as mentioned here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:06, 26 January 2026 (UTC)
:: Just to clarify, I support '''indefinite interface admin status'''. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:34, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
:I think there is decent consensus for lengthening this, but not necessarily for indefinite permissions, so does anyone object to me revising it to the standard being 120 days instead of two weeks? I'll check back on this thread in three weeks and if there's no objection, I'll make the change. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 20:47, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
::Sure [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:27, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
::Thanks for proposing this, Justin. I agree with the proposal to lengthen the interface admin period from 2 weeks but not indefinitely. Can I check the source(s) for the standard being 120 days (I'm guessing policies on other projects or maybe global policy?)? In any case, I think it is reasonable for us to adopt a similar period. However, note on the current policy discussion page notes from @[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] arguing for shorter periods to lower risk, that's why it is 2 weeks. But if there are projects that need longer access, that should also be accommodated. Maybe we could adjust the policy to specify that ''interface admin rights can be given for 14 to 120 days depending on how long is required and what is supported by the community''. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:29, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:::There was there was no source for 120: it was just more than 14 and less than infinity. The &quot;14 to 120&quot; also seems reasonable. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 14:33, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
::: On some small/medium-sized wikis, such as English Wikibooks and English Wikiquote for example, indefinite interface administrator access for administrators is allowed, but they tend not to make changes to the CSS and JS page changes unless it's truly necessary. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:34, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:::It's a good idea to make the length of this right on request or allow to be prolonged. However, IA should test large changes somewhere else, for example on the en.wv mirror, and only after testing it on the mirror, adapt it to the live version. That means I can't imagine a time-consuming operation right now. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:04, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Sorry, what mirror is this? Are you talking about beta.wv? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 20:32, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::Not beta.wv. Basically somewhere else then on a live wiki. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:59, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::: Wouldn't testing on a user's own common.css page work anyway? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:36, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:Change made here: https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity%3AInterface_administrators&amp;diff=2807543&amp;oldid=2806289 —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 13:35, 4 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Template:AI-generated]] ==

After going through the plethora of ChatGPT-generated pages made by [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] (with many more pages to go), I'd like community input on this proposal to [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence]] that I think would be benefical for the community:
*Resources generated by AI '''must''' be indicated as so through the project box, [[Template:AI-generated]], on either the page or the main resource (if the page is a part of a project).
I do not believe including a small note/reference that a page is AI-generated is sufficient, and I take my thinking from [[WV:Original research|Wikiversity's OR policy]] for OR work: ''Within Wikiversity, all original research should be clearly identified as such''. I believe resources created from AI should also be clearly indicated as such, especially since we are working on whether or not AI-generated resources should be allowed on the website (discussion is [[Wikiversity talk:Artificial intelligence|here]], for reference). This makes it easier for organizational purposes, and in the event ''if'' we ban AI-generated work. 

I've left a message on Lee's talk page over a week ago and did not get a response or acknowledgement, so I'd like for the community's input for this inclusion to the policy. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:53, 26 January 2026 (UTC)

:I believe that existing Wikiversity policies are sufficient. Authors are responsible for the accuracy and usefulness of the content that is published. This policy covers AI-generated content that is: 1) carefully reviewed by the author publishing it, and 2) the source is noted.   [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 19:38, 27 January 2026 (UTC)
::A small reference for pages that are substantially filled with Chat-GPT entries, like [[Real Good Religion]], [[Attributing Blame]], [[Fostering Curiosity]], are not sufficient IMO and a project box would be the best indicator that a page is AI-generated (especially when there is a mixture of human created content AND AI-generated content, as present in a lot of your pages). This is useful, especially considering the notable issues with AI (including hallucinations and fabrication of details), so viewers and support staff are aware. These small notes left on the pages are not as easily viewable as a project box or banner would be. I really don't see the issue with a clear-label guideline. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 22:34, 27 January 2026 (UTC)
::{{ping|Lbeaumont}} I noticed your reversions [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Exploring_Existential_Concerns&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2788278 here] &amp; [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Subjective_Awareness&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2788257 here]. I'd prefer to have a clean conversation regarding this proposition. Please voice your concerns here. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:53, 28 January 2026 (UTC)
:::Regarding Subjective Awareness, I distinctly recall the effort I went to to write that the old-fashioned way. It is true that ChatGPT assisted me in augmenting the list of words suggested as candidate subjective states. This is a small section of the course, is clearly marked, and makes no factual claim. Marking the entire course as AI-generated is misleading. I would have made these comments when I reverted your edit; however, the revert button does not provide that opportunity.
:::Regarding the Exploring Existential Concerns course, please note this was adapted from my EmotionalCompetency.com website, which predates the availability of LLMs. The course does include two links, clearly labeled as ChatGPT-generated. Again, marking the entire course as AI-generated is misleading.
:::On a broader issue, I don't consider your opinions to have established a carefully debated and adopted Wikiversity policy. You went ahead and modified many of my courses over my clearly stated objections. Please let this issue play out more completely before editing my courses further. Thanks.   [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 15:11, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
::::Understood, and I respect your position. I apologize if my edits were seen as overarching. We could change the project box to &quot;a portion of this resource was generated by AI&quot;, or something along those lines. Feel free to revert my changes where you see fit, and I encourage more users to provide their input. EDIT: I've made changes to the template to indicate that a portion of the content has been generated from an LLM. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:50, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
:::::Thanks for this reply. The new banner is unduly large and alarming. There is no need for alarm here. The use of AI is not harmful per se. Like any technology, it can be used to help or to harm. I take care to craft prompts carefully, point the LMM to reliable source materials, and to carefully read and verify the generated text before I publish it. This is all in keeping with long-established Wikiversity policy. We don't want to use a  [[w:One-drop_rule|one-drop rule]] here or cause a [[w:Satanic_panic|satanic panic]]. We can learn our lessons from history here. I don't see any pedagogical reason for establishing a classification of &quot;AI generated&quot;, but if there is a consensus that it is needed, perhaps it can be handled as just another category that learning resources can be assigned to. I would rather focus on identifying any errors in factual claims than on casting pejorative bias toward AI-generated content. An essay on the best practices for using LMM on Wikiveristy would be welcome.   [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 15:58, 30 January 2026 (UTC)
::::::The new banner mimics the banner that is available on the English Wikibooks (see [[b:Template:AI-generated]] &amp; [[b:Template:Uses AI]]), so my revisions aren't unique in this aspect. At this point, I'd welcome other peoples' inputs. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 30 January 2026 (UTC)

== How do I start making pages? ==
Is there a notability guideline for Wikiversity? What is the sourcing policy for information? What is the Manual of Style? What kind of educational content qualifies for Wikiversity? All the introduction pages are a bit unclear. 
[[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 02:25, 28 January 2026 (UTC)

:{{ping|VidanaliK}} Welcome to Wikiversity! I've left you a welcome message on your talk page. That should help you out. Make sure to especially look at [[Wikiversity:Introduction]]. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 03:11, 28 January 2026 (UTC)
::It says that I can't post more pages because I have apparently exceeded the new page limit. How long does it take before that new page limit expires? [[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 16:57, 28 January 2026 (UTC)
:::This is a restriction for new users so that Wikiversity is not hit with massive spam. As for when this limit will expire, it should be a few days or after a certain number of edits. It's easy to overcome, though I do not have the exact numbers atm. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:08, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
::::OK, I think I got past the limit. [[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 17:21, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
==Why does it feel like Wikiversity is no longer really active anymore?==
I've been looking at recent changes, and both today and yesterday there haven't been many changes that I haven't made; it feels like walking through a ghost town, is this just me or is Wikiversity not really active anymore? [[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 03:54, 30 January 2026 (UTC)

:There is fewer people editing these days compared to the past. Many newcomers tend to edit in Wikipedia instead. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 06:39, 30 January 2026 (UTC)
:It’s a little slow, but I’m happy to know that Wikiversity is a place that I think should provide value even if the activity of editors fluctuates. If it’s any consolation your edits may be encouraging for some anonymous newcomer to start edits on their own! I think it’s hard to build community when there is such a wide variety of interests and a smaller starting userbase. Also sometimes the getting into a particular topic that already exists can be intimidating because some relics (large portals, school, categories, etc.) have intricate, unique and generally messy levels of organization. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 22:16, 9 March 2026 (UTC)
:I'd say it comes down to working hard for Wikiversity, basically if somebody or a group of people will start presenting good ideas and they turn out to be provably stable.
:I even asked Google's &quot;AI Mode&quot;, what is Wikiversity famous for? Unfortunately it could not answer that.
:Simply, we have not made Wikiversity famous by presenting really provable stable ideas yet. My hope is that this time might come. Perhaps even this year 2026!
:Hope dies last. [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 10:12, 27 April 2026 (UTC)

== Inactivity policy for Curators ==

I was wondering if there is a specific inactivity polity for curators (semi-admins) as I am pretty sure the global policy does not apply to them as they are not ''fully'' sysops. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 03:20, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

:Unfortunately, I don't see an inactivity policy, but if we were to create such a new policy for curators, it should be the same for custodians (administrators). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:45, 15 February 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] There is currently none, that I could find, for custodians either. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:47, 17 February 2026 (UTC)
:::I think we should propose a local inactivity policy for custodians (and by extension, curators), which should be at least one year without any edits ''and'' logged actions. However, I don't know which page should it be when the inactivity removal procedure starts. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:53, 17 February 2026 (UTC)
::::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] In theory, there should be a section added at [[WV:Candidates for custodianship]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:55, 17 February 2026 (UTC)
::::: To be consistent with the [[meta:Admin activity review|global period of 2 years inactivity]] for en.wv  [[Wikiversity:Custodianship#Notes|Custodians]] and [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship#How are bureaucrats removed?|Bureaucrats]] we could add something like this to [[Wikiversity:Curators]]:
::::::The maximum time period of inactivity &lt;u&gt;without community review&lt;/u&gt; for curators is two years (consistent with  the [[:meta:Category:Global policies|global policy]] described at [[meta:Admin activity review|Admin activity review]] which applies for [[Wikiversity:Custodianship#Notes|Custodians]] and [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrats]]). After that time a custodian will remove the rights.
::::: -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:51, 27 March 2026 (UTC)
:::::Yup, I agree with Jtneill, there is a policy proposal for Wikiversity:Curators, where it should be logically deployed. The question is if we are ready to aprove the policy. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:43, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::: I agree, but we should notify the colloquium about inactive curators, just like a steward would do for inactive custodians and bureaucrats per [[:m:Admin activity review|AAR]]. What is the minimum timeframe an inactive curator should receive so they can respond they would keep their rights? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:49, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:I incorporated these suggestions into the proposed curators policy. Please review/comment/improve. Summary: 2 years, notify curator's user page, then remove rights after 1 month: [[Wikiversity:Curators#Inactivity]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:59, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] I created [[Template:Inactive curator]] for this. Feel free to make any changes or improvements. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:29, 24 April 2026 (UTC)

== [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence]] to become an official policy ==
{{Archive top|After running for a week, there is consensus, alongside comments, for [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence]] to be implemented as an official policy. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:27, 17 April 2026 (UTC)}}
With the introduction of AI-material, and some material just plain disruptive, its imperative that Wikiversity catches up with its sister projects and implements an official AI policy that we can work with. The recent issue of [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]]'s 50+ articles that contain significantly large AI-generated material has made me came to the Colloquium. This user has also been removing the [[Template:AI-generated]] template from their pages, calling it &quot;misleading&quot;, &quot;alarmist&quot;, and &quot;pejorative&quot; - which is all just simply nonsensical rationales. Not to even mention this user's contributions to the English Wikipedia have been [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_for_deletion/Inner_Development_Goals contested] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_for_deletion/Multipolar_trap removed] a couple of times (for being low-quality and clearly LLM-generated), highlighting the need for an actual policy to be implemented here on Wikiversity. I would like to ping {{ping|Juandev}} and {{ping|Jtneill}} for their thoughts as well, since I'd like this to be implemented as soon as possible. 

Wikiversity has a significant issue with implementing anti-disruptive measures, hence why we have received numerous complaints as a community about our quality. I originally was reverting the removal of the templates, but realized that this is still a proposed policy, which it shouldn't be anymore. It should be a recognized Wikiversity policy. 14:54, 10 March 2026 (UTC) —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:54, 10 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] '''I agree''' that the draft, should become official policy. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:00, 10 March 2026 (UTC)
:I provided a detailed response at: [[Wikiversity talk:Artificial intelligence#Evolving a Wikiversity policy on AI]]
:I will appreaciate it if you consder that carefully. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 22:49, 10 March 2026 (UTC)
:Agree it should become official Wikiversity policy on the condition &lt;u&gt;that point point 5 is about [significant/substantial] LLM-generated text specifically&lt;/u&gt;. Not a good idea to overuse it, it should be added when there is substantial AI-generated text on the page, not for other cases. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 12:37, 11 March 2026 (UTC)
:What policy is being debated? Is it the text on this page, which is pointed to by the general banner, or the text at:   [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence,]]   which is pointed to by the specific banner? Let's begin with coherence on the text being debated. Thanks!  [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 11:49, 17 March 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] This is a call for approval of the new Wikiversity policy. You expressed your opinion [[Wikiversity talk:Artificial intelligence#Evolving a Wikiversity policy on AI|on the talk page of the proposal]], I replied to you and await your response.When creating policies, it is necessary to propose specific solutions. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 14:12, 17 March 2026 (UTC)
:::Toward a Justified and Parsimonious AI Policy 
:::As we collaborate to develop a consensus policy on the use of Large Language Models, it is wise to begin by considering the needs of the various stakeholders to the policy.
:::The stakeholders are:
:::1)     The users, 
:::2)     The source providers, and
:::3)     The editors
:::There may also be others with a minor stake in this policy, including the population at large.
:::The many needs of the users are currently addressed by long-standing [[Wikiversity:Policies|Wikiversity policies]], so we can focus on what, if any, additional needs arise as LLMs are deployed. 
:::As always, users need assurance that propositional statements are accurate. This is covered by the existing policy on [[Wikiversity:Verifiability|verifiably]]. In addition, it is expected by both the users and those that provide materials used as sources for the text are [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|accurately attributed]]. This is also covered by [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|existing policies]].
:::To respect the time and effort of editors, a parsimonious policy will unburden editors from costly requirements that exceed benefits to the users.
:::Finally, it is important to recognize that because attention is our most valuable seizing attention unnecessarily is a form of theft. 
:::The following proposed policy statement results from these considerations:
:::Recommended Policy statement:
:::·       Editors [[Wikiversity:Verifiability|verify the accuracy]] of propositional statements, regardless of the source.
:::·       Editors [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|attribute the source]] of propositional statements. In the case of LLM, cite the LLM model and the prompt used.
:::·       Use of various available templates to mark the use of LLM are optional. Templates that are flexible in noting the type and extend of LLM usage are preferred. Templates that avoid unduly distracting or alarming the user are preferred. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 19:56, 19 March 2026 (UTC)
::::Do we discuss here or there? I have replied you there as your proposal is about that policy so it is tradition to discuss it at the affected talk page. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:59, 19 March 2026 (UTC)
: {{support}} Thanks for the proposed policy development and discussion; also note proposed policy talk page discussion: [[Wikiversity talk:Artificial intelligence]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:05, 24 March 2026 (UTC)
::I think the Wikiversity AI policy shall be official. – [[User:RestoreAccess111|RestoreAccess111]] &lt;sup style=&quot;font-family:Arimo, Arial;&quot;&gt;[[User talk:RestoreAccess111|Talk!]]&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;sup style=&quot;font-family:Times New Roman, Tinos;&quot;&gt;[[Special:Contributions/RestoreAccess111|Watch!]]&lt;/sup&gt; 06:11, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== New titles for user right nominations ==
&lt;div class=&quot;cd-moveMark&quot;&gt;''Moved from [[Wikiversity talk:Candidates for Custodianship#New titles for user right nominations]].  [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:20, 17 April 2026 (UTC)''&lt;/div&gt;

I would like to propose the following retitles should a user be nominated for any of the following user rights:
* Curator: Candidates for Curatorship
* Bureaucrat: Candidates for Bureaucratship
The reason is that many curator (and probably bureaucrat) requests have run solely under {{tq|Candidates for Custodianship}}, but that title might sound misleading (especially in regards to the permission a user is requesting). CheckUser and Oversight (suppressor) are not included above since no user was nominated for these sensitive permissions, probably. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:30, 19 March 2026 (UTC)

:And it's not that when someone at the beginning misplaced the request, no one thought to move it and the others copied it. Even today, it would be possible to simply take it all and move it. Otherwise, for me, the more fundamental problem is that there is [[Wikiversity:Curators|no approved policy for curators]] than where the requests are based. Curators then operate in a certain vacuum and if one of them &quot;breaks out of the chain&quot;, the average user doesn't have many transparent tools to deal with it, because there is no policy. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:02, 19 March 2026 (UTC)
::I am not talking about the curator page (policy proposal). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:08, 21 March 2026 (UTC)
: @[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] I'll see if I can do an overhaul of [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]], just like I recently did with the Requests for adminship page on English Wikiquote. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:17, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
:Yes, great idea - ideally there will be separate &quot;Candidates for ...&quot; pages for each user right group. The most important for now is to separate curator and custodian pages as CN suggests. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:39, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
:So maybe I previously misunderstood. Are you proposing separated pages for nominations (i.e. [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship]], [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship]], [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]])? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:30, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:33, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:::I see, then I am fine with that @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]. Sorry for misunderstanding. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:35, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

I've split the user rights nomination pages into:
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for CheckUser]]
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship]]

Please review. There are likely several links to update, text to adjust, categories to manage, short-cuts to fix etc. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:22, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

:Thanks, great job @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]. I am wondering if we need to move archived nominations too, or if we are OK with the actual state. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:08, 10 May 2026 (UTC)
::Yes, I think that would be helpful. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:46, 10 May 2026 (UTC)
:An svg icon for [[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curators]] would also be helpful. We have them for other user rights: [[c:Category:Wikiversity user rights icons]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:54, 10 May 2026 (UTC)
::Done: [[Wikiversity:Curators]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:44, 11 May 2026 (UTC)

== Technical Request:  Courtesy link.. ==

[[Template_talk:Information#Background_must_have_color_defined_as_well]] [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:43, 20 March 2026 (UTC)
: I can't edit the template directly as it need an sysop/interface admin to do it. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:43, 20 March 2026 (UTC)
:: Also if the Template field of - https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:LintErrors/night-mode-unaware-background-color is examined, there is poential for an admin to clear a substantial proportion of these by implmenting a simmilar fix to the indciated templates (and underlying stylesheets). It would be nice to clear things like Project box and others, as many other templates (and thus pages depend on them.) :)
[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:43, 20 March 2026 (UTC)

:I think it would be best to grant you interface admin rights for a short period of time to make these changes. However, I still have doubts about the suitability of this solution, which may cause other problems and no one has explained to me why dark mode has to be implemented this way @[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:43, 20 March 2026 (UTC)

: I would have reservations about holding such rights, which is why I was trying to do what I could without needing them. However if it is the only way to get the required changes made, I would suggest asking on Wikipedia to find technical editors, willing to undertake the changes needed. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 09:32, 21 March 2026 (UTC)

== WikiEducator has closed ==

Some of you may know of a similar project to Wikiversity, called [https://wikieducator.org/Main_Page WikiEducator], championed by [https://oerfoundation.org/about/staff/wayne-mackintosh/ Wayne Mackintosh][https://www.linkedin.com/posts/waynemackintosh_important-notice-about-the-oer-foundation-activity-7405113051688931329-Nhm9/][https://openeducation.nz/killed-not-starved/].

It seems [https://openeducation.nz/terminating-oer-foundation their foundation has closed] and they are no longer operating.

They had done quite a bit of outreach (e.g., in the Pacific and Africa) to get educators using wiki.

The WikiEducator content is still available in MediaWiki - and potentially could be imported to Wikiversity ([https://wikieducator.org/WikiEducator:Copyrights CC-BY-SA] is the default license).

The closing of WikiEducator arguably makes the nurturing of Wikiversity even more important.

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:09, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

:I was never active there. If anyone has an account or is otherwise in contact, we may want to copy relevant information here or even at [[:outreach:]]. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 04:46, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

:: I reached out to [[User:Mackiwg~enwikiversity|Wayne]] in January, and he responded briefly but positively (while travelling).  I wrote to the low-traffic wikieducator mailing list today and got a nice [https://groups.google.com/g/wikieducator/c/r_yIyUw6ZIA reply] from [[user:SteveFoerster|Steve Foerster]] who's interested in helping. If we can figure out a migration path it would be great to adopt at least the main namespace pages here.  
:: A few questions that come to mind: 
:: - would people want to create matching user accounts
:: - are there any namespaces (user/talk?) that should not be moved over
:: We could look at how this was done for the [[m:Wikivoyage/Migration]] wikivoyage migration. &lt;span style=&quot;padding:0 2px 0 2px;background-color:white;color:#bbb;&quot;&gt;&amp;ndash;[[User:Sj|SJ]][[User Talk:Sj|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ff9900;&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/span&gt; 04:27, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
:::That's fantastic, SJ, that you've reached out and that Wayne, Steve, and Jim are receptive—and that you can help! -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:52, 1 May 2026 (UTC)

== Wikinews is ending ==

Apparently mainly due to low editorial activity, low public interest, but also failure to achieve the goals from the proposal for the creation of the project, the Wikinews project is ending after years of discussions ([[Meta:Proposal for Closing Wikinews|some reading]]).

And I would be interested to see how Wikiversity is doing in the monitored metrics. We probably have more editors than Wikinews had, but what about consumers and achieving the goals? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 19:14, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

:Wikiversity's biggest issue in recent times was the hosting of low-quality, trash content. Thankfully we've done a great job in removing pseudoscience and other embarrassingly trash content (Wikidebates, for example), but the biggest concern moving forward is proper maintenance IMO. I've caught several pseudoscience pages being created within the last few months that could easily have flown under the radar (ex, [[The Kelemen Dilemma: Causal Collapse and Axiomatic Instability]]), so I'd urge our custodians/curators to be on the lookout for this type of content. Usually an AI-overview can point this type of content out relatively well.
:In terms of visibility, I believe Wikiversity is a high-traffic project. I remember my [[Mathematical Properties]] showing up on the first page of Google when searching up &quot;math properties&quot; for the longest time (and is still showing up in the first page 'till this day!). Besides, Wikinews hosted a lot of short-term content (the nature of news articles), while Wikiversity hosts content that can still be useful a decade later (ex, [[A Reader's Guide to Annotation]]). 
:I think we are on a better path than we were a few months ago, and I do want to thank everyone here who has been helping out with maintaining our website! —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 20:48, 1 April 2026 (UTC)
:For what it's worth, the group that did that study has since disbanded, so no one is monitoring the other sister projects in the same way. Additionally, Wikinews had some catastrophic server issues due to the maintenance of [[:m:Extension:DynamicPageList]] which don't apply here. Your questions are still worth addressing, but I just wanted to cut off any concern at the pass about Wikiversity being in the same precarious situation. Wikiversity is definitely the biggest &quot;lagging behind&quot; or &quot;failure&quot; project now that Wikinews is being shuttered, but I don't see any near- or medium-term pathway to closing Wikiversity. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:46, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

:[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-03-31/News and notes|Entirety of Wikinews to be shut down]] (Wikipedia Signpost) -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:03, 11 April 2026 (UTC)

== Action Required: Update templates/modules for electoral maps (Migrating from P1846 to P14226) ==

Hello everyone,

This is a notice regarding an ongoing data migration on Wikidata that may affect your election-related templates and Lua modules (such as &lt;code&gt;Module:Itemgroup/list&lt;/code&gt;).

'''The Change:'''&lt;br /&gt;
Currently, many templates pull electoral maps from Wikidata using the property [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]], combined with the qualifier [[:d:Property:P180|P180]]: [[:d:Q19571328|Q19571328]]. 

We are migrating this data (across roughly 4,000 items) to a newly created, dedicated property: '''[[:d:Property:P14226|P14226]]'''.

'''What You Need To Do:'''&lt;br /&gt;
To ensure your templates and infoboxes do not break or lose their maps, please update your local code to fetch data from [[:d:Property:P14226|P14226]] instead of the old [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]] + [[:d:Property:P180|P180]] structure. A [[m:Wikidata/Property Migration: P1846 to P14226/List|list of pages]] was generated using Wikimedia Global Search.

'''Deadline:'''&lt;br /&gt;
We are temporarily retaining the old data on [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]] to allow for a smooth transition. However, to complete the data cleanup on Wikidata, the old [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]] statements will be removed after '''May 1, 2026'''. Please update your modules and templates before this date to prevent any disruption to your wiki's election articles.

Let us know if you have any questions or need assistance with the query logic. Thank you for your help! [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] using [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 17:11, 3 April 2026 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&amp;oldid=29941252 --&gt;
:I didnt find such properties, so we are probably fine. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:00, 12 April 2026 (UTC)
:: +1 (agreed). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:19, 12 April 2026 (UTC)

== Enable the abuse filter block action? ==

In light of [[Special:AbuseLog/80178]] (coupon spam), I would like to propose enabling the block action for the abuse filter. Only custodians will be able to enable and disable that action on an abuse filter, and it is useful to block ongoing vandalism. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:12, 13 April 2026 (UTC)

:Seems like a good idea, almost all of the users which create such pages are spambots so this shouldn’t be a problem. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:41, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
:Can you explain some more (I am new to abuse filters)? It looks like the attempted edit was prevented? Which abuse filter?
:Note on your suggestion, have also reactivated Antispam Filter 12 - see [[WV:RCA]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:45, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
:: I am proposing that we activate the abuse filter block action, which if a user triggers an abuse filter, it would actually block the user in question - the same mechanism that a custodian would use to block users. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:11, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
:::OK, thankyou, that makes sense. And, reviewing the abuse filter 12 log, it would be helpful because it would prevent the need for manual blocking. But I don't see a setting for autoblocking? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 23:14, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
:::: I think it probably adds an autoblock. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:43, 16 April 2026 (UTC)
: [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]], given that a little bit more than a week has passed and there is minimal consensus to activate the abuse filter block action, I filed [[phab:T424053]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:05, 21 April 2026 (UTC)
::Thank-you for doing this. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:03, 24 April 2026 (UTC)

== Advice needed: A Neurodiversity-inspired Idea/observation ==

If I want the greatest participation of others to &quot;provide constructive criticism to my idea&quot; or to &quot;shoot down my idea&quot; or &quot;idea&quot;.

What I've called it so far is &quot;The Neurodiversity-inspired Idea&quot;. At other times I used more sensationalist wording but here on Wikiversity I don't dare do that. I actually woke up with thinking about putting this into my userspace draft: &quot;Personal Observations Made By Meeting Autistic and Non-Autistic Adults&quot;.

My ultimate goal is to stop blathering about my &quot;idea&quot; to friend and family without feeling my &quot;methodology&quot; is going into any progressive direction whatsoever. My latest encounter was somewhat constructive though. A friend of a friend who worked with people presenting ideas in attempting to getting grants. I don't want a grant. I just want to figure out how I can express my &quot;idea&quot; in a way so that I can more clearly figure out what flaws it got.

At the same time I tend to overthink. If anyone thinks etherpad might be a good place and considering Wikimedia already got an etherpad at https://etherpad.wikimedia.org/ if anyone feels like they know me better in the future feel free to suggest a &quot;session&quot; on etherpad.

'''If I don't receive a reply to this in 1 week's time I will begin to explore this &quot;idea&quot; into my userspace''' unless you replied and refrained me from doing so, of course. Then maybe after &quot;developing it there&quot; I might reference it to you another future time here in the Colloquium, with my &quot;idea&quot; still in my userspace draft. This &quot;idea&quot; is sort of a burden, I'm happy I've made the choice to get rid of it and hopefully move on with my life, unless there is something to this &quot;idea&quot;. 

My failure is probably evident: I feel I haven't told you anything. Same happened to when I talked to friends and family. In danger of overthinking it further I'll publish this right now. I need to &quot;keep it together&quot; [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 10:36, 16 April 2026 (UTC)

:Good on you putting it out there ... and hitting publish :). I'd say go for it (no need to wait), give birth to your idea and share about it here and elsewhere. Let it take shape and see where it might go. In many ways, this is exactly what an open collaborative learning community should be doing. Others might not know well how to respond, so perhaps consider creating some questions to accompany the idea. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:21, 16 April 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you for encouraging me in developing the idea.
::I have created a &quot;questions&quot; section in the draft which is visible in the table of contents now. My brain was &quot;frozen&quot; today metaphorically speaking in that I felt I had like a &quot;writer's block&quot; so the draft has more &quot;AI/LLM&quot; content than before. I used the LLM for generating questions. The answers are so far human-only.
::I've also created a subsection where I could add the prompts that made the LLM generate the questions. That could help people make better prompts perhaps. I've described what it is about inside of it and there are some chaotically written notes.
::[[Draft:The_Neurodiversity-inspired_Idea#Questions_that_might_encourage_the_development_of_this_idea_and_its_methodology]]
::My draft is missing stuff. Any questions that you contribute to my draft will probably help me and if I don't understand the questions I'll probably notify you and also at the same time &quot;feed them&quot; to an LLM and ask in my input like &quot;explain in simple words what this question means, what is it searching for?&quot; etc. while I wait for an answer. If you have any more feedback please give it to me here or on the Draft page, its talk page or my user talk page. Thank you for helping me! [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 21:20, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
::Today I woke up with not only thinking about supplying questions along with the &quot;idea&quot; but also answers. ie. Is it possible to &quot;test&quot; this idea? Is it possible to create one or multiple hypotheses based on this &quot;idea&quot;?(etc.) I've thought about this before in this &quot;idea&quot; but since I'm beginning to add to Wikiversity what was previously 'locked in my mind' it's also easier for me to see what I've done so far. Thank you for this comment! [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 09:11, 23 April 2026 (UTC)
:May I think that you should not add deadlines ; being read, and rising interest for collaboration, or even simply for exchange of thoughts, such an effective meeting event loads a huge bunch of unprobability, which time can help to… somehow diminish. Maybe, I would advice you having a central place for developping your ideas, your needs, your advances, maybe a page in your own user zone, and from time to time, depending your feeling, it could be every trimester or so, or more frequently, you could write a short account of progress (or even of no progress), or a call for participation, in such a place as this present one ; I think that will increase much exposure of your projet. Maybe also, if you can find a project name, not necessarily very meaningfull by itseilf (at least it will gain signification with time, as your project develops), that will serve as a kind-of hook, and make your announcement titles more visible. Best regards (and my excuses for my poor command of English, which seems to be unplease an anti-abuse filter, &quot;Questionable Language (profanity)&quot;, which I don't understand…). My few cents. --  [[User:Eric.LEWIN|Eric.LEWIN]] ([[User talk:Eric.LEWIN|discussion]] • [[Special:Contributions/Eric.LEWIN|contributions]]) 10:06, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
::Sorry about the false positive on the profanity filter - I've fixed it. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:26, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:::&quot;May I think that you should not add deadlines ; being read, and rising interest for collaboration, or even simply for exchange of thoughts, such an effective meeting event loads a huge bunch of unprobability, which time can help to… somehow diminish.&quot;
::Thank you Eric for this comment. Trust in time is how I interpret it. I should not feel like I need to be in a hurry. I'll try to give this time. Thank you!
:::&quot;Maybe, I would advice you having a central place for developping your ideas, your needs, your advances, maybe a page in your own user zone, and from time to time, depending your feeling, it could be every trimester or so, or more frequently, you could write a short account of progress (or even of no progress), or a call for participation, in such a place as this present one ; I think that will increase much exposure of your projet.&quot;
::A central place for developing or making &quot;project notes&quot; regarding the Neurodiversity idea on my userspace, I might need that, like a diary or &quot;project notes&quot; of the Neurodiversity idea similar to my course notes regarding my experience with Coursera.
::Any actions I take are going to be related to my Userspace from now on but I'll also update the draft when necessary. Now in the beginning I might be working daily to once every 3 days on both the draft and the daily notes I plan to make.
:::&quot;Maybe also, if you can find a project name, not necessarily very meaningfull by itseilf (at least it will gain signification with time, as your project develops), that will serve as a kind-of hook, and make your announcement titles more visible.&quot;
::Thank you for the advice. I was brainstorming yesterday about it. I concluded that since I've not yet developed a methodology that adheres to &quot;Do no harm&quot; and this is my first time working my &quot;idea&quot; into a way that is compatible with how projects develop on English Wikiversity this is new to me. My methodology isn't developed and therefore trying to get attention to my project through a name can wait. Yesterday I figured out a silly title that has nothing to do with the project: &quot;Planetary Awareness Potato Cabbage Rolls&quot; or something like that. Google output read that no such thing exists so I wanted it mainly to be unique. I don't want to raise attention that I'm unsure whether I'll actually be capable of developing a methodology for but project notes is my best bet so far in tracking my progress. Every day I think about this &quot;idea&quot; but I need to improve the important parts.
:::&quot;Best regards (and my excuses for my poor command of English, which seems to be unplease an anti-abuse filter, &quot;Questionable Language (profanity)&quot;, which I don't understand…). My few cents.&quot;
::You added great points and I felt that I was helped by you! I encourage you to post again and I can understand that interacting with any kind of automated filter can be discouraging and can be for me too! Thank you for giving me feedback! [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 16:01, 18 April 2026 (UTC)

== Add some user rights to the curator user group? ==

By default, only custodians have the ability to mark new pages as patrolled (&lt;code&gt;patrol&lt;/code&gt;) and have their own page creations automatically marked as patrolled (&lt;code&gt;autopatrol&lt;/code&gt;). I am proposing both of the following:
* Curators can mark new pages as patrolled, helping on reducing the backlog of new, unpatrolled pages.
* New pages made by curators will be automatically marked as patrolled by the MediaWiki software.
Before we implement this, I would suggest implementing a proposed guideline for marking new pages as patrolled for curators and custodians.

Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:32, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

:Agree, &lt;s&gt;also can we also allow curators to undelete pages since they already have the rights to delete them?&lt;/s&gt; [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:54, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
::I think the requirement that undelete NOT be included came from above (meta / stewards / central office). Having access to the undelete page gives access to information that is restricted by their policies to admins (custodians and bureaucrats). -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 20:12, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
::: [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]], unless if requests for curator and custodian should be RfA-like processes (that is, including voting and comments), then I have to agree with Dave above. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:03, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Oh, I didn’t realise that. Withdrawing my comment.. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:08, 19 April 2026 (UTC)
:{{support}} Seems reasonable and would reduce overhead. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 14:35, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
:'''Agree''', implement it also to [[Wikiversity:Curators]] proposal please. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:11, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
: I went ahead and filed [[phab:T424445]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:39, 26 April 2026 (UTC)

== [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curators and curators policy]] ==
{{archive top|There is strong consensus, so [[Wikiversity:Curators]] is now a policy. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:15, 9 May 2026 (UTC)}}
How does it come, that Wikiversity has curators, but Curators policy is still being proposed? How do the curators exists and act if the policy about them havent been approved yet? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:33, 16 October 2025 (UTC)

:It looks as if it is not just curators. The policy on Bureaucratship is still being proposed as well. See [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]]. —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;&quot;&gt;RailwayEnthusiast2025&lt;/span&gt;]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#59a53f&quot;&gt;''talk with me!''&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:33, 27 October 2025 (UTC)

:I think its just the nature of a small WMF sister project in that there are lots of drafts, gaps, and potential improvements. In this case, these community would need to vote on those proposed Wikiversity staff policies if we think they're ready. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:08, 3 December 2025 (UTC)
:What? I thought you were getting it approved, Juandev... :) [[User:I&amp;#39;m Mr. Chris|I&amp;#39;m Mr. Chris]] ([[User talk:I&amp;#39;m Mr. Chris|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/I&amp;#39;m Mr. Chris|contribs]]) 14:20, 12 February 2026 (UTC)
::Yeah I think this one is important too and we need to aprove it too @[[User:I'm Mr. Chris|I'm Mr. Chris]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:56, 12 February 2026 (UTC)
:::I thinks its ready to made into a policy, it seems to be complete and informative about what the rights does and how to get it. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 03:08, 15 February 2026 (UTC)
::::Agree -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:00, 27 March 2026 (UTC)

Let's make this the official discussion about adopting the [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators policy]] policy. Your comments are invited and welcome. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:40, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
: There were two similar Colloquium threads in separate places about the proposed curators policy. So I've moved them to be adjacent. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:42, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== Wikiversity:Curators to become a policy ==
{{archive top|There is strong consensus, so [[Wikiversity:Curators]] is now a policy. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:16, 9 May 2026 (UTC)}}
I've looked at the discussions about the Curators policy, I've looked at the practices, and it seems to me that there is no dispute about the wording of the policy, and what's more, the community has been using this proposal as if it were an offical policy for several years. Therefore, I propose that [[Wikiversity:Curators]] become a policy. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:35, 18 April 2026 (UTC)

:{{support}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:54, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
:{{support}} —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 20:21, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
: {{support|Yes, please}}. Especially after when I and PieWriter proposed above, I agree. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:27, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:: @[[User:Juandev|Juandev]]; as of now, curators now have the user rights &lt;code&gt;autopatrol&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;patrol&lt;/code&gt;. Perhaps we should also include that in [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]]? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:07, 30 April 2026 (UTC)
:::You meant [[Wikiversity:Curators]] @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:15, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:::: I agree that we must develop what rules curators should follow when marking new pages as patrolled; the same can be added for custodians since they can also mark new pages as patrolled. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:37, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:::::I see, well I think you can just add this to the policy. It is not major change and it probably reflects actual practice or actual technical possibilities for those flags. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:20, 7 May 2026 (UTC)
:{{support}} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:42, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
:{{Support}} per nom. [[User:PhilDaBirdMan|PhilDaBirdMan]] ([[User talk:PhilDaBirdMan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PhilDaBirdMan|contribs]]) 13:32, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
{{Archive bottom}}

== Inactive curators ==

Hello, even though [[Wikiversity:Curators]] is not a policy yet, there are curators listed here that have been inactive for two years or more:
* {{user|Cody naccarato}} (last edit on 13 Dec 2022, last logged action on 10 Dec 2022)
* {{user|Praxidicae}} (last edit on 10 Sep 2022, last logged action on 12 Sep 2022)
[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:14, 19 April 2026 (UTC)

:Yup, I would remove the rights. To get the rights back if theyll come back should not be a big deal. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:08, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:: When they don't reply by May 19, feel free (or any custodian) to do so. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:28, 25 April 2026 (UTC)

== Is anyone interested in Neurodiversity? ==

Is anyone interested in Neurodiversity? Is there anyone here who is interested for Neurodiversity to be &quot;something more&quot; than it already is? Does anyone here consider Neurodiversity one of the &quot;harder topics&quot; to work on or discuss? Does anyone here have an opinion about the [[Neurodiversity Movement]]? So these questions don't appear like &quot;out of a vacuum&quot; I can tell you a bit about my background:

Many years ago I got a psychiatric diagnosis &quot;Asperger's&quot;. After I stepped out of the office and my Äsperger's was 'concluded', I stepped out into the street and thought my first negative thought(but the positive thought followed after). The thought was about concentration camps in the second world war and that the world seemed to be going into the direction of &quot;labeling others&quot;. I was unsure whether this was &quot;real science&quot; and sort of &quot;challenged myself&quot; to make up my own mind after meeting people that had been given this diagnosis. The more adults with this diagnosis I met the more I started seeing &quot;patterns&quot;.

Was it a coincidence that the first person with Asperger's I met reminded me about my father later after I had plenty of times of experience with interacting with him? None of the people I interacted with online through IRC text chat...I felt I got any clue about how &quot;their brains work&quot;. Only when I met one person from the Asperger's chat community in person we both realized that whatever we experienced was akin to the &quot;chaos theory&quot;. He told me about &quot;chaos theory&quot; while I didn't know even what that term meant but I guess I 'read between the lines'. My question that I linger on still today is &quot;did he understand about me what I think I understood about him?&quot;? That our brains had the same configuration? Most autistic adults who meet other autistic adults usually get disappointed. They think the diagnosis will help them meet somebody like themselves and then they realize the great diversity in the autistic spectrum created by Psychiatry.

I later stopped interacting with autistic communities that much, I felt that it did not benefit me. Also Neurodiversity's &quot;neurotypes&quot; interested me for a while until I realized I had &quot;misunderstood everything&quot; about them and how they are used in the Neurodiversity Movement or &quot;Neurodiversity community&quot; if that even can precisely be defined? I doubt it but if you want to contribute to the [[Neurodiversity Movement]]. My previous attempts failed as I got more and more confused. I think a community project needs a community. With a lack of that I don't think it is worth my time. If any of you would like to work on that project let me know on my talk page.

So I was kinda lost and was talking to my friend and psychologist and I realized if I never talk about my idea to anyone in a &quot;comprehensive way&quot; or show that it matters to me nothing is going to ever happen. So I started talking about my &quot;idea&quot; more. Nobody could understand the &quot;idea&quot; because I had not developed my skills regarding where to start...although the process had already started &quot;automatically&quot; and that's why I often think of &quot;well my brain sort of activated me&quot;. I don't feel like I did have a plan and this idea happened. It happened &quot;by itself&quot;. My brain reacted to what I was seeing in a video or stream.

I value interaction highly in this idea. I think it would be helpful to make a community of people who are not paranoid about stuff that can express itself like &quot;don't analyze me!&quot;, &quot;don't compare me to anyone!&quot;. 

On the contrary, more often than not those adults who were diagnosed were actually openly comparing themselves with each other and I think that is healthy in a &quot;science&quot; way if done the &quot;right way&quot; which probably means &quot;Do no harm&quot;.

I found video material is important but I'm very unsure if uploading own video material to Wikimedia Commons would constitute a &quot;reasonable&quot; use of the resources there. Maybe somebody here needs to ask more questions to me that I should answer before that happens. I also know the '''be bold''' so I could just do what I think might be ok. Though I work better in a group as long as I know what &quot;group configurations&quot; help me. This is in a non-profit way. Since the state supported me this might be a way I am trying to &quot;give back&quot; to the state and &quot;the world&quot;. May seem overly ambitious and crazy but this thing gives me energy. It gives me hope when trying to develop this idea. [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 10:47, 23 April 2026 (UTC)

:Thanks for sharing. There is plenty of room for neurodiversity community learning. However, the challenge I think is that the intersection of those interested in (a) ND, and (b) English Wikiversity might be very small (e.g., 1!) at this point in time.
:But don't give up hope. For example, Wikipedia has many more ND-interested editors; maybe consider reaching out to see who might be interested:
:[[w:Category:Wikipedians interested in neurodiversity]]
:You could also start an equivalent category here:
:[[:Category:Wikiversitarians interested in neurodiversity]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:46, 6 May 2026 (UTC)

== Request for comment (global AI policy) ==

&lt;bdi lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;A [[:m:Requests for comment/Artificial intelligence policy|request for comment]] is currently being held to decide on a global AI policy. {{int:Feedback-thanks-title}} [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 00:58, 26 April 2026 (UTC)&lt;/bdi&gt;
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Codename Noreste@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&amp;oldid=30424282 --&gt;

== Coming over From wikinews ==

Any chance someone could help me if you are allowed to write news articles here since wikinews is going read only mode soon, thank you! [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 22:43, 1 May 2026 (UTC)

:The scope of Wikiversity is very broad and is basically about more-or-less any learning material. We have made it a point to not have duplicative content of other WMF projects, but since Wikinews is being shuttered, I personally am fine with writing news articles here. One thing that is not controversial at all is a learning resource &lt;em&gt;about&lt;/em&gt; how to write news: that could be hugely useful here and could involve the process of writing news stories to learn and to share back and forth with an editor or fact-checker. In fact, I'd support an entire namespace dedicated to keeping the notion of Wikinews alive here. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:38, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you so much! How do I start? Cheers! @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 01:07, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
:::I think it's premature to start just making news articles en masse, but if you want to start discussing the topic of citizen journalism, you can do that now. [[:Category:Journalism]] already has some material, so you can start by seeing what we already have, how you can refine that, etc. You can definitely have learning resources with collaborators who want to learn about journalism ASAP. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 01:24, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
::::thanks. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 01:38, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
::::If I could try and start one News Article could you please tell me how to go about it? Like what style of writing like Wikinews or something else? Thank you Justin! @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 01:48, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
:::::Honestly, there are very few policies and guidelines here. I think the best way to write a news story would be in a manner that is obvious and instructive. So, for instance, it's common to use the &quot;pyramid style&quot; when you're writing news, so if you were to write a story that makes it very clear that you are using that approach, that would be helpful. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:08, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
::::::cool thanks. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 02:13, 2 May 2026 (UTC)

== Language learning  ==

toki! I am trying to add or see what the toki pona language learning stuff on here is but I don't see anything that is language learning for anything. [[User:Jan Imon|Jan Imon]] ([[User talk:Jan Imon|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jan Imon|contribs]]) 23:13, 2 May 2026 (UTC) —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:29, 3 May 2026 (UTC)

:We have language materials ([[:Category:Languages]], [[World Languages]], [[Portal:Foreign Language Learning]], [[Portal:Multilingual Studies]]). They are not as developed as I think we would all like and there's not any coverage of Toki Pona, but in principle, we could and would like that. You can also see [[:b:Subject:Languages]] at our sister project Wikibooks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:33, 3 May 2026 (UTC)

== Timeline format? ==

I’ve been working on the World War II articles, including the [[World War II/Timeline|timeline]], and is there a specific timeline format that should be used? Right now it’s just a table, and there’s no separation between different periods/phases of the war.

I don’t want to use [[mw:Extension:EasyTimeline]] because this will be displaying dates and not time periods. [[User:PhilDaBirdMan|PhilDaBirdMan]] ([[User talk:PhilDaBirdMan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PhilDaBirdMan|contribs]]) 01:35, 4 May 2026 (UTC)

:I dont think we have a policy or guideline, how to format a timeline. But you may try to browes wikiversity by Google if someone was dealing with this in the past somewhow @[[User:PhilDaBirdMan|PhilDaBirdMan]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:23, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
::+1 - there's no specific guideline on how to format a timeline, it's really up to you. In my opinion I think the timeline is good. I'd personally bold the dates just to make it easier to separate it from the event description, but that's my personal 2 cents. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:18, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:::I’ll probably remove links to the dates/years, they’re just Wikipedia pages that shouldn’t be over linked to. [[User:PhilDaBirdMan|PhilDaBirdMan]] ([[User talk:PhilDaBirdMan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PhilDaBirdMan|contribs]]) 00:39, 6 May 2026 (UTC)

== Interface administrator for Codename Noreste ==

Hello, everyone. I am requesting interface administrator access on this wiki.

The main reasoning is that I would benefit from having the user right &lt;code&gt;editinterface&lt;/code&gt;, which would allow me to make dark mode changes to pages in the MediaWiki namespace, add &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;mw-parser-output&quot;&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; to some interface pages using templates, handle interface-protected edit requests, and similar stuff. Additionally, I have some knowledge of CSS, and I would like to assist with modifying CSS pages whenever necessary, such as moving MediaWiki common.css code to TemplateStyles CSS pages.

I am requesting the maximum time that is allowed per the [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators|policy]], and I have 2FA enabled on my account. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:55, 6 May 2026 (UTC)

*{{support}} Globally trusted user. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 01:07, 6 May 2026 (UTC)
*{{support}} Trusted and knowledgeable. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:35, 6 May 2026 (UTC)
*{{support}} WV would benefit from this. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 08:32, 6 May 2026 (UTC)
*{{support}} --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:13, 7 May 2026 (UTC)

:{{Comment}} Could @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] delete [[MediaWiki:Gadget-WikiSign.js]], which was requested to be deleted @[[User:Koavf|Justin]], @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]]? I dont think we need it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:40, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::Yes - clearly no longer used -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:18, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::: I can't delete it because I don't have the required permissions to do so.
::: On a side note, if this project has a need for permanent interface administrators, I would suggest that we have a minimum of two IAs, similar to how there must be two CUs and/or suppressors (or none). Maybe Koavf can be a good candidate if I am elected for permanent interface adminship, and I believe that permission shouldn't be removed from someone's own account. Instead, a bureaucrat should do it. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:20, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::::I am willing and happy to do it, unfortunately, we do not have an appetite for indef IAs and just had a discussion that resulted in a [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Interface_administrators&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2807543 consensus that we can have IAs that have the user rights for 14 to 120 days]. So once you have the rights, please make sure to gopher it. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:54, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
:::::@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] give it time. Look at me, I was in favor of shorter time, now I am looking back to times, when custodians could do it without the need of extra flag. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:31, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::::::Here's hoping. I think it would reduce administrative overhead, but that's just me and I'm not a bureaucrat here. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:33, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::::Complicated. Where are the times, admins could do everything! [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:27, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]] to become a policy ==

Following the recent approval of [[Wikiversity:Curators]] as a policy, I think [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]] may also be ready for policy status.

Please share your views about whether bureaucratship is ready to become a policy, or whether further revisions are needed.

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:58, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
: I added a logo about that user group, but other than that, it looks good to me. {{support}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:38, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
:I think that the consensus on this policy is proven by years of using it without further changes. But I I have to say weather I agree with this to become a policy, than of course {{support}}. It works and there were no major issues with it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:45, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
:{{support}} no issues. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:51, 10 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
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== Requested update to [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]] ==

Currently, [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]] is a policy that includes a caveat that interface admins are not required long-term and that user right can only be added for a period of up to two weeks. I am proposing that we remove this qualification and allow for indefinite interface admin status. I think this is useful because there are reasons for tweaking the site CSS or JavaScript (e.g. to comply with dark mode), add gadgets (e.g. importing Cat-a-Lot, which I would like to do), or otherwise modifying the site that could plausibly come up on an irregular basis and requiring the overhead of a bureaucrat to add the user rights is inefficient. In particular, I am also going to request this right if the community accepts indefinite interface admins. Thoughts? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:23, 17 August 2025 (UTC)

:And who will then monitor them to make sure they don't damage the project in any way, or abuse the rights acquired in this way? For large projects, this might not be a problem, but for smaller projects like the English Wikiversity, I'm not sure if there are enough users who would say, something is happening here that shouldn't be happening. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:28, 20 August 2025 (UTC)
::Anyone would be who. This argument applies to any person with any advanced rights here. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 10:46, 20 August 2025 (UTC)
:I think it is reasonable to allow for longer periods of access than 2 weeks to interface admin and support adjusting the policy to allow for this flexibility. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:57, 2 December 2025 (UTC)
::+1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:38, 25 January 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] I agree that the two-week requirement could be revised, but wouldn’t people just request access for a specific purpose anyway? Instead of granting indefinite access, they should request the specific time frame they need the rights for—until the planned fixes are completed—and then request an extension if more time is required. We could remove the two-week criterion while still keeping the access explicitly temporary. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:48, 25 January 2026 (UTC)
::I just don't see why this wiki needs to be different than all of the others. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 07:18, 25 January 2026 (UTC)
:::There isn’t really much of a need for a permanent one at this point in time [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 09:53, 25 January 2026 (UTC)
:I quite agree with this proposal, so long as they perform the suggested changes as mentioned here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:06, 26 January 2026 (UTC)
:: Just to clarify, I support '''indefinite interface admin status'''. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:34, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
:I think there is decent consensus for lengthening this, but not necessarily for indefinite permissions, so does anyone object to me revising it to the standard being 120 days instead of two weeks? I'll check back on this thread in three weeks and if there's no objection, I'll make the change. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 20:47, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
::Sure [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:27, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
::Thanks for proposing this, Justin. I agree with the proposal to lengthen the interface admin period from 2 weeks but not indefinitely. Can I check the source(s) for the standard being 120 days (I'm guessing policies on other projects or maybe global policy?)? In any case, I think it is reasonable for us to adopt a similar period. However, note on the current policy discussion page notes from @[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] arguing for shorter periods to lower risk, that's why it is 2 weeks. But if there are projects that need longer access, that should also be accommodated. Maybe we could adjust the policy to specify that ''interface admin rights can be given for 14 to 120 days depending on how long is required and what is supported by the community''. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:29, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:::There was there was no source for 120: it was just more than 14 and less than infinity. The &quot;14 to 120&quot; also seems reasonable. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 14:33, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
::: On some small/medium-sized wikis, such as English Wikibooks and English Wikiquote for example, indefinite interface administrator access for administrators is allowed, but they tend not to make changes to the CSS and JS page changes unless it's truly necessary. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:34, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:::It's a good idea to make the length of this right on request or allow to be prolonged. However, IA should test large changes somewhere else, for example on the en.wv mirror, and only after testing it on the mirror, adapt it to the live version. That means I can't imagine a time-consuming operation right now. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:04, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Sorry, what mirror is this? Are you talking about beta.wv? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 20:32, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::Not beta.wv. Basically somewhere else then on a live wiki. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:59, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::: Wouldn't testing on a user's own common.css page work anyway? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:36, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:Change made here: https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity%3AInterface_administrators&amp;diff=2807543&amp;oldid=2806289 —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 13:35, 4 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Template:AI-generated]] ==

After going through the plethora of ChatGPT-generated pages made by [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] (with many more pages to go), I'd like community input on this proposal to [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence]] that I think would be benefical for the community:
*Resources generated by AI '''must''' be indicated as so through the project box, [[Template:AI-generated]], on either the page or the main resource (if the page is a part of a project).
I do not believe including a small note/reference that a page is AI-generated is sufficient, and I take my thinking from [[WV:Original research|Wikiversity's OR policy]] for OR work: ''Within Wikiversity, all original research should be clearly identified as such''. I believe resources created from AI should also be clearly indicated as such, especially since we are working on whether or not AI-generated resources should be allowed on the website (discussion is [[Wikiversity talk:Artificial intelligence|here]], for reference). This makes it easier for organizational purposes, and in the event ''if'' we ban AI-generated work. 

I've left a message on Lee's talk page over a week ago and did not get a response or acknowledgement, so I'd like for the community's input for this inclusion to the policy. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:53, 26 January 2026 (UTC)

:I believe that existing Wikiversity policies are sufficient. Authors are responsible for the accuracy and usefulness of the content that is published. This policy covers AI-generated content that is: 1) carefully reviewed by the author publishing it, and 2) the source is noted.   [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 19:38, 27 January 2026 (UTC)
::A small reference for pages that are substantially filled with Chat-GPT entries, like [[Real Good Religion]], [[Attributing Blame]], [[Fostering Curiosity]], are not sufficient IMO and a project box would be the best indicator that a page is AI-generated (especially when there is a mixture of human created content AND AI-generated content, as present in a lot of your pages). This is useful, especially considering the notable issues with AI (including hallucinations and fabrication of details), so viewers and support staff are aware. These small notes left on the pages are not as easily viewable as a project box or banner would be. I really don't see the issue with a clear-label guideline. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 22:34, 27 January 2026 (UTC)
::{{ping|Lbeaumont}} I noticed your reversions [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Exploring_Existential_Concerns&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2788278 here] &amp; [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Subjective_Awareness&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2788257 here]. I'd prefer to have a clean conversation regarding this proposition. Please voice your concerns here. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:53, 28 January 2026 (UTC)
:::Regarding Subjective Awareness, I distinctly recall the effort I went to to write that the old-fashioned way. It is true that ChatGPT assisted me in augmenting the list of words suggested as candidate subjective states. This is a small section of the course, is clearly marked, and makes no factual claim. Marking the entire course as AI-generated is misleading. I would have made these comments when I reverted your edit; however, the revert button does not provide that opportunity.
:::Regarding the Exploring Existential Concerns course, please note this was adapted from my EmotionalCompetency.com website, which predates the availability of LLMs. The course does include two links, clearly labeled as ChatGPT-generated. Again, marking the entire course as AI-generated is misleading.
:::On a broader issue, I don't consider your opinions to have established a carefully debated and adopted Wikiversity policy. You went ahead and modified many of my courses over my clearly stated objections. Please let this issue play out more completely before editing my courses further. Thanks.   [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 15:11, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
::::Understood, and I respect your position. I apologize if my edits were seen as overarching. We could change the project box to &quot;a portion of this resource was generated by AI&quot;, or something along those lines. Feel free to revert my changes where you see fit, and I encourage more users to provide their input. EDIT: I've made changes to the template to indicate that a portion of the content has been generated from an LLM. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:50, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
:::::Thanks for this reply. The new banner is unduly large and alarming. There is no need for alarm here. The use of AI is not harmful per se. Like any technology, it can be used to help or to harm. I take care to craft prompts carefully, point the LMM to reliable source materials, and to carefully read and verify the generated text before I publish it. This is all in keeping with long-established Wikiversity policy. We don't want to use a  [[w:One-drop_rule|one-drop rule]] here or cause a [[w:Satanic_panic|satanic panic]]. We can learn our lessons from history here. I don't see any pedagogical reason for establishing a classification of &quot;AI generated&quot;, but if there is a consensus that it is needed, perhaps it can be handled as just another category that learning resources can be assigned to. I would rather focus on identifying any errors in factual claims than on casting pejorative bias toward AI-generated content. An essay on the best practices for using LMM on Wikiveristy would be welcome.   [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 15:58, 30 January 2026 (UTC)
::::::The new banner mimics the banner that is available on the English Wikibooks (see [[b:Template:AI-generated]] &amp; [[b:Template:Uses AI]]), so my revisions aren't unique in this aspect. At this point, I'd welcome other peoples' inputs. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 30 January 2026 (UTC)

== How do I start making pages? ==
Is there a notability guideline for Wikiversity? What is the sourcing policy for information? What is the Manual of Style? What kind of educational content qualifies for Wikiversity? All the introduction pages are a bit unclear. 
[[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 02:25, 28 January 2026 (UTC)

:{{ping|VidanaliK}} Welcome to Wikiversity! I've left you a welcome message on your talk page. That should help you out. Make sure to especially look at [[Wikiversity:Introduction]]. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 03:11, 28 January 2026 (UTC)
::It says that I can't post more pages because I have apparently exceeded the new page limit. How long does it take before that new page limit expires? [[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 16:57, 28 January 2026 (UTC)
:::This is a restriction for new users so that Wikiversity is not hit with massive spam. As for when this limit will expire, it should be a few days or after a certain number of edits. It's easy to overcome, though I do not have the exact numbers atm. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:08, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
::::OK, I think I got past the limit. [[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 17:21, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
==Why does it feel like Wikiversity is no longer really active anymore?==
I've been looking at recent changes, and both today and yesterday there haven't been many changes that I haven't made; it feels like walking through a ghost town, is this just me or is Wikiversity not really active anymore? [[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 03:54, 30 January 2026 (UTC)

:There is fewer people editing these days compared to the past. Many newcomers tend to edit in Wikipedia instead. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 06:39, 30 January 2026 (UTC)
:It’s a little slow, but I’m happy to know that Wikiversity is a place that I think should provide value even if the activity of editors fluctuates. If it’s any consolation your edits may be encouraging for some anonymous newcomer to start edits on their own! I think it’s hard to build community when there is such a wide variety of interests and a smaller starting userbase. Also sometimes the getting into a particular topic that already exists can be intimidating because some relics (large portals, school, categories, etc.) have intricate, unique and generally messy levels of organization. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 22:16, 9 March 2026 (UTC)
:I'd say it comes down to working hard for Wikiversity, basically if somebody or a group of people will start presenting good ideas and they turn out to be provably stable.
:I even asked Google's &quot;AI Mode&quot;, what is Wikiversity famous for? Unfortunately it could not answer that.
:Simply, we have not made Wikiversity famous by presenting really provable stable ideas yet. My hope is that this time might come. Perhaps even this year 2026!
:Hope dies last. [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 10:12, 27 April 2026 (UTC)

== Inactivity policy for Curators ==

I was wondering if there is a specific inactivity polity for curators (semi-admins) as I am pretty sure the global policy does not apply to them as they are not ''fully'' sysops. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 03:20, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

:Unfortunately, I don't see an inactivity policy, but if we were to create such a new policy for curators, it should be the same for custodians (administrators). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:45, 15 February 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] There is currently none, that I could find, for custodians either. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:47, 17 February 2026 (UTC)
:::I think we should propose a local inactivity policy for custodians (and by extension, curators), which should be at least one year without any edits ''and'' logged actions. However, I don't know which page should it be when the inactivity removal procedure starts. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:53, 17 February 2026 (UTC)
::::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] In theory, there should be a section added at [[WV:Candidates for custodianship]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:55, 17 February 2026 (UTC)
::::: To be consistent with the [[meta:Admin activity review|global period of 2 years inactivity]] for en.wv  [[Wikiversity:Custodianship#Notes|Custodians]] and [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship#How are bureaucrats removed?|Bureaucrats]] we could add something like this to [[Wikiversity:Curators]]:
::::::The maximum time period of inactivity &lt;u&gt;without community review&lt;/u&gt; for curators is two years (consistent with  the [[:meta:Category:Global policies|global policy]] described at [[meta:Admin activity review|Admin activity review]] which applies for [[Wikiversity:Custodianship#Notes|Custodians]] and [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrats]]). After that time a custodian will remove the rights.
::::: -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:51, 27 March 2026 (UTC)
:::::Yup, I agree with Jtneill, there is a policy proposal for Wikiversity:Curators, where it should be logically deployed. The question is if we are ready to aprove the policy. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:43, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::: I agree, but we should notify the colloquium about inactive curators, just like a steward would do for inactive custodians and bureaucrats per [[:m:Admin activity review|AAR]]. What is the minimum timeframe an inactive curator should receive so they can respond they would keep their rights? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:49, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:I incorporated these suggestions into the proposed curators policy. Please review/comment/improve. Summary: 2 years, notify curator's user page, then remove rights after 1 month: [[Wikiversity:Curators#Inactivity]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:59, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] I created [[Template:Inactive curator]] for this. Feel free to make any changes or improvements. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:29, 24 April 2026 (UTC)

== [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence]] to become an official policy ==
{{Archive top|After running for a week, there is consensus, alongside comments, for [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence]] to be implemented as an official policy. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:27, 17 April 2026 (UTC)}}
With the introduction of AI-material, and some material just plain disruptive, its imperative that Wikiversity catches up with its sister projects and implements an official AI policy that we can work with. The recent issue of [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]]'s 50+ articles that contain significantly large AI-generated material has made me came to the Colloquium. This user has also been removing the [[Template:AI-generated]] template from their pages, calling it &quot;misleading&quot;, &quot;alarmist&quot;, and &quot;pejorative&quot; - which is all just simply nonsensical rationales. Not to even mention this user's contributions to the English Wikipedia have been [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_for_deletion/Inner_Development_Goals contested] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_for_deletion/Multipolar_trap removed] a couple of times (for being low-quality and clearly LLM-generated), highlighting the need for an actual policy to be implemented here on Wikiversity. I would like to ping {{ping|Juandev}} and {{ping|Jtneill}} for their thoughts as well, since I'd like this to be implemented as soon as possible. 

Wikiversity has a significant issue with implementing anti-disruptive measures, hence why we have received numerous complaints as a community about our quality. I originally was reverting the removal of the templates, but realized that this is still a proposed policy, which it shouldn't be anymore. It should be a recognized Wikiversity policy. 14:54, 10 March 2026 (UTC) —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:54, 10 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] '''I agree''' that the draft, should become official policy. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:00, 10 March 2026 (UTC)
:I provided a detailed response at: [[Wikiversity talk:Artificial intelligence#Evolving a Wikiversity policy on AI]]
:I will appreaciate it if you consder that carefully. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 22:49, 10 March 2026 (UTC)
:Agree it should become official Wikiversity policy on the condition &lt;u&gt;that point point 5 is about [significant/substantial] LLM-generated text specifically&lt;/u&gt;. Not a good idea to overuse it, it should be added when there is substantial AI-generated text on the page, not for other cases. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 12:37, 11 March 2026 (UTC)
:What policy is being debated? Is it the text on this page, which is pointed to by the general banner, or the text at:   [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence,]]   which is pointed to by the specific banner? Let's begin with coherence on the text being debated. Thanks!  [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 11:49, 17 March 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] This is a call for approval of the new Wikiversity policy. You expressed your opinion [[Wikiversity talk:Artificial intelligence#Evolving a Wikiversity policy on AI|on the talk page of the proposal]], I replied to you and await your response.When creating policies, it is necessary to propose specific solutions. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 14:12, 17 March 2026 (UTC)
:::Toward a Justified and Parsimonious AI Policy 
:::As we collaborate to develop a consensus policy on the use of Large Language Models, it is wise to begin by considering the needs of the various stakeholders to the policy.
:::The stakeholders are:
:::1)     The users, 
:::2)     The source providers, and
:::3)     The editors
:::There may also be others with a minor stake in this policy, including the population at large.
:::The many needs of the users are currently addressed by long-standing [[Wikiversity:Policies|Wikiversity policies]], so we can focus on what, if any, additional needs arise as LLMs are deployed. 
:::As always, users need assurance that propositional statements are accurate. This is covered by the existing policy on [[Wikiversity:Verifiability|verifiably]]. In addition, it is expected by both the users and those that provide materials used as sources for the text are [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|accurately attributed]]. This is also covered by [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|existing policies]].
:::To respect the time and effort of editors, a parsimonious policy will unburden editors from costly requirements that exceed benefits to the users.
:::Finally, it is important to recognize that because attention is our most valuable seizing attention unnecessarily is a form of theft. 
:::The following proposed policy statement results from these considerations:
:::Recommended Policy statement:
:::·       Editors [[Wikiversity:Verifiability|verify the accuracy]] of propositional statements, regardless of the source.
:::·       Editors [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|attribute the source]] of propositional statements. In the case of LLM, cite the LLM model and the prompt used.
:::·       Use of various available templates to mark the use of LLM are optional. Templates that are flexible in noting the type and extend of LLM usage are preferred. Templates that avoid unduly distracting or alarming the user are preferred. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 19:56, 19 March 2026 (UTC)
::::Do we discuss here or there? I have replied you there as your proposal is about that policy so it is tradition to discuss it at the affected talk page. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:59, 19 March 2026 (UTC)
: {{support}} Thanks for the proposed policy development and discussion; also note proposed policy talk page discussion: [[Wikiversity talk:Artificial intelligence]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:05, 24 March 2026 (UTC)
::I think the Wikiversity AI policy shall be official. – [[User:RestoreAccess111|RestoreAccess111]] &lt;sup style=&quot;font-family:Arimo, Arial;&quot;&gt;[[User talk:RestoreAccess111|Talk!]]&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;sup style=&quot;font-family:Times New Roman, Tinos;&quot;&gt;[[Special:Contributions/RestoreAccess111|Watch!]]&lt;/sup&gt; 06:11, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== New titles for user right nominations ==
&lt;div class=&quot;cd-moveMark&quot;&gt;''Moved from [[Wikiversity talk:Candidates for Custodianship#New titles for user right nominations]].  [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:20, 17 April 2026 (UTC)''&lt;/div&gt;

I would like to propose the following retitles should a user be nominated for any of the following user rights:
* Curator: Candidates for Curatorship
* Bureaucrat: Candidates for Bureaucratship
The reason is that many curator (and probably bureaucrat) requests have run solely under {{tq|Candidates for Custodianship}}, but that title might sound misleading (especially in regards to the permission a user is requesting). CheckUser and Oversight (suppressor) are not included above since no user was nominated for these sensitive permissions, probably. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:30, 19 March 2026 (UTC)

:And it's not that when someone at the beginning misplaced the request, no one thought to move it and the others copied it. Even today, it would be possible to simply take it all and move it. Otherwise, for me, the more fundamental problem is that there is [[Wikiversity:Curators|no approved policy for curators]] than where the requests are based. Curators then operate in a certain vacuum and if one of them &quot;breaks out of the chain&quot;, the average user doesn't have many transparent tools to deal with it, because there is no policy. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:02, 19 March 2026 (UTC)
::I am not talking about the curator page (policy proposal). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:08, 21 March 2026 (UTC)
: @[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] I'll see if I can do an overhaul of [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]], just like I recently did with the Requests for adminship page on English Wikiquote. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:17, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
:Yes, great idea - ideally there will be separate &quot;Candidates for ...&quot; pages for each user right group. The most important for now is to separate curator and custodian pages as CN suggests. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:39, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
:So maybe I previously misunderstood. Are you proposing separated pages for nominations (i.e. [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship]], [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship]], [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]])? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:30, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:33, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:::I see, then I am fine with that @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]. Sorry for misunderstanding. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:35, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

I've split the user rights nomination pages into:
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for CheckUser]]
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship]]

Please review. There are likely several links to update, text to adjust, categories to manage, short-cuts to fix etc. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:22, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

:Thanks, great job @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]. I am wondering if we need to move archived nominations too, or if we are OK with the actual state. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:08, 10 May 2026 (UTC)
::Yes, I think that would be helpful. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:46, 10 May 2026 (UTC)
:::I can do it @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I am just looking what system is there. I can see [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Archive of nominations for full custodianship]] which is a good complementary overview to the subpages with full history. The name of the pages is probably stably, but I would consider to create more specific redirect like [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Overview of staff nominations]], which would link to the above one. Then there is a [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Archived]], which are probably incomplete nominations, right? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:37, 11 May 2026 (UTC)
:An svg icon for [[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curators]] would also be helpful. We have them for other user rights: [[c:Category:Wikiversity user rights icons]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:54, 10 May 2026 (UTC)
::Done: [[Wikiversity:Curators]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:44, 11 May 2026 (UTC)

== Technical Request:  Courtesy link.. ==

[[Template_talk:Information#Background_must_have_color_defined_as_well]] [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:43, 20 March 2026 (UTC)
: I can't edit the template directly as it need an sysop/interface admin to do it. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:43, 20 March 2026 (UTC)
:: Also if the Template field of - https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:LintErrors/night-mode-unaware-background-color is examined, there is poential for an admin to clear a substantial proportion of these by implmenting a simmilar fix to the indciated templates (and underlying stylesheets). It would be nice to clear things like Project box and others, as many other templates (and thus pages depend on them.) :)
[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:43, 20 March 2026 (UTC)

:I think it would be best to grant you interface admin rights for a short period of time to make these changes. However, I still have doubts about the suitability of this solution, which may cause other problems and no one has explained to me why dark mode has to be implemented this way @[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:43, 20 March 2026 (UTC)

: I would have reservations about holding such rights, which is why I was trying to do what I could without needing them. However if it is the only way to get the required changes made, I would suggest asking on Wikipedia to find technical editors, willing to undertake the changes needed. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 09:32, 21 March 2026 (UTC)

== WikiEducator has closed ==

Some of you may know of a similar project to Wikiversity, called [https://wikieducator.org/Main_Page WikiEducator], championed by [https://oerfoundation.org/about/staff/wayne-mackintosh/ Wayne Mackintosh][https://www.linkedin.com/posts/waynemackintosh_important-notice-about-the-oer-foundation-activity-7405113051688931329-Nhm9/][https://openeducation.nz/killed-not-starved/].

It seems [https://openeducation.nz/terminating-oer-foundation their foundation has closed] and they are no longer operating.

They had done quite a bit of outreach (e.g., in the Pacific and Africa) to get educators using wiki.

The WikiEducator content is still available in MediaWiki - and potentially could be imported to Wikiversity ([https://wikieducator.org/WikiEducator:Copyrights CC-BY-SA] is the default license).

The closing of WikiEducator arguably makes the nurturing of Wikiversity even more important.

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:09, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

:I was never active there. If anyone has an account or is otherwise in contact, we may want to copy relevant information here or even at [[:outreach:]]. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 04:46, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

:: I reached out to [[User:Mackiwg~enwikiversity|Wayne]] in January, and he responded briefly but positively (while travelling).  I wrote to the low-traffic wikieducator mailing list today and got a nice [https://groups.google.com/g/wikieducator/c/r_yIyUw6ZIA reply] from [[user:SteveFoerster|Steve Foerster]] who's interested in helping. If we can figure out a migration path it would be great to adopt at least the main namespace pages here.  
:: A few questions that come to mind: 
:: - would people want to create matching user accounts
:: - are there any namespaces (user/talk?) that should not be moved over
:: We could look at how this was done for the [[m:Wikivoyage/Migration]] wikivoyage migration. &lt;span style=&quot;padding:0 2px 0 2px;background-color:white;color:#bbb;&quot;&gt;&amp;ndash;[[User:Sj|SJ]][[User Talk:Sj|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ff9900;&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/span&gt; 04:27, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
:::That's fantastic, SJ, that you've reached out and that Wayne, Steve, and Jim are receptive—and that you can help! -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:52, 1 May 2026 (UTC)

== Wikinews is ending ==

Apparently mainly due to low editorial activity, low public interest, but also failure to achieve the goals from the proposal for the creation of the project, the Wikinews project is ending after years of discussions ([[Meta:Proposal for Closing Wikinews|some reading]]).

And I would be interested to see how Wikiversity is doing in the monitored metrics. We probably have more editors than Wikinews had, but what about consumers and achieving the goals? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 19:14, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

:Wikiversity's biggest issue in recent times was the hosting of low-quality, trash content. Thankfully we've done a great job in removing pseudoscience and other embarrassingly trash content (Wikidebates, for example), but the biggest concern moving forward is proper maintenance IMO. I've caught several pseudoscience pages being created within the last few months that could easily have flown under the radar (ex, [[The Kelemen Dilemma: Causal Collapse and Axiomatic Instability]]), so I'd urge our custodians/curators to be on the lookout for this type of content. Usually an AI-overview can point this type of content out relatively well.
:In terms of visibility, I believe Wikiversity is a high-traffic project. I remember my [[Mathematical Properties]] showing up on the first page of Google when searching up &quot;math properties&quot; for the longest time (and is still showing up in the first page 'till this day!). Besides, Wikinews hosted a lot of short-term content (the nature of news articles), while Wikiversity hosts content that can still be useful a decade later (ex, [[A Reader's Guide to Annotation]]). 
:I think we are on a better path than we were a few months ago, and I do want to thank everyone here who has been helping out with maintaining our website! —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 20:48, 1 April 2026 (UTC)
:For what it's worth, the group that did that study has since disbanded, so no one is monitoring the other sister projects in the same way. Additionally, Wikinews had some catastrophic server issues due to the maintenance of [[:m:Extension:DynamicPageList]] which don't apply here. Your questions are still worth addressing, but I just wanted to cut off any concern at the pass about Wikiversity being in the same precarious situation. Wikiversity is definitely the biggest &quot;lagging behind&quot; or &quot;failure&quot; project now that Wikinews is being shuttered, but I don't see any near- or medium-term pathway to closing Wikiversity. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:46, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

:[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-03-31/News and notes|Entirety of Wikinews to be shut down]] (Wikipedia Signpost) -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:03, 11 April 2026 (UTC)

== Action Required: Update templates/modules for electoral maps (Migrating from P1846 to P14226) ==

Hello everyone,

This is a notice regarding an ongoing data migration on Wikidata that may affect your election-related templates and Lua modules (such as &lt;code&gt;Module:Itemgroup/list&lt;/code&gt;).

'''The Change:'''&lt;br /&gt;
Currently, many templates pull electoral maps from Wikidata using the property [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]], combined with the qualifier [[:d:Property:P180|P180]]: [[:d:Q19571328|Q19571328]]. 

We are migrating this data (across roughly 4,000 items) to a newly created, dedicated property: '''[[:d:Property:P14226|P14226]]'''.

'''What You Need To Do:'''&lt;br /&gt;
To ensure your templates and infoboxes do not break or lose their maps, please update your local code to fetch data from [[:d:Property:P14226|P14226]] instead of the old [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]] + [[:d:Property:P180|P180]] structure. A [[m:Wikidata/Property Migration: P1846 to P14226/List|list of pages]] was generated using Wikimedia Global Search.

'''Deadline:'''&lt;br /&gt;
We are temporarily retaining the old data on [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]] to allow for a smooth transition. However, to complete the data cleanup on Wikidata, the old [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]] statements will be removed after '''May 1, 2026'''. Please update your modules and templates before this date to prevent any disruption to your wiki's election articles.

Let us know if you have any questions or need assistance with the query logic. Thank you for your help! [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] using [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 17:11, 3 April 2026 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&amp;oldid=29941252 --&gt;
:I didnt find such properties, so we are probably fine. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:00, 12 April 2026 (UTC)
:: +1 (agreed). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:19, 12 April 2026 (UTC)

== Enable the abuse filter block action? ==

In light of [[Special:AbuseLog/80178]] (coupon spam), I would like to propose enabling the block action for the abuse filter. Only custodians will be able to enable and disable that action on an abuse filter, and it is useful to block ongoing vandalism. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:12, 13 April 2026 (UTC)

:Seems like a good idea, almost all of the users which create such pages are spambots so this shouldn’t be a problem. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:41, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
:Can you explain some more (I am new to abuse filters)? It looks like the attempted edit was prevented? Which abuse filter?
:Note on your suggestion, have also reactivated Antispam Filter 12 - see [[WV:RCA]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:45, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
:: I am proposing that we activate the abuse filter block action, which if a user triggers an abuse filter, it would actually block the user in question - the same mechanism that a custodian would use to block users. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:11, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
:::OK, thankyou, that makes sense. And, reviewing the abuse filter 12 log, it would be helpful because it would prevent the need for manual blocking. But I don't see a setting for autoblocking? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 23:14, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
:::: I think it probably adds an autoblock. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:43, 16 April 2026 (UTC)
: [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]], given that a little bit more than a week has passed and there is minimal consensus to activate the abuse filter block action, I filed [[phab:T424053]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:05, 21 April 2026 (UTC)
::Thank-you for doing this. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:03, 24 April 2026 (UTC)

== Advice needed: A Neurodiversity-inspired Idea/observation ==

If I want the greatest participation of others to &quot;provide constructive criticism to my idea&quot; or to &quot;shoot down my idea&quot; or &quot;idea&quot;.

What I've called it so far is &quot;The Neurodiversity-inspired Idea&quot;. At other times I used more sensationalist wording but here on Wikiversity I don't dare do that. I actually woke up with thinking about putting this into my userspace draft: &quot;Personal Observations Made By Meeting Autistic and Non-Autistic Adults&quot;.

My ultimate goal is to stop blathering about my &quot;idea&quot; to friend and family without feeling my &quot;methodology&quot; is going into any progressive direction whatsoever. My latest encounter was somewhat constructive though. A friend of a friend who worked with people presenting ideas in attempting to getting grants. I don't want a grant. I just want to figure out how I can express my &quot;idea&quot; in a way so that I can more clearly figure out what flaws it got.

At the same time I tend to overthink. If anyone thinks etherpad might be a good place and considering Wikimedia already got an etherpad at https://etherpad.wikimedia.org/ if anyone feels like they know me better in the future feel free to suggest a &quot;session&quot; on etherpad.

'''If I don't receive a reply to this in 1 week's time I will begin to explore this &quot;idea&quot; into my userspace''' unless you replied and refrained me from doing so, of course. Then maybe after &quot;developing it there&quot; I might reference it to you another future time here in the Colloquium, with my &quot;idea&quot; still in my userspace draft. This &quot;idea&quot; is sort of a burden, I'm happy I've made the choice to get rid of it and hopefully move on with my life, unless there is something to this &quot;idea&quot;. 

My failure is probably evident: I feel I haven't told you anything. Same happened to when I talked to friends and family. In danger of overthinking it further I'll publish this right now. I need to &quot;keep it together&quot; [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 10:36, 16 April 2026 (UTC)

:Good on you putting it out there ... and hitting publish :). I'd say go for it (no need to wait), give birth to your idea and share about it here and elsewhere. Let it take shape and see where it might go. In many ways, this is exactly what an open collaborative learning community should be doing. Others might not know well how to respond, so perhaps consider creating some questions to accompany the idea. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:21, 16 April 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you for encouraging me in developing the idea.
::I have created a &quot;questions&quot; section in the draft which is visible in the table of contents now. My brain was &quot;frozen&quot; today metaphorically speaking in that I felt I had like a &quot;writer's block&quot; so the draft has more &quot;AI/LLM&quot; content than before. I used the LLM for generating questions. The answers are so far human-only.
::I've also created a subsection where I could add the prompts that made the LLM generate the questions. That could help people make better prompts perhaps. I've described what it is about inside of it and there are some chaotically written notes.
::[[Draft:The_Neurodiversity-inspired_Idea#Questions_that_might_encourage_the_development_of_this_idea_and_its_methodology]]
::My draft is missing stuff. Any questions that you contribute to my draft will probably help me and if I don't understand the questions I'll probably notify you and also at the same time &quot;feed them&quot; to an LLM and ask in my input like &quot;explain in simple words what this question means, what is it searching for?&quot; etc. while I wait for an answer. If you have any more feedback please give it to me here or on the Draft page, its talk page or my user talk page. Thank you for helping me! [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 21:20, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
::Today I woke up with not only thinking about supplying questions along with the &quot;idea&quot; but also answers. ie. Is it possible to &quot;test&quot; this idea? Is it possible to create one or multiple hypotheses based on this &quot;idea&quot;?(etc.) I've thought about this before in this &quot;idea&quot; but since I'm beginning to add to Wikiversity what was previously 'locked in my mind' it's also easier for me to see what I've done so far. Thank you for this comment! [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 09:11, 23 April 2026 (UTC)
:May I think that you should not add deadlines ; being read, and rising interest for collaboration, or even simply for exchange of thoughts, such an effective meeting event loads a huge bunch of unprobability, which time can help to… somehow diminish. Maybe, I would advice you having a central place for developping your ideas, your needs, your advances, maybe a page in your own user zone, and from time to time, depending your feeling, it could be every trimester or so, or more frequently, you could write a short account of progress (or even of no progress), or a call for participation, in such a place as this present one ; I think that will increase much exposure of your projet. Maybe also, if you can find a project name, not necessarily very meaningfull by itseilf (at least it will gain signification with time, as your project develops), that will serve as a kind-of hook, and make your announcement titles more visible. Best regards (and my excuses for my poor command of English, which seems to be unplease an anti-abuse filter, &quot;Questionable Language (profanity)&quot;, which I don't understand…). My few cents. --  [[User:Eric.LEWIN|Eric.LEWIN]] ([[User talk:Eric.LEWIN|discussion]] • [[Special:Contributions/Eric.LEWIN|contributions]]) 10:06, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
::Sorry about the false positive on the profanity filter - I've fixed it. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:26, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:::&quot;May I think that you should not add deadlines ; being read, and rising interest for collaboration, or even simply for exchange of thoughts, such an effective meeting event loads a huge bunch of unprobability, which time can help to… somehow diminish.&quot;
::Thank you Eric for this comment. Trust in time is how I interpret it. I should not feel like I need to be in a hurry. I'll try to give this time. Thank you!
:::&quot;Maybe, I would advice you having a central place for developping your ideas, your needs, your advances, maybe a page in your own user zone, and from time to time, depending your feeling, it could be every trimester or so, or more frequently, you could write a short account of progress (or even of no progress), or a call for participation, in such a place as this present one ; I think that will increase much exposure of your projet.&quot;
::A central place for developing or making &quot;project notes&quot; regarding the Neurodiversity idea on my userspace, I might need that, like a diary or &quot;project notes&quot; of the Neurodiversity idea similar to my course notes regarding my experience with Coursera.
::Any actions I take are going to be related to my Userspace from now on but I'll also update the draft when necessary. Now in the beginning I might be working daily to once every 3 days on both the draft and the daily notes I plan to make.
:::&quot;Maybe also, if you can find a project name, not necessarily very meaningfull by itseilf (at least it will gain signification with time, as your project develops), that will serve as a kind-of hook, and make your announcement titles more visible.&quot;
::Thank you for the advice. I was brainstorming yesterday about it. I concluded that since I've not yet developed a methodology that adheres to &quot;Do no harm&quot; and this is my first time working my &quot;idea&quot; into a way that is compatible with how projects develop on English Wikiversity this is new to me. My methodology isn't developed and therefore trying to get attention to my project through a name can wait. Yesterday I figured out a silly title that has nothing to do with the project: &quot;Planetary Awareness Potato Cabbage Rolls&quot; or something like that. Google output read that no such thing exists so I wanted it mainly to be unique. I don't want to raise attention that I'm unsure whether I'll actually be capable of developing a methodology for but project notes is my best bet so far in tracking my progress. Every day I think about this &quot;idea&quot; but I need to improve the important parts.
:::&quot;Best regards (and my excuses for my poor command of English, which seems to be unplease an anti-abuse filter, &quot;Questionable Language (profanity)&quot;, which I don't understand…). My few cents.&quot;
::You added great points and I felt that I was helped by you! I encourage you to post again and I can understand that interacting with any kind of automated filter can be discouraging and can be for me too! Thank you for giving me feedback! [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 16:01, 18 April 2026 (UTC)

== Add some user rights to the curator user group? ==

By default, only custodians have the ability to mark new pages as patrolled (&lt;code&gt;patrol&lt;/code&gt;) and have their own page creations automatically marked as patrolled (&lt;code&gt;autopatrol&lt;/code&gt;). I am proposing both of the following:
* Curators can mark new pages as patrolled, helping on reducing the backlog of new, unpatrolled pages.
* New pages made by curators will be automatically marked as patrolled by the MediaWiki software.
Before we implement this, I would suggest implementing a proposed guideline for marking new pages as patrolled for curators and custodians.

Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:32, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

:Agree, &lt;s&gt;also can we also allow curators to undelete pages since they already have the rights to delete them?&lt;/s&gt; [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:54, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
::I think the requirement that undelete NOT be included came from above (meta / stewards / central office). Having access to the undelete page gives access to information that is restricted by their policies to admins (custodians and bureaucrats). -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 20:12, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
::: [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]], unless if requests for curator and custodian should be RfA-like processes (that is, including voting and comments), then I have to agree with Dave above. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:03, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Oh, I didn’t realise that. Withdrawing my comment.. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:08, 19 April 2026 (UTC)
:{{support}} Seems reasonable and would reduce overhead. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 14:35, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
:'''Agree''', implement it also to [[Wikiversity:Curators]] proposal please. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:11, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
: I went ahead and filed [[phab:T424445]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:39, 26 April 2026 (UTC)

== [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curators and curators policy]] ==
{{archive top|There is strong consensus, so [[Wikiversity:Curators]] is now a policy. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:15, 9 May 2026 (UTC)}}
How does it come, that Wikiversity has curators, but Curators policy is still being proposed? How do the curators exists and act if the policy about them havent been approved yet? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:33, 16 October 2025 (UTC)

:It looks as if it is not just curators. The policy on Bureaucratship is still being proposed as well. See [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]]. —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;&quot;&gt;RailwayEnthusiast2025&lt;/span&gt;]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#59a53f&quot;&gt;''talk with me!''&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:33, 27 October 2025 (UTC)

:I think its just the nature of a small WMF sister project in that there are lots of drafts, gaps, and potential improvements. In this case, these community would need to vote on those proposed Wikiversity staff policies if we think they're ready. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:08, 3 December 2025 (UTC)
:What? I thought you were getting it approved, Juandev... :) [[User:I&amp;#39;m Mr. Chris|I&amp;#39;m Mr. Chris]] ([[User talk:I&amp;#39;m Mr. Chris|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/I&amp;#39;m Mr. Chris|contribs]]) 14:20, 12 February 2026 (UTC)
::Yeah I think this one is important too and we need to aprove it too @[[User:I'm Mr. Chris|I'm Mr. Chris]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:56, 12 February 2026 (UTC)
:::I thinks its ready to made into a policy, it seems to be complete and informative about what the rights does and how to get it. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 03:08, 15 February 2026 (UTC)
::::Agree -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:00, 27 March 2026 (UTC)

Let's make this the official discussion about adopting the [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators policy]] policy. Your comments are invited and welcome. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:40, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
: There were two similar Colloquium threads in separate places about the proposed curators policy. So I've moved them to be adjacent. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:42, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== Wikiversity:Curators to become a policy ==
{{archive top|There is strong consensus, so [[Wikiversity:Curators]] is now a policy. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:16, 9 May 2026 (UTC)}}
I've looked at the discussions about the Curators policy, I've looked at the practices, and it seems to me that there is no dispute about the wording of the policy, and what's more, the community has been using this proposal as if it were an offical policy for several years. Therefore, I propose that [[Wikiversity:Curators]] become a policy. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:35, 18 April 2026 (UTC)

:{{support}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:54, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
:{{support}} —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 20:21, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
: {{support|Yes, please}}. Especially after when I and PieWriter proposed above, I agree. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:27, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:: @[[User:Juandev|Juandev]]; as of now, curators now have the user rights &lt;code&gt;autopatrol&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;patrol&lt;/code&gt;. Perhaps we should also include that in [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]]? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:07, 30 April 2026 (UTC)
:::You meant [[Wikiversity:Curators]] @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:15, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:::: I agree that we must develop what rules curators should follow when marking new pages as patrolled; the same can be added for custodians since they can also mark new pages as patrolled. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:37, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:::::I see, well I think you can just add this to the policy. It is not major change and it probably reflects actual practice or actual technical possibilities for those flags. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:20, 7 May 2026 (UTC)
:{{support}} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:42, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
:{{Support}} per nom. [[User:PhilDaBirdMan|PhilDaBirdMan]] ([[User talk:PhilDaBirdMan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PhilDaBirdMan|contribs]]) 13:32, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
{{Archive bottom}}

== Inactive curators ==

Hello, even though [[Wikiversity:Curators]] is not a policy yet, there are curators listed here that have been inactive for two years or more:
* {{user|Cody naccarato}} (last edit on 13 Dec 2022, last logged action on 10 Dec 2022)
* {{user|Praxidicae}} (last edit on 10 Sep 2022, last logged action on 12 Sep 2022)
[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:14, 19 April 2026 (UTC)

:Yup, I would remove the rights. To get the rights back if theyll come back should not be a big deal. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:08, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:: When they don't reply by May 19, feel free (or any custodian) to do so. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:28, 25 April 2026 (UTC)

== Is anyone interested in Neurodiversity? ==

Is anyone interested in Neurodiversity? Is there anyone here who is interested for Neurodiversity to be &quot;something more&quot; than it already is? Does anyone here consider Neurodiversity one of the &quot;harder topics&quot; to work on or discuss? Does anyone here have an opinion about the [[Neurodiversity Movement]]? So these questions don't appear like &quot;out of a vacuum&quot; I can tell you a bit about my background:

Many years ago I got a psychiatric diagnosis &quot;Asperger's&quot;. After I stepped out of the office and my Äsperger's was 'concluded', I stepped out into the street and thought my first negative thought(but the positive thought followed after). The thought was about concentration camps in the second world war and that the world seemed to be going into the direction of &quot;labeling others&quot;. I was unsure whether this was &quot;real science&quot; and sort of &quot;challenged myself&quot; to make up my own mind after meeting people that had been given this diagnosis. The more adults with this diagnosis I met the more I started seeing &quot;patterns&quot;.

Was it a coincidence that the first person with Asperger's I met reminded me about my father later after I had plenty of times of experience with interacting with him? None of the people I interacted with online through IRC text chat...I felt I got any clue about how &quot;their brains work&quot;. Only when I met one person from the Asperger's chat community in person we both realized that whatever we experienced was akin to the &quot;chaos theory&quot;. He told me about &quot;chaos theory&quot; while I didn't know even what that term meant but I guess I 'read between the lines'. My question that I linger on still today is &quot;did he understand about me what I think I understood about him?&quot;? That our brains had the same configuration? Most autistic adults who meet other autistic adults usually get disappointed. They think the diagnosis will help them meet somebody like themselves and then they realize the great diversity in the autistic spectrum created by Psychiatry.

I later stopped interacting with autistic communities that much, I felt that it did not benefit me. Also Neurodiversity's &quot;neurotypes&quot; interested me for a while until I realized I had &quot;misunderstood everything&quot; about them and how they are used in the Neurodiversity Movement or &quot;Neurodiversity community&quot; if that even can precisely be defined? I doubt it but if you want to contribute to the [[Neurodiversity Movement]]. My previous attempts failed as I got more and more confused. I think a community project needs a community. With a lack of that I don't think it is worth my time. If any of you would like to work on that project let me know on my talk page.

So I was kinda lost and was talking to my friend and psychologist and I realized if I never talk about my idea to anyone in a &quot;comprehensive way&quot; or show that it matters to me nothing is going to ever happen. So I started talking about my &quot;idea&quot; more. Nobody could understand the &quot;idea&quot; because I had not developed my skills regarding where to start...although the process had already started &quot;automatically&quot; and that's why I often think of &quot;well my brain sort of activated me&quot;. I don't feel like I did have a plan and this idea happened. It happened &quot;by itself&quot;. My brain reacted to what I was seeing in a video or stream.

I value interaction highly in this idea. I think it would be helpful to make a community of people who are not paranoid about stuff that can express itself like &quot;don't analyze me!&quot;, &quot;don't compare me to anyone!&quot;. 

On the contrary, more often than not those adults who were diagnosed were actually openly comparing themselves with each other and I think that is healthy in a &quot;science&quot; way if done the &quot;right way&quot; which probably means &quot;Do no harm&quot;.

I found video material is important but I'm very unsure if uploading own video material to Wikimedia Commons would constitute a &quot;reasonable&quot; use of the resources there. Maybe somebody here needs to ask more questions to me that I should answer before that happens. I also know the '''be bold''' so I could just do what I think might be ok. Though I work better in a group as long as I know what &quot;group configurations&quot; help me. This is in a non-profit way. Since the state supported me this might be a way I am trying to &quot;give back&quot; to the state and &quot;the world&quot;. May seem overly ambitious and crazy but this thing gives me energy. It gives me hope when trying to develop this idea. [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 10:47, 23 April 2026 (UTC)

:Thanks for sharing. There is plenty of room for neurodiversity community learning. However, the challenge I think is that the intersection of those interested in (a) ND, and (b) English Wikiversity might be very small (e.g., 1!) at this point in time.
:But don't give up hope. For example, Wikipedia has many more ND-interested editors; maybe consider reaching out to see who might be interested:
:[[w:Category:Wikipedians interested in neurodiversity]]
:You could also start an equivalent category here:
:[[:Category:Wikiversitarians interested in neurodiversity]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:46, 6 May 2026 (UTC)

== Request for comment (global AI policy) ==

&lt;bdi lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;A [[:m:Requests for comment/Artificial intelligence policy|request for comment]] is currently being held to decide on a global AI policy. {{int:Feedback-thanks-title}} [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 00:58, 26 April 2026 (UTC)&lt;/bdi&gt;
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Codename Noreste@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&amp;oldid=30424282 --&gt;

== Coming over From wikinews ==

Any chance someone could help me if you are allowed to write news articles here since wikinews is going read only mode soon, thank you! [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 22:43, 1 May 2026 (UTC)

:The scope of Wikiversity is very broad and is basically about more-or-less any learning material. We have made it a point to not have duplicative content of other WMF projects, but since Wikinews is being shuttered, I personally am fine with writing news articles here. One thing that is not controversial at all is a learning resource &lt;em&gt;about&lt;/em&gt; how to write news: that could be hugely useful here and could involve the process of writing news stories to learn and to share back and forth with an editor or fact-checker. In fact, I'd support an entire namespace dedicated to keeping the notion of Wikinews alive here. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:38, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you so much! How do I start? Cheers! @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 01:07, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
:::I think it's premature to start just making news articles en masse, but if you want to start discussing the topic of citizen journalism, you can do that now. [[:Category:Journalism]] already has some material, so you can start by seeing what we already have, how you can refine that, etc. You can definitely have learning resources with collaborators who want to learn about journalism ASAP. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 01:24, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
::::thanks. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 01:38, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
::::If I could try and start one News Article could you please tell me how to go about it? Like what style of writing like Wikinews or something else? Thank you Justin! @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 01:48, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
:::::Honestly, there are very few policies and guidelines here. I think the best way to write a news story would be in a manner that is obvious and instructive. So, for instance, it's common to use the &quot;pyramid style&quot; when you're writing news, so if you were to write a story that makes it very clear that you are using that approach, that would be helpful. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:08, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
::::::cool thanks. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 02:13, 2 May 2026 (UTC)

== Language learning  ==

toki! I am trying to add or see what the toki pona language learning stuff on here is but I don't see anything that is language learning for anything. [[User:Jan Imon|Jan Imon]] ([[User talk:Jan Imon|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jan Imon|contribs]]) 23:13, 2 May 2026 (UTC) —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:29, 3 May 2026 (UTC)

:We have language materials ([[:Category:Languages]], [[World Languages]], [[Portal:Foreign Language Learning]], [[Portal:Multilingual Studies]]). They are not as developed as I think we would all like and there's not any coverage of Toki Pona, but in principle, we could and would like that. You can also see [[:b:Subject:Languages]] at our sister project Wikibooks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:33, 3 May 2026 (UTC)

== Timeline format? ==

I’ve been working on the World War II articles, including the [[World War II/Timeline|timeline]], and is there a specific timeline format that should be used? Right now it’s just a table, and there’s no separation between different periods/phases of the war.

I don’t want to use [[mw:Extension:EasyTimeline]] because this will be displaying dates and not time periods. [[User:PhilDaBirdMan|PhilDaBirdMan]] ([[User talk:PhilDaBirdMan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PhilDaBirdMan|contribs]]) 01:35, 4 May 2026 (UTC)

:I dont think we have a policy or guideline, how to format a timeline. But you may try to browes wikiversity by Google if someone was dealing with this in the past somewhow @[[User:PhilDaBirdMan|PhilDaBirdMan]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:23, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
::+1 - there's no specific guideline on how to format a timeline, it's really up to you. In my opinion I think the timeline is good. I'd personally bold the dates just to make it easier to separate it from the event description, but that's my personal 2 cents. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:18, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:::I’ll probably remove links to the dates/years, they’re just Wikipedia pages that shouldn’t be over linked to. [[User:PhilDaBirdMan|PhilDaBirdMan]] ([[User talk:PhilDaBirdMan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PhilDaBirdMan|contribs]]) 00:39, 6 May 2026 (UTC)

== Interface administrator for Codename Noreste ==

Hello, everyone. I am requesting interface administrator access on this wiki.

The main reasoning is that I would benefit from having the user right &lt;code&gt;editinterface&lt;/code&gt;, which would allow me to make dark mode changes to pages in the MediaWiki namespace, add &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;mw-parser-output&quot;&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; to some interface pages using templates, handle interface-protected edit requests, and similar stuff. Additionally, I have some knowledge of CSS, and I would like to assist with modifying CSS pages whenever necessary, such as moving MediaWiki common.css code to TemplateStyles CSS pages.

I am requesting the maximum time that is allowed per the [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators|policy]], and I have 2FA enabled on my account. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:55, 6 May 2026 (UTC)

*{{support}} Globally trusted user. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 01:07, 6 May 2026 (UTC)
*{{support}} Trusted and knowledgeable. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:35, 6 May 2026 (UTC)
*{{support}} WV would benefit from this. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 08:32, 6 May 2026 (UTC)
*{{support}} --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:13, 7 May 2026 (UTC)

:{{Comment}} Could @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] delete [[MediaWiki:Gadget-WikiSign.js]], which was requested to be deleted @[[User:Koavf|Justin]], @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]]? I dont think we need it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:40, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::Yes - clearly no longer used -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:18, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::: I can't delete it because I don't have the required permissions to do so.
::: On a side note, if this project has a need for permanent interface administrators, I would suggest that we have a minimum of two IAs, similar to how there must be two CUs and/or suppressors (or none). Maybe Koavf can be a good candidate if I am elected for permanent interface adminship, and I believe that permission shouldn't be removed from someone's own account. Instead, a bureaucrat should do it. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:20, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::::I am willing and happy to do it, unfortunately, we do not have an appetite for indef IAs and just had a discussion that resulted in a [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Interface_administrators&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2807543 consensus that we can have IAs that have the user rights for 14 to 120 days]. So once you have the rights, please make sure to gopher it. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:54, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
:::::@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] give it time. Look at me, I was in favor of shorter time, now I am looking back to times, when custodians could do it without the need of extra flag. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:31, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::::::Here's hoping. I think it would reduce administrative overhead, but that's just me and I'm not a bureaucrat here. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:33, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::::Complicated. Where are the times, admins could do everything! [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:27, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]] to become a policy ==

Following the recent approval of [[Wikiversity:Curators]] as a policy, I think [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]] may also be ready for policy status.

Please share your views about whether bureaucratship is ready to become a policy, or whether further revisions are needed.

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:58, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
: I added a logo about that user group, but other than that, it looks good to me. {{support}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:38, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
:I think that the consensus on this policy is proven by years of using it without further changes. But I I have to say weather I agree with this to become a policy, than of course {{support}}. It works and there were no major issues with it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:45, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
:{{support}} no issues. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:51, 10 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
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== Requested update to [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]] ==

Currently, [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]] is a policy that includes a caveat that interface admins are not required long-term and that user right can only be added for a period of up to two weeks. I am proposing that we remove this qualification and allow for indefinite interface admin status. I think this is useful because there are reasons for tweaking the site CSS or JavaScript (e.g. to comply with dark mode), add gadgets (e.g. importing Cat-a-Lot, which I would like to do), or otherwise modifying the site that could plausibly come up on an irregular basis and requiring the overhead of a bureaucrat to add the user rights is inefficient. In particular, I am also going to request this right if the community accepts indefinite interface admins. Thoughts? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:23, 17 August 2025 (UTC)

:And who will then monitor them to make sure they don't damage the project in any way, or abuse the rights acquired in this way? For large projects, this might not be a problem, but for smaller projects like the English Wikiversity, I'm not sure if there are enough users who would say, something is happening here that shouldn't be happening. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:28, 20 August 2025 (UTC)
::Anyone would be who. This argument applies to any person with any advanced rights here. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 10:46, 20 August 2025 (UTC)
:I think it is reasonable to allow for longer periods of access than 2 weeks to interface admin and support adjusting the policy to allow for this flexibility. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:57, 2 December 2025 (UTC)
::+1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:38, 25 January 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] I agree that the two-week requirement could be revised, but wouldn’t people just request access for a specific purpose anyway? Instead of granting indefinite access, they should request the specific time frame they need the rights for—until the planned fixes are completed—and then request an extension if more time is required. We could remove the two-week criterion while still keeping the access explicitly temporary. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:48, 25 January 2026 (UTC)
::I just don't see why this wiki needs to be different than all of the others. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 07:18, 25 January 2026 (UTC)
:::There isn’t really much of a need for a permanent one at this point in time [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 09:53, 25 January 2026 (UTC)
:I quite agree with this proposal, so long as they perform the suggested changes as mentioned here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:06, 26 January 2026 (UTC)
:: Just to clarify, I support '''indefinite interface admin status'''. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:34, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
:I think there is decent consensus for lengthening this, but not necessarily for indefinite permissions, so does anyone object to me revising it to the standard being 120 days instead of two weeks? I'll check back on this thread in three weeks and if there's no objection, I'll make the change. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 20:47, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
::Sure [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:27, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
::Thanks for proposing this, Justin. I agree with the proposal to lengthen the interface admin period from 2 weeks but not indefinitely. Can I check the source(s) for the standard being 120 days (I'm guessing policies on other projects or maybe global policy?)? In any case, I think it is reasonable for us to adopt a similar period. However, note on the current policy discussion page notes from @[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] arguing for shorter periods to lower risk, that's why it is 2 weeks. But if there are projects that need longer access, that should also be accommodated. Maybe we could adjust the policy to specify that ''interface admin rights can be given for 14 to 120 days depending on how long is required and what is supported by the community''. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:29, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:::There was there was no source for 120: it was just more than 14 and less than infinity. The &quot;14 to 120&quot; also seems reasonable. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 14:33, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
::: On some small/medium-sized wikis, such as English Wikibooks and English Wikiquote for example, indefinite interface administrator access for administrators is allowed, but they tend not to make changes to the CSS and JS page changes unless it's truly necessary. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:34, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:::It's a good idea to make the length of this right on request or allow to be prolonged. However, IA should test large changes somewhere else, for example on the en.wv mirror, and only after testing it on the mirror, adapt it to the live version. That means I can't imagine a time-consuming operation right now. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:04, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Sorry, what mirror is this? Are you talking about beta.wv? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 20:32, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::Not beta.wv. Basically somewhere else then on a live wiki. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:59, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::: Wouldn't testing on a user's own common.css page work anyway? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:36, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:Change made here: https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity%3AInterface_administrators&amp;diff=2807543&amp;oldid=2806289 —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 13:35, 4 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Template:AI-generated]] ==

After going through the plethora of ChatGPT-generated pages made by [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] (with many more pages to go), I'd like community input on this proposal to [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence]] that I think would be benefical for the community:
*Resources generated by AI '''must''' be indicated as so through the project box, [[Template:AI-generated]], on either the page or the main resource (if the page is a part of a project).
I do not believe including a small note/reference that a page is AI-generated is sufficient, and I take my thinking from [[WV:Original research|Wikiversity's OR policy]] for OR work: ''Within Wikiversity, all original research should be clearly identified as such''. I believe resources created from AI should also be clearly indicated as such, especially since we are working on whether or not AI-generated resources should be allowed on the website (discussion is [[Wikiversity talk:Artificial intelligence|here]], for reference). This makes it easier for organizational purposes, and in the event ''if'' we ban AI-generated work. 

I've left a message on Lee's talk page over a week ago and did not get a response or acknowledgement, so I'd like for the community's input for this inclusion to the policy. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:53, 26 January 2026 (UTC)

:I believe that existing Wikiversity policies are sufficient. Authors are responsible for the accuracy and usefulness of the content that is published. This policy covers AI-generated content that is: 1) carefully reviewed by the author publishing it, and 2) the source is noted.   [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 19:38, 27 January 2026 (UTC)
::A small reference for pages that are substantially filled with Chat-GPT entries, like [[Real Good Religion]], [[Attributing Blame]], [[Fostering Curiosity]], are not sufficient IMO and a project box would be the best indicator that a page is AI-generated (especially when there is a mixture of human created content AND AI-generated content, as present in a lot of your pages). This is useful, especially considering the notable issues with AI (including hallucinations and fabrication of details), so viewers and support staff are aware. These small notes left on the pages are not as easily viewable as a project box or banner would be. I really don't see the issue with a clear-label guideline. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 22:34, 27 January 2026 (UTC)
::{{ping|Lbeaumont}} I noticed your reversions [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Exploring_Existential_Concerns&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2788278 here] &amp; [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Subjective_Awareness&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2788257 here]. I'd prefer to have a clean conversation regarding this proposition. Please voice your concerns here. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:53, 28 January 2026 (UTC)
:::Regarding Subjective Awareness, I distinctly recall the effort I went to to write that the old-fashioned way. It is true that ChatGPT assisted me in augmenting the list of words suggested as candidate subjective states. This is a small section of the course, is clearly marked, and makes no factual claim. Marking the entire course as AI-generated is misleading. I would have made these comments when I reverted your edit; however, the revert button does not provide that opportunity.
:::Regarding the Exploring Existential Concerns course, please note this was adapted from my EmotionalCompetency.com website, which predates the availability of LLMs. The course does include two links, clearly labeled as ChatGPT-generated. Again, marking the entire course as AI-generated is misleading.
:::On a broader issue, I don't consider your opinions to have established a carefully debated and adopted Wikiversity policy. You went ahead and modified many of my courses over my clearly stated objections. Please let this issue play out more completely before editing my courses further. Thanks.   [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 15:11, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
::::Understood, and I respect your position. I apologize if my edits were seen as overarching. We could change the project box to &quot;a portion of this resource was generated by AI&quot;, or something along those lines. Feel free to revert my changes where you see fit, and I encourage more users to provide their input. EDIT: I've made changes to the template to indicate that a portion of the content has been generated from an LLM. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:50, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
:::::Thanks for this reply. The new banner is unduly large and alarming. There is no need for alarm here. The use of AI is not harmful per se. Like any technology, it can be used to help or to harm. I take care to craft prompts carefully, point the LMM to reliable source materials, and to carefully read and verify the generated text before I publish it. This is all in keeping with long-established Wikiversity policy. We don't want to use a  [[w:One-drop_rule|one-drop rule]] here or cause a [[w:Satanic_panic|satanic panic]]. We can learn our lessons from history here. I don't see any pedagogical reason for establishing a classification of &quot;AI generated&quot;, but if there is a consensus that it is needed, perhaps it can be handled as just another category that learning resources can be assigned to. I would rather focus on identifying any errors in factual claims than on casting pejorative bias toward AI-generated content. An essay on the best practices for using LMM on Wikiveristy would be welcome.   [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 15:58, 30 January 2026 (UTC)
::::::The new banner mimics the banner that is available on the English Wikibooks (see [[b:Template:AI-generated]] &amp; [[b:Template:Uses AI]]), so my revisions aren't unique in this aspect. At this point, I'd welcome other peoples' inputs. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 30 January 2026 (UTC)

== How do I start making pages? ==
Is there a notability guideline for Wikiversity? What is the sourcing policy for information? What is the Manual of Style? What kind of educational content qualifies for Wikiversity? All the introduction pages are a bit unclear. 
[[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 02:25, 28 January 2026 (UTC)

:{{ping|VidanaliK}} Welcome to Wikiversity! I've left you a welcome message on your talk page. That should help you out. Make sure to especially look at [[Wikiversity:Introduction]]. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 03:11, 28 January 2026 (UTC)
::It says that I can't post more pages because I have apparently exceeded the new page limit. How long does it take before that new page limit expires? [[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 16:57, 28 January 2026 (UTC)
:::This is a restriction for new users so that Wikiversity is not hit with massive spam. As for when this limit will expire, it should be a few days or after a certain number of edits. It's easy to overcome, though I do not have the exact numbers atm. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:08, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
::::OK, I think I got past the limit. [[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 17:21, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
==Why does it feel like Wikiversity is no longer really active anymore?==
I've been looking at recent changes, and both today and yesterday there haven't been many changes that I haven't made; it feels like walking through a ghost town, is this just me or is Wikiversity not really active anymore? [[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 03:54, 30 January 2026 (UTC)

:There is fewer people editing these days compared to the past. Many newcomers tend to edit in Wikipedia instead. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 06:39, 30 January 2026 (UTC)
:It’s a little slow, but I’m happy to know that Wikiversity is a place that I think should provide value even if the activity of editors fluctuates. If it’s any consolation your edits may be encouraging for some anonymous newcomer to start edits on their own! I think it’s hard to build community when there is such a wide variety of interests and a smaller starting userbase. Also sometimes the getting into a particular topic that already exists can be intimidating because some relics (large portals, school, categories, etc.) have intricate, unique and generally messy levels of organization. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 22:16, 9 March 2026 (UTC)
:I'd say it comes down to working hard for Wikiversity, basically if somebody or a group of people will start presenting good ideas and they turn out to be provably stable.
:I even asked Google's &quot;AI Mode&quot;, what is Wikiversity famous for? Unfortunately it could not answer that.
:Simply, we have not made Wikiversity famous by presenting really provable stable ideas yet. My hope is that this time might come. Perhaps even this year 2026!
:Hope dies last. [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 10:12, 27 April 2026 (UTC)

== Inactivity policy for Curators ==

I was wondering if there is a specific inactivity polity for curators (semi-admins) as I am pretty sure the global policy does not apply to them as they are not ''fully'' sysops. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 03:20, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

:Unfortunately, I don't see an inactivity policy, but if we were to create such a new policy for curators, it should be the same for custodians (administrators). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:45, 15 February 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] There is currently none, that I could find, for custodians either. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:47, 17 February 2026 (UTC)
:::I think we should propose a local inactivity policy for custodians (and by extension, curators), which should be at least one year without any edits ''and'' logged actions. However, I don't know which page should it be when the inactivity removal procedure starts. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:53, 17 February 2026 (UTC)
::::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] In theory, there should be a section added at [[WV:Candidates for custodianship]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:55, 17 February 2026 (UTC)
::::: To be consistent with the [[meta:Admin activity review|global period of 2 years inactivity]] for en.wv  [[Wikiversity:Custodianship#Notes|Custodians]] and [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship#How are bureaucrats removed?|Bureaucrats]] we could add something like this to [[Wikiversity:Curators]]:
::::::The maximum time period of inactivity &lt;u&gt;without community review&lt;/u&gt; for curators is two years (consistent with  the [[:meta:Category:Global policies|global policy]] described at [[meta:Admin activity review|Admin activity review]] which applies for [[Wikiversity:Custodianship#Notes|Custodians]] and [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrats]]). After that time a custodian will remove the rights.
::::: -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:51, 27 March 2026 (UTC)
:::::Yup, I agree with Jtneill, there is a policy proposal for Wikiversity:Curators, where it should be logically deployed. The question is if we are ready to aprove the policy. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:43, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::: I agree, but we should notify the colloquium about inactive curators, just like a steward would do for inactive custodians and bureaucrats per [[:m:Admin activity review|AAR]]. What is the minimum timeframe an inactive curator should receive so they can respond they would keep their rights? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:49, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:I incorporated these suggestions into the proposed curators policy. Please review/comment/improve. Summary: 2 years, notify curator's user page, then remove rights after 1 month: [[Wikiversity:Curators#Inactivity]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:59, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] I created [[Template:Inactive curator]] for this. Feel free to make any changes or improvements. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:29, 24 April 2026 (UTC)

== [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence]] to become an official policy ==
{{Archive top|After running for a week, there is consensus, alongside comments, for [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence]] to be implemented as an official policy. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:27, 17 April 2026 (UTC)}}
With the introduction of AI-material, and some material just plain disruptive, its imperative that Wikiversity catches up with its sister projects and implements an official AI policy that we can work with. The recent issue of [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]]'s 50+ articles that contain significantly large AI-generated material has made me came to the Colloquium. This user has also been removing the [[Template:AI-generated]] template from their pages, calling it &quot;misleading&quot;, &quot;alarmist&quot;, and &quot;pejorative&quot; - which is all just simply nonsensical rationales. Not to even mention this user's contributions to the English Wikipedia have been [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_for_deletion/Inner_Development_Goals contested] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_for_deletion/Multipolar_trap removed] a couple of times (for being low-quality and clearly LLM-generated), highlighting the need for an actual policy to be implemented here on Wikiversity. I would like to ping {{ping|Juandev}} and {{ping|Jtneill}} for their thoughts as well, since I'd like this to be implemented as soon as possible. 

Wikiversity has a significant issue with implementing anti-disruptive measures, hence why we have received numerous complaints as a community about our quality. I originally was reverting the removal of the templates, but realized that this is still a proposed policy, which it shouldn't be anymore. It should be a recognized Wikiversity policy. 14:54, 10 March 2026 (UTC) —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:54, 10 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] '''I agree''' that the draft, should become official policy. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:00, 10 March 2026 (UTC)
:I provided a detailed response at: [[Wikiversity talk:Artificial intelligence#Evolving a Wikiversity policy on AI]]
:I will appreaciate it if you consder that carefully. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 22:49, 10 March 2026 (UTC)
:Agree it should become official Wikiversity policy on the condition &lt;u&gt;that point point 5 is about [significant/substantial] LLM-generated text specifically&lt;/u&gt;. Not a good idea to overuse it, it should be added when there is substantial AI-generated text on the page, not for other cases. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 12:37, 11 March 2026 (UTC)
:What policy is being debated? Is it the text on this page, which is pointed to by the general banner, or the text at:   [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence,]]   which is pointed to by the specific banner? Let's begin with coherence on the text being debated. Thanks!  [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 11:49, 17 March 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] This is a call for approval of the new Wikiversity policy. You expressed your opinion [[Wikiversity talk:Artificial intelligence#Evolving a Wikiversity policy on AI|on the talk page of the proposal]], I replied to you and await your response.When creating policies, it is necessary to propose specific solutions. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 14:12, 17 March 2026 (UTC)
:::Toward a Justified and Parsimonious AI Policy 
:::As we collaborate to develop a consensus policy on the use of Large Language Models, it is wise to begin by considering the needs of the various stakeholders to the policy.
:::The stakeholders are:
:::1)     The users, 
:::2)     The source providers, and
:::3)     The editors
:::There may also be others with a minor stake in this policy, including the population at large.
:::The many needs of the users are currently addressed by long-standing [[Wikiversity:Policies|Wikiversity policies]], so we can focus on what, if any, additional needs arise as LLMs are deployed. 
:::As always, users need assurance that propositional statements are accurate. This is covered by the existing policy on [[Wikiversity:Verifiability|verifiably]]. In addition, it is expected by both the users and those that provide materials used as sources for the text are [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|accurately attributed]]. This is also covered by [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|existing policies]].
:::To respect the time and effort of editors, a parsimonious policy will unburden editors from costly requirements that exceed benefits to the users.
:::Finally, it is important to recognize that because attention is our most valuable seizing attention unnecessarily is a form of theft. 
:::The following proposed policy statement results from these considerations:
:::Recommended Policy statement:
:::·       Editors [[Wikiversity:Verifiability|verify the accuracy]] of propositional statements, regardless of the source.
:::·       Editors [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|attribute the source]] of propositional statements. In the case of LLM, cite the LLM model and the prompt used.
:::·       Use of various available templates to mark the use of LLM are optional. Templates that are flexible in noting the type and extend of LLM usage are preferred. Templates that avoid unduly distracting or alarming the user are preferred. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 19:56, 19 March 2026 (UTC)
::::Do we discuss here or there? I have replied you there as your proposal is about that policy so it is tradition to discuss it at the affected talk page. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:59, 19 March 2026 (UTC)
: {{support}} Thanks for the proposed policy development and discussion; also note proposed policy talk page discussion: [[Wikiversity talk:Artificial intelligence]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:05, 24 March 2026 (UTC)
::I think the Wikiversity AI policy shall be official. – [[User:RestoreAccess111|RestoreAccess111]] &lt;sup style=&quot;font-family:Arimo, Arial;&quot;&gt;[[User talk:RestoreAccess111|Talk!]]&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;sup style=&quot;font-family:Times New Roman, Tinos;&quot;&gt;[[Special:Contributions/RestoreAccess111|Watch!]]&lt;/sup&gt; 06:11, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== New titles for user right nominations ==
&lt;div class=&quot;cd-moveMark&quot;&gt;''Moved from [[Wikiversity talk:Candidates for Custodianship#New titles for user right nominations]].  [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:20, 17 April 2026 (UTC)''&lt;/div&gt;

I would like to propose the following retitles should a user be nominated for any of the following user rights:
* Curator: Candidates for Curatorship
* Bureaucrat: Candidates for Bureaucratship
The reason is that many curator (and probably bureaucrat) requests have run solely under {{tq|Candidates for Custodianship}}, but that title might sound misleading (especially in regards to the permission a user is requesting). CheckUser and Oversight (suppressor) are not included above since no user was nominated for these sensitive permissions, probably. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:30, 19 March 2026 (UTC)

:And it's not that when someone at the beginning misplaced the request, no one thought to move it and the others copied it. Even today, it would be possible to simply take it all and move it. Otherwise, for me, the more fundamental problem is that there is [[Wikiversity:Curators|no approved policy for curators]] than where the requests are based. Curators then operate in a certain vacuum and if one of them &quot;breaks out of the chain&quot;, the average user doesn't have many transparent tools to deal with it, because there is no policy. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:02, 19 March 2026 (UTC)
::I am not talking about the curator page (policy proposal). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:08, 21 March 2026 (UTC)
: @[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] I'll see if I can do an overhaul of [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]], just like I recently did with the Requests for adminship page on English Wikiquote. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:17, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
:Yes, great idea - ideally there will be separate &quot;Candidates for ...&quot; pages for each user right group. The most important for now is to separate curator and custodian pages as CN suggests. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:39, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
:So maybe I previously misunderstood. Are you proposing separated pages for nominations (i.e. [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship]], [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship]], [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]])? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:30, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:33, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:::I see, then I am fine with that @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]. Sorry for misunderstanding. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:35, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

I've split the user rights nomination pages into:
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for CheckUser]]
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship]]

Please review. There are likely several links to update, text to adjust, categories to manage, short-cuts to fix etc. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:22, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

:Thanks, great job @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]. I am wondering if we need to move archived nominations too, or if we are OK with the actual state. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:08, 10 May 2026 (UTC)
::Yes, I think that would be helpful. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:46, 10 May 2026 (UTC)
:::I can do it @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I am just looking what system is there. I can see [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Archive of nominations for full custodianship]] which is a good complementary overview to the subpages with full history. The name of the pages is probably stably, but I would consider to create more specific redirect like [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Overview of staff nominations]], which would link to the above one. Then there is a [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Archived]], which are probably incomplete nominations, right? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:37, 11 May 2026 (UTC)
::::Tx @[[User:Juandev|Juandev]]. Yes, this makes sense. And maybe we move:
::::* archived '''curator''' nominations from [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Archive of nominations for full custodianship]] to e.g., [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship/Archive of nominations]]
::::* archived '''bureaucrat''' nominations from [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Archive of nominations for full custodianship ]] to e.g., [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship/Archive of nominations]]
::::-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:12, 11 May 2026 (UTC)
:An svg icon for [[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curators]] would also be helpful. We have them for other user rights: [[c:Category:Wikiversity user rights icons]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:54, 10 May 2026 (UTC)
::Done: [[Wikiversity:Curators]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:44, 11 May 2026 (UTC)

== Technical Request:  Courtesy link.. ==

[[Template_talk:Information#Background_must_have_color_defined_as_well]] [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:43, 20 March 2026 (UTC)
: I can't edit the template directly as it need an sysop/interface admin to do it. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:43, 20 March 2026 (UTC)
:: Also if the Template field of - https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:LintErrors/night-mode-unaware-background-color is examined, there is poential for an admin to clear a substantial proportion of these by implmenting a simmilar fix to the indciated templates (and underlying stylesheets). It would be nice to clear things like Project box and others, as many other templates (and thus pages depend on them.) :)
[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:43, 20 March 2026 (UTC)

:I think it would be best to grant you interface admin rights for a short period of time to make these changes. However, I still have doubts about the suitability of this solution, which may cause other problems and no one has explained to me why dark mode has to be implemented this way @[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:43, 20 March 2026 (UTC)

: I would have reservations about holding such rights, which is why I was trying to do what I could without needing them. However if it is the only way to get the required changes made, I would suggest asking on Wikipedia to find technical editors, willing to undertake the changes needed. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 09:32, 21 March 2026 (UTC)

== WikiEducator has closed ==

Some of you may know of a similar project to Wikiversity, called [https://wikieducator.org/Main_Page WikiEducator], championed by [https://oerfoundation.org/about/staff/wayne-mackintosh/ Wayne Mackintosh][https://www.linkedin.com/posts/waynemackintosh_important-notice-about-the-oer-foundation-activity-7405113051688931329-Nhm9/][https://openeducation.nz/killed-not-starved/].

It seems [https://openeducation.nz/terminating-oer-foundation their foundation has closed] and they are no longer operating.

They had done quite a bit of outreach (e.g., in the Pacific and Africa) to get educators using wiki.

The WikiEducator content is still available in MediaWiki - and potentially could be imported to Wikiversity ([https://wikieducator.org/WikiEducator:Copyrights CC-BY-SA] is the default license).

The closing of WikiEducator arguably makes the nurturing of Wikiversity even more important.

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:09, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

:I was never active there. If anyone has an account or is otherwise in contact, we may want to copy relevant information here or even at [[:outreach:]]. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 04:46, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

:: I reached out to [[User:Mackiwg~enwikiversity|Wayne]] in January, and he responded briefly but positively (while travelling).  I wrote to the low-traffic wikieducator mailing list today and got a nice [https://groups.google.com/g/wikieducator/c/r_yIyUw6ZIA reply] from [[user:SteveFoerster|Steve Foerster]] who's interested in helping. If we can figure out a migration path it would be great to adopt at least the main namespace pages here.  
:: A few questions that come to mind: 
:: - would people want to create matching user accounts
:: - are there any namespaces (user/talk?) that should not be moved over
:: We could look at how this was done for the [[m:Wikivoyage/Migration]] wikivoyage migration. &lt;span style=&quot;padding:0 2px 0 2px;background-color:white;color:#bbb;&quot;&gt;&amp;ndash;[[User:Sj|SJ]][[User Talk:Sj|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ff9900;&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/span&gt; 04:27, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
:::That's fantastic, SJ, that you've reached out and that Wayne, Steve, and Jim are receptive—and that you can help! -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:52, 1 May 2026 (UTC)

== Wikinews is ending ==

Apparently mainly due to low editorial activity, low public interest, but also failure to achieve the goals from the proposal for the creation of the project, the Wikinews project is ending after years of discussions ([[Meta:Proposal for Closing Wikinews|some reading]]).

And I would be interested to see how Wikiversity is doing in the monitored metrics. We probably have more editors than Wikinews had, but what about consumers and achieving the goals? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 19:14, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

:Wikiversity's biggest issue in recent times was the hosting of low-quality, trash content. Thankfully we've done a great job in removing pseudoscience and other embarrassingly trash content (Wikidebates, for example), but the biggest concern moving forward is proper maintenance IMO. I've caught several pseudoscience pages being created within the last few months that could easily have flown under the radar (ex, [[The Kelemen Dilemma: Causal Collapse and Axiomatic Instability]]), so I'd urge our custodians/curators to be on the lookout for this type of content. Usually an AI-overview can point this type of content out relatively well.
:In terms of visibility, I believe Wikiversity is a high-traffic project. I remember my [[Mathematical Properties]] showing up on the first page of Google when searching up &quot;math properties&quot; for the longest time (and is still showing up in the first page 'till this day!). Besides, Wikinews hosted a lot of short-term content (the nature of news articles), while Wikiversity hosts content that can still be useful a decade later (ex, [[A Reader's Guide to Annotation]]). 
:I think we are on a better path than we were a few months ago, and I do want to thank everyone here who has been helping out with maintaining our website! —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 20:48, 1 April 2026 (UTC)
:For what it's worth, the group that did that study has since disbanded, so no one is monitoring the other sister projects in the same way. Additionally, Wikinews had some catastrophic server issues due to the maintenance of [[:m:Extension:DynamicPageList]] which don't apply here. Your questions are still worth addressing, but I just wanted to cut off any concern at the pass about Wikiversity being in the same precarious situation. Wikiversity is definitely the biggest &quot;lagging behind&quot; or &quot;failure&quot; project now that Wikinews is being shuttered, but I don't see any near- or medium-term pathway to closing Wikiversity. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:46, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

:[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-03-31/News and notes|Entirety of Wikinews to be shut down]] (Wikipedia Signpost) -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:03, 11 April 2026 (UTC)

== Action Required: Update templates/modules for electoral maps (Migrating from P1846 to P14226) ==

Hello everyone,

This is a notice regarding an ongoing data migration on Wikidata that may affect your election-related templates and Lua modules (such as &lt;code&gt;Module:Itemgroup/list&lt;/code&gt;).

'''The Change:'''&lt;br /&gt;
Currently, many templates pull electoral maps from Wikidata using the property [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]], combined with the qualifier [[:d:Property:P180|P180]]: [[:d:Q19571328|Q19571328]]. 

We are migrating this data (across roughly 4,000 items) to a newly created, dedicated property: '''[[:d:Property:P14226|P14226]]'''.

'''What You Need To Do:'''&lt;br /&gt;
To ensure your templates and infoboxes do not break or lose their maps, please update your local code to fetch data from [[:d:Property:P14226|P14226]] instead of the old [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]] + [[:d:Property:P180|P180]] structure. A [[m:Wikidata/Property Migration: P1846 to P14226/List|list of pages]] was generated using Wikimedia Global Search.

'''Deadline:'''&lt;br /&gt;
We are temporarily retaining the old data on [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]] to allow for a smooth transition. However, to complete the data cleanup on Wikidata, the old [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]] statements will be removed after '''May 1, 2026'''. Please update your modules and templates before this date to prevent any disruption to your wiki's election articles.

Let us know if you have any questions or need assistance with the query logic. Thank you for your help! [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] using [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 17:11, 3 April 2026 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&amp;oldid=29941252 --&gt;
:I didnt find such properties, so we are probably fine. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:00, 12 April 2026 (UTC)
:: +1 (agreed). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:19, 12 April 2026 (UTC)

== Enable the abuse filter block action? ==

In light of [[Special:AbuseLog/80178]] (coupon spam), I would like to propose enabling the block action for the abuse filter. Only custodians will be able to enable and disable that action on an abuse filter, and it is useful to block ongoing vandalism. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:12, 13 April 2026 (UTC)

:Seems like a good idea, almost all of the users which create such pages are spambots so this shouldn’t be a problem. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:41, 13 April 2026 (UTC)
:Can you explain some more (I am new to abuse filters)? It looks like the attempted edit was prevented? Which abuse filter?
:Note on your suggestion, have also reactivated Antispam Filter 12 - see [[WV:RCA]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:45, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
:: I am proposing that we activate the abuse filter block action, which if a user triggers an abuse filter, it would actually block the user in question - the same mechanism that a custodian would use to block users. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:11, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
:::OK, thankyou, that makes sense. And, reviewing the abuse filter 12 log, it would be helpful because it would prevent the need for manual blocking. But I don't see a setting for autoblocking? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 23:14, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
:::: I think it probably adds an autoblock. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:43, 16 April 2026 (UTC)
: [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]], given that a little bit more than a week has passed and there is minimal consensus to activate the abuse filter block action, I filed [[phab:T424053]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:05, 21 April 2026 (UTC)
::Thank-you for doing this. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:03, 24 April 2026 (UTC)

== Advice needed: A Neurodiversity-inspired Idea/observation ==

If I want the greatest participation of others to &quot;provide constructive criticism to my idea&quot; or to &quot;shoot down my idea&quot; or &quot;idea&quot;.

What I've called it so far is &quot;The Neurodiversity-inspired Idea&quot;. At other times I used more sensationalist wording but here on Wikiversity I don't dare do that. I actually woke up with thinking about putting this into my userspace draft: &quot;Personal Observations Made By Meeting Autistic and Non-Autistic Adults&quot;.

My ultimate goal is to stop blathering about my &quot;idea&quot; to friend and family without feeling my &quot;methodology&quot; is going into any progressive direction whatsoever. My latest encounter was somewhat constructive though. A friend of a friend who worked with people presenting ideas in attempting to getting grants. I don't want a grant. I just want to figure out how I can express my &quot;idea&quot; in a way so that I can more clearly figure out what flaws it got.

At the same time I tend to overthink. If anyone thinks etherpad might be a good place and considering Wikimedia already got an etherpad at https://etherpad.wikimedia.org/ if anyone feels like they know me better in the future feel free to suggest a &quot;session&quot; on etherpad.

'''If I don't receive a reply to this in 1 week's time I will begin to explore this &quot;idea&quot; into my userspace''' unless you replied and refrained me from doing so, of course. Then maybe after &quot;developing it there&quot; I might reference it to you another future time here in the Colloquium, with my &quot;idea&quot; still in my userspace draft. This &quot;idea&quot; is sort of a burden, I'm happy I've made the choice to get rid of it and hopefully move on with my life, unless there is something to this &quot;idea&quot;. 

My failure is probably evident: I feel I haven't told you anything. Same happened to when I talked to friends and family. In danger of overthinking it further I'll publish this right now. I need to &quot;keep it together&quot; [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 10:36, 16 April 2026 (UTC)

:Good on you putting it out there ... and hitting publish :). I'd say go for it (no need to wait), give birth to your idea and share about it here and elsewhere. Let it take shape and see where it might go. In many ways, this is exactly what an open collaborative learning community should be doing. Others might not know well how to respond, so perhaps consider creating some questions to accompany the idea. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:21, 16 April 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you for encouraging me in developing the idea.
::I have created a &quot;questions&quot; section in the draft which is visible in the table of contents now. My brain was &quot;frozen&quot; today metaphorically speaking in that I felt I had like a &quot;writer's block&quot; so the draft has more &quot;AI/LLM&quot; content than before. I used the LLM for generating questions. The answers are so far human-only.
::I've also created a subsection where I could add the prompts that made the LLM generate the questions. That could help people make better prompts perhaps. I've described what it is about inside of it and there are some chaotically written notes.
::[[Draft:The_Neurodiversity-inspired_Idea#Questions_that_might_encourage_the_development_of_this_idea_and_its_methodology]]
::My draft is missing stuff. Any questions that you contribute to my draft will probably help me and if I don't understand the questions I'll probably notify you and also at the same time &quot;feed them&quot; to an LLM and ask in my input like &quot;explain in simple words what this question means, what is it searching for?&quot; etc. while I wait for an answer. If you have any more feedback please give it to me here or on the Draft page, its talk page or my user talk page. Thank you for helping me! [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 21:20, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
::Today I woke up with not only thinking about supplying questions along with the &quot;idea&quot; but also answers. ie. Is it possible to &quot;test&quot; this idea? Is it possible to create one or multiple hypotheses based on this &quot;idea&quot;?(etc.) I've thought about this before in this &quot;idea&quot; but since I'm beginning to add to Wikiversity what was previously 'locked in my mind' it's also easier for me to see what I've done so far. Thank you for this comment! [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 09:11, 23 April 2026 (UTC)
:May I think that you should not add deadlines ; being read, and rising interest for collaboration, or even simply for exchange of thoughts, such an effective meeting event loads a huge bunch of unprobability, which time can help to… somehow diminish. Maybe, I would advice you having a central place for developping your ideas, your needs, your advances, maybe a page in your own user zone, and from time to time, depending your feeling, it could be every trimester or so, or more frequently, you could write a short account of progress (or even of no progress), or a call for participation, in such a place as this present one ; I think that will increase much exposure of your projet. Maybe also, if you can find a project name, not necessarily very meaningfull by itseilf (at least it will gain signification with time, as your project develops), that will serve as a kind-of hook, and make your announcement titles more visible. Best regards (and my excuses for my poor command of English, which seems to be unplease an anti-abuse filter, &quot;Questionable Language (profanity)&quot;, which I don't understand…). My few cents. --  [[User:Eric.LEWIN|Eric.LEWIN]] ([[User talk:Eric.LEWIN|discussion]] • [[Special:Contributions/Eric.LEWIN|contributions]]) 10:06, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
::Sorry about the false positive on the profanity filter - I've fixed it. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:26, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:::&quot;May I think that you should not add deadlines ; being read, and rising interest for collaboration, or even simply for exchange of thoughts, such an effective meeting event loads a huge bunch of unprobability, which time can help to… somehow diminish.&quot;
::Thank you Eric for this comment. Trust in time is how I interpret it. I should not feel like I need to be in a hurry. I'll try to give this time. Thank you!
:::&quot;Maybe, I would advice you having a central place for developping your ideas, your needs, your advances, maybe a page in your own user zone, and from time to time, depending your feeling, it could be every trimester or so, or more frequently, you could write a short account of progress (or even of no progress), or a call for participation, in such a place as this present one ; I think that will increase much exposure of your projet.&quot;
::A central place for developing or making &quot;project notes&quot; regarding the Neurodiversity idea on my userspace, I might need that, like a diary or &quot;project notes&quot; of the Neurodiversity idea similar to my course notes regarding my experience with Coursera.
::Any actions I take are going to be related to my Userspace from now on but I'll also update the draft when necessary. Now in the beginning I might be working daily to once every 3 days on both the draft and the daily notes I plan to make.
:::&quot;Maybe also, if you can find a project name, not necessarily very meaningfull by itseilf (at least it will gain signification with time, as your project develops), that will serve as a kind-of hook, and make your announcement titles more visible.&quot;
::Thank you for the advice. I was brainstorming yesterday about it. I concluded that since I've not yet developed a methodology that adheres to &quot;Do no harm&quot; and this is my first time working my &quot;idea&quot; into a way that is compatible with how projects develop on English Wikiversity this is new to me. My methodology isn't developed and therefore trying to get attention to my project through a name can wait. Yesterday I figured out a silly title that has nothing to do with the project: &quot;Planetary Awareness Potato Cabbage Rolls&quot; or something like that. Google output read that no such thing exists so I wanted it mainly to be unique. I don't want to raise attention that I'm unsure whether I'll actually be capable of developing a methodology for but project notes is my best bet so far in tracking my progress. Every day I think about this &quot;idea&quot; but I need to improve the important parts.
:::&quot;Best regards (and my excuses for my poor command of English, which seems to be unplease an anti-abuse filter, &quot;Questionable Language (profanity)&quot;, which I don't understand…). My few cents.&quot;
::You added great points and I felt that I was helped by you! I encourage you to post again and I can understand that interacting with any kind of automated filter can be discouraging and can be for me too! Thank you for giving me feedback! [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 16:01, 18 April 2026 (UTC)

== Add some user rights to the curator user group? ==

By default, only custodians have the ability to mark new pages as patrolled (&lt;code&gt;patrol&lt;/code&gt;) and have their own page creations automatically marked as patrolled (&lt;code&gt;autopatrol&lt;/code&gt;). I am proposing both of the following:
* Curators can mark new pages as patrolled, helping on reducing the backlog of new, unpatrolled pages.
* New pages made by curators will be automatically marked as patrolled by the MediaWiki software.
Before we implement this, I would suggest implementing a proposed guideline for marking new pages as patrolled for curators and custodians.

Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:32, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

:Agree, &lt;s&gt;also can we also allow curators to undelete pages since they already have the rights to delete them?&lt;/s&gt; [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:54, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
::I think the requirement that undelete NOT be included came from above (meta / stewards / central office). Having access to the undelete page gives access to information that is restricted by their policies to admins (custodians and bureaucrats). -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 20:12, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
::: [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]], unless if requests for curator and custodian should be RfA-like processes (that is, including voting and comments), then I have to agree with Dave above. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:03, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Oh, I didn’t realise that. Withdrawing my comment.. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:08, 19 April 2026 (UTC)
:{{support}} Seems reasonable and would reduce overhead. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 14:35, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
:'''Agree''', implement it also to [[Wikiversity:Curators]] proposal please. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:11, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
: I went ahead and filed [[phab:T424445]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:39, 26 April 2026 (UTC)

== [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curators and curators policy]] ==
{{archive top|There is strong consensus, so [[Wikiversity:Curators]] is now a policy. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:15, 9 May 2026 (UTC)}}
How does it come, that Wikiversity has curators, but Curators policy is still being proposed? How do the curators exists and act if the policy about them havent been approved yet? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:33, 16 October 2025 (UTC)

:It looks as if it is not just curators. The policy on Bureaucratship is still being proposed as well. See [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]]. —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;&quot;&gt;RailwayEnthusiast2025&lt;/span&gt;]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#59a53f&quot;&gt;''talk with me!''&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:33, 27 October 2025 (UTC)

:I think its just the nature of a small WMF sister project in that there are lots of drafts, gaps, and potential improvements. In this case, these community would need to vote on those proposed Wikiversity staff policies if we think they're ready. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:08, 3 December 2025 (UTC)
:What? I thought you were getting it approved, Juandev... :) [[User:I&amp;#39;m Mr. Chris|I&amp;#39;m Mr. Chris]] ([[User talk:I&amp;#39;m Mr. Chris|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/I&amp;#39;m Mr. Chris|contribs]]) 14:20, 12 February 2026 (UTC)
::Yeah I think this one is important too and we need to aprove it too @[[User:I'm Mr. Chris|I'm Mr. Chris]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:56, 12 February 2026 (UTC)
:::I thinks its ready to made into a policy, it seems to be complete and informative about what the rights does and how to get it. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 03:08, 15 February 2026 (UTC)
::::Agree -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:00, 27 March 2026 (UTC)

Let's make this the official discussion about adopting the [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators policy]] policy. Your comments are invited and welcome. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:40, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
: There were two similar Colloquium threads in separate places about the proposed curators policy. So I've moved them to be adjacent. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:42, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== Wikiversity:Curators to become a policy ==
{{archive top|There is strong consensus, so [[Wikiversity:Curators]] is now a policy. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:16, 9 May 2026 (UTC)}}
I've looked at the discussions about the Curators policy, I've looked at the practices, and it seems to me that there is no dispute about the wording of the policy, and what's more, the community has been using this proposal as if it were an offical policy for several years. Therefore, I propose that [[Wikiversity:Curators]] become a policy. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:35, 18 April 2026 (UTC)

:{{support}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:54, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
:{{support}} —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 20:21, 18 April 2026 (UTC)
: {{support|Yes, please}}. Especially after when I and PieWriter proposed above, I agree. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:27, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:: @[[User:Juandev|Juandev]]; as of now, curators now have the user rights &lt;code&gt;autopatrol&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;patrol&lt;/code&gt;. Perhaps we should also include that in [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]]? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:07, 30 April 2026 (UTC)
:::You meant [[Wikiversity:Curators]] @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:15, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:::: I agree that we must develop what rules curators should follow when marking new pages as patrolled; the same can be added for custodians since they can also mark new pages as patrolled. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:37, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:::::I see, well I think you can just add this to the policy. It is not major change and it probably reflects actual practice or actual technical possibilities for those flags. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:20, 7 May 2026 (UTC)
:{{support}} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:42, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
:{{Support}} per nom. [[User:PhilDaBirdMan|PhilDaBirdMan]] ([[User talk:PhilDaBirdMan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PhilDaBirdMan|contribs]]) 13:32, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
{{Archive bottom}}

== Inactive curators ==

Hello, even though [[Wikiversity:Curators]] is not a policy yet, there are curators listed here that have been inactive for two years or more:
* {{user|Cody naccarato}} (last edit on 13 Dec 2022, last logged action on 10 Dec 2022)
* {{user|Praxidicae}} (last edit on 10 Sep 2022, last logged action on 12 Sep 2022)
[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:14, 19 April 2026 (UTC)

:Yup, I would remove the rights. To get the rights back if theyll come back should not be a big deal. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:08, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:: When they don't reply by May 19, feel free (or any custodian) to do so. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:28, 25 April 2026 (UTC)

== Is anyone interested in Neurodiversity? ==

Is anyone interested in Neurodiversity? Is there anyone here who is interested for Neurodiversity to be &quot;something more&quot; than it already is? Does anyone here consider Neurodiversity one of the &quot;harder topics&quot; to work on or discuss? Does anyone here have an opinion about the [[Neurodiversity Movement]]? So these questions don't appear like &quot;out of a vacuum&quot; I can tell you a bit about my background:

Many years ago I got a psychiatric diagnosis &quot;Asperger's&quot;. After I stepped out of the office and my Äsperger's was 'concluded', I stepped out into the street and thought my first negative thought(but the positive thought followed after). The thought was about concentration camps in the second world war and that the world seemed to be going into the direction of &quot;labeling others&quot;. I was unsure whether this was &quot;real science&quot; and sort of &quot;challenged myself&quot; to make up my own mind after meeting people that had been given this diagnosis. The more adults with this diagnosis I met the more I started seeing &quot;patterns&quot;.

Was it a coincidence that the first person with Asperger's I met reminded me about my father later after I had plenty of times of experience with interacting with him? None of the people I interacted with online through IRC text chat...I felt I got any clue about how &quot;their brains work&quot;. Only when I met one person from the Asperger's chat community in person we both realized that whatever we experienced was akin to the &quot;chaos theory&quot;. He told me about &quot;chaos theory&quot; while I didn't know even what that term meant but I guess I 'read between the lines'. My question that I linger on still today is &quot;did he understand about me what I think I understood about him?&quot;? That our brains had the same configuration? Most autistic adults who meet other autistic adults usually get disappointed. They think the diagnosis will help them meet somebody like themselves and then they realize the great diversity in the autistic spectrum created by Psychiatry.

I later stopped interacting with autistic communities that much, I felt that it did not benefit me. Also Neurodiversity's &quot;neurotypes&quot; interested me for a while until I realized I had &quot;misunderstood everything&quot; about them and how they are used in the Neurodiversity Movement or &quot;Neurodiversity community&quot; if that even can precisely be defined? I doubt it but if you want to contribute to the [[Neurodiversity Movement]]. My previous attempts failed as I got more and more confused. I think a community project needs a community. With a lack of that I don't think it is worth my time. If any of you would like to work on that project let me know on my talk page.

So I was kinda lost and was talking to my friend and psychologist and I realized if I never talk about my idea to anyone in a &quot;comprehensive way&quot; or show that it matters to me nothing is going to ever happen. So I started talking about my &quot;idea&quot; more. Nobody could understand the &quot;idea&quot; because I had not developed my skills regarding where to start...although the process had already started &quot;automatically&quot; and that's why I often think of &quot;well my brain sort of activated me&quot;. I don't feel like I did have a plan and this idea happened. It happened &quot;by itself&quot;. My brain reacted to what I was seeing in a video or stream.

I value interaction highly in this idea. I think it would be helpful to make a community of people who are not paranoid about stuff that can express itself like &quot;don't analyze me!&quot;, &quot;don't compare me to anyone!&quot;. 

On the contrary, more often than not those adults who were diagnosed were actually openly comparing themselves with each other and I think that is healthy in a &quot;science&quot; way if done the &quot;right way&quot; which probably means &quot;Do no harm&quot;.

I found video material is important but I'm very unsure if uploading own video material to Wikimedia Commons would constitute a &quot;reasonable&quot; use of the resources there. Maybe somebody here needs to ask more questions to me that I should answer before that happens. I also know the '''be bold''' so I could just do what I think might be ok. Though I work better in a group as long as I know what &quot;group configurations&quot; help me. This is in a non-profit way. Since the state supported me this might be a way I am trying to &quot;give back&quot; to the state and &quot;the world&quot;. May seem overly ambitious and crazy but this thing gives me energy. It gives me hope when trying to develop this idea. [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 10:47, 23 April 2026 (UTC)

:Thanks for sharing. There is plenty of room for neurodiversity community learning. However, the challenge I think is that the intersection of those interested in (a) ND, and (b) English Wikiversity might be very small (e.g., 1!) at this point in time.
:But don't give up hope. For example, Wikipedia has many more ND-interested editors; maybe consider reaching out to see who might be interested:
:[[w:Category:Wikipedians interested in neurodiversity]]
:You could also start an equivalent category here:
:[[:Category:Wikiversitarians interested in neurodiversity]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:46, 6 May 2026 (UTC)

== Request for comment (global AI policy) ==

&lt;bdi lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;A [[:m:Requests for comment/Artificial intelligence policy|request for comment]] is currently being held to decide on a global AI policy. {{int:Feedback-thanks-title}} [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 00:58, 26 April 2026 (UTC)&lt;/bdi&gt;
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Codename Noreste@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&amp;oldid=30424282 --&gt;

== Coming over From wikinews ==

Any chance someone could help me if you are allowed to write news articles here since wikinews is going read only mode soon, thank you! [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 22:43, 1 May 2026 (UTC)

:The scope of Wikiversity is very broad and is basically about more-or-less any learning material. We have made it a point to not have duplicative content of other WMF projects, but since Wikinews is being shuttered, I personally am fine with writing news articles here. One thing that is not controversial at all is a learning resource &lt;em&gt;about&lt;/em&gt; how to write news: that could be hugely useful here and could involve the process of writing news stories to learn and to share back and forth with an editor or fact-checker. In fact, I'd support an entire namespace dedicated to keeping the notion of Wikinews alive here. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:38, 1 May 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you so much! How do I start? Cheers! @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 01:07, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
:::I think it's premature to start just making news articles en masse, but if you want to start discussing the topic of citizen journalism, you can do that now. [[:Category:Journalism]] already has some material, so you can start by seeing what we already have, how you can refine that, etc. You can definitely have learning resources with collaborators who want to learn about journalism ASAP. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 01:24, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
::::thanks. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 01:38, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
::::If I could try and start one News Article could you please tell me how to go about it? Like what style of writing like Wikinews or something else? Thank you Justin! @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 01:48, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
:::::Honestly, there are very few policies and guidelines here. I think the best way to write a news story would be in a manner that is obvious and instructive. So, for instance, it's common to use the &quot;pyramid style&quot; when you're writing news, so if you were to write a story that makes it very clear that you are using that approach, that would be helpful. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:08, 2 May 2026 (UTC)
::::::cool thanks. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 02:13, 2 May 2026 (UTC)

== Language learning  ==

toki! I am trying to add or see what the toki pona language learning stuff on here is but I don't see anything that is language learning for anything. [[User:Jan Imon|Jan Imon]] ([[User talk:Jan Imon|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jan Imon|contribs]]) 23:13, 2 May 2026 (UTC) —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:29, 3 May 2026 (UTC)

:We have language materials ([[:Category:Languages]], [[World Languages]], [[Portal:Foreign Language Learning]], [[Portal:Multilingual Studies]]). They are not as developed as I think we would all like and there's not any coverage of Toki Pona, but in principle, we could and would like that. You can also see [[:b:Subject:Languages]] at our sister project Wikibooks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:33, 3 May 2026 (UTC)

== Timeline format? ==

I’ve been working on the World War II articles, including the [[World War II/Timeline|timeline]], and is there a specific timeline format that should be used? Right now it’s just a table, and there’s no separation between different periods/phases of the war.

I don’t want to use [[mw:Extension:EasyTimeline]] because this will be displaying dates and not time periods. [[User:PhilDaBirdMan|PhilDaBirdMan]] ([[User talk:PhilDaBirdMan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PhilDaBirdMan|contribs]]) 01:35, 4 May 2026 (UTC)

:I dont think we have a policy or guideline, how to format a timeline. But you may try to browes wikiversity by Google if someone was dealing with this in the past somewhow @[[User:PhilDaBirdMan|PhilDaBirdMan]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:23, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
::+1 - there's no specific guideline on how to format a timeline, it's really up to you. In my opinion I think the timeline is good. I'd personally bold the dates just to make it easier to separate it from the event description, but that's my personal 2 cents. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:18, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:::I’ll probably remove links to the dates/years, they’re just Wikipedia pages that shouldn’t be over linked to. [[User:PhilDaBirdMan|PhilDaBirdMan]] ([[User talk:PhilDaBirdMan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PhilDaBirdMan|contribs]]) 00:39, 6 May 2026 (UTC)

== Interface administrator for Codename Noreste ==

Hello, everyone. I am requesting interface administrator access on this wiki.

The main reasoning is that I would benefit from having the user right &lt;code&gt;editinterface&lt;/code&gt;, which would allow me to make dark mode changes to pages in the MediaWiki namespace, add &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;mw-parser-output&quot;&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; to some interface pages using templates, handle interface-protected edit requests, and similar stuff. Additionally, I have some knowledge of CSS, and I would like to assist with modifying CSS pages whenever necessary, such as moving MediaWiki common.css code to TemplateStyles CSS pages.

I am requesting the maximum time that is allowed per the [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators|policy]], and I have 2FA enabled on my account. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:55, 6 May 2026 (UTC)

*{{support}} Globally trusted user. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 01:07, 6 May 2026 (UTC)
*{{support}} Trusted and knowledgeable. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:35, 6 May 2026 (UTC)
*{{support}} WV would benefit from this. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 08:32, 6 May 2026 (UTC)
*{{support}} --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:13, 7 May 2026 (UTC)

:{{Comment}} Could @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] delete [[MediaWiki:Gadget-WikiSign.js]], which was requested to be deleted @[[User:Koavf|Justin]], @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]]? I dont think we need it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:40, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::Yes - clearly no longer used -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:18, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::: I can't delete it because I don't have the required permissions to do so.
::: On a side note, if this project has a need for permanent interface administrators, I would suggest that we have a minimum of two IAs, similar to how there must be two CUs and/or suppressors (or none). Maybe Koavf can be a good candidate if I am elected for permanent interface adminship, and I believe that permission shouldn't be removed from someone's own account. Instead, a bureaucrat should do it. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:20, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::::I am willing and happy to do it, unfortunately, we do not have an appetite for indef IAs and just had a discussion that resulted in a [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Interface_administrators&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2807543 consensus that we can have IAs that have the user rights for 14 to 120 days]. So once you have the rights, please make sure to gopher it. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:54, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
:::::@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] give it time. Look at me, I was in favor of shorter time, now I am looking back to times, when custodians could do it without the need of extra flag. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:31, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::::::Here's hoping. I think it would reduce administrative overhead, but that's just me and I'm not a bureaucrat here. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:33, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::::Complicated. Where are the times, admins could do everything! [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:27, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]] to become a policy ==

Following the recent approval of [[Wikiversity:Curators]] as a policy, I think [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]] may also be ready for policy status.

Please share your views about whether bureaucratship is ready to become a policy, or whether further revisions are needed.

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:58, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
: I added a logo about that user group, but other than that, it looks good to me. {{support}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:38, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
:I think that the consensus on this policy is proven by years of using it without further changes. But I I have to say weather I agree with this to become a policy, than of course {{support}}. It works and there were no major issues with it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:45, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
:{{support}} no issues. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:51, 10 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>c9bawnyut0oopqa7twrhjrvws9p16qx</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikiversity:Support staff</title>
    <ns>4</ns>
    <id>55</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2808320</id>
      <parentid>2808042</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T10:38:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Roles */ Tidy CheckUser</comment>
      <origin>2808320</origin>
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      <text bytes="3919" sha1="iacsugb2i6tsx13zh8muzxab8nlym6d" xml:space="preserve">{{Shortcut|WV:STAFF|WV:SUPPORT|WV:SS}}
__NOTOC__
Wikiversity staff are trusted [[Wikiversity:Users|users]] who volunteer to help maintain the site as [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]], [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodians]], or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|bureaucrats]]. They are happy to assist and answer any of your questions. Request assistance at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|request custodian action]] or contact someone directly.

== Roles ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width:100%; text-align:left;&quot;
|+Overview of support staff roles
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Role
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Description
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Key Permissions
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]]'''
| Users who help manage Wikiversity content.
| 
* [[Wikiversity:Deletions|Delete pages]]
* [[Wikiversity:Rollback|Rollback edits]]
* [[Wikiversity:Import|Import content]]
* [[Wikiversity:Page protection|Protect pages]]
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]'''
| Equivalent to administrators (sysops) on other Wikimedia projects.
| 
* All curator permissions
* [[Wikiversity:Blocking policy|Block users]]
* Edit user interface text
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrat]]'''
| Senior users with advanced user management permissions.
| 
* All custodian permissions
* Promote users to curator or custodian
* Grant/revoke [[Wikiversity:Bots|bot]] and [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators|interface admin]] rights
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy|CheckUser]]'''
| Users with access to the [[meta:Checkuser|CheckUser tool]] for investigating misuse of multiple accounts
|
* Investigate sockpuppetry and abuse
* Access technical user data
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Bots|Bots]]'''
| Automated or semi-automated accounts used to perform repetitive tasks.
|
* Fix links
* Correct typos
* Update categories
* Perform maintenance tasks
|}

== Support staff directory ==
{{Shortcut|WV:STAFF/D|WV:SUPPORT/D|WV:SS/D}}

Automatically-generated lists of current Wikiversity support staff:
* [[Special:ListUsers/curator|Curators]]
* [[Special:ListUsers/sysop|Custodians]]
* [[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|Bureaucrats]] 

This table provides Wikiversity support staff details. Staff who have been active in the last three months (as of April 2026, based on [[Special:Log]] actions) are shown in bold. Inactive staff members may not be available to provide assistance. Missing staff members should be added.
&lt;!-- Please update [[Template:Support staff]], thank you! --&gt;
{{Support staff}}

== Candidates ==
[[File:Wikiversity Administrator.svg|right|110px]]
'''If you would like to help out as a curator or custodian on Wikiversity, please list yourself at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship|Candidates for Custodianship]].''' You are strongly advised to familiarise yourself with [[Wikiversity:Maintenance|the maintenance page]] and  [[Wikiversity:Policy|Wikiversity policies]], and to involve yourself with non-custodial maintenance tasks before you apply. There are lots of ways you can help Wikiversity without/before becoming a custodian.

==See also==
*[[Special:ListUsers|List of users]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|Bureaucrats]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/checkuser|Checkusers]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/curator|Curators]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/sysop|Custodians]]
**[[Special:ListUsers|Users]]
*[[Wikiversity:Maintenance]]
*[[Wikiversity:Notices for custodians|Custodian notice board]] – information for custodians
*[[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]]
*[[Wikiversity:User access levels]]

==External links==
*[https://xtools.wmflabs.org/adminstats/en.wikiversity.org?actions=delete|revision-delete|log-delete|restore|re-block|unblock|re-protect|unprotect|rights|merge|import|abusefilter Staff activity on Wikiversity]

[[Category:Wikiversity administration]]
[[Category:Wikiversity custodianship|Wikiversity custodianship]]
[[Category:Wikiversity support staff]]</text>
      <sha1>iacsugb2i6tsx13zh8muzxab8nlym6d</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808321</id>
      <parentid>2808320</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T10:41:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Roles */ Tidy CheckUser</comment>
      <origin>2808321</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3906" sha1="cfzdpym9shd06b74zyq388sh8rkd7rz" xml:space="preserve">{{Shortcut|WV:STAFF|WV:SUPPORT|WV:SS}}
__NOTOC__
Wikiversity staff are trusted [[Wikiversity:Users|users]] who volunteer to help maintain the site as [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]], [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodians]], or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|bureaucrats]]. They are happy to assist and answer any of your questions. Request assistance at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|request custodian action]] or contact someone directly.

== Roles ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width:100%; text-align:left;&quot;
|+Overview of support staff roles
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Role
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Description
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Key Permissions
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]]'''
| Users who help manage Wikiversity content.
| 
* [[Wikiversity:Deletions|Delete pages]]
* [[Wikiversity:Rollback|Rollback edits]]
* [[Wikiversity:Import|Import content]]
* [[Wikiversity:Page protection|Protect pages]]
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]'''
| Equivalent to administrators (sysops) on other Wikimedia projects.
| 
* All curator permissions
* [[Wikiversity:Blocking policy|Block users]]
* Edit user interface text
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrat]]'''
| Senior users with advanced user management permissions.
| 
* All custodian permissions
* Promote users to curator or custodian
* Grant/revoke [[Wikiversity:Bots|bot]] and [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators|interface admin]] rights
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy|CheckUser]]'''
| Users who can investigate misuse of multiple accounts
|
* Investigate sockpuppetry and abuse
* Access technical user data via [[meta:Checkuser|CheckUser tool]]
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Bots|Bots]]'''
| Automated or semi-automated accounts used to perform repetitive tasks.
|
* Fix links
* Correct typos
* Update categories
* Perform maintenance tasks
|}

== Support staff directory ==
{{Shortcut|WV:STAFF/D|WV:SUPPORT/D|WV:SS/D}}

Automatically-generated lists of current Wikiversity support staff:
* [[Special:ListUsers/curator|Curators]]
* [[Special:ListUsers/sysop|Custodians]]
* [[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|Bureaucrats]] 

This table provides Wikiversity support staff details. Staff who have been active in the last three months (as of April 2026, based on [[Special:Log]] actions) are shown in bold. Inactive staff members may not be available to provide assistance. Missing staff members should be added.
&lt;!-- Please update [[Template:Support staff]], thank you! --&gt;
{{Support staff}}

== Candidates ==
[[File:Wikiversity Administrator.svg|right|110px]]
'''If you would like to help out as a curator or custodian on Wikiversity, please list yourself at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship|Candidates for Custodianship]].''' You are strongly advised to familiarise yourself with [[Wikiversity:Maintenance|the maintenance page]] and  [[Wikiversity:Policy|Wikiversity policies]], and to involve yourself with non-custodial maintenance tasks before you apply. There are lots of ways you can help Wikiversity without/before becoming a custodian.

==See also==
*[[Special:ListUsers|List of users]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|Bureaucrats]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/checkuser|Checkusers]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/curator|Curators]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/sysop|Custodians]]
**[[Special:ListUsers|Users]]
*[[Wikiversity:Maintenance]]
*[[Wikiversity:Notices for custodians|Custodian notice board]] – information for custodians
*[[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]]
*[[Wikiversity:User access levels]]

==External links==
*[https://xtools.wmflabs.org/adminstats/en.wikiversity.org?actions=delete|revision-delete|log-delete|restore|re-block|unblock|re-protect|unprotect|rights|merge|import|abusefilter Staff activity on Wikiversity]

[[Category:Wikiversity administration]]
[[Category:Wikiversity custodianship|Wikiversity custodianship]]
[[Category:Wikiversity support staff]]</text>
      <sha1>cfzdpym9shd06b74zyq388sh8rkd7rz</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808322</id>
      <parentid>2808321</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T10:44:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Swap Roles and Directory; add links to curator and bureaucrat nomination pages</comment>
      <origin>2808322</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4058" sha1="isxzr7logyb7xcn4ddog0vxijgt5clf" xml:space="preserve">{{Shortcut|WV:STAFF|WV:SUPPORT|WV:SS}}
__NOTOC__
Wikiversity staff are trusted [[Wikiversity:Users|users]] who volunteer to help maintain the site as [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]], [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodians]], or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|bureaucrats]]. They are happy to assist and answer any of your questions. Request assistance at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|request custodian action]] or contact someone directly.

== Support staff directory ==
{{Shortcut|WV:STAFF/D|WV:SUPPORT/D|WV:SS/D}}

Automatically-generated lists of current Wikiversity support staff:
* [[Special:ListUsers/curator|Curators]]
* [[Special:ListUsers/sysop|Custodians]]
* [[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|Bureaucrats]] 

This table provides Wikiversity support staff details. Staff who have been active in the last three months (as of April 2026, based on [[Special:Log]] actions) are shown in bold. Inactive staff members may not be available to provide assistance. Missing staff members should be added.
&lt;!-- Please update [[Template:Support staff]], thank you! --&gt;
{{Support staff}}


== Roles ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width:100%; text-align:left;&quot;
|+Overview of support staff roles
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Role
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Description
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Key Permissions
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]]'''
| Users who help manage Wikiversity content.
| 
* [[Wikiversity:Deletions|Delete pages]]
* [[Wikiversity:Rollback|Rollback edits]]
* [[Wikiversity:Import|Import content]]
* [[Wikiversity:Page protection|Protect pages]]
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]'''
| Equivalent to administrators (sysops) on other Wikimedia projects.
| 
* All curator permissions
* [[Wikiversity:Blocking policy|Block users]]
* Edit user interface text
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrat]]'''
| Senior users with advanced user management permissions.
| 
* All custodian permissions
* Promote users to curator or custodian
* Grant/revoke [[Wikiversity:Bots|bot]] and [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators|interface admin]] rights
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy|CheckUser]]'''
| Users who can investigate misuse of multiple accounts
|
* Investigate sockpuppetry and abuse
* Access technical user data via [[meta:Checkuser|CheckUser tool]]
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Bots|Bots]]'''
| Automated or semi-automated accounts used to perform repetitive tasks.
|
* Fix links
* Correct typos
* Update categories
* Perform maintenance tasks
|}

== Candidates ==
[[File:Wikiversity Administrator.svg|right|110px]]
'''If you would like to help out as a curator or custodian on Wikiversity, please list yourself at''':
* [[Wikiversit:Candidates for Curatorship|Candidates for Curatorship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship|Candidates for Custodianship]]
* [[Wikiversit:Candidates for Curatorship|Candidates for Bureaucratship]]

You are strongly advised to familiarise yourself with [[Wikiversity:Maintenance|the maintenance page]] and  [[Wikiversity:Policy|Wikiversity policies]], and to involve yourself with non-custodial maintenance tasks before you apply. There are lots of ways you can help Wikiversity without/before becoming a staff member.

==See also==
*[[Special:ListUsers|List of users]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|Bureaucrats]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/checkuser|Checkusers]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/curator|Curators]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/sysop|Custodians]]
**[[Special:ListUsers|Users]]
*[[Wikiversity:Maintenance]]
*[[Wikiversity:Notices for custodians|Custodian notice board]] – information for custodians
*[[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]]
*[[Wikiversity:User access levels]]

==External links==
*[https://xtools.wmflabs.org/adminstats/en.wikiversity.org?actions=delete|revision-delete|log-delete|restore|re-block|unblock|re-protect|unprotect|rights|merge|import|abusefilter Staff activity on Wikiversity]

[[Category:Wikiversity administration]]
[[Category:Wikiversity custodianship|Wikiversity custodianship]]
[[Category:Wikiversity support staff]]</text>
      <sha1>isxzr7logyb7xcn4ddog0vxijgt5clf</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808323</id>
      <parentid>2808322</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T10:46:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Candidates */</comment>
      <origin>2808323</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4060" sha1="qr00m5rrme1tujpts898ozyi1558c4l" xml:space="preserve">{{Shortcut|WV:STAFF|WV:SUPPORT|WV:SS}}
__NOTOC__
Wikiversity staff are trusted [[Wikiversity:Users|users]] who volunteer to help maintain the site as [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]], [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodians]], or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|bureaucrats]]. They are happy to assist and answer any of your questions. Request assistance at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|request custodian action]] or contact someone directly.

== Support staff directory ==
{{Shortcut|WV:STAFF/D|WV:SUPPORT/D|WV:SS/D}}

Automatically-generated lists of current Wikiversity support staff:
* [[Special:ListUsers/curator|Curators]]
* [[Special:ListUsers/sysop|Custodians]]
* [[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|Bureaucrats]] 

This table provides Wikiversity support staff details. Staff who have been active in the last three months (as of April 2026, based on [[Special:Log]] actions) are shown in bold. Inactive staff members may not be available to provide assistance. Missing staff members should be added.
&lt;!-- Please update [[Template:Support staff]], thank you! --&gt;
{{Support staff}}


== Roles ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width:100%; text-align:left;&quot;
|+Overview of support staff roles
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Role
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Description
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Key Permissions
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]]'''
| Users who help manage Wikiversity content.
| 
* [[Wikiversity:Deletions|Delete pages]]
* [[Wikiversity:Rollback|Rollback edits]]
* [[Wikiversity:Import|Import content]]
* [[Wikiversity:Page protection|Protect pages]]
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]'''
| Equivalent to administrators (sysops) on other Wikimedia projects.
| 
* All curator permissions
* [[Wikiversity:Blocking policy|Block users]]
* Edit user interface text
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrat]]'''
| Senior users with advanced user management permissions.
| 
* All custodian permissions
* Promote users to curator or custodian
* Grant/revoke [[Wikiversity:Bots|bot]] and [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators|interface admin]] rights
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy|CheckUser]]'''
| Users who can investigate misuse of multiple accounts
|
* Investigate sockpuppetry and abuse
* Access technical user data via [[meta:Checkuser|CheckUser tool]]
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Bots|Bots]]'''
| Automated or semi-automated accounts used to perform repetitive tasks.
|
* Fix links
* Correct typos
* Update categories
* Perform maintenance tasks
|}

== Candidates ==
[[File:Wikiversity Administrator.svg|right|110px]]
'''If you would like to help out as a curator or custodian on Wikiversity, please list yourself at''':
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship|Candidates for Curatorship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship|Candidates for Custodianship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship|Candidates for Bureaucratship]]

You are strongly advised to familiarise yourself with [[Wikiversity:Maintenance|the maintenance page]] and  [[Wikiversity:Policy|Wikiversity policies]], and to involve yourself with non-custodial maintenance tasks before you apply. There are lots of ways you can help Wikiversity without/before becoming a staff member.

==See also==
*[[Special:ListUsers|List of users]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|Bureaucrats]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/checkuser|Checkusers]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/curator|Curators]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/sysop|Custodians]]
**[[Special:ListUsers|Users]]
*[[Wikiversity:Maintenance]]
*[[Wikiversity:Notices for custodians|Custodian notice board]] – information for custodians
*[[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]]
*[[Wikiversity:User access levels]]

==External links==
*[https://xtools.wmflabs.org/adminstats/en.wikiversity.org?actions=delete|revision-delete|log-delete|restore|re-block|unblock|re-protect|unprotect|rights|merge|import|abusefilter Staff activity on Wikiversity]

[[Category:Wikiversity administration]]
[[Category:Wikiversity custodianship|Wikiversity custodianship]]
[[Category:Wikiversity support staff]]</text>
      <sha1>qr00m5rrme1tujpts898ozyi1558c4l</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808324</id>
      <parentid>2808323</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T10:47:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Candidates */</comment>
      <origin>2808324</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4052" sha1="2t76mqdprd08sl7v2qcw6nml808yzo8" xml:space="preserve">{{Shortcut|WV:STAFF|WV:SUPPORT|WV:SS}}
__NOTOC__
Wikiversity staff are trusted [[Wikiversity:Users|users]] who volunteer to help maintain the site as [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]], [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodians]], or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|bureaucrats]]. They are happy to assist and answer any of your questions. Request assistance at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|request custodian action]] or contact someone directly.

== Support staff directory ==
{{Shortcut|WV:STAFF/D|WV:SUPPORT/D|WV:SS/D}}

Automatically-generated lists of current Wikiversity support staff:
* [[Special:ListUsers/curator|Curators]]
* [[Special:ListUsers/sysop|Custodians]]
* [[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|Bureaucrats]] 

This table provides Wikiversity support staff details. Staff who have been active in the last three months (as of April 2026, based on [[Special:Log]] actions) are shown in bold. Inactive staff members may not be available to provide assistance. Missing staff members should be added.
&lt;!-- Please update [[Template:Support staff]], thank you! --&gt;
{{Support staff}}


== Roles ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width:100%; text-align:left;&quot;
|+Overview of support staff roles
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Role
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Description
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Key Permissions
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]]'''
| Users who help manage Wikiversity content.
| 
* [[Wikiversity:Deletions|Delete pages]]
* [[Wikiversity:Rollback|Rollback edits]]
* [[Wikiversity:Import|Import content]]
* [[Wikiversity:Page protection|Protect pages]]
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]'''
| Equivalent to administrators (sysops) on other Wikimedia projects.
| 
* All curator permissions
* [[Wikiversity:Blocking policy|Block users]]
* Edit user interface text
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrat]]'''
| Senior users with advanced user management permissions.
| 
* All custodian permissions
* Promote users to curator or custodian
* Grant/revoke [[Wikiversity:Bots|bot]] and [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators|interface admin]] rights
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy|CheckUser]]'''
| Users who can investigate misuse of multiple accounts
|
* Investigate sockpuppetry and abuse
* Access technical user data via [[meta:Checkuser|CheckUser tool]]
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Bots|Bots]]'''
| Automated or semi-automated accounts used to perform repetitive tasks.
|
* Fix links
* Correct typos
* Update categories
* Perform maintenance tasks
|}

== Candidates ==
[[File:Wikiversity Administrator.svg|right|110px]]
'''If you would like to help out as a staff member on Wikiversity, please list yourself at''':
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship|Candidates for Curatorship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship|Candidates for Custodianship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship|Candidates for Bureaucratship]]

You are strongly advised to familiarise yourself with [[Wikiversity:Maintenance|the maintenance page]] and  [[Wikiversity:Policy|Wikiversity policies]], and to involve yourself with non-custodial maintenance tasks before you apply. There are lots of ways you can help Wikiversity without/before becoming a staff member.

==See also==
*[[Special:ListUsers|List of users]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|Bureaucrats]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/checkuser|Checkusers]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/curator|Curators]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/sysop|Custodians]]
**[[Special:ListUsers|Users]]
*[[Wikiversity:Maintenance]]
*[[Wikiversity:Notices for custodians|Custodian notice board]] – information for custodians
*[[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]]
*[[Wikiversity:User access levels]]

==External links==
*[https://xtools.wmflabs.org/adminstats/en.wikiversity.org?actions=delete|revision-delete|log-delete|restore|re-block|unblock|re-protect|unprotect|rights|merge|import|abusefilter Staff activity on Wikiversity]

[[Category:Wikiversity administration]]
[[Category:Wikiversity custodianship|Wikiversity custodianship]]
[[Category:Wikiversity support staff]]</text>
      <sha1>2t76mqdprd08sl7v2qcw6nml808yzo8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808325</id>
      <parentid>2808324</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T10:56:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>2808325</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3858" sha1="g28rs544ujkfi0clr26attor1jm4exi" xml:space="preserve">{{Shortcut|WV:STAFF|WV:SUPPORT|WV:SS}}
__NOTOC__
Wikiversity staff are trusted [[Wikiversity:Users|users]] who volunteer to help maintain the site as [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]], [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodians]], or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|bureaucrats]]. They are happy to assist and answer any of your questions. Request assistance at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|request custodian action]] or contact someone directly.

== Support staff directory ==
{{Shortcut|WV:STAFF/D|WV:SUPPORT/D|WV:SS/D}}

* Staff who have been active in the last three months (as of April 2026&lt;ref&gt;based on [[Special:Log]] actions&lt;/ref&gt;) are shown in bold
* Inactive staff members may not be available to provide assistance
* Missing staff members and missing details should be added
&lt;!-- Please update [[Template:Support staff]], thank you! --&gt;
{{Support staff}}

==Automatic lists of support staff==
*[[Special:ListUsers|Users]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|Bureaucrats]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/checkuser|Checkusers]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/curator|Curators]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/sysop|Custodians]]

== Roles ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width:100%; text-align:left;&quot;
|+Overview of support staff roles
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Role
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Description
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Key Permissions
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]]'''
| Users who help manage Wikiversity content.
| 
* [[Wikiversity:Deletions|Delete pages]]
* [[Wikiversity:Rollback|Rollback edits]]
* [[Wikiversity:Import|Import content]]
* [[Wikiversity:Page protection|Protect pages]]
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]'''
| Equivalent to administrators (sysops) on other Wikimedia projects.
| 
* All curator permissions
* [[Wikiversity:Blocking policy|Block users]]
* Edit user interface text
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrat]]'''
| Senior users with advanced user management permissions.
| 
* All custodian permissions
* Promote users to curator or custodian
* Grant/revoke [[Wikiversity:Bots|bot]] and [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators|interface admin]] rights
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy|CheckUser]]'''
| Users who can investigate misuse of multiple accounts
|
* Investigate sockpuppetry and abuse
* Access technical user data via [[meta:Checkuser|CheckUser tool]]
|-
|scope=&quot;row&quot;| '''[[Wikiversity:Bots|Bots]]'''
| Automated or semi-automated accounts used to perform repetitive tasks.
|
* Fix links
* Correct typos
* Update categories
* Perform maintenance tasks
|}

== Candidates ==
[[File:Wikiversity Administrator.svg|right|110px]]
'''If you would like to help out as a staff member on Wikiversity, please list yourself at''':
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship|Candidates for Curatorship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship|Candidates for Custodianship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship|Candidates for Bureaucratship]]

You are strongly advised to familiarise yourself with [[Wikiversity:Maintenance|the maintenance page]] and  [[Wikiversity:Policy|Wikiversity policies]], and to involve yourself with non-custodial maintenance tasks before you apply. There are lots of ways you can help Wikiversity without/before becoming a staff member.

==See also==
*[[Wikiversity:Maintenance]]
*[[Wikiversity:Notices for custodians|Custodian notice board]] – information for custodians
*[[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]]
*[[Wikiversity:User access levels]]

==Footnote==
&lt;references /&gt;

==External links==
*[https://xtools.wmflabs.org/adminstats/en.wikiversity.org?actions=delete|revision-delete|log-delete|restore|re-block|unblock|re-protect|unprotect|rights|merge|import|abusefilter Staff activity on Wikiversity]

[[Category:Wikiversity administration]]
[[Category:Wikiversity custodianship|Wikiversity custodianship]]
[[Category:Wikiversity support staff]]</text>
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{| style=&quot;border-spacing:8px;margin:0px -8px&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;
|class=&quot;MainPageBG&quot; style=&quot;width: 55%; border:1px solid #084080; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top;color:#000000;font-size: 85%&quot;|
{| width=&quot;100%&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA&quot;
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background-color:#CEF2E0; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #084080; text-align:left; color:#082840; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt; '''Hello Koavf! [[Wikiversity:Welcome, newcomers|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?|Wikiversity]]!''' If you decide that you need help, check out [[Wikiversity:Help desk]], ask the [[Wikiversity:Support staff|support staff]], or ask me on my talk page. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Sign your posts on talk pages|sign your name]] on talk pages using four tildes (~&amp;#126;~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. Below are some recommended guidelines to facilitate your involvement. Happy Editing! -- [[User:Trevor MacInnis|Trevor MacInnis]] 22:28, 4 September 2006 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
|}
{| style=&quot;border-spacing:8px;margin:0px -8px&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;
|class=&quot;MainPageBG&quot; style=&quot;width: 55%; border:1px solid #FFFFFF; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top&quot;|
{| width=&quot;100%&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA&quot;
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #CEF2E0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt;Getting Started&lt;/div&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;color:#000&quot;|
* [[Wikiversity:Guided tour|Take a guided tour]]
* [[Help:Editing|How to edit a page]]
* [[Wikiversity:Be bold|Be bold in editing]]
* [[Portal:Learning Projects|Learning Projects]]
* [[Wikiversity:What Wikiversity is not|What Wikiversity is not]]
|-
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt;Getting your info out there&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;color:#000&quot;|
* [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|Cite your sources]]
* [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|Neutral Point of View]]
* [[Wikiversity:Verifiability|Verifiability]]
|-
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt;Getting more Wikiversity rules&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;color:#000&quot;|
* [[Wikiversity:Policies|Policy Library]]
|-
|}
|class=&quot;MainPageBG&quot; style=&quot;width: 55%; border:1px solid #FFFFFF; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top&quot;|
{| width=&quot;100%&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA&quot;
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #CEF2E0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt;Getting Help&lt;/div&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;color:#000&quot;|
* [[Wikiversity:Research|Research guidelines]]
* [[Wikiversity:Help desk|Help Desk]]
|-
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt;Getting along&lt;/div&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;color:#000&quot;|
* [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]]
* [[Wikiversity:Sign your posts on talk pages|Sign your posts]]
* [[Wikiversity:Scholarly ethics|Scholarly ethics]]
|-
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt;Getting technical&lt;/div&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;color:#000&quot;|
[[Image:Wikimedia Foundation RGB logo with text.svg|60px|right]]
* [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]]
|-
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== wikitravel ==

Hi. You removed links to Wikitravel. Why? --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 12:44, 24 October 2013 (UTC)
:'''Wikitravel links''' Per discussion at [[w:Template:Wikitravel|en.wp]] as well as [[m:Interwiki map|Meta]] to remove links at those projects. If you want to keep links and references here at en.v, I guess that's fine. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:28, 24 October 2013 (UTC)

== Thanks. ==

I see you got it before I explained. Wikiversity is disconcerting to those familiar with the encyclopedia projects, and the other content-oriented projects. While we do have a content mission, we ''also'' have a &quot;learning by doing&quot; mission, which is about ''people.'' Our product is not just content, it is education, and there is no education without users who are educated, and sophisticated education is always about process and people skills and the rest. I would argue that the encyclopedia projects also need to be welcoming, if the full mission is to be fulfilled, but ... they developed with a very narrow focus and absent the realization that an environment that was easily seen as hostile would damage the mission.

The 20th century saw the development of systems and skills and process for maximizing consensus, and the only reliable measure of neutrality is level of consensus. (I.e., if everyone involved agrees, 100% consensus, while what they agree upon only might possibly turn out, in the end, to be defective or invalid, there is no better measure!). So to the extent that there is exclusion, to that extent, the assessment of neutrality can be warped.

Obviously, compromises are necessary, but &quot;compromise&quot; requires tolerating a level of damage, and that is easily forgotten. When the importance of consensus being as broad as possible is realized, a community will find ways to keep conversation open, on some level, in some place, otherwise the community becomes locked into what I call the &quot;tyranny of the past.&quot; There is a children's song that was part of a therapeutic response to Reactive Attachment Disorder:
:'''There is always something you can do, do, do'''
:'''When you're getting in a stew, stew, stew.'''

Mostly, it involves simmering down, dropping upset and reactive response, and, when calm, communicating.

While this kind of work has been done on Wikipedia, often in user space -- it's what I did, successfully mediating disputes, such that users at each other's throats became cooperative ''with each other'' -- this was mumbo-jumbo nonsense to too many on Wikipedia. For example, see [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/Abd_user_pages], which included many pages of historical function, including evidence presented to ArbCom. I found it very strange that ArbCom did not care that evidence used in a case was being deleted, but ArbCom consists of too many elevated beyond their competence by popularity (as well as many other highly-experienced and thoughtful user; but the system tends to burn them out and they become less attentive.)

[[w:User:Abd/Dispute over thermoeconomics]] was particularly educational. In that mediation, a professor was revert warring with Randy from Boise, so to speak, and one or both were about to be blocked. It took very little to develop cooperation, mostly just sitting them down together with some support. Hmmm... I'm thinking of asking that these pages be transwikied to Wikiversity, precisely for historical study.

Looking for the link to that, I came across [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/User:UBX/Esperanza_returns this]. It shows a quick and major clue to what happened on en.wiki. Two three-letter users with a conflict. One was an administrator taken to ArbCom by the other, and the administrator was trout-slapped by ArbCom and then, it is obvious, revenge was exacted, by the admin and his friends. This was long-continued and, while not unnoticed, never sanctioned. Admins can be hostile, this one was more than hostile, he was highly insulting at times, using obscene language, and using tools while involved, was reprimanded, made small adjustments to his behavior, but continued pretty much unimpeded. And, as you know, this is not uncommon. He is even a likeable Guy. I consider this all the responsibility ''of the community.'' Blaming people for what comes naturally for them is not productive. Such people generally will modify behavior in a functional community.

Notice the irony. The userbox was &quot;Esperanza returns,&quot; referring to the project designed to foster civility and welcome and cooperation. Esperanza, of course, means Hope. So the nominator was saying, &quot;Hope will never return.&quot; Esperanza was crushed when it temporarily was inactive. Instead of improving the governance, which was easily possible, it was crushed with ''vehemence,'' see the [[w:Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/Wikipedia:Esperanza|MfD]]. Why?

To any serious student of human organizational structure, it's obvious.

Wikiversity is the slim thread of hope, and if it is not protected and defended, hope will break.

Thanks again. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 15:17, 7 August 2015 (UTC)

== Curator ==

Hi! I've noticed and appreciated your recent efforts on behalf of Wikiversity. Do you have any interest in becoming a [[Wikiversity:Curators|Wikiversity curator]]? It would give you additional tools to make some clean-up easier. I'd be happy to nominate/support you if you are interested. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 17:11, 19 October 2016 (UTC)
:{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} I'd be delited and honored. I started editing here as soon as it was founded and I've always wanted to collaborate more on philosophy. If I had some more tools here, I think I'd be more active as well. Thanks for the invitation. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:16, 19 October 2016 (UTC)

::Thanks! And thanks for creating the nomination page. I was in the process, but you beat me to it. :-) -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 18:01, 19 October 2016 (UTC)

:::Congratulations! Let me know if you have any questions. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 02:47, 21 October 2016 (UTC)
::::{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Definitely. Thank you again. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 03:19, 21 October 2016 (UTC)

== Welcome ==

There's also {{tlx|welcomeip}}. Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 00:25, 24 February 2017 (UTC)
:{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Brilliant. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:44, 24 February 2017 (UTC)

== Deletion request ==

Hey Justin,

I was wondering if you could delete [[Module:Color contrast‎]], a page I've created accidentally. I was switching between tabs with the intention of creating the page at Beta Wikiversity, and you know the rest. :) Thanks in advance.

Best,

[[User:Vito Genovese|{{font|color=#008000|'''Vito Genovese'''}}]] 23:10, 12 March 2017 (UTC)
:{{Ping|Vito Genovese}} No problem--accidents happen. Happy to help, Vito. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:13, 12 March 2017 (UTC)

== Do humans have free will? ==

Hi Koavf!

The Wikidebate [[Do humans have free will?]] appears to be well-developed and ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:12, 4 July 2017 (UTC)
:{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} It's certainly a good start. Go for it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:14, 4 July 2017 (UTC)

== Does everything happen for a sufficient reason? ==

Hi Koavf!

[[Does everything happen for a sufficient reason?]] also appears well-developed! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:32, 4 July 2017 (UTC)
:{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} Go for it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:26, 4 July 2017 (UTC)

== New wikidebate syntax ==

Hi Justin! Just wanted to let you know that I made a new improvement to the software and syntax. It's now even cleaner and more compatible with the visual editor. Hope you like it, cheers! --[[User:Sophivorus|Felipe]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 23:58, 5 July 2017 (UTC)

== Learning bass guitar with Joseph Patrick Moore ==

Hi Koavf!

Your course [[Learning bass guitar with Joseph Patrick Moore]] appears well-developed and ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 00:18, 19 February 2018 (UTC)
:{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} Not yet, please. I'm still uploading videos and fleshing out the text portion. I'd be delighted for it to be featured soon, tho. I'll ping you when I'm done-ish. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 01:30, 19 February 2018 (UTC)

== User:Beogradbulevar ==

Most posts relating to boxing or chess are from globally banned user George Reeves Person. Typical attacks come when he gets off work between 2 and 5 p.m. CST, and occasionally later, particularly on Fridays or Saturdays. He uses public libraries for Internet access, and typically doesn't post after 9 p.m. CST. It's unfortunate, but we really have to watch who posts what in the mid-to-late afternoons and be vigilant in blocking the content and not welcoming the user. See [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Marshallsumter]] for the damage it causes. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:25, 5 November 2019 (UTC)
:{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Wow. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:54, 5 November 2019 (UTC)

== CU ==

I closed the CU nomination due to the low number of recent additions to the discussion. It just seemed like we wouldn't meet the criteria in a reasonable time. Thanks for offering to help with this and perhaps we can try again in the future. We appreciate your contributions. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:45, 29 January 2020 (UTC)
:{{Ping|Mu301}} For sure. Thanks yourself. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 20:21, 29 January 2020 (UTC)

== history of covid in the usa ==

Hi {{PAGENAME}}

I was idly surfing the wsj and suddenly realized all articles I was looking at had a video posted right at the top.(example:https://www.wsj.com/articles/some-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000). The video section is 8:06 minutes long and is a short version of the history of pandemic in the usa.

I don't know how to get the url of the video itself. Can you help? Thanks in advance, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 15:57, 2 November 2020 (UTC)
:{{Ping|Ottawahitech}} Load the page in your browser and use the networking console--you can usually get this to display by pressing F12. You'll find that this video is served up as a playlist of several bits with the URI https://oms.dowjoneson.com/b/ss/djglobal/1/JS-2.17.0/s04078897862906?AQB=1&amp;ndh=1&amp;pf=1&amp;t=2%2F10%2F2020%2013%3A6%3A8%201%20300&amp;mid=71630168209780702446627362471898499848&amp;ce=UTF-8&amp;pageName=WSJLive_Video_How%20Coronavirus%20Spread%20Across%20the%20U.S.%20to%20Reach%20200%2C000%20Deaths_372&amp;g=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&amp;c.&amp;a.&amp;media.&amp;friendlyName=How%20Coronavirus%20Spread%20Across%20the%20U.S.%20to%20Reach%20200%2C000%20Deaths&amp;length=486&amp;name=AE28508C-C7DF-406E-814F-69C8FAAD1A86&amp;playerName=Web&amp;channel=WSJ&amp;show=Feature%20Explainer&amp;originator=cmccall&amp;genre=WSJ_News_U.S.%20News&amp;digitalDate=original_2020-09-22%2011%3A58_current_2020-09-22%2011%3A58&amp;feed=video&amp;network=115&amp;format=user%20initiated&amp;streamType=video&amp;view=true&amp;vsid=160434036774097779839&amp;.media&amp;contentType=vod&amp;.a&amp;page.&amp;content.&amp;type=Article&amp;.content&amp;full.&amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&amp;.full&amp;site=Online%20Journal&amp;.page&amp;video.&amp;player.&amp;type=Web&amp;technology=html%203.41.2.205&amp;.player&amp;keywords=CORONAVIRUS%20RESPONSE%7CCORONAVIRUS%20TESTING%7CCOVID-19%20TESTING%7CDANIELA%20HERNANDEZ%7CPANDEMIC%7CTESTING%20SITES&amp;base.&amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&amp;.base&amp;.video&amp;article.&amp;id=SB11126288623532913915004586647794135594296&amp;author=Sarah%20Toy&amp;publish=2020-09-23%2013%3A00&amp;publish.&amp;orig=2020-09-23%2013%3A00&amp;.publish&amp;.article&amp;ad.&amp;blank.&amp;start=false&amp;.blank&amp;disabled=true&amp;catastrophic.&amp;blocker=false&amp;.catastrophic&amp;.ad&amp;.c&amp;pe=ms_s&amp;pev3=video&amp;s=1600x900&amp;c=24&amp;j=1.6&amp;v=N&amp;k=Y&amp;bw=781&amp;bh=776&amp;mcorgid=CB68E4BA55144CAA0A4C98A5%40AdobeOrg&amp;AQE=1 or somesuch (it may not be identical for you). If you open this in VLC Player, you can save playlists as videos. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:09, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

==Custodianship==
Welcome to en.wv custodianship [[User:Koavf]]. Thanks for helping. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 23:04, 8 September 2023 (UTC)

:Merci, James. I hope I'm an asset to the community. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:50, 8 September 2023 (UTC)

== Bowling article ==

Hey there Koavf! I've created that [[Bowling Fundamentals|bowling article]] we discussed at the Colloquium. Do you have any advice on how I can further improve it? [[User:Contributor 118,784|Contributor 118,784]] ([[User talk:Contributor 118,784|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Contributor 118,784|contribs]]) 01:20, 26 September 2023 (UTC)

:Nice. I don't have any particular feedback other than what I mentioned there. I'm pretty ignorant about bowling. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:26, 26 September 2023 (UTC)
::Fair, thank you! [[User:Contributor 118,784|Contributor 118,784]] ([[User talk:Contributor 118,784|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Contributor 118,784|contribs]]) 09:18, 26 September 2023 (UTC)

== RCA talkback (January 2024) ==

{{talkback|WV:RCA|User:50.118.222.66 has been flooding our abuse filter log with spam}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:31, 2 January 2024 (UTC)

== Invitation to discuss page deletion policy ==

A discussion that might interest you has been started at [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Wikiversity:Deletion_Convention_2024]]. -- [[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 17:54, 15 February 2024 (UTC)

== RCA talkback ==

{{tb|Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Induced_stem_cells_copyright_issues}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:02, 24 May 2024 (UTC)

== Report ==

Hello, I would like to report this user, who has a COI: [[Special:Contributions/Oluwadarasimi Morayo]]

Thank you. [[User:Ternera|Ternera]] ([[User talk:Ternera|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ternera|contribs]]) 14:51, 24 May 2024 (UTC)

:Thanks. It's best to leave these at a board like [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]], but this was obvious spam. Cheers. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:19, 24 May 2024 (UTC)

== Files ==
Hello! Thank you for deleting files once again!

You made a comment about &quot;all local uploads&quot;. 

Fair-use is not allowed on Commons so the 2,712 files in [[:Category:All non-free media]] can't go to Commons. But as I understand [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Deleting_ALL_non-free_uploads_by_User:Marshallsumter]] the files uploaded by Marshallsumter could be deleted. That would eliminate 1,126 files. Since [[Wikiversity:Uploading_files#Exemption_Doctrine_Policy]] allow fair use it would require a vote/discussion to change that. 

Young1lim uploads many pdf-files and as far as I know Commons generally do not like pdf-files. Except when it is scans of old books etc. So I do not think those files should go to Commons right now.

There are still many files in [[Special:UnusedFiles]]. Right now 1,422 but some are uploaded by Young1lim. But the latest deletion request ended with delete so I think there is concensus to delete files. But some were also found good and moved to Commons. So the question is if we need another discussion about the files or if someone (you?) could just go through the files when you have a little time and either move to Commons or delete. If you think we could make one final discussion about all the files and ask for a go to the &quot;any admin that want to can check the files and either move to Commons or delete&quot;. Then noone can come later and complain that you or another admin just deleted a file without warning.

If there are 40k files in total. Perhaps 22k are pdf uploaded by Young1lim. 3k are non-free. 1.5k are unused. That would leave around 13.5k free files in use. That is a lot of files to check. I do not think there are many users that are willing to spend much time checking those files. 

But it would help if no more free files are uploaded (except pdf). There is allready a text on the top of [[Special:Upload]] suggesting commons. But it could perhaps be made more clear. And perhaps some of the options on [[MediaWiki:Licenses]] could be removed. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 18:01, 27 July 2024 (UTC)

:Yeah, to be clear, I appreciate that sister projects like e.g. Wikibooks allow a lot of free-use files because they allow video game strategy guides and there is substantial value in screenshots or Wikipedia allows album covers and film posters as identifying media. I'm not proposing any change to policy and I accept that there are reasons for fair use, so I apologize for that sloppy wording. That said, I definitely think we should have minimal fair use if any at all.
:As for PDFs, there are plenty at Commons: I have uploaded dozens and dozens of books, scientific articles, etc. It's not a problem, but it's just not optimal for many kinds of files, such as maps or something.
:I'm happy to help and slog thru the uplaods if you start a conversation. Just ping me. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:49, 27 July 2024 (UTC)
:: Yes fair use have some benefits. But If we/someone is going to make a cleanup it could perhaps be a good idea to first have a discussion about it. So I will start a post about fair use on wikiversity.
:: And about unused files I will start a deletion discussion (again) just to be sure.
:: If you feel like deleting files you could kill the files uploaded by Marshallsumter. :-) --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 09:25, 29 July 2024 (UTC)
::: I started a discussion at [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Fair_use_on_Wikiversity]]. Lets see what happens. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 21:23, 29 July 2024 (UTC)
:::: With the files of Marshallsumter gone that really helped a lot! Lets see what everyone thinks about the rest of the files. It will probably take weeks the get enough comments. But thats okay. It is summer and vacation time and if the files have been around for years they can easily wait a little longer. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 19:20, 31 July 2024 (UTC)
Hello! Some files have been moved to Commons if you would like to have. Look 😊 --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 19:35, 3 March 2025 (UTC)

:1,587&lt;2,712, that's for sure. I'll try to keep chipping away at these. Thanks for the reminder. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 20:06, 3 March 2025 (UTC)

== Revert? ==

Why did you revert this argument?  I wanted (humorously) to make the observation that the guilty party at the end of a suicide is dead but is the only one that can be punished.  Attempted and assisted suicide wasn't included.  [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 22:27, 15 September 2024 (UTC)

:It's not really a venue for hilarious jokes about killing. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 22:44, 15 September 2024 (UTC)
::but I remember there was really some law along that line. With a similar explanation. Some king (could be from a fairy tale, but I don't believe so) wanted to outlaw suicide and his advisers had this idea. The judge (or the king himself) would speak the verdict and justice was already done.  So the king was famous for his his fair and swift justice.  You see I don't remember too clearly,  therefore I wanted to compress the essence of this into an argument. I didn't think it was that hilarious, so sorry for injured sensitivity.  Now that you know what I wanted to do,  could you please formulate an accordingly compressed argument,  in the appropriate tone? [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 00:52, 16 September 2024 (UTC)
:::I think you can. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:56, 16 September 2024 (UTC)
::::I'm not a native speaker. And that you found it hilarious, where I targeted a slightly levied tone shows me that I can't really do it.  [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 01:05, 16 September 2024 (UTC)
:::::I believe in you. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 01:10, 16 September 2024 (UTC)

== Wrong import ==

Hi, template:Languages does not work properly and I think its because even you states that you have importated Module which this template use from BetaWikiversity, you actually imported it from Commons, so the template is than calling non-existent function subpates. Compare:

&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Module:Languages|en.wv module Languages]]

&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[commons:Module:Languages]]

&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[betawikiversity:Module:Languages|betaversity]]


So I dont know if removing incorect revisions and importing corect ones will fix it, but the error message is probably delivered because of this mismatch. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 13:25, 19 August 2025 (UTC)

:Weird, I thought I reverted that. Let me delete that rev. So sorry. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 14:10, 19 August 2025 (UTC)

== A barnstar for you! ==

{| style=&quot;border: 1px solid gray; background-color: #ffffff;&quot;
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot; | [[File:Resilient Barnstar.png|100px]]
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|style=&quot;font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;&quot; | '''The Silver Barnstar'''
|-
|style=&quot;vertical-align: middle; border-top: 1px solid gray;&quot; |  Thanks for contributing to Wikiversity for a very long time. You are the best. —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;&quot;&gt;RailwayEnthusiast2025&lt;/span&gt;]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#59a53f&quot;&gt;''talk with me!''&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:55, 9 September 2025 (UTC)
|}
:How kind. I'm appreciate of your additions and ideas as well. Thanks so much. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 20:29, 9 September 2025 (UTC)

== Deleting all unused templates ==
You seem to have been deleting many templates with the summary &quot;unused template&quot;. One qualm I have with this is that, in general, deleting all unused templates is likely to lead to some revision histories (those that used the templates) becoming illegible. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:21, 19 September 2025 (UTC)

:Yeah, maybe. Probably not a big deal, tho. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:22, 19 September 2025 (UTC)
:: In the English Wikiversity, that is plausible enough. On the other hand, in the English Wiktionary, deleting the once widely used [[wikt: T: term]] as unused would cause massive harm as for legibility, for no appreciable benefit. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:24, 19 September 2025 (UTC)
:::Any examples that really matter can be undeleted or something if really necessary. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:25, 19 September 2025 (UTC)
:::: I have not been long enough around the English Wikiversity to know which of the many (over 100?) deleted templates were once widely used.
:::: Background: In the English Wiktionary, I noticed that someone made the thesarus revision histories completely illegible. There is too much disregard for legibility of revision histories going around. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:33, 19 September 2025 (UTC)
:::::It is a concern of some regard, granted. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:44, 19 September 2025 (UTC)
::::Hi Koavf; as follow-up for this issue, I wanted to mention the [[Template:Convert links]]. This is far from being unused, since it's a fundamental tool in importing Wikipedia articles to Wikiversity, e.g. for all the Wikijournals - see step 4 of [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Editorial_guidelines#Importing_from_Wikipedia]]. 
::::I just bumped into this issue myself, and I presume it will be relevant for several other users in the future. As far as I know, there are no other ways to convert those links (beside doing it manually one by one). Could you therefore please undelete that template? [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 07:56, 22 September 2025 (UTC)
:::::Of course. My apologies for causing problems. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:01, 22 September 2025 (UTC)
::::::Perfect, thanks a lot! [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 08:04, 22 September 2025 (UTC)

I was not aware, that unused templates can be deleted without any notice. I think nothing (except obvious spam and vandalism) should be deleted without warning and time to respond.&lt;br&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Please_restore_my_templates|Please restore 61 of them.]] --[[User:Watchduck|Watchduck]] &lt;small&gt;([[User talk:Watchduck|quack]])&lt;/small&gt; 15:00, 7 October 2025 (UTC)
:I undeleted two templates that you asked for above, but one of them is [[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/tamino NP table]], which is just unused. Why do these need to be here? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:01, 7 October 2025 (UTC)

== Restoring Template:Copyrighted ==
Can you please restore [[:Template:Copyrighted]]? It is clear why this template would be unused: it is only used when some page is tagged as a possible copyright violation.

I guess there should be a way to tag templates as unused-but-needed, and this would be one of then. These would then be excluded from a clean-up action like yours.

On the other hand, the template is linked from [[:Wikiversity:Copyright issues]], so while it is perhaps unused in the sense of ''not invoked'', it is ''linked to''. And a clean-up should ideally not delete pages that are linked to, or consider them on a careful case-to-case basis, no? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 04:06, 8 October 2025 (UTC)

:{{Done}} and agreed that if they have links that aren't from an old talk archive or a userspace or something more trivial, then there should at least be some appropriate action to not leave a redlink. The goal was to go back over those reports the next week or two once they've refreshed to also see wanted templates or wanted pages and try to clear those, so that two-pass system &lt;em&gt;should&lt;/em&gt; catch errors like this, but not always. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:46, 8 October 2025 (UTC)

== Manual numbering ==
My use of manual numbering in the discussion that you modified (RFD) was intentional. One can find documents using such an approach, I think. I would therefore prefer that you leave it as is next time. I am not going to revert it this time; it's not really a big deal. And thank you for correcting my misspeling of suspition to suspicion; my being a non-native speaker showed here. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:13, 9 October 2025 (UTC)

:Good deal. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:15, 9 October 2025 (UTC)

== Draft namespace move ==

Hello Justin,
Do you think it is alright to move [[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025/Basic Scratch Coding]] and subpages to Draft namespace&lt;s&gt;.&lt;/s&gt;? Because I &lt;s&gt;H&lt;/s&gt;haven't fully completed it and would appreciate it if other contributors in the community would like to help out.
Thanks,
RE
—[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;&quot;&gt;RailwayEnthusiast2025&lt;/span&gt;]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#59a53f&quot;&gt;''talk with me!''&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:27, 26 October 2025 (UTC)

:I certainly think so, but honestly, I think the draft namespace is kind of a joke anyway. But I totally support you doing it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 20:39, 26 October 2025 (UTC)

== Article Info - Related item ==

In the Lints was [[:User:Octfx/sandbox2]].

This was throwing a stripped Small , which I can't currently trace, Suggesting the earlier fix whilst mostly stable, has a very specfic interaction. Perhaps you can take a look and resolve this for robustness? [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 23:33, 31 October 2025 (UTC)

:Diagnosing it would be optimal, but to resolve the issue, I just [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User%3AOctfx%2Fsandbox2&amp;diff=2765037&amp;oldid=2425963 commented it out]. The page hasn't been edited in years, nor has that editor edited in years, so I just don't have the bandwidth to investigate. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:39, 31 October 2025 (UTC)

== Possible copyvio ==
Can you please look at [[User:Harold Foppele/sandbox-2]] to see whether there is a copyvio, and if there is one, delete the page? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 18:45, 6 November 2025 (UTC)

:@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] Since you are a custodian, can you please put a stop to this? To me it seems like a personal vendetta that should not belong here. As for the page [[User:Harold Foppele/sandbox-2]] i asked [[user:Jtneill|Jtneill]] for advice some 12 hours ago. Since he is in Australia there is minimum a 12 hour delay in response. Would you maybe willing to help me? Kind regards, [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 18:58, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
::I don't know what the deal is between you and Dan, but I saw the earlier post he made to the curator's noticeboard and haven't had time to investigate. Since it seems that the two of you have some kind of friction, it may be best for you two to just generally avoid interaction in the immediate term. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:03, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
:This [https://archive.org/details/Caltech-ES23.5.1960/page/2/mode/2up was published in the United States with a copyright notice, all rights reserved], so if it's in the public domain is a question of [[:c:Commons:Copyright rules by territory/United States|if the registration was renewed in a timely manner]]. Unfortunately, there is no single database of all renewals, so we can't know for sure if it &lt;em&gt;wasn't/t&lt;/em&gt; renewed. We should probably err on the side of assuming that it's a copyright violation. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:02, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
::I made a request, just to make sure to:: cmgworldwide.com to obtain a license to use it in Wikiversity. As it looks for now i can get the license and will know that end next week. Thanks [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:23, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
:::I am going to delete it for now. It can be undeleted as necessary. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 07:49, 7 November 2025 (UTC)
::::👍 [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:07, 7 November 2025 (UTC)

== Chess by Wikiversitans ==

I made a short setup for the page [[Chess/Play with other Wikiversitans]]. Is that the way you would like it to go? Do you by anychance play chess yoursef? [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 19:21, 6 November 2025 (UTC)

:Great questions. I made that page years ago and [[User:Mu301]] erroneously deleted it. I restored the old revs. As for how it should look, it's all wide open, so I have no objections. I think the notion of somehow playing here on site is actually intriguing. Maybe we could make that work... —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:05, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
::Help is needed from a specialist in the heart of Wiki. If you look at or know Lichess.org its very complex. However starting a Wikiversitans team there is a piece of cake. Just how do we invite our &quot;members&quot; here? Ideas welcome :) [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:49, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
:::Would love to play chess with you. Find me at [[Chess/Play with other Wikiversitans]] in Lichess.org or Chess.com. Leave a message or email if you want to play. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:46, 7 November 2025 (UTC)
::::Thanks. I saw your invite in my inbox, but I'm a little distracted now and recently started a new job, so I didn't want to agree until I had time to actually play. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 11:48, 7 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::No problem. just say &quot;When&quot; :) [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:51, 7 November 2025 (UTC)
::::::[[Chess/Board Configurations]] I think you'll like it. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 13:56, 7 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::::There is also a Wikiversity chess team &lt;span style=&quot;background-color: #aaffaa;&quot;&gt;created at [https://lichess.org/team/wikiversity Lichess.org].&lt;/span&gt; [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 12:58, 8 November 2025 (UTC)
::::::::Oh dip. Thanks for the heads up. I'm glad to see you taking initiative about this. If only I had more time myself. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 22:22, 8 November 2025 (UTC)

== Importing template ==

{{Ping|Koavf}} I would like to change the [[Template:Quantum mechanics]] to look more like [[W:Template:Quantum mechanics]] since the template at WV has almost no contence I could edit that, but better ask you instead of doing it. Btw we should play chess sometime :) Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 10:54, 14 November 2025 (UTC)

== Night mode unaware lint.. ==

Thanks for the edits to self. 

Do you plan to proceed on updating other high-use templates? like {{tl|information}}, and {{tl|article info}}, where I should ideally have resolved the Night mode unaware lint as the same time as the other fixes in the sandbox version you swapped in :(. 
[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:42, 18 November 2025 (UTC)

Please also check my contributions on talk pages for {{tl|edit protected}} requests. 
[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:42, 18 November 2025 (UTC)

:In principle, yes, I do. When will I find the time??? Note that a lot of those edit request were up for months or a year+. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:43, 18 November 2025 (UTC)

: An obvious group to update would be {{tl|Projectbox}} and {{tl|Robelbox}} families, although I would strongly suggest migrating these to use template styles over the current inline approach. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:49, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
::These are good ideas, but I just don't know when I'll have time to implement them. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 12:40, 19 November 2025 (UTC)

== Wikidebate form ==

Hi, hope you're doing good! I just noticed some months ago you deleted [[Template:Form/wikidebate]]. The template was indeed unused (and probably undocumented too) but it did serve a purpose, namely to be ''substituted'' when creating a new wikidebate via [[Wikidebate/New]]. As a consequence, [[Is hate is an ineffective and or selfish emotion?|this happened]] and could happen again. Could you restore it, please? If you can do that, I'll document it properly and tag it with &lt;nowiki&gt;__EXPECTUNUSEDTEMPLATE__&lt;/nowiki&gt; to avoid further confusion. Thanks! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discusión]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs.]]) 14:39, 23 December 2025 (UTC)

:Of course. Thanks for your understanding. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:34, 23 December 2025 (UTC)

== [[:Category:Wikiversity fully protected templates]] ==

I am creating semi/full protection categories for various namespace pages, so can you undelete [[:Category:Wikiversity fully protected templates]]? Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:57, 14 April 2026 (UTC)

:{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:09, 14 April 2026 (UTC)

== Different way to display talk pages for easier reading? ==

On [[Wikiversity:Colloquium]] when many people reply to the same thing all their posts are jumbled together into one big paragraph.

Is this a well known problem? Is there a gadget I could use/activate to make readability/accessibility greater on Wikiversity or are we still working on that?

Can I do anything obvious in order to help in this regard? ie. manually editing talk pages and adding proper wikitext or edit my own common.js? With the recent activation of a javascript that got up on the news...is there a way I can safely test my own common.js code that I ask an LLM to generate for me? I have a Qubes OS computer where I have access to disposable VMs which I can also turn off the internet on so even if the code goes haywire it won't affect my computer or the internet connection. [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 11:45, 27 April 2026 (UTC)
:It's kind of surprising that you would write that, since this wiki has CSS with pretty bold background colors to differentiate comments based on how they are indented. Which skin are you using? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 14:23, 27 April 2026 (UTC)

== Need of IAs ==

I am reading at [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]], that &quot;Wikiversity does not have a need for permanent or long term interface administrators&quot;. So why you think otherwice? What task should be done? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:12, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

:I don't know that we need them as such, I just think that if we had &lt;var&gt;x&lt;/var&gt; IAs then when things come up (which is inevitable), someone can request or fix it directly instead of having a discussion, then getting a bureaucrat to give someone the rights, and then fix it. I'm just concerned about the overhead. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:43, 10 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>7rcicinran3ulb7dioo51qld699dmb4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808255</id>
      <parentid>2808254</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-10T18:59:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Juandev</username>
        <id>2651</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Need of IAs */ Reply</comment>
      <origin>2808255</origin>
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{| style=&quot;border-spacing:8px;margin:0px -8px&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;
|class=&quot;MainPageBG&quot; style=&quot;width: 55%; border:1px solid #084080; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top;color:#000000;font-size: 85%&quot;|
{| width=&quot;100%&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA&quot;
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background-color:#CEF2E0; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #084080; text-align:left; color:#082840; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt; '''Hello Koavf! [[Wikiversity:Welcome, newcomers|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?|Wikiversity]]!''' If you decide that you need help, check out [[Wikiversity:Help desk]], ask the [[Wikiversity:Support staff|support staff]], or ask me on my talk page. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Sign your posts on talk pages|sign your name]] on talk pages using four tildes (~&amp;#126;~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. Below are some recommended guidelines to facilitate your involvement. Happy Editing! -- [[User:Trevor MacInnis|Trevor MacInnis]] 22:28, 4 September 2006 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
|}
{| style=&quot;border-spacing:8px;margin:0px -8px&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;
|class=&quot;MainPageBG&quot; style=&quot;width: 55%; border:1px solid #FFFFFF; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top&quot;|
{| width=&quot;100%&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA&quot;
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #CEF2E0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt;Getting Started&lt;/div&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;color:#000&quot;|
* [[Wikiversity:Guided tour|Take a guided tour]]
* [[Help:Editing|How to edit a page]]
* [[Wikiversity:Be bold|Be bold in editing]]
* [[Portal:Learning Projects|Learning Projects]]
* [[Wikiversity:What Wikiversity is not|What Wikiversity is not]]
|-
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt;Getting your info out there&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;color:#000&quot;|
* [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|Cite your sources]]
* [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|Neutral Point of View]]
* [[Wikiversity:Verifiability|Verifiability]]
|-
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt;Getting more Wikiversity rules&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;color:#000&quot;|
* [[Wikiversity:Policies|Policy Library]]
|-
|}
|class=&quot;MainPageBG&quot; style=&quot;width: 55%; border:1px solid #FFFFFF; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top&quot;|
{| width=&quot;100%&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA&quot;
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #CEF2E0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt;Getting Help&lt;/div&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;color:#000&quot;|
* [[Wikiversity:Research|Research guidelines]]
* [[Wikiversity:Help desk|Help Desk]]
|-
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt;Getting along&lt;/div&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;color:#000&quot;|
* [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]]
* [[Wikiversity:Sign your posts on talk pages|Sign your posts]]
* [[Wikiversity:Scholarly ethics|Scholarly ethics]]
|-
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt;Getting technical&lt;/div&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;color:#000&quot;|
[[Image:Wikimedia Foundation RGB logo with text.svg|60px|right]]
* [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]]
|-
|}
|}
|}

== wikitravel ==

Hi. You removed links to Wikitravel. Why? --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 12:44, 24 October 2013 (UTC)
:'''Wikitravel links''' Per discussion at [[w:Template:Wikitravel|en.wp]] as well as [[m:Interwiki map|Meta]] to remove links at those projects. If you want to keep links and references here at en.v, I guess that's fine. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:28, 24 October 2013 (UTC)

== Thanks. ==

I see you got it before I explained. Wikiversity is disconcerting to those familiar with the encyclopedia projects, and the other content-oriented projects. While we do have a content mission, we ''also'' have a &quot;learning by doing&quot; mission, which is about ''people.'' Our product is not just content, it is education, and there is no education without users who are educated, and sophisticated education is always about process and people skills and the rest. I would argue that the encyclopedia projects also need to be welcoming, if the full mission is to be fulfilled, but ... they developed with a very narrow focus and absent the realization that an environment that was easily seen as hostile would damage the mission.

The 20th century saw the development of systems and skills and process for maximizing consensus, and the only reliable measure of neutrality is level of consensus. (I.e., if everyone involved agrees, 100% consensus, while what they agree upon only might possibly turn out, in the end, to be defective or invalid, there is no better measure!). So to the extent that there is exclusion, to that extent, the assessment of neutrality can be warped.

Obviously, compromises are necessary, but &quot;compromise&quot; requires tolerating a level of damage, and that is easily forgotten. When the importance of consensus being as broad as possible is realized, a community will find ways to keep conversation open, on some level, in some place, otherwise the community becomes locked into what I call the &quot;tyranny of the past.&quot; There is a children's song that was part of a therapeutic response to Reactive Attachment Disorder:
:'''There is always something you can do, do, do'''
:'''When you're getting in a stew, stew, stew.'''

Mostly, it involves simmering down, dropping upset and reactive response, and, when calm, communicating.

While this kind of work has been done on Wikipedia, often in user space -- it's what I did, successfully mediating disputes, such that users at each other's throats became cooperative ''with each other'' -- this was mumbo-jumbo nonsense to too many on Wikipedia. For example, see [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/Abd_user_pages], which included many pages of historical function, including evidence presented to ArbCom. I found it very strange that ArbCom did not care that evidence used in a case was being deleted, but ArbCom consists of too many elevated beyond their competence by popularity (as well as many other highly-experienced and thoughtful user; but the system tends to burn them out and they become less attentive.)

[[w:User:Abd/Dispute over thermoeconomics]] was particularly educational. In that mediation, a professor was revert warring with Randy from Boise, so to speak, and one or both were about to be blocked. It took very little to develop cooperation, mostly just sitting them down together with some support. Hmmm... I'm thinking of asking that these pages be transwikied to Wikiversity, precisely for historical study.

Looking for the link to that, I came across [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/User:UBX/Esperanza_returns this]. It shows a quick and major clue to what happened on en.wiki. Two three-letter users with a conflict. One was an administrator taken to ArbCom by the other, and the administrator was trout-slapped by ArbCom and then, it is obvious, revenge was exacted, by the admin and his friends. This was long-continued and, while not unnoticed, never sanctioned. Admins can be hostile, this one was more than hostile, he was highly insulting at times, using obscene language, and using tools while involved, was reprimanded, made small adjustments to his behavior, but continued pretty much unimpeded. And, as you know, this is not uncommon. He is even a likeable Guy. I consider this all the responsibility ''of the community.'' Blaming people for what comes naturally for them is not productive. Such people generally will modify behavior in a functional community.

Notice the irony. The userbox was &quot;Esperanza returns,&quot; referring to the project designed to foster civility and welcome and cooperation. Esperanza, of course, means Hope. So the nominator was saying, &quot;Hope will never return.&quot; Esperanza was crushed when it temporarily was inactive. Instead of improving the governance, which was easily possible, it was crushed with ''vehemence,'' see the [[w:Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/Wikipedia:Esperanza|MfD]]. Why?

To any serious student of human organizational structure, it's obvious.

Wikiversity is the slim thread of hope, and if it is not protected and defended, hope will break.

Thanks again. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 15:17, 7 August 2015 (UTC)

== Curator ==

Hi! I've noticed and appreciated your recent efforts on behalf of Wikiversity. Do you have any interest in becoming a [[Wikiversity:Curators|Wikiversity curator]]? It would give you additional tools to make some clean-up easier. I'd be happy to nominate/support you if you are interested. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 17:11, 19 October 2016 (UTC)
:{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} I'd be delited and honored. I started editing here as soon as it was founded and I've always wanted to collaborate more on philosophy. If I had some more tools here, I think I'd be more active as well. Thanks for the invitation. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:16, 19 October 2016 (UTC)

::Thanks! And thanks for creating the nomination page. I was in the process, but you beat me to it. :-) -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 18:01, 19 October 2016 (UTC)

:::Congratulations! Let me know if you have any questions. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 02:47, 21 October 2016 (UTC)
::::{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Definitely. Thank you again. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 03:19, 21 October 2016 (UTC)

== Welcome ==

There's also {{tlx|welcomeip}}. Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 00:25, 24 February 2017 (UTC)
:{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Brilliant. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:44, 24 February 2017 (UTC)

== Deletion request ==

Hey Justin,

I was wondering if you could delete [[Module:Color contrast‎]], a page I've created accidentally. I was switching between tabs with the intention of creating the page at Beta Wikiversity, and you know the rest. :) Thanks in advance.

Best,

[[User:Vito Genovese|{{font|color=#008000|'''Vito Genovese'''}}]] 23:10, 12 March 2017 (UTC)
:{{Ping|Vito Genovese}} No problem--accidents happen. Happy to help, Vito. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:13, 12 March 2017 (UTC)

== Do humans have free will? ==

Hi Koavf!

The Wikidebate [[Do humans have free will?]] appears to be well-developed and ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:12, 4 July 2017 (UTC)
:{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} It's certainly a good start. Go for it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:14, 4 July 2017 (UTC)

== Does everything happen for a sufficient reason? ==

Hi Koavf!

[[Does everything happen for a sufficient reason?]] also appears well-developed! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:32, 4 July 2017 (UTC)
:{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} Go for it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:26, 4 July 2017 (UTC)

== New wikidebate syntax ==

Hi Justin! Just wanted to let you know that I made a new improvement to the software and syntax. It's now even cleaner and more compatible with the visual editor. Hope you like it, cheers! --[[User:Sophivorus|Felipe]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 23:58, 5 July 2017 (UTC)

== Learning bass guitar with Joseph Patrick Moore ==

Hi Koavf!

Your course [[Learning bass guitar with Joseph Patrick Moore]] appears well-developed and ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 00:18, 19 February 2018 (UTC)
:{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} Not yet, please. I'm still uploading videos and fleshing out the text portion. I'd be delighted for it to be featured soon, tho. I'll ping you when I'm done-ish. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 01:30, 19 February 2018 (UTC)

== User:Beogradbulevar ==

Most posts relating to boxing or chess are from globally banned user George Reeves Person. Typical attacks come when he gets off work between 2 and 5 p.m. CST, and occasionally later, particularly on Fridays or Saturdays. He uses public libraries for Internet access, and typically doesn't post after 9 p.m. CST. It's unfortunate, but we really have to watch who posts what in the mid-to-late afternoons and be vigilant in blocking the content and not welcoming the user. See [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Marshallsumter]] for the damage it causes. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:25, 5 November 2019 (UTC)
:{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Wow. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:54, 5 November 2019 (UTC)

== CU ==

I closed the CU nomination due to the low number of recent additions to the discussion. It just seemed like we wouldn't meet the criteria in a reasonable time. Thanks for offering to help with this and perhaps we can try again in the future. We appreciate your contributions. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:45, 29 January 2020 (UTC)
:{{Ping|Mu301}} For sure. Thanks yourself. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 20:21, 29 January 2020 (UTC)

== history of covid in the usa ==

Hi {{PAGENAME}}

I was idly surfing the wsj and suddenly realized all articles I was looking at had a video posted right at the top.(example:https://www.wsj.com/articles/some-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000). The video section is 8:06 minutes long and is a short version of the history of pandemic in the usa.

I don't know how to get the url of the video itself. Can you help? Thanks in advance, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 15:57, 2 November 2020 (UTC)
:{{Ping|Ottawahitech}} Load the page in your browser and use the networking console--you can usually get this to display by pressing F12. You'll find that this video is served up as a playlist of several bits with the URI https://oms.dowjoneson.com/b/ss/djglobal/1/JS-2.17.0/s04078897862906?AQB=1&amp;ndh=1&amp;pf=1&amp;t=2%2F10%2F2020%2013%3A6%3A8%201%20300&amp;mid=71630168209780702446627362471898499848&amp;ce=UTF-8&amp;pageName=WSJLive_Video_How%20Coronavirus%20Spread%20Across%20the%20U.S.%20to%20Reach%20200%2C000%20Deaths_372&amp;g=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&amp;c.&amp;a.&amp;media.&amp;friendlyName=How%20Coronavirus%20Spread%20Across%20the%20U.S.%20to%20Reach%20200%2C000%20Deaths&amp;length=486&amp;name=AE28508C-C7DF-406E-814F-69C8FAAD1A86&amp;playerName=Web&amp;channel=WSJ&amp;show=Feature%20Explainer&amp;originator=cmccall&amp;genre=WSJ_News_U.S.%20News&amp;digitalDate=original_2020-09-22%2011%3A58_current_2020-09-22%2011%3A58&amp;feed=video&amp;network=115&amp;format=user%20initiated&amp;streamType=video&amp;view=true&amp;vsid=160434036774097779839&amp;.media&amp;contentType=vod&amp;.a&amp;page.&amp;content.&amp;type=Article&amp;.content&amp;full.&amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&amp;.full&amp;site=Online%20Journal&amp;.page&amp;video.&amp;player.&amp;type=Web&amp;technology=html%203.41.2.205&amp;.player&amp;keywords=CORONAVIRUS%20RESPONSE%7CCORONAVIRUS%20TESTING%7CCOVID-19%20TESTING%7CDANIELA%20HERNANDEZ%7CPANDEMIC%7CTESTING%20SITES&amp;base.&amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&amp;.base&amp;.video&amp;article.&amp;id=SB11126288623532913915004586647794135594296&amp;author=Sarah%20Toy&amp;publish=2020-09-23%2013%3A00&amp;publish.&amp;orig=2020-09-23%2013%3A00&amp;.publish&amp;.article&amp;ad.&amp;blank.&amp;start=false&amp;.blank&amp;disabled=true&amp;catastrophic.&amp;blocker=false&amp;.catastrophic&amp;.ad&amp;.c&amp;pe=ms_s&amp;pev3=video&amp;s=1600x900&amp;c=24&amp;j=1.6&amp;v=N&amp;k=Y&amp;bw=781&amp;bh=776&amp;mcorgid=CB68E4BA55144CAA0A4C98A5%40AdobeOrg&amp;AQE=1 or somesuch (it may not be identical for you). If you open this in VLC Player, you can save playlists as videos. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:09, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

==Custodianship==
Welcome to en.wv custodianship [[User:Koavf]]. Thanks for helping. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 23:04, 8 September 2023 (UTC)

:Merci, James. I hope I'm an asset to the community. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:50, 8 September 2023 (UTC)

== Bowling article ==

Hey there Koavf! I've created that [[Bowling Fundamentals|bowling article]] we discussed at the Colloquium. Do you have any advice on how I can further improve it? [[User:Contributor 118,784|Contributor 118,784]] ([[User talk:Contributor 118,784|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Contributor 118,784|contribs]]) 01:20, 26 September 2023 (UTC)

:Nice. I don't have any particular feedback other than what I mentioned there. I'm pretty ignorant about bowling. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:26, 26 September 2023 (UTC)
::Fair, thank you! [[User:Contributor 118,784|Contributor 118,784]] ([[User talk:Contributor 118,784|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Contributor 118,784|contribs]]) 09:18, 26 September 2023 (UTC)

== RCA talkback (January 2024) ==

{{talkback|WV:RCA|User:50.118.222.66 has been flooding our abuse filter log with spam}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:31, 2 January 2024 (UTC)

== Invitation to discuss page deletion policy ==

A discussion that might interest you has been started at [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Wikiversity:Deletion_Convention_2024]]. -- [[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 17:54, 15 February 2024 (UTC)

== RCA talkback ==

{{tb|Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Induced_stem_cells_copyright_issues}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:02, 24 May 2024 (UTC)

== Report ==

Hello, I would like to report this user, who has a COI: [[Special:Contributions/Oluwadarasimi Morayo]]

Thank you. [[User:Ternera|Ternera]] ([[User talk:Ternera|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ternera|contribs]]) 14:51, 24 May 2024 (UTC)

:Thanks. It's best to leave these at a board like [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]], but this was obvious spam. Cheers. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:19, 24 May 2024 (UTC)

== Files ==
Hello! Thank you for deleting files once again!

You made a comment about &quot;all local uploads&quot;. 

Fair-use is not allowed on Commons so the 2,712 files in [[:Category:All non-free media]] can't go to Commons. But as I understand [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Deleting_ALL_non-free_uploads_by_User:Marshallsumter]] the files uploaded by Marshallsumter could be deleted. That would eliminate 1,126 files. Since [[Wikiversity:Uploading_files#Exemption_Doctrine_Policy]] allow fair use it would require a vote/discussion to change that. 

Young1lim uploads many pdf-files and as far as I know Commons generally do not like pdf-files. Except when it is scans of old books etc. So I do not think those files should go to Commons right now.

There are still many files in [[Special:UnusedFiles]]. Right now 1,422 but some are uploaded by Young1lim. But the latest deletion request ended with delete so I think there is concensus to delete files. But some were also found good and moved to Commons. So the question is if we need another discussion about the files or if someone (you?) could just go through the files when you have a little time and either move to Commons or delete. If you think we could make one final discussion about all the files and ask for a go to the &quot;any admin that want to can check the files and either move to Commons or delete&quot;. Then noone can come later and complain that you or another admin just deleted a file without warning.

If there are 40k files in total. Perhaps 22k are pdf uploaded by Young1lim. 3k are non-free. 1.5k are unused. That would leave around 13.5k free files in use. That is a lot of files to check. I do not think there are many users that are willing to spend much time checking those files. 

But it would help if no more free files are uploaded (except pdf). There is allready a text on the top of [[Special:Upload]] suggesting commons. But it could perhaps be made more clear. And perhaps some of the options on [[MediaWiki:Licenses]] could be removed. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 18:01, 27 July 2024 (UTC)

:Yeah, to be clear, I appreciate that sister projects like e.g. Wikibooks allow a lot of free-use files because they allow video game strategy guides and there is substantial value in screenshots or Wikipedia allows album covers and film posters as identifying media. I'm not proposing any change to policy and I accept that there are reasons for fair use, so I apologize for that sloppy wording. That said, I definitely think we should have minimal fair use if any at all.
:As for PDFs, there are plenty at Commons: I have uploaded dozens and dozens of books, scientific articles, etc. It's not a problem, but it's just not optimal for many kinds of files, such as maps or something.
:I'm happy to help and slog thru the uplaods if you start a conversation. Just ping me. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:49, 27 July 2024 (UTC)
:: Yes fair use have some benefits. But If we/someone is going to make a cleanup it could perhaps be a good idea to first have a discussion about it. So I will start a post about fair use on wikiversity.
:: And about unused files I will start a deletion discussion (again) just to be sure.
:: If you feel like deleting files you could kill the files uploaded by Marshallsumter. :-) --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 09:25, 29 July 2024 (UTC)
::: I started a discussion at [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Fair_use_on_Wikiversity]]. Lets see what happens. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 21:23, 29 July 2024 (UTC)
:::: With the files of Marshallsumter gone that really helped a lot! Lets see what everyone thinks about the rest of the files. It will probably take weeks the get enough comments. But thats okay. It is summer and vacation time and if the files have been around for years they can easily wait a little longer. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 19:20, 31 July 2024 (UTC)
Hello! Some files have been moved to Commons if you would like to have. Look 😊 --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 19:35, 3 March 2025 (UTC)

:1,587&lt;2,712, that's for sure. I'll try to keep chipping away at these. Thanks for the reminder. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 20:06, 3 March 2025 (UTC)

== Revert? ==

Why did you revert this argument?  I wanted (humorously) to make the observation that the guilty party at the end of a suicide is dead but is the only one that can be punished.  Attempted and assisted suicide wasn't included.  [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 22:27, 15 September 2024 (UTC)

:It's not really a venue for hilarious jokes about killing. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 22:44, 15 September 2024 (UTC)
::but I remember there was really some law along that line. With a similar explanation. Some king (could be from a fairy tale, but I don't believe so) wanted to outlaw suicide and his advisers had this idea. The judge (or the king himself) would speak the verdict and justice was already done.  So the king was famous for his his fair and swift justice.  You see I don't remember too clearly,  therefore I wanted to compress the essence of this into an argument. I didn't think it was that hilarious, so sorry for injured sensitivity.  Now that you know what I wanted to do,  could you please formulate an accordingly compressed argument,  in the appropriate tone? [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 00:52, 16 September 2024 (UTC)
:::I think you can. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:56, 16 September 2024 (UTC)
::::I'm not a native speaker. And that you found it hilarious, where I targeted a slightly levied tone shows me that I can't really do it.  [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 01:05, 16 September 2024 (UTC)
:::::I believe in you. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 01:10, 16 September 2024 (UTC)

== Wrong import ==

Hi, template:Languages does not work properly and I think its because even you states that you have importated Module which this template use from BetaWikiversity, you actually imported it from Commons, so the template is than calling non-existent function subpates. Compare:

&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Module:Languages|en.wv module Languages]]

&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[commons:Module:Languages]]

&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[betawikiversity:Module:Languages|betaversity]]


So I dont know if removing incorect revisions and importing corect ones will fix it, but the error message is probably delivered because of this mismatch. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 13:25, 19 August 2025 (UTC)

:Weird, I thought I reverted that. Let me delete that rev. So sorry. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 14:10, 19 August 2025 (UTC)

== A barnstar for you! ==

{| style=&quot;border: 1px solid gray; background-color: #ffffff;&quot;
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot; | [[File:Resilient Barnstar.png|100px]]
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|style=&quot;font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;&quot; | '''The Silver Barnstar'''
|-
|style=&quot;vertical-align: middle; border-top: 1px solid gray;&quot; |  Thanks for contributing to Wikiversity for a very long time. You are the best. —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;&quot;&gt;RailwayEnthusiast2025&lt;/span&gt;]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#59a53f&quot;&gt;''talk with me!''&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:55, 9 September 2025 (UTC)
|}
:How kind. I'm appreciate of your additions and ideas as well. Thanks so much. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 20:29, 9 September 2025 (UTC)

== Deleting all unused templates ==
You seem to have been deleting many templates with the summary &quot;unused template&quot;. One qualm I have with this is that, in general, deleting all unused templates is likely to lead to some revision histories (those that used the templates) becoming illegible. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:21, 19 September 2025 (UTC)

:Yeah, maybe. Probably not a big deal, tho. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:22, 19 September 2025 (UTC)
:: In the English Wikiversity, that is plausible enough. On the other hand, in the English Wiktionary, deleting the once widely used [[wikt: T: term]] as unused would cause massive harm as for legibility, for no appreciable benefit. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:24, 19 September 2025 (UTC)
:::Any examples that really matter can be undeleted or something if really necessary. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:25, 19 September 2025 (UTC)
:::: I have not been long enough around the English Wikiversity to know which of the many (over 100?) deleted templates were once widely used.
:::: Background: In the English Wiktionary, I noticed that someone made the thesarus revision histories completely illegible. There is too much disregard for legibility of revision histories going around. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:33, 19 September 2025 (UTC)
:::::It is a concern of some regard, granted. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:44, 19 September 2025 (UTC)
::::Hi Koavf; as follow-up for this issue, I wanted to mention the [[Template:Convert links]]. This is far from being unused, since it's a fundamental tool in importing Wikipedia articles to Wikiversity, e.g. for all the Wikijournals - see step 4 of [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Editorial_guidelines#Importing_from_Wikipedia]]. 
::::I just bumped into this issue myself, and I presume it will be relevant for several other users in the future. As far as I know, there are no other ways to convert those links (beside doing it manually one by one). Could you therefore please undelete that template? [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 07:56, 22 September 2025 (UTC)
:::::Of course. My apologies for causing problems. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:01, 22 September 2025 (UTC)
::::::Perfect, thanks a lot! [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 08:04, 22 September 2025 (UTC)

I was not aware, that unused templates can be deleted without any notice. I think nothing (except obvious spam and vandalism) should be deleted without warning and time to respond.&lt;br&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Please_restore_my_templates|Please restore 61 of them.]] --[[User:Watchduck|Watchduck]] &lt;small&gt;([[User talk:Watchduck|quack]])&lt;/small&gt; 15:00, 7 October 2025 (UTC)
:I undeleted two templates that you asked for above, but one of them is [[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/tamino NP table]], which is just unused. Why do these need to be here? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:01, 7 October 2025 (UTC)

== Restoring Template:Copyrighted ==
Can you please restore [[:Template:Copyrighted]]? It is clear why this template would be unused: it is only used when some page is tagged as a possible copyright violation.

I guess there should be a way to tag templates as unused-but-needed, and this would be one of then. These would then be excluded from a clean-up action like yours.

On the other hand, the template is linked from [[:Wikiversity:Copyright issues]], so while it is perhaps unused in the sense of ''not invoked'', it is ''linked to''. And a clean-up should ideally not delete pages that are linked to, or consider them on a careful case-to-case basis, no? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 04:06, 8 October 2025 (UTC)

:{{Done}} and agreed that if they have links that aren't from an old talk archive or a userspace or something more trivial, then there should at least be some appropriate action to not leave a redlink. The goal was to go back over those reports the next week or two once they've refreshed to also see wanted templates or wanted pages and try to clear those, so that two-pass system &lt;em&gt;should&lt;/em&gt; catch errors like this, but not always. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:46, 8 October 2025 (UTC)

== Manual numbering ==
My use of manual numbering in the discussion that you modified (RFD) was intentional. One can find documents using such an approach, I think. I would therefore prefer that you leave it as is next time. I am not going to revert it this time; it's not really a big deal. And thank you for correcting my misspeling of suspition to suspicion; my being a non-native speaker showed here. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:13, 9 October 2025 (UTC)

:Good deal. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:15, 9 October 2025 (UTC)

== Draft namespace move ==

Hello Justin,
Do you think it is alright to move [[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025/Basic Scratch Coding]] and subpages to Draft namespace&lt;s&gt;.&lt;/s&gt;? Because I &lt;s&gt;H&lt;/s&gt;haven't fully completed it and would appreciate it if other contributors in the community would like to help out.
Thanks,
RE
—[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;&quot;&gt;RailwayEnthusiast2025&lt;/span&gt;]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#59a53f&quot;&gt;''talk with me!''&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:27, 26 October 2025 (UTC)

:I certainly think so, but honestly, I think the draft namespace is kind of a joke anyway. But I totally support you doing it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 20:39, 26 October 2025 (UTC)

== Article Info - Related item ==

In the Lints was [[:User:Octfx/sandbox2]].

This was throwing a stripped Small , which I can't currently trace, Suggesting the earlier fix whilst mostly stable, has a very specfic interaction. Perhaps you can take a look and resolve this for robustness? [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 23:33, 31 October 2025 (UTC)

:Diagnosing it would be optimal, but to resolve the issue, I just [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User%3AOctfx%2Fsandbox2&amp;diff=2765037&amp;oldid=2425963 commented it out]. The page hasn't been edited in years, nor has that editor edited in years, so I just don't have the bandwidth to investigate. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:39, 31 October 2025 (UTC)

== Possible copyvio ==
Can you please look at [[User:Harold Foppele/sandbox-2]] to see whether there is a copyvio, and if there is one, delete the page? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 18:45, 6 November 2025 (UTC)

:@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] Since you are a custodian, can you please put a stop to this? To me it seems like a personal vendetta that should not belong here. As for the page [[User:Harold Foppele/sandbox-2]] i asked [[user:Jtneill|Jtneill]] for advice some 12 hours ago. Since he is in Australia there is minimum a 12 hour delay in response. Would you maybe willing to help me? Kind regards, [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 18:58, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
::I don't know what the deal is between you and Dan, but I saw the earlier post he made to the curator's noticeboard and haven't had time to investigate. Since it seems that the two of you have some kind of friction, it may be best for you two to just generally avoid interaction in the immediate term. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:03, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
:This [https://archive.org/details/Caltech-ES23.5.1960/page/2/mode/2up was published in the United States with a copyright notice, all rights reserved], so if it's in the public domain is a question of [[:c:Commons:Copyright rules by territory/United States|if the registration was renewed in a timely manner]]. Unfortunately, there is no single database of all renewals, so we can't know for sure if it &lt;em&gt;wasn't/t&lt;/em&gt; renewed. We should probably err on the side of assuming that it's a copyright violation. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:02, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
::I made a request, just to make sure to:: cmgworldwide.com to obtain a license to use it in Wikiversity. As it looks for now i can get the license and will know that end next week. Thanks [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:23, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
:::I am going to delete it for now. It can be undeleted as necessary. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 07:49, 7 November 2025 (UTC)
::::👍 [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:07, 7 November 2025 (UTC)

== Chess by Wikiversitans ==

I made a short setup for the page [[Chess/Play with other Wikiversitans]]. Is that the way you would like it to go? Do you by anychance play chess yoursef? [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 19:21, 6 November 2025 (UTC)

:Great questions. I made that page years ago and [[User:Mu301]] erroneously deleted it. I restored the old revs. As for how it should look, it's all wide open, so I have no objections. I think the notion of somehow playing here on site is actually intriguing. Maybe we could make that work... —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:05, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
::Help is needed from a specialist in the heart of Wiki. If you look at or know Lichess.org its very complex. However starting a Wikiversitans team there is a piece of cake. Just how do we invite our &quot;members&quot; here? Ideas welcome :) [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:49, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
:::Would love to play chess with you. Find me at [[Chess/Play with other Wikiversitans]] in Lichess.org or Chess.com. Leave a message or email if you want to play. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:46, 7 November 2025 (UTC)
::::Thanks. I saw your invite in my inbox, but I'm a little distracted now and recently started a new job, so I didn't want to agree until I had time to actually play. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 11:48, 7 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::No problem. just say &quot;When&quot; :) [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:51, 7 November 2025 (UTC)
::::::[[Chess/Board Configurations]] I think you'll like it. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 13:56, 7 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::::There is also a Wikiversity chess team &lt;span style=&quot;background-color: #aaffaa;&quot;&gt;created at [https://lichess.org/team/wikiversity Lichess.org].&lt;/span&gt; [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 12:58, 8 November 2025 (UTC)
::::::::Oh dip. Thanks for the heads up. I'm glad to see you taking initiative about this. If only I had more time myself. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 22:22, 8 November 2025 (UTC)

== Importing template ==

{{Ping|Koavf}} I would like to change the [[Template:Quantum mechanics]] to look more like [[W:Template:Quantum mechanics]] since the template at WV has almost no contence I could edit that, but better ask you instead of doing it. Btw we should play chess sometime :) Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 10:54, 14 November 2025 (UTC)

== Night mode unaware lint.. ==

Thanks for the edits to self. 

Do you plan to proceed on updating other high-use templates? like {{tl|information}}, and {{tl|article info}}, where I should ideally have resolved the Night mode unaware lint as the same time as the other fixes in the sandbox version you swapped in :(. 
[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:42, 18 November 2025 (UTC)

Please also check my contributions on talk pages for {{tl|edit protected}} requests. 
[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:42, 18 November 2025 (UTC)

:In principle, yes, I do. When will I find the time??? Note that a lot of those edit request were up for months or a year+. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:43, 18 November 2025 (UTC)

: An obvious group to update would be {{tl|Projectbox}} and {{tl|Robelbox}} families, although I would strongly suggest migrating these to use template styles over the current inline approach. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:49, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
::These are good ideas, but I just don't know when I'll have time to implement them. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 12:40, 19 November 2025 (UTC)

== Wikidebate form ==

Hi, hope you're doing good! I just noticed some months ago you deleted [[Template:Form/wikidebate]]. The template was indeed unused (and probably undocumented too) but it did serve a purpose, namely to be ''substituted'' when creating a new wikidebate via [[Wikidebate/New]]. As a consequence, [[Is hate is an ineffective and or selfish emotion?|this happened]] and could happen again. Could you restore it, please? If you can do that, I'll document it properly and tag it with &lt;nowiki&gt;__EXPECTUNUSEDTEMPLATE__&lt;/nowiki&gt; to avoid further confusion. Thanks! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discusión]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs.]]) 14:39, 23 December 2025 (UTC)

:Of course. Thanks for your understanding. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:34, 23 December 2025 (UTC)

== [[:Category:Wikiversity fully protected templates]] ==

I am creating semi/full protection categories for various namespace pages, so can you undelete [[:Category:Wikiversity fully protected templates]]? Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:57, 14 April 2026 (UTC)

:{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:09, 14 April 2026 (UTC)

== Different way to display talk pages for easier reading? ==

On [[Wikiversity:Colloquium]] when many people reply to the same thing all their posts are jumbled together into one big paragraph.

Is this a well known problem? Is there a gadget I could use/activate to make readability/accessibility greater on Wikiversity or are we still working on that?

Can I do anything obvious in order to help in this regard? ie. manually editing talk pages and adding proper wikitext or edit my own common.js? With the recent activation of a javascript that got up on the news...is there a way I can safely test my own common.js code that I ask an LLM to generate for me? I have a Qubes OS computer where I have access to disposable VMs which I can also turn off the internet on so even if the code goes haywire it won't affect my computer or the internet connection. [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 11:45, 27 April 2026 (UTC)
:It's kind of surprising that you would write that, since this wiki has CSS with pretty bold background colors to differentiate comments based on how they are indented. Which skin are you using? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 14:23, 27 April 2026 (UTC)

== Need of IAs ==

I am reading at [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]], that &quot;Wikiversity does not have a need for permanent or long term interface administrators&quot;. So why you think otherwice? What task should be done? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:12, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

:I don't know that we need them as such, I just think that if we had &lt;var&gt;x&lt;/var&gt; IAs then when things come up (which is inevitable), someone can request or fix it directly instead of having a discussion, then getting a bureaucrat to give someone the rights, and then fix it. I'm just concerned about the overhead. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:43, 10 May 2026 (UTC)
::Well, yeah. But custodians/curators can just request. No need or discussion. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:59, 10 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>c6expqm2ql9cquolypr2ykct6z9jz03</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Introduction to Swedish/Numbers and plurals</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>57486</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2808174</id>
      <parentid>2196497</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-10T12:26:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-28386-85</username>
        <id>3071481</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Spelling error &quot;Lap tops&quot; -&gt; &quot;Laptops&quot;</comment>
      <origin>2808174</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9621" sha1="ti8o60ckkp8dq303kvdix35jq87du1t" xml:space="preserve">{{:Introduction to Swedish/Navbar}}
==Grammar==

'''Counting numbers up to ten:'''

&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;noll&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''zero''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''one''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;två&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''two''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;tre&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''three''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;fyra&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''four''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;fem&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''five''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;sex&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''six''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;sju&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''seven''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;åtta&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''eight''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;nio&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''nine''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;tio&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''ten''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

'''DECLENSIONS [[w:Declension]]'''

''Well, it is hard to remember which noun is which type.''
''However, it is important for mastering Swedish. Using the wrong declension will be noticed.''
''Always learn a new noun by repeatedly saying like:'' &quot;en glosa, flera glosor&quot; ''(one translated word, several translated words) and you will build up a proper grammatical vocabulary.''

''Gender: Common nouns are labeled '''type 1.'''''
''and neuter nouns are labeled '''type 2.'''''

''Plural types are labeled: '''1x-8x''', where '''x''' is the declension sub type.''

'''Regular nouns type 1.1a (-or)'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en flicka, flera flickor&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a girl, several girls''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en väska, flera väskor&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a bag, several bags''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en lampa, flera lampor&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a lamp, several lamps''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

'''Regular nouns type 1.2a (-ar)''' 
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en bil, flera bilar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a car, several cars''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en väg, flera vägar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a road, several roads''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en boll, flera bollar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a ball, several balls''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

'''Regular nouns type 1.2b (-ar)'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en stubbe, flera stubbar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a stub, several stubs''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en gubbe, flera gubbar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''an old man, several old men''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en stege, flera stegar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a ladder, several ladders''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

'''Regular nouns type 1.2c (-ar)'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en vinkel, flera vinklar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''an angle, several angles (geometry)''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en ängel, flera änglar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''an angel, several angels (heavenly)''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en tistel, flera tistlar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a thistle, several thistles''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

'''Regular nouns type 1.2d (-ar)'''
[[Image:Capercaillie.jpg|En tjäder|thumb]]
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en kateder, flera katedrar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a teacher's desk, several teacher's desks''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en tjäder, flera tjädrar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a cappercaillie, several cappercaillies''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

'''Irregular nouns type 1.3a (-er)'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en sak, flera saker&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a thing, several things''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en musikal, flera musikaler&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a musical, several musicals''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
'''Irregular nouns type 2.3b (-er)'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett frö, flera frön&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a seed, several seeds''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

'''Irregular nouns type 1.3c (-er)'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en regel, flera regler&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a rule, several rules''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

'''Regular nouns type 2.4a (-n)'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett äpple, flera äpplen&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a apple, several apples''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

'''Regular nouns type 2.5a (-)'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett träd, flera träd&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a tree, several trees''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett barn, flera barn&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a child, several children''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett försök, flera försök&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a trial, several trials''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

'''Irregular nouns type 1.5b (-)'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en lärare, flera lärare&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a teacher, several teachers''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en skräddare, flera skräddare&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a tailor, several tailors''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[Image:Victory at Narva.jpg|King Charles XII, victory at the battle of Narva 1700.|thumb]]
'''Irregular nouns type 1.6a (-r)'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en fiende, flera fiender&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''an enemy, several enemies''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

'''Regular (borrowed Latin 2:nd declension) of nouns type 2.7a (-a)'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett faktum, flera fakta&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a fact, several facts''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett centrum, flera centra&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a centre, several centres''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

'''Regular (borrowed Latin nouns type 2.8a) (-ier)'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett stadium, flera stadier&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a state, several states''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

'''Irregular (borrowed English declension) of nouns type 1.9a (-s)'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en browser, flera browsers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a web browser, several web browsers''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; 
&lt;/table&gt;

'''Irregular (borrowed English declension) of nouns type 2.9b (-s)'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett fan, flera fans&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a fan, several fans''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; 
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett kid, flera kids (slang)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a kid, several kids''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; 
&lt;/table&gt;


''for type 1.9a you may also use plural form'' browsrar ''(type 1d declination) for a better adaption to Swedish.''

==Example Sentences==
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Där hänger några stänger. ''Some rods are hanging there.''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Fyra flickor leker med två bollar. ''Four girls play with two balls''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Barn klättrar gärna i träd. ''Children like climbing trees.''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Tre gubbar har tillsammans sex stycken ögon. ''Three men have altogether six eyes.''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Försök att lära dig alla dessa fem regler! ''Try to learn all these five rules!''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Min dator klarar att ha fyra browsers öppna samtidigt. ''My computer manages to have four web browsers open at the same time.''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Klockan sex tände vi åtta lampor. ''At 6 o'clock we lit eight lamps.''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Romarna hade inte siffran noll. ''The romans did not have the number zero.''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Example Text==
Till lektionerna behöver ni ta mer er pennor, sudd, anteckningsböcker samt
era bärbara datorer. Mobiltelefonerna får vara påslagna, men jag vill inte
höra några ringsignaler och heller inte att ni sitter och pratar i era telefoner under lektionstimmarna.
Om någon bryter mot detta kommer vederbörande få svåra extrauppgifter som måste lösas för att få godkänt i mina ämnen.

To the lessons you need to bring pencils, erasers, note books and your laptops. Cellular phones may be turned on but I don't
want to hear any signals and neither that you talk in your phones during the lessons. If somebody violates this, that person
will receive difficult extra tasks which needs to be solved in order to graduate in my subjects.

==Exercises==
''Please translate into Swedish''&lt;br&gt;
1. Karin has three cellular phones.&lt;br&gt;
2. We have a lot of enemies!&lt;br&gt;
3. Some roads go to Uppsala.&lt;br&gt;
4. My tailors tasks are easy.&lt;br&gt;
5. Five pupils study four subjects.&lt;br&gt;
''Please translate into English''&lt;br&gt;
6. Du bryter mot en regel!&lt;br&gt;
7. Hans sitter och pratar med två lärare.&lt;br&gt;
8. Ett telefonnummer har minst sex siffror.&lt;br&gt;
9. En flicka sitter framför katedern.&lt;br&gt;
10. Ni har åtta lektionstimmar i dag.&lt;br&gt;

==Glossary==

&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett barn, flera barn&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a child, several children''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;att behöva&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to need''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; 
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en bil, flera bilar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a car, several cars''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; 
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en boll, flera bollar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a ball, several balls''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en browser, flera browsers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a web browser, several web browsers''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; 
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett centrum, flera centra&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a centre, several centres''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''one''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett faktum, flera fakta&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a fact, several facts''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;fem&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''five''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en fiende, flera fiender&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''an enemy, several enemies''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en flicka, flera flickor&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a girl, several girls''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;fyra&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''four''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett försök, flera försök&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a trial, several trials''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en gubbe, flera gubbar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''an old man, several old men''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en kateder, flera katedrar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a teacher's desk, several teacher's desks''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en lampa, flera lampor&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a lamp, several lamps''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en lektion, flera lektioner&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a lesson, several lessons''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en lärare, flera lärare&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a teacher, several teachers''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;nio&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''nine''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;noll&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''zero''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en penna&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a pencil, a pen''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;sex&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''six''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;sju&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''seven''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en skräddare, flera skräddare&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a tailor, several tailors''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett stadium, flera stadier&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a state, several states''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en stege, flera stegar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a ladder, several ladders''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;tio&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''ten''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;tre&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''three''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett träd, flera träd&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a tree, several trees''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;två&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''two''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en stubbe, flera stubbar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a stub, several stubs''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en sudd, flera suddar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''an eraser''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en tistel, flera tistlar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a thistle, several thistles''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en tjäder, flera tjädrar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a cappercaillie, several cappercaillies''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en vinkel, flera vinklar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''an angle, several angles (geometry)''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en väg, flera vägar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a road, several roads''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en väska, flera väskor&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a bag, several bags''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;åtta&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''eight''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en ängel, flera änglar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''an angel, several angels (heavenly)''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
[[Category:Swedish]]</text>
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      <text bytes="9024" sha1="430nl31jrjej1zvfr2r6gj1jqgxxmgh" xml:space="preserve">See also: [[User:Jtneill/Research|Research]]
==[[../Research/Profiles|Profiles]]==
{{../Research/Profiles}}
&lt;!-- ==2026==
--&gt;
==2025==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Brichacek, A., Neill, J. T., Murray, K., Rieger, E., Watsford, C. (2025). Body Image Flexibility and Inflexibility Scale (BIFIS). In W. Ramseyer Winter, T. L. Tylka, &amp; A. M. Landor (Eds.), ''Handbook of body image-related measures''. Cambridge University Press (pp. 118–121). https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009398275.039

{{User:Jtneill/Publications/2025/Body}}&lt;!--
Neill, J. T., Herbert, S., Hartley, R., &amp; D'Cunha, N. (in preparation). ''Art for Wellbeing at the National Gallery of Australia: Thematic analysis of participant and staff perspectives''.

Lozancic Babic, V. &amp; Neill, J. T. ...  --&gt;
}}

==2024==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Black, H. M., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2024). Wellbeing through nature: A qualitative exploration of psychosocial aspects of a Landcare ACT nature-connection program. ''Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education''. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42322-024-00184-2

Boerma, M., Beel, N., Neill, J. T., Jeffries, C., Krishnamoorthy, G., &amp; Guerri-Guttenberg, J. (2024). Male-friendly counselling for young men: a thematic analysis of client and caregiver experiences of Menslink counselling. ''Australian Psychologist'', 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/00050067.2024.2378119 ([https://www.researchgate.net/publication/385649063_Male-friendly_counselling_for_young_men_a_thematic_analysis_of_client_and_caregiver_experiences_of_Menslink_counselling#fullTextFileContent pdf])

Brichacek, A. L., Neill, J. T., Murray, K., Rieger, E., &amp; Watsford, C. (accepted). The Body Image Flexibility and Inflexibility Scale (BIFIS). In V. Ramseyer Winter, T.  Tylka, &amp; A. Landor (Eds.), ''Handbook of body image-related measures'' (pp. *–*). Cambridge University Press.

Brichacek, A. L., Neill, J. T., Murray, K., Rieger, E., &amp; Watsford, C. (2024). The distinct affect regulation functions of body image flexibility and inflexibility: A prospective study in adolescents and emerging adults. ''Body Image'', ''50'', 101726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2024.101726

{{User:Jtneill/Publications/2024/Collaborative}}

Neill, J. T. &amp; Black. H. (2024). ''[https://landcareact.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/Wellbeing-through-Nature-Final-Report.pdf Landcare ACT Wellbeing through Nature program evaluation: Final report]''. University of Canberra, Australia.

{{User:Jtneill/Publications/2024/Rich}}

}}

==2023==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Brichacek, A. L., Neill, J. T., Murray, K., Rieger, E., &amp; Watsford, C. (2023). Ways of responding to body image threats: Development of the Body Image Flexibility and Inflexibility Scale for Youth. ''Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science'', ''30'', 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2023.08.007

{{/2023/WIL}}

Ross, B. M., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2023). Exploring the relationship between mental health, drug use, personality, and attitudes towards psilocybin-assisted therapy. ''[https://akjournals.com/view/journals/2054/2054-overview.xml Journal of Psychedelic Studies]'', ''7''(2), 114–118. https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.2023.00264}}

==2022==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Neill, J. T., Goch, I., Sullivan, A., &amp; Simons, M. (2022). The role of burn camp in the recovery of young people from burn injury: A qualitative study using long-term follow-up interviews with parents and participants. ''Burns'', ''48''(5), 1139–1148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.burns.2021.09.020

Stevenson, D. J., Neill, J. T., Ball, K., Smith, R., &amp; Shores, M. C. (2022). How do preschool to year 6 educators prevent and cope with occupational violence from students? ''Australian Journal of Education'', ''66''(2), 154–170. https://doi.org/10.1177/00049441221092472. [https://www.teachermagazine.com/au_en/articles/the-research-files-episode-77-coping-with-violence-from-students Podcast].

}}

==2021==
{{Hanging indent|1=Brichacek, A. L., Murray, K., Neill, J. T., &amp; Rieger, E. (2021). Contextual behavioral approaches to understanding body image threats and coping in youth: A qualitative study. ''Journal of Adolescent Research'', ''39''(2), 328–360. https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211007851}}

==2020==
{{Hanging indent|1=Boerma, M., &amp; Neill, J. (2020). The role of grit and self-control in university student academic achievement and satisfaction. ''College Student Journal'', ''54''(4), 431–442.

Boerma, M., Neill, J., &amp; Brown, P. (2020). Perseverance of effort moderates the relationship between psychological distress and life satisfaction. ''European Journal of Applied Positive Psychology'', ''4''(16), 1–11. https://www.nationalwellbeingservice.org/volumes/volume-4-2020/volume-4-article-16/}}

==2018==
{{Hanging indent|1=Neill, J. T. (2018). ''[https://menslink.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/UC-Report-into-Long-term-Impacts-of-Menslink-Counselling-and-Mentoring-Oct-2018.pdf Long-term impacts of Menslink counselling and mentoring]''. University of Canberra.}}

==2017==
{{Hanging indent|1=Booth, J. W., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2017). Coping strategies and the development of psychological resilience. ''Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education'', ''20''(1), 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03401002}}

==2016==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Bowen, D. J., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2016). Effects of the PCYC Catalyst outdoor adventure intervention program on youths' life skills, mental health, and delinquent behaviour. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth'', ''21''(1), 34–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2015.1027716

Bowen, D. J., Neill, J. T., &amp; Crisp, S. J. (2016). Wilderness adventure therapy effects on the mental health of youth participants. ''Evaluation and Program Planning'', ''58'', 49–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2016.05.005

{{/2016/Internationalisation}}}}

==2013==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bowen, D. J., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2013). A meta-analysis of adventure therapy outcomes and moderators. ''The Open Psychology Journal'', ''6''(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874350120130802001
{{/2013/Promoting}}

{{/2013/Teaching}}
}}

==2011==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Gray, T. L. &amp; Neill, J. T. (2011). Program evaluation. In ''[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/risk-management-in-the-outdoors/8B270918DA02077EB040BF2A4646FA7F Risk management in the outdoors: A whole-of-organisation approach for education, sport and recreation]'' (pp. 164–182). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139192682.010

Neill, J. T., &amp; Gray, T. L. (2011). Technology, risk and outdoor programming. In ''[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/risk-management-in-the-outdoors/8B270918DA02077EB040BF2A4646FA7F Risk management in the outdoors: A whole-of-organisation approach for education, sport and recreation]'' (pp. 132–149). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139192682.008
}}

==2010==
Mackay, G. J., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2010). The effect of “green exercise” on state anxiety and the role of exercise duration, intensity, and greenness: A quasi-experimental study. ''Psychology of Sport and Exercise'', ''11''(3), 238–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.01.002

==2008==
{{Hanging indent|1=Neill, J. T. (2008). Enhancing life effectiveness: The impacts of outdoor education programs. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Western Sydney. https://researchdirect.westernsydney.edu.au/islandora/object/uws:6441/}}

==2002==
{{/2002/Dramaturgy}}

==1997==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Hattie, J., Marsh, H. W., Neill, J. T., &amp; Richards, G. E. (1997). Adventure education and Outward Bound: Out-of-class experiences that make a lasting difference. ''Review of Educational Research'', ''67''(1), 43–87. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543067001043}}

==Reports==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Neill, J. T. &amp; Bowen, D. J. (2014). ''[https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WUF3bzhuZ3JoNGM/view?usp=sharing&amp;resourcekey=0-y0ZTjcdhHXqQKNtz50BW0A Research evaluation of PCYC Bornhoffen Catalyst intervention programs for youth-at-risk &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;2012-2013&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]''. University of Canberra.
}}

==Theses==
* [[User:Jtneill/PhD|PhD]]
&lt;!-- 
==Published==
* [http://www.wilderdom.com/JamesNeill/JamesNeillpublications.htm Articles &amp; presentations by James Neill]
--&gt;

==Ideas / In progress==
* [[User:Jtneill/4 pillars of free and open teaching|4 pillars of free and open teaching]]
* Some international trends in outdoor education - Past, present, and future
* Ingando camp (life effectiveness)
* Life Effectiveness Questionnaire psychometrics
* OE outcomes (longitudinal study)
* Adolescent Coping Scale psychometrics
* Resilience Scale psychometrics
* Overview of Outdoor Education Theory and/or Research
* Overview of Outdoor Education in Australia
* Overview of Adventure Therapy Theory and/or Education
* Past Trends and Future Directions for Outdoor Education
* Psychological Aspects of Outdoor Education
* Outdoor Education and Modern Technology
* Outdoor Education and Environmental Sustainability

==See also==
* [[User:Jtneill/Presentations]]</text>
      <sha1>430nl31jrjej1zvfr2r6gj1jqgxxmgh</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808285</id>
      <parentid>2808284</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T04:50:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ 2005</comment>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9210" sha1="3hhlfl0ooiqbv5bd8lfmic9kcun890f" xml:space="preserve">See also: [[User:Jtneill/Research|Research]]
==[[../Research/Profiles|Profiles]]==
{{../Research/Profiles}}
&lt;!-- ==2026==
--&gt;
==2025==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Brichacek, A., Neill, J. T., Murray, K., Rieger, E., Watsford, C. (2025). Body Image Flexibility and Inflexibility Scale (BIFIS). In W. Ramseyer Winter, T. L. Tylka, &amp; A. M. Landor (Eds.), ''Handbook of body image-related measures''. Cambridge University Press (pp. 118–121). https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009398275.039

{{User:Jtneill/Publications/2025/Body}}&lt;!--
Neill, J. T., Herbert, S., Hartley, R., &amp; D'Cunha, N. (in preparation). ''Art for Wellbeing at the National Gallery of Australia: Thematic analysis of participant and staff perspectives''.

Lozancic Babic, V. &amp; Neill, J. T. ...  --&gt;
}}

==2024==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Black, H. M., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2024). Wellbeing through nature: A qualitative exploration of psychosocial aspects of a Landcare ACT nature-connection program. ''Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education''. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42322-024-00184-2

Boerma, M., Beel, N., Neill, J. T., Jeffries, C., Krishnamoorthy, G., &amp; Guerri-Guttenberg, J. (2024). Male-friendly counselling for young men: a thematic analysis of client and caregiver experiences of Menslink counselling. ''Australian Psychologist'', 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/00050067.2024.2378119 ([https://www.researchgate.net/publication/385649063_Male-friendly_counselling_for_young_men_a_thematic_analysis_of_client_and_caregiver_experiences_of_Menslink_counselling#fullTextFileContent pdf])

Brichacek, A. L., Neill, J. T., Murray, K., Rieger, E., &amp; Watsford, C. (accepted). The Body Image Flexibility and Inflexibility Scale (BIFIS). In V. Ramseyer Winter, T.  Tylka, &amp; A. Landor (Eds.), ''Handbook of body image-related measures'' (pp. *–*). Cambridge University Press.

Brichacek, A. L., Neill, J. T., Murray, K., Rieger, E., &amp; Watsford, C. (2024). The distinct affect regulation functions of body image flexibility and inflexibility: A prospective study in adolescents and emerging adults. ''Body Image'', ''50'', 101726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2024.101726

{{User:Jtneill/Publications/2024/Collaborative}}

Neill, J. T. &amp; Black. H. (2024). ''[https://landcareact.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/Wellbeing-through-Nature-Final-Report.pdf Landcare ACT Wellbeing through Nature program evaluation: Final report]''. University of Canberra, Australia.

{{User:Jtneill/Publications/2024/Rich}}

}}

==2023==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Brichacek, A. L., Neill, J. T., Murray, K., Rieger, E., &amp; Watsford, C. (2023). Ways of responding to body image threats: Development of the Body Image Flexibility and Inflexibility Scale for Youth. ''Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science'', ''30'', 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2023.08.007

{{/2023/WIL}}

Ross, B. M., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2023). Exploring the relationship between mental health, drug use, personality, and attitudes towards psilocybin-assisted therapy. ''[https://akjournals.com/view/journals/2054/2054-overview.xml Journal of Psychedelic Studies]'', ''7''(2), 114–118. https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.2023.00264}}

==2022==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Neill, J. T., Goch, I., Sullivan, A., &amp; Simons, M. (2022). The role of burn camp in the recovery of young people from burn injury: A qualitative study using long-term follow-up interviews with parents and participants. ''Burns'', ''48''(5), 1139–1148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.burns.2021.09.020

Stevenson, D. J., Neill, J. T., Ball, K., Smith, R., &amp; Shores, M. C. (2022). How do preschool to year 6 educators prevent and cope with occupational violence from students? ''Australian Journal of Education'', ''66''(2), 154–170. https://doi.org/10.1177/00049441221092472. [https://www.teachermagazine.com/au_en/articles/the-research-files-episode-77-coping-with-violence-from-students Podcast].

}}

==2021==
{{Hanging indent|1=Brichacek, A. L., Murray, K., Neill, J. T., &amp; Rieger, E. (2021). Contextual behavioral approaches to understanding body image threats and coping in youth: A qualitative study. ''Journal of Adolescent Research'', ''39''(2), 328–360. https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211007851}}

==2020==
{{Hanging indent|1=Boerma, M., &amp; Neill, J. (2020). The role of grit and self-control in university student academic achievement and satisfaction. ''College Student Journal'', ''54''(4), 431–442.

Boerma, M., Neill, J., &amp; Brown, P. (2020). Perseverance of effort moderates the relationship between psychological distress and life satisfaction. ''European Journal of Applied Positive Psychology'', ''4''(16), 1–11. https://www.nationalwellbeingservice.org/volumes/volume-4-2020/volume-4-article-16/}}

==2018==
{{Hanging indent|1=Neill, J. T. (2018). ''[https://menslink.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/UC-Report-into-Long-term-Impacts-of-Menslink-Counselling-and-Mentoring-Oct-2018.pdf Long-term impacts of Menslink counselling and mentoring]''. University of Canberra.}}

==2017==
{{Hanging indent|1=Booth, J. W., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2017). Coping strategies and the development of psychological resilience. ''Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education'', ''20''(1), 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03401002}}

==2016==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Bowen, D. J., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2016). Effects of the PCYC Catalyst outdoor adventure intervention program on youths' life skills, mental health, and delinquent behaviour. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth'', ''21''(1), 34–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2015.1027716

Bowen, D. J., Neill, J. T., &amp; Crisp, S. J. (2016). Wilderness adventure therapy effects on the mental health of youth participants. ''Evaluation and Program Planning'', ''58'', 49–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2016.05.005

{{/2016/Internationalisation}}}}

==2013==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bowen, D. J., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2013). A meta-analysis of adventure therapy outcomes and moderators. ''The Open Psychology Journal'', ''6''(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874350120130802001
{{/2013/Promoting}}

{{/2013/Teaching}}
}}

==2011==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Gray, T. L. &amp; Neill, J. T. (2011). Program evaluation. In ''[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/risk-management-in-the-outdoors/8B270918DA02077EB040BF2A4646FA7F Risk management in the outdoors: A whole-of-organisation approach for education, sport and recreation]'' (pp. 164–182). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139192682.010

Neill, J. T., &amp; Gray, T. L. (2011). Technology, risk and outdoor programming. In ''[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/risk-management-in-the-outdoors/8B270918DA02077EB040BF2A4646FA7F Risk management in the outdoors: A whole-of-organisation approach for education, sport and recreation]'' (pp. 132–149). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139192682.008
}}

==2010==
Mackay, G. J., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2010). The effect of “green exercise” on state anxiety and the role of exercise duration, intensity, and greenness: A quasi-experimental study. ''Psychology of Sport and Exercise'', ''11''(3), 238–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.01.002

==2008==
{{Hanging indent|1=Neill, J. T. (2008). Enhancing life effectiveness: The impacts of outdoor education programs. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Western Sydney. https://researchdirect.westernsydney.edu.au/islandora/object/uws:6441/}}

==2005==
{{Hanging indent|1=Fabrizio, S. M., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2005). Cultural adaptation in outdoor programming. ''Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education'', ''9''(2), 44–56.}}

==2002==
{{/2002/Dramaturgy}}

==1997==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Hattie, J., Marsh, H. W., Neill, J. T., &amp; Richards, G. E. (1997). Adventure education and Outward Bound: Out-of-class experiences that make a lasting difference. ''Review of Educational Research'', ''67''(1), 43–87. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543067001043}}

==Reports==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Neill, J. T. &amp; Bowen, D. J. (2014). ''[https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WUF3bzhuZ3JoNGM/view?usp=sharing&amp;resourcekey=0-y0ZTjcdhHXqQKNtz50BW0A Research evaluation of PCYC Bornhoffen Catalyst intervention programs for youth-at-risk &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;2012-2013&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]''. University of Canberra.
}}

==Theses==
* [[User:Jtneill/PhD|PhD]]
&lt;!-- 
==Published==
* [http://www.wilderdom.com/JamesNeill/JamesNeillpublications.htm Articles &amp; presentations by James Neill]
--&gt;

==Ideas / In progress==
* [[User:Jtneill/4 pillars of free and open teaching|4 pillars of free and open teaching]]
* Some international trends in outdoor education - Past, present, and future
* Ingando camp (life effectiveness)
* Life Effectiveness Questionnaire psychometrics
* OE outcomes (longitudinal study)
* Adolescent Coping Scale psychometrics
* Resilience Scale psychometrics
* Overview of Outdoor Education Theory and/or Research
* Overview of Outdoor Education in Australia
* Overview of Adventure Therapy Theory and/or Education
* Past Trends and Future Directions for Outdoor Education
* Psychological Aspects of Outdoor Education
* Outdoor Education and Modern Technology
* Outdoor Education and Environmental Sustainability

==See also==
* [[User:Jtneill/Presentations]]</text>
      <sha1>3hhlfl0ooiqbv5bd8lfmic9kcun890f</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808286</id>
      <parentid>2808285</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T04:50:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* 2005 */</comment>
      <origin>2808286</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9245" sha1="55vp7a66ba1jlpl9zcmzdxirlkmm7b3" xml:space="preserve">See also: [[User:Jtneill/Research|Research]]
==[[../Research/Profiles|Profiles]]==
{{../Research/Profiles}}
&lt;!-- ==2026==
--&gt;
==2025==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Brichacek, A., Neill, J. T., Murray, K., Rieger, E., Watsford, C. (2025). Body Image Flexibility and Inflexibility Scale (BIFIS). In W. Ramseyer Winter, T. L. Tylka, &amp; A. M. Landor (Eds.), ''Handbook of body image-related measures''. Cambridge University Press (pp. 118–121). https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009398275.039

{{User:Jtneill/Publications/2025/Body}}&lt;!--
Neill, J. T., Herbert, S., Hartley, R., &amp; D'Cunha, N. (in preparation). ''Art for Wellbeing at the National Gallery of Australia: Thematic analysis of participant and staff perspectives''.

Lozancic Babic, V. &amp; Neill, J. T. ...  --&gt;
}}

==2024==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Black, H. M., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2024). Wellbeing through nature: A qualitative exploration of psychosocial aspects of a Landcare ACT nature-connection program. ''Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education''. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42322-024-00184-2

Boerma, M., Beel, N., Neill, J. T., Jeffries, C., Krishnamoorthy, G., &amp; Guerri-Guttenberg, J. (2024). Male-friendly counselling for young men: a thematic analysis of client and caregiver experiences of Menslink counselling. ''Australian Psychologist'', 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/00050067.2024.2378119 ([https://www.researchgate.net/publication/385649063_Male-friendly_counselling_for_young_men_a_thematic_analysis_of_client_and_caregiver_experiences_of_Menslink_counselling#fullTextFileContent pdf])

Brichacek, A. L., Neill, J. T., Murray, K., Rieger, E., &amp; Watsford, C. (accepted). The Body Image Flexibility and Inflexibility Scale (BIFIS). In V. Ramseyer Winter, T.  Tylka, &amp; A. Landor (Eds.), ''Handbook of body image-related measures'' (pp. *–*). Cambridge University Press.

Brichacek, A. L., Neill, J. T., Murray, K., Rieger, E., &amp; Watsford, C. (2024). The distinct affect regulation functions of body image flexibility and inflexibility: A prospective study in adolescents and emerging adults. ''Body Image'', ''50'', 101726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2024.101726

{{User:Jtneill/Publications/2024/Collaborative}}

Neill, J. T. &amp; Black. H. (2024). ''[https://landcareact.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/Wellbeing-through-Nature-Final-Report.pdf Landcare ACT Wellbeing through Nature program evaluation: Final report]''. University of Canberra, Australia.

{{User:Jtneill/Publications/2024/Rich}}

}}

==2023==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Brichacek, A. L., Neill, J. T., Murray, K., Rieger, E., &amp; Watsford, C. (2023). Ways of responding to body image threats: Development of the Body Image Flexibility and Inflexibility Scale for Youth. ''Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science'', ''30'', 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2023.08.007

{{/2023/WIL}}

Ross, B. M., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2023). Exploring the relationship between mental health, drug use, personality, and attitudes towards psilocybin-assisted therapy. ''[https://akjournals.com/view/journals/2054/2054-overview.xml Journal of Psychedelic Studies]'', ''7''(2), 114–118. https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.2023.00264}}

==2022==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Neill, J. T., Goch, I., Sullivan, A., &amp; Simons, M. (2022). The role of burn camp in the recovery of young people from burn injury: A qualitative study using long-term follow-up interviews with parents and participants. ''Burns'', ''48''(5), 1139–1148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.burns.2021.09.020

Stevenson, D. J., Neill, J. T., Ball, K., Smith, R., &amp; Shores, M. C. (2022). How do preschool to year 6 educators prevent and cope with occupational violence from students? ''Australian Journal of Education'', ''66''(2), 154–170. https://doi.org/10.1177/00049441221092472. [https://www.teachermagazine.com/au_en/articles/the-research-files-episode-77-coping-with-violence-from-students Podcast].

}}

==2021==
{{Hanging indent|1=Brichacek, A. L., Murray, K., Neill, J. T., &amp; Rieger, E. (2021). Contextual behavioral approaches to understanding body image threats and coping in youth: A qualitative study. ''Journal of Adolescent Research'', ''39''(2), 328–360. https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211007851}}

==2020==
{{Hanging indent|1=Boerma, M., &amp; Neill, J. (2020). The role of grit and self-control in university student academic achievement and satisfaction. ''College Student Journal'', ''54''(4), 431–442.

Boerma, M., Neill, J., &amp; Brown, P. (2020). Perseverance of effort moderates the relationship between psychological distress and life satisfaction. ''European Journal of Applied Positive Psychology'', ''4''(16), 1–11. https://www.nationalwellbeingservice.org/volumes/volume-4-2020/volume-4-article-16/}}

==2018==
{{Hanging indent|1=Neill, J. T. (2018). ''[https://menslink.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/UC-Report-into-Long-term-Impacts-of-Menslink-Counselling-and-Mentoring-Oct-2018.pdf Long-term impacts of Menslink counselling and mentoring]''. University of Canberra.}}

==2017==
{{Hanging indent|1=Booth, J. W., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2017). Coping strategies and the development of psychological resilience. ''Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education'', ''20''(1), 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03401002}}

==2016==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Bowen, D. J., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2016). Effects of the PCYC Catalyst outdoor adventure intervention program on youths' life skills, mental health, and delinquent behaviour. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth'', ''21''(1), 34–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2015.1027716

Bowen, D. J., Neill, J. T., &amp; Crisp, S. J. (2016). Wilderness adventure therapy effects on the mental health of youth participants. ''Evaluation and Program Planning'', ''58'', 49–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2016.05.005

{{/2016/Internationalisation}}}}

==2013==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bowen, D. J., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2013). A meta-analysis of adventure therapy outcomes and moderators. ''The Open Psychology Journal'', ''6''(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874350120130802001
{{/2013/Promoting}}

{{/2013/Teaching}}
}}

==2011==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Gray, T. L. &amp; Neill, J. T. (2011). Program evaluation. In ''[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/risk-management-in-the-outdoors/8B270918DA02077EB040BF2A4646FA7F Risk management in the outdoors: A whole-of-organisation approach for education, sport and recreation]'' (pp. 164–182). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139192682.010

Neill, J. T., &amp; Gray, T. L. (2011). Technology, risk and outdoor programming. In ''[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/risk-management-in-the-outdoors/8B270918DA02077EB040BF2A4646FA7F Risk management in the outdoors: A whole-of-organisation approach for education, sport and recreation]'' (pp. 132–149). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139192682.008
}}

==2010==
Mackay, G. J., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2010). The effect of “green exercise” on state anxiety and the role of exercise duration, intensity, and greenness: A quasi-experimental study. ''Psychology of Sport and Exercise'', ''11''(3), 238–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.01.002

==2008==
{{Hanging indent|1=Neill, J. T. (2008). Enhancing life effectiveness: The impacts of outdoor education programs. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Western Sydney. https://researchdirect.westernsydney.edu.au/islandora/object/uws:6441/}}

==2005==
{{Hanging indent|1=Fabrizio, S. M., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2005). Cultural adaptation in outdoor programming. ''Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education'', ''9''(2), 44–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03400820}}

==2002==
{{/2002/Dramaturgy}}

==1997==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Hattie, J., Marsh, H. W., Neill, J. T., &amp; Richards, G. E. (1997). Adventure education and Outward Bound: Out-of-class experiences that make a lasting difference. ''Review of Educational Research'', ''67''(1), 43–87. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543067001043}}

==Reports==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Neill, J. T. &amp; Bowen, D. J. (2014). ''[https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2N4zSp4hmN9WUF3bzhuZ3JoNGM/view?usp=sharing&amp;resourcekey=0-y0ZTjcdhHXqQKNtz50BW0A Research evaluation of PCYC Bornhoffen Catalyst intervention programs for youth-at-risk &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;2012-2013&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]''. University of Canberra.
}}

==Theses==
* [[User:Jtneill/PhD|PhD]]
&lt;!-- 
==Published==
* [http://www.wilderdom.com/JamesNeill/JamesNeillpublications.htm Articles &amp; presentations by James Neill]
--&gt;

==Ideas / In progress==
* [[User:Jtneill/4 pillars of free and open teaching|4 pillars of free and open teaching]]
* Some international trends in outdoor education - Past, present, and future
* Ingando camp (life effectiveness)
* Life Effectiveness Questionnaire psychometrics
* OE outcomes (longitudinal study)
* Adolescent Coping Scale psychometrics
* Resilience Scale psychometrics
* Overview of Outdoor Education Theory and/or Research
* Overview of Outdoor Education in Australia
* Overview of Adventure Therapy Theory and/or Education
* Past Trends and Future Directions for Outdoor Education
* Psychological Aspects of Outdoor Education
* Outdoor Education and Modern Technology
* Outdoor Education and Environmental Sustainability

==See also==
* [[User:Jtneill/Presentations]]</text>
      <sha1>55vp7a66ba1jlpl9zcmzdxirlkmm7b3</sha1>
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    <title>Wikiversity:Request custodian action</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>2808202</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-05-10T15:10:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Locpac</username>
        <id>3071512</id>
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      <text bytes="41274" sha1="tc4yeixa579wy9u9fujsv5rybgkb2ai" xml:space="preserve">{{/Header}}
== Dan Polansky ==

I would like to ask you to assess the behavior of Dan Polansky, who in my opinion continues to violate [[Wikiversity:Etiquette|Etiquette]], calls users who disagree with him trolls, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Harold_Foppele&amp;oldid=2760143#Your_qualification questions their expertise], tests them, etc. This is most evident in [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Dan Polansky]], where he has already indicated that two discussion opponents are trolls. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:05, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
: The coddling of overt disruptor Harold Foppele (substantiation is in RCA above) and proven provocateur and disruptor Juandev (substantiation in CR above) must stop. The English Wikiversity must start to properly curate its content and discipline disruptive editors. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:10, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
:[[Wikiversity:Community Review/Dan Polansky]] is underway; outcome pending. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:03, 27 November 2025 (UTC)
::It has been closed with consensus to ban him indefinitely from this project, I believe there is nothing else to do here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:06, 11 March 2026 (UTC)

== Sidewide count.js ==

i would like something like: [[Template:User contrib count/count.js]]. i created [[Template:User contrib count]] and a user/common.js. {{User contrib count}}.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; so a &quot;count.js&quot; would complete it. See [[User:Harold Foppele/common.js]].
If an Administrator could help please. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 19:22, 18 January 2026 (UTC)

== need to add my profile ==

im trying to add new profile content  [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:03, 4 February 2026 (UTC)

:You can edit it now. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:05, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::where can create a new one [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:51, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
:::i have created and its in sandbox. i would like to know when it will be approved  [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 19:38, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::::Please don’t create [[wv:spam|spam]] pages as it will be deleted. Please also read [[WV:Scope]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:01, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

== Im trying to add new profile while add content its shows not alowed ==

This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Exceeded New Page Limit

This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:51, 4 February 2026 (UTC)

== New User: cannot create talk page ==

Hi, I am a new user of Wikiversity and I wanted to create a talk page for the article [[ChatGPT's Essay on Kohlberg's Theory: AI's Use in Academic Writing]]. As a new user, I was barred from performing this action. The text that I wanted to add to the talk page is:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
I have doubts as to to the reliability of this essay. Take for rexample the sentence:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Due to its efficiency, AI has saved 380,000-403,000 lives per year in European healthcare as reported in a recent Deloitte and MedTech Europe report&lt;ref&gt;Dantas, C., Mackiewicz, K., Tageo, V., Jacucci, G., Guardado, D., Ortet, S., Varlamis, I., Maniadakis, M., De Lera, E., Quintas, J., Kocsis, O., &amp; Vassiliou, C. (2021). Benefits and hurdles of AI in the workplace – what comes next? ''International Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems, 10'', 9-17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351993615_Benefits_and_Hurdles_of_AI_In_The_Workplace_-What_Comes_Next&lt;/ref&gt;.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Reading the reference (freely available on ResearchGate), one notes:

# that the reference is from 2021 (predating the widespread use of LLMs such as ChatGPT and the associated 'AI' boom), and
# that the reference factually contradicts this essay.

Quoting from the reference:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
There are enormous benefits of applying AI-based solutions to monitor workers’ health and prevent accidents or, currently, COVID-19 infections, and those benefits are reported with enormous potential. According to the recent Deloitte and MedTech Europe report [11], implementing AI in European healthcare systems could save up 380,000 to 403,000 lives annually or €170.9 to 212.4 billion per year.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Not that the reference says ''could save'', not ''saves'' as in the essay.

This calls into question the reliability of the essay.

&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Could an administrator make this addition for me? Thank you! 
{{reflist}}
[[User:Æolus|Æolus]] ([[User talk:Æolus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Æolus|contribs]]) 06:53, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Æolus|Æolus]] I have added it for you, you can change the header and sign it now. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 08:05, 5 February 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you! [[User:Æolus|Æolus]] ([[User talk:Æolus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Æolus|contribs]]) 12:43, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

== Disallowed to add a page on a course ==

I'm trying to populate a newly created course on Wikiversity, but it blocks me from creating more pages with &quot;New User Exceeded New Page Limit&quot;. Could this be lifted please? [[User:Berkeleywho|Berkeleywho]] ([[User talk:Berkeleywho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Berkeleywho|contribs]]) 13:21, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

:Sorry! Never mind. I was trying to create a new article instead of a new page. All good now. [[User:Berkeleywho|Berkeleywho]] ([[User talk:Berkeleywho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Berkeleywho|contribs]]) 14:03, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

== Harold Foppele adding LLM-generated nonsense and personal fiction ==

I became aware of [[User:Harold Foppele]]'s editing after I deleted some of his uploads on Commons. He appears to be adding a large amount of text and images that are some combination of personal fiction and LLM-generated nonsense. This includes:
*[[Quantum Ultra fast lasers#Future thought experiment|Personal speculative fiction]] in an otherwise &quot;nonfiction&quot; article
*Uploading nonsense LLM-created [[:File:Rontosecond pulse laser (Schematic).jpg|diagrams]] and [[:File:Rontosecond pulse laser (Futuristic).jpg|renders]] for nonexistent lab equipment, with fake source (on Commons, he indicated these files as having been created by him using an LLM)
*Uploading nonsense LLM-created images of equations with obvious artifacts. These images, such as [[:File:Redfield equation (non-Markovian).png]] and [[:File:Lindblad equation (Markovian).png]], don't even match the text he puts them with.
Much of his writing is also of extremely poor quality, to the point where it's not clear whether it's written by him or an LLM. I'm not an active editor on this project, so I'm not as familiar with the standards here, but I believe this is worth custodian attention. [[User:Pi.1415926535|Pi.1415926535]] ([[User talk:Pi.1415926535|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi.1415926535|contribs]]) 03:06, 23 February 2026 (UTC)

:Fake source ''and'' contradictory copyright info, claiming both public domain and CC license. Moreover, if they are indeed nearly-direct LLM output, depending on jurisdiction they may not even be eligible for copyright.
:I've put speedy deletion marks for the equations, because they're obviously not coherent mathematical equations (the parentheses don't match, the symbols merge into each other the way text in image models often do, etc) [[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]] ([[User talk:Sesquilinear|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sesquilinear|contribs]]) 21:50, 7 March 2026 (UTC)

== Repeated removal of RFD notices by Harold Foppele ==

{{User|Harold Foppele }}

This editor is appearing in multiple noticeboards for behaviour which is contentious. Ther latest adventure is the repeated removal of tye RFD notice at [[Quantum/Henry C. Kapteyn]]. You will see from their contributions record the number of times. I have warned Tham on their user tag page that this is tantaomunt to volunteering to be blocked here. They have a track record of achieving blocks on enWiki and Commons already.

They have all the appearance of shooting not to understand when given direct information about their behaviour, whichever project they are editing, and are fast becoming a time sink. Their behaviour across multiple WMF sites may well lead to a Global Lock, but I do not believe they have quite reached the threshold for that.

I believe that what is required is a preventative block to seek to ensure thatchy understand the seriousness of their behaviour, and the need to be collegial. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 23:03, 4 March 2026 (UTC)
: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:45, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

== Blocks for sockpuppet ==

Please block [[User:Harold Foppele]] and [[User:Johnwilliamsiii]] for sockpuppetry based on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Sockpuppet_investigations/Harold_Foppele en wiki] CU and [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?diff=1177465640 commons] CU investigations. The user has also violated copyright, see the above discussion. A block is necessary to prevent further abuse. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:30, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;small&gt;@[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]]&lt;/small&gt; [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:31, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
:: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:44, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
:CC. @[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]], @[[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]], @[[User:Pi.1415926535|Pi.1415926535]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:33, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you for the ping. I concur based on [[w:en:WP:DUCK|behaviour]]. CUs appear divided. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 11:41, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

== Problem when trying to start a discussion with authors of the Plurilingual education portal ==

The authors I wanted to discuss with are called &quot;Project PEP&quot; and my name is Franch Chandler. How can I be allowed to do so ? [[User:French Chandler|French Chandler]] ([[User talk:French Chandler|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/French Chandler|contribs]]) 18:25, 16 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:French Chandler|French Chandler]] place your qestion [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Projet_PEP&amp;action=edit into the dialog box] on this link and hit Publish page. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:22, 16 March 2026 (UTC)

== Please publish my post ==

My post is about &quot;Every child grows and develops at their own pace, but some may experience challenges that affect their ability to perform everyday tasks. These challenges can include difficulties with fine motor skills, sensory processing, handwriting, feeding, and self-regulation. When these issues are not addressed early, they can impact a child’s confidence, academic performance, and independence.

With the rise of digital healthcare services, '''online physical therapy''' has emerged as a powerful and accessible solution for parents seeking support for their children. This modern approach provides structured, personalized therapy programs that can be accessed from the comfort of home, making it easier for families to ensure consistent care.&quot; [[User:Skyabovetherapy|Skyabovetherapy]] ([[User talk:Skyabovetherapy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Skyabovetherapy|contribs]]) 12:28, 28 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Skyabovetherapy|Skyabovetherapy]] Well, you can publish it yourself, Wikiversity is a free environement, where everybody can create educational resources. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 14:11, 29 March 2026 (UTC)
::They actually triggered some abuse filters. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:24, 29 March 2026 (UTC)
:I looked at your attempts to add this text and I see a link to one website repeated many times, which reminds me of the misuse of Wikiversity for self-promotion or to increase the importance of the website. It is necessary to remind you here that Wikiversity is not a place for promotion, but a place for education. So if you want to educate, it will not be a problem to create the page without external links with a clearly defined procedure for how people should use it and what to expect from it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:07, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

== New user limit ==

Hi, I am creating an AIPA Method learning resource page. 

I am the author of the linked research, and I hit the “new user limit” and “new page with external link” filters while publishing. 

Here is the link to the page in creation: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=AIPA_Method&amp;veaction=edit] 

Thank you for your help. 

Best regards, 

Senad Dizdarević [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:19, 30 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] I should admit I dont know, what is &quot;new user limit&quot;, but if filter blocks your page because of certain external link, you may force to save anyway and sometimes it works. It should not work, when the website is blacklisted. As of now, I am not seeing you to save page in main namespace, so try to save it without external links first. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:30, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you, you are very kind. 
::I will wait a day, and try again (without links, too). 
::Today, I already created About Me info page, and maybe that is enough for the filters for one day.  [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:53, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
:::Well, I have analyzed your contribution to Wikiversity and I should point out here, that this project is not a place for advertising, so there is no way of promoting your books and authority this way. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:56, 1 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Hi, my About Me page is just an info page with the neutral as possible presentation of my work. 
::::There is a big difference between informing and advertising. Informing is neutrally stating that something exists and requiring no action, while advertising is a special communication form with intent to cause certain action from readers. For example, click here, click there, order this, buy that. 
::::There is no such intention, form, or terms on my info page. Just neutral information. I don't hide and I am not ashamed that I am write and author, and that is a part of the usual bio, including works. I checked your user page: &quot;I graduated from the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague and studied information science at the Faculty of Arts of Charles University.&quot; I think that if you had written a book on Life Science, you would have mentioned that as well.
::::Most of the Info page is about my research and AIPA Method which is a valid contribution to psychology, consciousness studies, identity theory, and personality development. Actually, my paper '''AIPA Method: A Cognitive-Phenomenological Model for Identity Reconstruction and Stabilization in Pure Awareness''' is now in the peer review procedure at Journal of Consciousness Studies. 
::::Here is a part from the Wikiversity AIPA Method page in creation (waiting for the end of the time limit for new users):    [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:47, 2 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::For the unknown reasons, the form didn't publish my second part of the message: 
:::::I believe this is a valid contribution to Wikiversity. 
:::::Best Regards, 
:::::Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:52, 2 April 2026 (UTC)
::::::And the third try: 
:::::: == Introduction ==
::::::The AIPA Method addresses a gap in contemporary personal development and consciousness science: most evidence‑based approaches (CBT, MBSR, MBCT, standard meditation) operate at the level of mental content—reframing thoughts, observing them, or reducing their impact—rather than at the level of identity structure. In contrast, AIPA targets the structural relationship between the self and the mind, aiming at durable identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness rather than symptom management.
::::::The central research question of the primary AIPA preprint is whether a structured, sequentially staged method can produce permanent identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness, and how such a method compares to established approaches in scope, mechanism, and outcome.
:::::: == Theoretical foundations ==
::::::The AIPA framework is grounded in the cognitive‑phenomenological tradition (e.g., McAdams, Varela, Metzinger, Erikson), contemporary consciousness science on minimal phenomenal experience, and qualitative methods advocacy in psychology. It builds directly on:
::::::* Empirical work on pure awareness and Minimal Phenomenal Experience (MPE), especially Gamma &amp; Metzinger’s large‑scale study of content‑reduced awareness states.
::::::* Metzinger’s proposal of minimal phenomenal experience as an entry point for a minimal unifying model of consciousness.
::::::* Narrative identity and partial‑self models within personality and identity theory.
::::::Within this backdrop, AIPA proposes Pure Awareness as a distinct, operationally specified state that can become a structural ground of identity rather than a transient meditative experience.
:::::: == Experiential empiricism ==
::::::The empirical foundation of the AIPA Method is explicitly first‑person and experiential, combining:
::::::* A 22‑year longitudinal autoethnographic self‑study (2003–2025) documenting partial personality episodes, protocol use, and outcomes.
::::::* A 13‑year prospective verification period with zero self‑reported recurrence of targeted harmful behaviors after a dated stabilization point (1 January 2006).
::::::* A high‑ecological‑validity “stress test” during acute bereavement, used to examine whether non‑reactive awareness remains stable under maximal provocation.
::::::* Two independent practitioner cases (an Amazon‑verified report and a structured questionnaire case) providing preliminary convergent signals across cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and identity dimensions.
::::::All central constructs (Pure Awareness, partial personalities, the Switch, identity stabilization) are operationalized with explicit phenomenological and behavioral criteria intended to enable replication and future third‑person measurement.
::::::I believe this is a valid contribution to Wikiversity. 
::::::Best regards, 
::::::Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:54, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

== Unable to publish pages  ==

Whenever I try to publish a page with linked sources it gets flagged and says I'm a new user attempting to publish content with outside links. Those outside links are my sources. [[User:Soboyed|Soboyed]] ([[User talk:Soboyed|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Soboyed|contribs]]) 04:52, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

:This restriction is automatically lifted after you have edited for a certain time (I don't recall that time off-hand, but it is not long). This is designed to stop spam. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 04:53, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

== Showing error to publish a Post ==

My  action was constructive, not destructive, please allow to publish it. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-20906-18|&amp;#126;2026-20906-18]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-20906-18|talk]]) 08:06, 4 April 2026 (UTC)

:Maybe you got caught in a filter. Consider [[Special:CreateAccount|creating an account]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:06, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
:Your edits, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special:AbuseLog&amp;wpSearchUser=%7E2026-20906-18 these ones], seems to have tripped a filter when you tried to create a page on [[Create]] which external links. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:58, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
:Have you read my [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2802219 previous reply] to you @[[User:~2026-20906-18|~2026-20906-18]]? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:02, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

== Abuse filters which should be deleted ==

Hi, there are some abuse filters which should probably be deleted.
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/1]] (not needed anymore)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/2]] (no hits since 2018)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] (not needed since there are global filters that disallow this specific type of spam filter 3 would have catched)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]] (looking at the logs, there are too many false positives)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/5]] (no hits since 2023)
* Abuse filters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (these filters are not needed anymore)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/17]] (no hits since 2022)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/19]] (no hits since 2019)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/21]] (false positives, vandal currently inactive)
Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:51, 5 April 2026 (UTC)

:Why do these need to be deleted rather than inactivated? Do inactive abuse filters cause a server strain? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:39, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:: Deleted filters do not cause strain to the servers. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:28, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:These sounds like sensible suggestions but, yes, would inactivation perhaps make more sense than deletion for at least some  filters? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:35, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:I would keep them @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]. Alternatively, I would turn off the ones that haven't caught anything for a long time, but I would leave them enabled in case they need to be turned on or improved. If someone has already written the code and we don't have hundreds of free man-hours of programmers on Wikiversity, the server load seems secondary to me, and is negligible compared to other things. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:11, 6 April 2026 (UTC)
:: I know how to write abuse filter code and regex, but I would recommend disabling filters that have never caught anything in a long time ''and'' those who made lots of false positives. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:09, 6 April 2026 (UTC)
:::Of course @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]], there are people here today who are capable of changing the code. But the question is what it will be like in a few years, the question is what will happen if those two are busy for a long time, etc. That's why I would leave it so that those who don't know much about code can be inspired by it and will need to do something with it someday - plus, more code for different types of filtering is actually great educational material on how those filters work. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 11:41, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

Here's the updated list of abuse filters under review with actions I've taken (several disabled, one basic code improvement, and some actions changed) - none have been deleted so they can all be edited and reactivayed - please suggest any further changes:
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/1]] (not needed anymore) - One time account spam bot - 4 hits over 10 years ago - Disabled in 2024 - May be useful in future
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/2]] (no hits since 2018) - Userspace spamming - 778 hits; none since 2018 likely due to global filters - Now disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] (not needed since there are global filters that disallow this specific type of spam filter 3 would have catched) - Specific user page spam - 1,101 hits most recent 7 March 2026 - Still active - Kept enabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]] (looking at the logs, there are too many false positives) - Questionable Language (profanity) - 6,055 hits including very recently - However it was logging hits without taking any actions - Edited to reduce likelihood of false positives by only applying filter to users with low (&lt; 20) edit count and applied weak actions to tag and warn but not prevent publishing the content
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/5]] (no hits since 2023) - Blocked Solicitation Links - 95 hits; none since 2023 - blocks specific historical spam sites - Non-active - Now disabled
* Abuse filters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (these filters are not needed anymore) - Not reviewed - They are currently disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/17]] (no hits since 2022) - Fundamental Physics Edits - 347 hits; none since 2022 - Non-active and very specific for a historical issue - Now disabled 
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/19]] (no hits since 2019) - Page Creation - 20 hits; none since 2019 - Retained for historical reference and possible future updates - Now disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/21]] (false positives, vandal currently inactive) - Globally Banned Editor (renamed to Low-edit Spam Monitor) - 2,829 hits including very recent - Only applies to users with less than 5 edits and takes no actions / monitoring only - Reviewing the details of the hits I don't see many false positives and have strengthened its actions to add a tag and warning

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:57, 9 April 2026 (UTC)

== Block request ==

Please block ~2026-20985-80/~2026-21079-90/~2026-21223-88. Reason: Vandalism. [[User:Àncilu|Àncilu]] ([[User talk:Àncilu|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Àncilu|contribs]]) 23:24, 5 April 2026 (UTC)

:All edits should be deleted and the first is blocked by Atcovi. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:33, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

== Antispam - Filter 12 ==
{{ping|Codename Noreste}} Thanks for contacting me with a suggested [[Special:AbuseFilter|abuse filter]] for the coupon spam we've been getting. A very much appreciated time saver. Per your suggestion, abuse filter 12 has been reactivated with your updated regex. It should tag and prevent page creation actions for coupon promo etc. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:33, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Please do the following to filter 12:
:# Enable the block action (temporary for unregistered users, indefinite for registered users)
:# Disable both the disallow and tag actions, since that filter will be set to block
: Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:42, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
::Excellent. Done:
::* Block duration for non-registered users = 1 week
::* Block duration for registered users = indefinite
::* Disallow and tagging disabled
::Thankyou. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:24, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== Urgent! error message This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed ==

While submitting the post this error was coming &quot;This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please inform an administrator of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link&quot; How to resolve it?

Here is the content:

{{note|marketing material removed}}

[[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] ([[User talk:EasyshikshaMarketing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EasyshikshaMarketing|contribs]]) 05:14, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
: That's because Wikiversity doesn't accept advertising. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:20, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
::So this is fine
::'''Online Internship and Digital Learning for Students'''
::Online learning has become an important part of modern education. With the help of the internet and digital tools, students can now study, practice, and gain experience without being physically present in a classroom. One key part of this system is the online internship, which helps students learn real-world skills along with their studies.
::An online internship allows students to work on tasks and projects through digital platforms. This makes learning more practical and useful, especially for those who want to understand how real work environments function.
::'''Background'''
::The concept of online learning developed from distance education, where students learned from remote locations. Over time, with the growth of digital technology, learning has become more interactive and flexible.
::The introduction of the online internship has added another important layer to digital education. It combines theoretical learning with practical experience, helping students prepare for future careers.
::During global events such as the COVID-19 pandemic, online education and online internship programs became essential. They helped students continue learning and gaining experience despite restrictions on physical movement.
::'''Importance of Online Internship'''
::An online internship plays an important role in student development. It helps bridge the gap between academic knowledge and practical skills.
::'''Some key points include:'''
::Students understand how real work is done
::They develop basic professional skills
::It supports career readiness
::It allows learning without location limits
::By participating in an online internship, students can improve their confidence and gain early exposure to different fields.
::'''Features of Online Internship-Based Learning'''
::Modern education platforms often include online internship opportunities as part of their learning system. These usually offer:
::Flexible schedules for students
::Access to learning from home
::Beginner-friendly tasks and projects
::A combination of theory and practice
::Such features make online internship programs suitable for a wide range of learners, including beginners.
::'''Learning Tasks'''
::Explore how online internship programs support student learning in digital environments.
::Identify how students can gain practical experience through an online internship
::Analyze the role of flexible learning in improving student engagement
::Understand how online education and internships work together
::'''References'''
::[https://ijpsl.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/E-Learning_Hanaaya-Navaneeth.pdf The Past, Present and Future of E-Learning: Hanaaya Varyani and Navaneeth M S]
::[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9788102 Current Trends and Future Perspectives of e-Learning in India]
::'''See Also'''
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/internship Online Internship]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/ Online Courses]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/kids-learning Kids Learning]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/career_helper/ Career Guidance] [[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] ([[User talk:EasyshikshaMarketing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EasyshikshaMarketing|contribs]]) 05:27, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:::@[[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] Wikiversity is a resource for education, or a space for education. However, your intention to link to another website is obvious, and such content does not belong here, as it contradicts the purpose of Wikiversity. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 11:38, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

==AI-generated images==
Seeking your advice.

Myself and students use some AI-generated images in the [[Motivation and emotion]] project.

[[User:Dronebogus]] has been removing some of these images from Wikiversity pages and nominating them for deletion at Commons. As a result, some have been deleted and some have been kept.

Dronebogus has made some useful edits and image suggestions for [[Motivation and emotion]] which I've appreciated and  incorporated. However, there are other edits to remove an AI image by Dronebogus that I've reverted where I think the image is more educational than no image or an alternative image suggested by Dronebogus.

There are a couple of pages where Dronebogus has reverted my reversion, so we are at risk of edit warring. We have briefly discussed and warned each other on our user talk pages, but it seems to come down to a difference in perception about the educational usefulness of the AI images.

So, I'm asking here for others to please review the recent edit histories for these pages:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Stockholm syndrome emotion]]

and let us know what you think about the AI image suitability vs. using no image or alternative images suggested by Dronebogus.

Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:45, 26 April 2026 (UTC)

:I think Jtneill needs to try harder to find non-AI alternatives both on Commons and the web. I’m not reiterating the well known problems with generative AI— you can read about those on Wikipedia and the broader Internet. Needless to say it’s kind of just inherently toxic. If you use it, it should be the last resort of last resorts. Just my stance, which I consider perfectly valid and reasonable. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 04:10, 27 April 2026 (UTC)

== Request for Page Creation Approval - Research on Dr. Ian Stevenson ==


'''Hello Administrators,'''

I am a digital archivist and researcher attempting to create an educational page regarding Dr. Ian Stevenson's scientific work, specifically titled &quot;Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect&quot; and its official Vietnamese edition.

My edits are purely constructive, aimed at integrating local research context with global structured data (including '''Wikidata Q139548587'''). The automated filter is currently preventing publication due to &quot;new user external link limits.&quot;

I have ensured that all citations, references, and images (sourced from Wikimedia Commons) are strictly academic and non-promotional. Could you please review my contributions and consider whitelisting my account or approving this specific page creation?

Thank you for your assistance in preserving this research '''legacy''' within the open knowledge ecosystem.

'''Best regards,''' [[User:Ian Stevenson777|Ian Stevenson777]] ([[User talk:Ian Stevenson777|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ian Stevenson777|contribs]]) 07:26, 28 April 2026 (UTC)
: The page title should probably be in English, as this is English Wikiversity. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:19, 28 April 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Ian Stevenson777|Ian Stevenson777]] I looked at the text and it seems to me that it is informative, but the user cannot learn anything from it because they would have to buy the book. In this regard, it seems to me that it is enough [[:w:Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect|to have that article on Wikipedia]] and there is no need to duplicate it here on Wikiversity. If you are particularly interested with its Vietnamese translation, I would focus on Vietnamese Wikipedia, but it seems to me, that the article there [https://vi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=N%C6%A1i_lu%C3%A2n_h%E1%BB%93i_v%C3%A0_sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc_giao_nhau&amp;oldid=75029095 have some problems at the moment]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:51, 5 May 2026 (UTC)

== Call for custodians and bureaucrats ==

Can I encourage currently active [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]] to consider putting themselves forward for [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodianship]] and/or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucrat|bureaucratship]]. We have a productive, capable group of [[Wikiversity:Staff|staff]] at the moment who should probably have more rights to better support the project and we are light on for active custodians and bureaucrats. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:34, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
: I'm willing to do so. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 11:48, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== Interface administrator flag request ==

@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], @[[User:Mu301|Mu301]] I am requesting IA flag to delete [[MediaWiki:Gadget-WikiSign.js]]. It was requested for deletion by [[User:Sophivorus|a trusted user]] and I think it can be deleted. Once I delete it, I will notify you and you can remove the flag. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:24, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

:Can you enable two-factor authentication? 
:Policy: [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:27, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

== Block request ==

Hi. Please block @[[User:Skibidi Titan 5.0|Skibidi Titan 5.0]]. Reason : Vandalism.

Thanks, [[User:Locpac|Locpac]] ([[User talk:Locpac|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Locpac|contribs]]) 15:10, 10 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>tc4yeixa579wy9u9fujsv5rybgkb2ai</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808241</id>
      <parentid>2808202</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-10T15:24:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Skibidi Titan 5.0</username>
        <id>3071511</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Undid revision [[Special:Diff/2808202|2808202]] by [[Special:Contributions/Locpac|Locpac]] ([[User talk:Locpac|talk]])</comment>
      <origin>2808241</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="41034" sha1="3zx7dzmkxuzsvuuzpc5o3opmkf31cq2" xml:space="preserve">{{/Header}}
== Dan Polansky ==

I would like to ask you to assess the behavior of Dan Polansky, who in my opinion continues to violate [[Wikiversity:Etiquette|Etiquette]], calls users who disagree with him trolls, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Harold_Foppele&amp;oldid=2760143#Your_qualification questions their expertise], tests them, etc. This is most evident in [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Dan Polansky]], where he has already indicated that two discussion opponents are trolls. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:05, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
: The coddling of overt disruptor Harold Foppele (substantiation is in RCA above) and proven provocateur and disruptor Juandev (substantiation in CR above) must stop. The English Wikiversity must start to properly curate its content and discipline disruptive editors. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:10, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
:[[Wikiversity:Community Review/Dan Polansky]] is underway; outcome pending. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:03, 27 November 2025 (UTC)
::It has been closed with consensus to ban him indefinitely from this project, I believe there is nothing else to do here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:06, 11 March 2026 (UTC)

== Sidewide count.js ==

i would like something like: [[Template:User contrib count/count.js]]. i created [[Template:User contrib count]] and a user/common.js. {{User contrib count}}.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; so a &quot;count.js&quot; would complete it. See [[User:Harold Foppele/common.js]].
If an Administrator could help please. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 19:22, 18 January 2026 (UTC)

== need to add my profile ==

im trying to add new profile content  [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:03, 4 February 2026 (UTC)

:You can edit it now. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:05, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::where can create a new one [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:51, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
:::i have created and its in sandbox. i would like to know when it will be approved  [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 19:38, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::::Please don’t create [[wv:spam|spam]] pages as it will be deleted. Please also read [[WV:Scope]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:01, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

== Im trying to add new profile while add content its shows not alowed ==

This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Exceeded New Page Limit

This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:51, 4 February 2026 (UTC)

== New User: cannot create talk page ==

Hi, I am a new user of Wikiversity and I wanted to create a talk page for the article [[ChatGPT's Essay on Kohlberg's Theory: AI's Use in Academic Writing]]. As a new user, I was barred from performing this action. The text that I wanted to add to the talk page is:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
I have doubts as to to the reliability of this essay. Take for rexample the sentence:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Due to its efficiency, AI has saved 380,000-403,000 lives per year in European healthcare as reported in a recent Deloitte and MedTech Europe report&lt;ref&gt;Dantas, C., Mackiewicz, K., Tageo, V., Jacucci, G., Guardado, D., Ortet, S., Varlamis, I., Maniadakis, M., De Lera, E., Quintas, J., Kocsis, O., &amp; Vassiliou, C. (2021). Benefits and hurdles of AI in the workplace – what comes next? ''International Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems, 10'', 9-17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351993615_Benefits_and_Hurdles_of_AI_In_The_Workplace_-What_Comes_Next&lt;/ref&gt;.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Reading the reference (freely available on ResearchGate), one notes:

# that the reference is from 2021 (predating the widespread use of LLMs such as ChatGPT and the associated 'AI' boom), and
# that the reference factually contradicts this essay.

Quoting from the reference:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
There are enormous benefits of applying AI-based solutions to monitor workers’ health and prevent accidents or, currently, COVID-19 infections, and those benefits are reported with enormous potential. According to the recent Deloitte and MedTech Europe report [11], implementing AI in European healthcare systems could save up 380,000 to 403,000 lives annually or €170.9 to 212.4 billion per year.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Not that the reference says ''could save'', not ''saves'' as in the essay.

This calls into question the reliability of the essay.

&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Could an administrator make this addition for me? Thank you! 
{{reflist}}
[[User:Æolus|Æolus]] ([[User talk:Æolus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Æolus|contribs]]) 06:53, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Æolus|Æolus]] I have added it for you, you can change the header and sign it now. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 08:05, 5 February 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you! [[User:Æolus|Æolus]] ([[User talk:Æolus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Æolus|contribs]]) 12:43, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

== Disallowed to add a page on a course ==

I'm trying to populate a newly created course on Wikiversity, but it blocks me from creating more pages with &quot;New User Exceeded New Page Limit&quot;. Could this be lifted please? [[User:Berkeleywho|Berkeleywho]] ([[User talk:Berkeleywho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Berkeleywho|contribs]]) 13:21, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

:Sorry! Never mind. I was trying to create a new article instead of a new page. All good now. [[User:Berkeleywho|Berkeleywho]] ([[User talk:Berkeleywho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Berkeleywho|contribs]]) 14:03, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

== Harold Foppele adding LLM-generated nonsense and personal fiction ==

I became aware of [[User:Harold Foppele]]'s editing after I deleted some of his uploads on Commons. He appears to be adding a large amount of text and images that are some combination of personal fiction and LLM-generated nonsense. This includes:
*[[Quantum Ultra fast lasers#Future thought experiment|Personal speculative fiction]] in an otherwise &quot;nonfiction&quot; article
*Uploading nonsense LLM-created [[:File:Rontosecond pulse laser (Schematic).jpg|diagrams]] and [[:File:Rontosecond pulse laser (Futuristic).jpg|renders]] for nonexistent lab equipment, with fake source (on Commons, he indicated these files as having been created by him using an LLM)
*Uploading nonsense LLM-created images of equations with obvious artifacts. These images, such as [[:File:Redfield equation (non-Markovian).png]] and [[:File:Lindblad equation (Markovian).png]], don't even match the text he puts them with.
Much of his writing is also of extremely poor quality, to the point where it's not clear whether it's written by him or an LLM. I'm not an active editor on this project, so I'm not as familiar with the standards here, but I believe this is worth custodian attention. [[User:Pi.1415926535|Pi.1415926535]] ([[User talk:Pi.1415926535|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi.1415926535|contribs]]) 03:06, 23 February 2026 (UTC)

:Fake source ''and'' contradictory copyright info, claiming both public domain and CC license. Moreover, if they are indeed nearly-direct LLM output, depending on jurisdiction they may not even be eligible for copyright.
:I've put speedy deletion marks for the equations, because they're obviously not coherent mathematical equations (the parentheses don't match, the symbols merge into each other the way text in image models often do, etc) [[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]] ([[User talk:Sesquilinear|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sesquilinear|contribs]]) 21:50, 7 March 2026 (UTC)

== Repeated removal of RFD notices by Harold Foppele ==

{{User|Harold Foppele }}

This editor is appearing in multiple noticeboards for behaviour which is contentious. Ther latest adventure is the repeated removal of tye RFD notice at [[Quantum/Henry C. Kapteyn]]. You will see from their contributions record the number of times. I have warned Tham on their user tag page that this is tantaomunt to volunteering to be blocked here. They have a track record of achieving blocks on enWiki and Commons already.

They have all the appearance of shooting not to understand when given direct information about their behaviour, whichever project they are editing, and are fast becoming a time sink. Their behaviour across multiple WMF sites may well lead to a Global Lock, but I do not believe they have quite reached the threshold for that.

I believe that what is required is a preventative block to seek to ensure thatchy understand the seriousness of their behaviour, and the need to be collegial. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 23:03, 4 March 2026 (UTC)
: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:45, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

== Blocks for sockpuppet ==

Please block [[User:Harold Foppele]] and [[User:Johnwilliamsiii]] for sockpuppetry based on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Sockpuppet_investigations/Harold_Foppele en wiki] CU and [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?diff=1177465640 commons] CU investigations. The user has also violated copyright, see the above discussion. A block is necessary to prevent further abuse. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:30, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;small&gt;@[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]]&lt;/small&gt; [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:31, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
:: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:44, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
:CC. @[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]], @[[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]], @[[User:Pi.1415926535|Pi.1415926535]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:33, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you for the ping. I concur based on [[w:en:WP:DUCK|behaviour]]. CUs appear divided. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 11:41, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

== Problem when trying to start a discussion with authors of the Plurilingual education portal ==

The authors I wanted to discuss with are called &quot;Project PEP&quot; and my name is Franch Chandler. How can I be allowed to do so ? [[User:French Chandler|French Chandler]] ([[User talk:French Chandler|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/French Chandler|contribs]]) 18:25, 16 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:French Chandler|French Chandler]] place your qestion [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Projet_PEP&amp;action=edit into the dialog box] on this link and hit Publish page. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:22, 16 March 2026 (UTC)

== Please publish my post ==

My post is about &quot;Every child grows and develops at their own pace, but some may experience challenges that affect their ability to perform everyday tasks. These challenges can include difficulties with fine motor skills, sensory processing, handwriting, feeding, and self-regulation. When these issues are not addressed early, they can impact a child’s confidence, academic performance, and independence.

With the rise of digital healthcare services, '''online physical therapy''' has emerged as a powerful and accessible solution for parents seeking support for their children. This modern approach provides structured, personalized therapy programs that can be accessed from the comfort of home, making it easier for families to ensure consistent care.&quot; [[User:Skyabovetherapy|Skyabovetherapy]] ([[User talk:Skyabovetherapy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Skyabovetherapy|contribs]]) 12:28, 28 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Skyabovetherapy|Skyabovetherapy]] Well, you can publish it yourself, Wikiversity is a free environement, where everybody can create educational resources. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 14:11, 29 March 2026 (UTC)
::They actually triggered some abuse filters. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:24, 29 March 2026 (UTC)
:I looked at your attempts to add this text and I see a link to one website repeated many times, which reminds me of the misuse of Wikiversity for self-promotion or to increase the importance of the website. It is necessary to remind you here that Wikiversity is not a place for promotion, but a place for education. So if you want to educate, it will not be a problem to create the page without external links with a clearly defined procedure for how people should use it and what to expect from it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:07, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

== New user limit ==

Hi, I am creating an AIPA Method learning resource page. 

I am the author of the linked research, and I hit the “new user limit” and “new page with external link” filters while publishing. 

Here is the link to the page in creation: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=AIPA_Method&amp;veaction=edit] 

Thank you for your help. 

Best regards, 

Senad Dizdarević [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:19, 30 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] I should admit I dont know, what is &quot;new user limit&quot;, but if filter blocks your page because of certain external link, you may force to save anyway and sometimes it works. It should not work, when the website is blacklisted. As of now, I am not seeing you to save page in main namespace, so try to save it without external links first. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:30, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you, you are very kind. 
::I will wait a day, and try again (without links, too). 
::Today, I already created About Me info page, and maybe that is enough for the filters for one day.  [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:53, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
:::Well, I have analyzed your contribution to Wikiversity and I should point out here, that this project is not a place for advertising, so there is no way of promoting your books and authority this way. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:56, 1 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Hi, my About Me page is just an info page with the neutral as possible presentation of my work. 
::::There is a big difference between informing and advertising. Informing is neutrally stating that something exists and requiring no action, while advertising is a special communication form with intent to cause certain action from readers. For example, click here, click there, order this, buy that. 
::::There is no such intention, form, or terms on my info page. Just neutral information. I don't hide and I am not ashamed that I am write and author, and that is a part of the usual bio, including works. I checked your user page: &quot;I graduated from the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague and studied information science at the Faculty of Arts of Charles University.&quot; I think that if you had written a book on Life Science, you would have mentioned that as well.
::::Most of the Info page is about my research and AIPA Method which is a valid contribution to psychology, consciousness studies, identity theory, and personality development. Actually, my paper '''AIPA Method: A Cognitive-Phenomenological Model for Identity Reconstruction and Stabilization in Pure Awareness''' is now in the peer review procedure at Journal of Consciousness Studies. 
::::Here is a part from the Wikiversity AIPA Method page in creation (waiting for the end of the time limit for new users):    [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:47, 2 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::For the unknown reasons, the form didn't publish my second part of the message: 
:::::I believe this is a valid contribution to Wikiversity. 
:::::Best Regards, 
:::::Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:52, 2 April 2026 (UTC)
::::::And the third try: 
:::::: == Introduction ==
::::::The AIPA Method addresses a gap in contemporary personal development and consciousness science: most evidence‑based approaches (CBT, MBSR, MBCT, standard meditation) operate at the level of mental content—reframing thoughts, observing them, or reducing their impact—rather than at the level of identity structure. In contrast, AIPA targets the structural relationship between the self and the mind, aiming at durable identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness rather than symptom management.
::::::The central research question of the primary AIPA preprint is whether a structured, sequentially staged method can produce permanent identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness, and how such a method compares to established approaches in scope, mechanism, and outcome.
:::::: == Theoretical foundations ==
::::::The AIPA framework is grounded in the cognitive‑phenomenological tradition (e.g., McAdams, Varela, Metzinger, Erikson), contemporary consciousness science on minimal phenomenal experience, and qualitative methods advocacy in psychology. It builds directly on:
::::::* Empirical work on pure awareness and Minimal Phenomenal Experience (MPE), especially Gamma &amp; Metzinger’s large‑scale study of content‑reduced awareness states.
::::::* Metzinger’s proposal of minimal phenomenal experience as an entry point for a minimal unifying model of consciousness.
::::::* Narrative identity and partial‑self models within personality and identity theory.
::::::Within this backdrop, AIPA proposes Pure Awareness as a distinct, operationally specified state that can become a structural ground of identity rather than a transient meditative experience.
:::::: == Experiential empiricism ==
::::::The empirical foundation of the AIPA Method is explicitly first‑person and experiential, combining:
::::::* A 22‑year longitudinal autoethnographic self‑study (2003–2025) documenting partial personality episodes, protocol use, and outcomes.
::::::* A 13‑year prospective verification period with zero self‑reported recurrence of targeted harmful behaviors after a dated stabilization point (1 January 2006).
::::::* A high‑ecological‑validity “stress test” during acute bereavement, used to examine whether non‑reactive awareness remains stable under maximal provocation.
::::::* Two independent practitioner cases (an Amazon‑verified report and a structured questionnaire case) providing preliminary convergent signals across cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and identity dimensions.
::::::All central constructs (Pure Awareness, partial personalities, the Switch, identity stabilization) are operationalized with explicit phenomenological and behavioral criteria intended to enable replication and future third‑person measurement.
::::::I believe this is a valid contribution to Wikiversity. 
::::::Best regards, 
::::::Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:54, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

== Unable to publish pages  ==

Whenever I try to publish a page with linked sources it gets flagged and says I'm a new user attempting to publish content with outside links. Those outside links are my sources. [[User:Soboyed|Soboyed]] ([[User talk:Soboyed|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Soboyed|contribs]]) 04:52, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

:This restriction is automatically lifted after you have edited for a certain time (I don't recall that time off-hand, but it is not long). This is designed to stop spam. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 04:53, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

== Showing error to publish a Post ==

My  action was constructive, not destructive, please allow to publish it. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-20906-18|&amp;#126;2026-20906-18]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-20906-18|talk]]) 08:06, 4 April 2026 (UTC)

:Maybe you got caught in a filter. Consider [[Special:CreateAccount|creating an account]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:06, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
:Your edits, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special:AbuseLog&amp;wpSearchUser=%7E2026-20906-18 these ones], seems to have tripped a filter when you tried to create a page on [[Create]] which external links. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:58, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
:Have you read my [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2802219 previous reply] to you @[[User:~2026-20906-18|~2026-20906-18]]? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:02, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

== Abuse filters which should be deleted ==

Hi, there are some abuse filters which should probably be deleted.
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/1]] (not needed anymore)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/2]] (no hits since 2018)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] (not needed since there are global filters that disallow this specific type of spam filter 3 would have catched)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]] (looking at the logs, there are too many false positives)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/5]] (no hits since 2023)
* Abuse filters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (these filters are not needed anymore)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/17]] (no hits since 2022)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/19]] (no hits since 2019)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/21]] (false positives, vandal currently inactive)
Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:51, 5 April 2026 (UTC)

:Why do these need to be deleted rather than inactivated? Do inactive abuse filters cause a server strain? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:39, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:: Deleted filters do not cause strain to the servers. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:28, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:These sounds like sensible suggestions but, yes, would inactivation perhaps make more sense than deletion for at least some  filters? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:35, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:I would keep them @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]. Alternatively, I would turn off the ones that haven't caught anything for a long time, but I would leave them enabled in case they need to be turned on or improved. If someone has already written the code and we don't have hundreds of free man-hours of programmers on Wikiversity, the server load seems secondary to me, and is negligible compared to other things. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:11, 6 April 2026 (UTC)
:: I know how to write abuse filter code and regex, but I would recommend disabling filters that have never caught anything in a long time ''and'' those who made lots of false positives. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:09, 6 April 2026 (UTC)
:::Of course @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]], there are people here today who are capable of changing the code. But the question is what it will be like in a few years, the question is what will happen if those two are busy for a long time, etc. That's why I would leave it so that those who don't know much about code can be inspired by it and will need to do something with it someday - plus, more code for different types of filtering is actually great educational material on how those filters work. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 11:41, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

Here's the updated list of abuse filters under review with actions I've taken (several disabled, one basic code improvement, and some actions changed) - none have been deleted so they can all be edited and reactivayed - please suggest any further changes:
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/1]] (not needed anymore) - One time account spam bot - 4 hits over 10 years ago - Disabled in 2024 - May be useful in future
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/2]] (no hits since 2018) - Userspace spamming - 778 hits; none since 2018 likely due to global filters - Now disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] (not needed since there are global filters that disallow this specific type of spam filter 3 would have catched) - Specific user page spam - 1,101 hits most recent 7 March 2026 - Still active - Kept enabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]] (looking at the logs, there are too many false positives) - Questionable Language (profanity) - 6,055 hits including very recently - However it was logging hits without taking any actions - Edited to reduce likelihood of false positives by only applying filter to users with low (&lt; 20) edit count and applied weak actions to tag and warn but not prevent publishing the content
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/5]] (no hits since 2023) - Blocked Solicitation Links - 95 hits; none since 2023 - blocks specific historical spam sites - Non-active - Now disabled
* Abuse filters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (these filters are not needed anymore) - Not reviewed - They are currently disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/17]] (no hits since 2022) - Fundamental Physics Edits - 347 hits; none since 2022 - Non-active and very specific for a historical issue - Now disabled 
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/19]] (no hits since 2019) - Page Creation - 20 hits; none since 2019 - Retained for historical reference and possible future updates - Now disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/21]] (false positives, vandal currently inactive) - Globally Banned Editor (renamed to Low-edit Spam Monitor) - 2,829 hits including very recent - Only applies to users with less than 5 edits and takes no actions / monitoring only - Reviewing the details of the hits I don't see many false positives and have strengthened its actions to add a tag and warning

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:57, 9 April 2026 (UTC)

== Block request ==

Please block ~2026-20985-80/~2026-21079-90/~2026-21223-88. Reason: Vandalism. [[User:Àncilu|Àncilu]] ([[User talk:Àncilu|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Àncilu|contribs]]) 23:24, 5 April 2026 (UTC)

:All edits should be deleted and the first is blocked by Atcovi. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:33, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

== Antispam - Filter 12 ==
{{ping|Codename Noreste}} Thanks for contacting me with a suggested [[Special:AbuseFilter|abuse filter]] for the coupon spam we've been getting. A very much appreciated time saver. Per your suggestion, abuse filter 12 has been reactivated with your updated regex. It should tag and prevent page creation actions for coupon promo etc. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:33, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Please do the following to filter 12:
:# Enable the block action (temporary for unregistered users, indefinite for registered users)
:# Disable both the disallow and tag actions, since that filter will be set to block
: Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:42, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
::Excellent. Done:
::* Block duration for non-registered users = 1 week
::* Block duration for registered users = indefinite
::* Disallow and tagging disabled
::Thankyou. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:24, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== Urgent! error message This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed ==

While submitting the post this error was coming &quot;This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please inform an administrator of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link&quot; How to resolve it?

Here is the content:

{{note|marketing material removed}}

[[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] ([[User talk:EasyshikshaMarketing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EasyshikshaMarketing|contribs]]) 05:14, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
: That's because Wikiversity doesn't accept advertising. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:20, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
::So this is fine
::'''Online Internship and Digital Learning for Students'''
::Online learning has become an important part of modern education. With the help of the internet and digital tools, students can now study, practice, and gain experience without being physically present in a classroom. One key part of this system is the online internship, which helps students learn real-world skills along with their studies.
::An online internship allows students to work on tasks and projects through digital platforms. This makes learning more practical and useful, especially for those who want to understand how real work environments function.
::'''Background'''
::The concept of online learning developed from distance education, where students learned from remote locations. Over time, with the growth of digital technology, learning has become more interactive and flexible.
::The introduction of the online internship has added another important layer to digital education. It combines theoretical learning with practical experience, helping students prepare for future careers.
::During global events such as the COVID-19 pandemic, online education and online internship programs became essential. They helped students continue learning and gaining experience despite restrictions on physical movement.
::'''Importance of Online Internship'''
::An online internship plays an important role in student development. It helps bridge the gap between academic knowledge and practical skills.
::'''Some key points include:'''
::Students understand how real work is done
::They develop basic professional skills
::It supports career readiness
::It allows learning without location limits
::By participating in an online internship, students can improve their confidence and gain early exposure to different fields.
::'''Features of Online Internship-Based Learning'''
::Modern education platforms often include online internship opportunities as part of their learning system. These usually offer:
::Flexible schedules for students
::Access to learning from home
::Beginner-friendly tasks and projects
::A combination of theory and practice
::Such features make online internship programs suitable for a wide range of learners, including beginners.
::'''Learning Tasks'''
::Explore how online internship programs support student learning in digital environments.
::Identify how students can gain practical experience through an online internship
::Analyze the role of flexible learning in improving student engagement
::Understand how online education and internships work together
::'''References'''
::[https://ijpsl.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/E-Learning_Hanaaya-Navaneeth.pdf The Past, Present and Future of E-Learning: Hanaaya Varyani and Navaneeth M S]
::[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9788102 Current Trends and Future Perspectives of e-Learning in India]
::'''See Also'''
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/internship Online Internship]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/ Online Courses]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/kids-learning Kids Learning]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/career_helper/ Career Guidance] [[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] ([[User talk:EasyshikshaMarketing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EasyshikshaMarketing|contribs]]) 05:27, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:::@[[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] Wikiversity is a resource for education, or a space for education. However, your intention to link to another website is obvious, and such content does not belong here, as it contradicts the purpose of Wikiversity. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 11:38, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

==AI-generated images==
Seeking your advice.

Myself and students use some AI-generated images in the [[Motivation and emotion]] project.

[[User:Dronebogus]] has been removing some of these images from Wikiversity pages and nominating them for deletion at Commons. As a result, some have been deleted and some have been kept.

Dronebogus has made some useful edits and image suggestions for [[Motivation and emotion]] which I've appreciated and  incorporated. However, there are other edits to remove an AI image by Dronebogus that I've reverted where I think the image is more educational than no image or an alternative image suggested by Dronebogus.

There are a couple of pages where Dronebogus has reverted my reversion, so we are at risk of edit warring. We have briefly discussed and warned each other on our user talk pages, but it seems to come down to a difference in perception about the educational usefulness of the AI images.

So, I'm asking here for others to please review the recent edit histories for these pages:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Stockholm syndrome emotion]]

and let us know what you think about the AI image suitability vs. using no image or alternative images suggested by Dronebogus.

Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:45, 26 April 2026 (UTC)

:I think Jtneill needs to try harder to find non-AI alternatives both on Commons and the web. I’m not reiterating the well known problems with generative AI— you can read about those on Wikipedia and the broader Internet. Needless to say it’s kind of just inherently toxic. If you use it, it should be the last resort of last resorts. Just my stance, which I consider perfectly valid and reasonable. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 04:10, 27 April 2026 (UTC)

== Request for Page Creation Approval - Research on Dr. Ian Stevenson ==


'''Hello Administrators,'''

I am a digital archivist and researcher attempting to create an educational page regarding Dr. Ian Stevenson's scientific work, specifically titled &quot;Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect&quot; and its official Vietnamese edition.

My edits are purely constructive, aimed at integrating local research context with global structured data (including '''Wikidata Q139548587'''). The automated filter is currently preventing publication due to &quot;new user external link limits.&quot;

I have ensured that all citations, references, and images (sourced from Wikimedia Commons) are strictly academic and non-promotional. Could you please review my contributions and consider whitelisting my account or approving this specific page creation?

Thank you for your assistance in preserving this research '''legacy''' within the open knowledge ecosystem.

'''Best regards,''' [[User:Ian Stevenson777|Ian Stevenson777]] ([[User talk:Ian Stevenson777|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ian Stevenson777|contribs]]) 07:26, 28 April 2026 (UTC)
: The page title should probably be in English, as this is English Wikiversity. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:19, 28 April 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Ian Stevenson777|Ian Stevenson777]] I looked at the text and it seems to me that it is informative, but the user cannot learn anything from it because they would have to buy the book. In this regard, it seems to me that it is enough [[:w:Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect|to have that article on Wikipedia]] and there is no need to duplicate it here on Wikiversity. If you are particularly interested with its Vietnamese translation, I would focus on Vietnamese Wikipedia, but it seems to me, that the article there [https://vi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=N%C6%A1i_lu%C3%A2n_h%E1%BB%93i_v%C3%A0_sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc_giao_nhau&amp;oldid=75029095 have some problems at the moment]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:51, 5 May 2026 (UTC)

== Call for custodians and bureaucrats ==

Can I encourage currently active [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]] to consider putting themselves forward for [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodianship]] and/or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucrat|bureaucratship]]. We have a productive, capable group of [[Wikiversity:Staff|staff]] at the moment who should probably have more rights to better support the project and we are light on for active custodians and bureaucrats. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:34, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
: I'm willing to do so. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 11:48, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== Interface administrator flag request ==

@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], @[[User:Mu301|Mu301]] I am requesting IA flag to delete [[MediaWiki:Gadget-WikiSign.js]]. It was requested for deletion by [[User:Sophivorus|a trusted user]] and I think it can be deleted. Once I delete it, I will notify you and you can remove the flag. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:24, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

:Can you enable two-factor authentication? 
:Policy: [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:27, 10 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Undid edits by [[Special:Contribs/Skibidi Titan 5.0|Skibidi Titan 5.0]] ([[User talk:Skibidi Titan 5.0|talk]]) to last version by Locpac: unexplained content removal</comment>
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      <text bytes="41274" sha1="tc4yeixa579wy9u9fujsv5rybgkb2ai" xml:space="preserve">{{/Header}}
== Dan Polansky ==

I would like to ask you to assess the behavior of Dan Polansky, who in my opinion continues to violate [[Wikiversity:Etiquette|Etiquette]], calls users who disagree with him trolls, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Harold_Foppele&amp;oldid=2760143#Your_qualification questions their expertise], tests them, etc. This is most evident in [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Dan Polansky]], where he has already indicated that two discussion opponents are trolls. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:05, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
: The coddling of overt disruptor Harold Foppele (substantiation is in RCA above) and proven provocateur and disruptor Juandev (substantiation in CR above) must stop. The English Wikiversity must start to properly curate its content and discipline disruptive editors. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:10, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
:[[Wikiversity:Community Review/Dan Polansky]] is underway; outcome pending. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:03, 27 November 2025 (UTC)
::It has been closed with consensus to ban him indefinitely from this project, I believe there is nothing else to do here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:06, 11 March 2026 (UTC)

== Sidewide count.js ==

i would like something like: [[Template:User contrib count/count.js]]. i created [[Template:User contrib count]] and a user/common.js. {{User contrib count}}.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; so a &quot;count.js&quot; would complete it. See [[User:Harold Foppele/common.js]].
If an Administrator could help please. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 19:22, 18 January 2026 (UTC)

== need to add my profile ==

im trying to add new profile content  [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:03, 4 February 2026 (UTC)

:You can edit it now. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:05, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::where can create a new one [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:51, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
:::i have created and its in sandbox. i would like to know when it will be approved  [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 19:38, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::::Please don’t create [[wv:spam|spam]] pages as it will be deleted. Please also read [[WV:Scope]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:01, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

== Im trying to add new profile while add content its shows not alowed ==

This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Exceeded New Page Limit

This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:51, 4 February 2026 (UTC)

== New User: cannot create talk page ==

Hi, I am a new user of Wikiversity and I wanted to create a talk page for the article [[ChatGPT's Essay on Kohlberg's Theory: AI's Use in Academic Writing]]. As a new user, I was barred from performing this action. The text that I wanted to add to the talk page is:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
I have doubts as to to the reliability of this essay. Take for rexample the sentence:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Due to its efficiency, AI has saved 380,000-403,000 lives per year in European healthcare as reported in a recent Deloitte and MedTech Europe report&lt;ref&gt;Dantas, C., Mackiewicz, K., Tageo, V., Jacucci, G., Guardado, D., Ortet, S., Varlamis, I., Maniadakis, M., De Lera, E., Quintas, J., Kocsis, O., &amp; Vassiliou, C. (2021). Benefits and hurdles of AI in the workplace – what comes next? ''International Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems, 10'', 9-17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351993615_Benefits_and_Hurdles_of_AI_In_The_Workplace_-What_Comes_Next&lt;/ref&gt;.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Reading the reference (freely available on ResearchGate), one notes:

# that the reference is from 2021 (predating the widespread use of LLMs such as ChatGPT and the associated 'AI' boom), and
# that the reference factually contradicts this essay.

Quoting from the reference:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
There are enormous benefits of applying AI-based solutions to monitor workers’ health and prevent accidents or, currently, COVID-19 infections, and those benefits are reported with enormous potential. According to the recent Deloitte and MedTech Europe report [11], implementing AI in European healthcare systems could save up 380,000 to 403,000 lives annually or €170.9 to 212.4 billion per year.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Not that the reference says ''could save'', not ''saves'' as in the essay.

This calls into question the reliability of the essay.

&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Could an administrator make this addition for me? Thank you! 
{{reflist}}
[[User:Æolus|Æolus]] ([[User talk:Æolus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Æolus|contribs]]) 06:53, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Æolus|Æolus]] I have added it for you, you can change the header and sign it now. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 08:05, 5 February 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you! [[User:Æolus|Æolus]] ([[User talk:Æolus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Æolus|contribs]]) 12:43, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

== Disallowed to add a page on a course ==

I'm trying to populate a newly created course on Wikiversity, but it blocks me from creating more pages with &quot;New User Exceeded New Page Limit&quot;. Could this be lifted please? [[User:Berkeleywho|Berkeleywho]] ([[User talk:Berkeleywho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Berkeleywho|contribs]]) 13:21, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

:Sorry! Never mind. I was trying to create a new article instead of a new page. All good now. [[User:Berkeleywho|Berkeleywho]] ([[User talk:Berkeleywho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Berkeleywho|contribs]]) 14:03, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

== Harold Foppele adding LLM-generated nonsense and personal fiction ==

I became aware of [[User:Harold Foppele]]'s editing after I deleted some of his uploads on Commons. He appears to be adding a large amount of text and images that are some combination of personal fiction and LLM-generated nonsense. This includes:
*[[Quantum Ultra fast lasers#Future thought experiment|Personal speculative fiction]] in an otherwise &quot;nonfiction&quot; article
*Uploading nonsense LLM-created [[:File:Rontosecond pulse laser (Schematic).jpg|diagrams]] and [[:File:Rontosecond pulse laser (Futuristic).jpg|renders]] for nonexistent lab equipment, with fake source (on Commons, he indicated these files as having been created by him using an LLM)
*Uploading nonsense LLM-created images of equations with obvious artifacts. These images, such as [[:File:Redfield equation (non-Markovian).png]] and [[:File:Lindblad equation (Markovian).png]], don't even match the text he puts them with.
Much of his writing is also of extremely poor quality, to the point where it's not clear whether it's written by him or an LLM. I'm not an active editor on this project, so I'm not as familiar with the standards here, but I believe this is worth custodian attention. [[User:Pi.1415926535|Pi.1415926535]] ([[User talk:Pi.1415926535|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi.1415926535|contribs]]) 03:06, 23 February 2026 (UTC)

:Fake source ''and'' contradictory copyright info, claiming both public domain and CC license. Moreover, if they are indeed nearly-direct LLM output, depending on jurisdiction they may not even be eligible for copyright.
:I've put speedy deletion marks for the equations, because they're obviously not coherent mathematical equations (the parentheses don't match, the symbols merge into each other the way text in image models often do, etc) [[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]] ([[User talk:Sesquilinear|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sesquilinear|contribs]]) 21:50, 7 March 2026 (UTC)

== Repeated removal of RFD notices by Harold Foppele ==

{{User|Harold Foppele }}

This editor is appearing in multiple noticeboards for behaviour which is contentious. Ther latest adventure is the repeated removal of tye RFD notice at [[Quantum/Henry C. Kapteyn]]. You will see from their contributions record the number of times. I have warned Tham on their user tag page that this is tantaomunt to volunteering to be blocked here. They have a track record of achieving blocks on enWiki and Commons already.

They have all the appearance of shooting not to understand when given direct information about their behaviour, whichever project they are editing, and are fast becoming a time sink. Their behaviour across multiple WMF sites may well lead to a Global Lock, but I do not believe they have quite reached the threshold for that.

I believe that what is required is a preventative block to seek to ensure thatchy understand the seriousness of their behaviour, and the need to be collegial. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 23:03, 4 March 2026 (UTC)
: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:45, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

== Blocks for sockpuppet ==

Please block [[User:Harold Foppele]] and [[User:Johnwilliamsiii]] for sockpuppetry based on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Sockpuppet_investigations/Harold_Foppele en wiki] CU and [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?diff=1177465640 commons] CU investigations. The user has also violated copyright, see the above discussion. A block is necessary to prevent further abuse. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:30, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;small&gt;@[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]]&lt;/small&gt; [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:31, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
:: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:44, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
:CC. @[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]], @[[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]], @[[User:Pi.1415926535|Pi.1415926535]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:33, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you for the ping. I concur based on [[w:en:WP:DUCK|behaviour]]. CUs appear divided. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 11:41, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

== Problem when trying to start a discussion with authors of the Plurilingual education portal ==

The authors I wanted to discuss with are called &quot;Project PEP&quot; and my name is Franch Chandler. How can I be allowed to do so ? [[User:French Chandler|French Chandler]] ([[User talk:French Chandler|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/French Chandler|contribs]]) 18:25, 16 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:French Chandler|French Chandler]] place your qestion [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Projet_PEP&amp;action=edit into the dialog box] on this link and hit Publish page. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:22, 16 March 2026 (UTC)

== Please publish my post ==

My post is about &quot;Every child grows and develops at their own pace, but some may experience challenges that affect their ability to perform everyday tasks. These challenges can include difficulties with fine motor skills, sensory processing, handwriting, feeding, and self-regulation. When these issues are not addressed early, they can impact a child’s confidence, academic performance, and independence.

With the rise of digital healthcare services, '''online physical therapy''' has emerged as a powerful and accessible solution for parents seeking support for their children. This modern approach provides structured, personalized therapy programs that can be accessed from the comfort of home, making it easier for families to ensure consistent care.&quot; [[User:Skyabovetherapy|Skyabovetherapy]] ([[User talk:Skyabovetherapy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Skyabovetherapy|contribs]]) 12:28, 28 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Skyabovetherapy|Skyabovetherapy]] Well, you can publish it yourself, Wikiversity is a free environement, where everybody can create educational resources. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 14:11, 29 March 2026 (UTC)
::They actually triggered some abuse filters. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:24, 29 March 2026 (UTC)
:I looked at your attempts to add this text and I see a link to one website repeated many times, which reminds me of the misuse of Wikiversity for self-promotion or to increase the importance of the website. It is necessary to remind you here that Wikiversity is not a place for promotion, but a place for education. So if you want to educate, it will not be a problem to create the page without external links with a clearly defined procedure for how people should use it and what to expect from it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:07, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

== New user limit ==

Hi, I am creating an AIPA Method learning resource page. 

I am the author of the linked research, and I hit the “new user limit” and “new page with external link” filters while publishing. 

Here is the link to the page in creation: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=AIPA_Method&amp;veaction=edit] 

Thank you for your help. 

Best regards, 

Senad Dizdarević [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:19, 30 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] I should admit I dont know, what is &quot;new user limit&quot;, but if filter blocks your page because of certain external link, you may force to save anyway and sometimes it works. It should not work, when the website is blacklisted. As of now, I am not seeing you to save page in main namespace, so try to save it without external links first. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:30, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you, you are very kind. 
::I will wait a day, and try again (without links, too). 
::Today, I already created About Me info page, and maybe that is enough for the filters for one day.  [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:53, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
:::Well, I have analyzed your contribution to Wikiversity and I should point out here, that this project is not a place for advertising, so there is no way of promoting your books and authority this way. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:56, 1 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Hi, my About Me page is just an info page with the neutral as possible presentation of my work. 
::::There is a big difference between informing and advertising. Informing is neutrally stating that something exists and requiring no action, while advertising is a special communication form with intent to cause certain action from readers. For example, click here, click there, order this, buy that. 
::::There is no such intention, form, or terms on my info page. Just neutral information. I don't hide and I am not ashamed that I am write and author, and that is a part of the usual bio, including works. I checked your user page: &quot;I graduated from the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague and studied information science at the Faculty of Arts of Charles University.&quot; I think that if you had written a book on Life Science, you would have mentioned that as well.
::::Most of the Info page is about my research and AIPA Method which is a valid contribution to psychology, consciousness studies, identity theory, and personality development. Actually, my paper '''AIPA Method: A Cognitive-Phenomenological Model for Identity Reconstruction and Stabilization in Pure Awareness''' is now in the peer review procedure at Journal of Consciousness Studies. 
::::Here is a part from the Wikiversity AIPA Method page in creation (waiting for the end of the time limit for new users):    [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:47, 2 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::For the unknown reasons, the form didn't publish my second part of the message: 
:::::I believe this is a valid contribution to Wikiversity. 
:::::Best Regards, 
:::::Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:52, 2 April 2026 (UTC)
::::::And the third try: 
:::::: == Introduction ==
::::::The AIPA Method addresses a gap in contemporary personal development and consciousness science: most evidence‑based approaches (CBT, MBSR, MBCT, standard meditation) operate at the level of mental content—reframing thoughts, observing them, or reducing their impact—rather than at the level of identity structure. In contrast, AIPA targets the structural relationship between the self and the mind, aiming at durable identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness rather than symptom management.
::::::The central research question of the primary AIPA preprint is whether a structured, sequentially staged method can produce permanent identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness, and how such a method compares to established approaches in scope, mechanism, and outcome.
:::::: == Theoretical foundations ==
::::::The AIPA framework is grounded in the cognitive‑phenomenological tradition (e.g., McAdams, Varela, Metzinger, Erikson), contemporary consciousness science on minimal phenomenal experience, and qualitative methods advocacy in psychology. It builds directly on:
::::::* Empirical work on pure awareness and Minimal Phenomenal Experience (MPE), especially Gamma &amp; Metzinger’s large‑scale study of content‑reduced awareness states.
::::::* Metzinger’s proposal of minimal phenomenal experience as an entry point for a minimal unifying model of consciousness.
::::::* Narrative identity and partial‑self models within personality and identity theory.
::::::Within this backdrop, AIPA proposes Pure Awareness as a distinct, operationally specified state that can become a structural ground of identity rather than a transient meditative experience.
:::::: == Experiential empiricism ==
::::::The empirical foundation of the AIPA Method is explicitly first‑person and experiential, combining:
::::::* A 22‑year longitudinal autoethnographic self‑study (2003–2025) documenting partial personality episodes, protocol use, and outcomes.
::::::* A 13‑year prospective verification period with zero self‑reported recurrence of targeted harmful behaviors after a dated stabilization point (1 January 2006).
::::::* A high‑ecological‑validity “stress test” during acute bereavement, used to examine whether non‑reactive awareness remains stable under maximal provocation.
::::::* Two independent practitioner cases (an Amazon‑verified report and a structured questionnaire case) providing preliminary convergent signals across cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and identity dimensions.
::::::All central constructs (Pure Awareness, partial personalities, the Switch, identity stabilization) are operationalized with explicit phenomenological and behavioral criteria intended to enable replication and future third‑person measurement.
::::::I believe this is a valid contribution to Wikiversity. 
::::::Best regards, 
::::::Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:54, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

== Unable to publish pages  ==

Whenever I try to publish a page with linked sources it gets flagged and says I'm a new user attempting to publish content with outside links. Those outside links are my sources. [[User:Soboyed|Soboyed]] ([[User talk:Soboyed|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Soboyed|contribs]]) 04:52, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

:This restriction is automatically lifted after you have edited for a certain time (I don't recall that time off-hand, but it is not long). This is designed to stop spam. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 04:53, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

== Showing error to publish a Post ==

My  action was constructive, not destructive, please allow to publish it. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-20906-18|&amp;#126;2026-20906-18]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-20906-18|talk]]) 08:06, 4 April 2026 (UTC)

:Maybe you got caught in a filter. Consider [[Special:CreateAccount|creating an account]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:06, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
:Your edits, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special:AbuseLog&amp;wpSearchUser=%7E2026-20906-18 these ones], seems to have tripped a filter when you tried to create a page on [[Create]] which external links. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:58, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
:Have you read my [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2802219 previous reply] to you @[[User:~2026-20906-18|~2026-20906-18]]? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:02, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

== Abuse filters which should be deleted ==

Hi, there are some abuse filters which should probably be deleted.
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/1]] (not needed anymore)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/2]] (no hits since 2018)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] (not needed since there are global filters that disallow this specific type of spam filter 3 would have catched)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]] (looking at the logs, there are too many false positives)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/5]] (no hits since 2023)
* Abuse filters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (these filters are not needed anymore)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/17]] (no hits since 2022)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/19]] (no hits since 2019)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/21]] (false positives, vandal currently inactive)
Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:51, 5 April 2026 (UTC)

:Why do these need to be deleted rather than inactivated? Do inactive abuse filters cause a server strain? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:39, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:: Deleted filters do not cause strain to the servers. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:28, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:These sounds like sensible suggestions but, yes, would inactivation perhaps make more sense than deletion for at least some  filters? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:35, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:I would keep them @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]. Alternatively, I would turn off the ones that haven't caught anything for a long time, but I would leave them enabled in case they need to be turned on or improved. If someone has already written the code and we don't have hundreds of free man-hours of programmers on Wikiversity, the server load seems secondary to me, and is negligible compared to other things. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:11, 6 April 2026 (UTC)
:: I know how to write abuse filter code and regex, but I would recommend disabling filters that have never caught anything in a long time ''and'' those who made lots of false positives. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:09, 6 April 2026 (UTC)
:::Of course @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]], there are people here today who are capable of changing the code. But the question is what it will be like in a few years, the question is what will happen if those two are busy for a long time, etc. That's why I would leave it so that those who don't know much about code can be inspired by it and will need to do something with it someday - plus, more code for different types of filtering is actually great educational material on how those filters work. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 11:41, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

Here's the updated list of abuse filters under review with actions I've taken (several disabled, one basic code improvement, and some actions changed) - none have been deleted so they can all be edited and reactivayed - please suggest any further changes:
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/1]] (not needed anymore) - One time account spam bot - 4 hits over 10 years ago - Disabled in 2024 - May be useful in future
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/2]] (no hits since 2018) - Userspace spamming - 778 hits; none since 2018 likely due to global filters - Now disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] (not needed since there are global filters that disallow this specific type of spam filter 3 would have catched) - Specific user page spam - 1,101 hits most recent 7 March 2026 - Still active - Kept enabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]] (looking at the logs, there are too many false positives) - Questionable Language (profanity) - 6,055 hits including very recently - However it was logging hits without taking any actions - Edited to reduce likelihood of false positives by only applying filter to users with low (&lt; 20) edit count and applied weak actions to tag and warn but not prevent publishing the content
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/5]] (no hits since 2023) - Blocked Solicitation Links - 95 hits; none since 2023 - blocks specific historical spam sites - Non-active - Now disabled
* Abuse filters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (these filters are not needed anymore) - Not reviewed - They are currently disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/17]] (no hits since 2022) - Fundamental Physics Edits - 347 hits; none since 2022 - Non-active and very specific for a historical issue - Now disabled 
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/19]] (no hits since 2019) - Page Creation - 20 hits; none since 2019 - Retained for historical reference and possible future updates - Now disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/21]] (false positives, vandal currently inactive) - Globally Banned Editor (renamed to Low-edit Spam Monitor) - 2,829 hits including very recent - Only applies to users with less than 5 edits and takes no actions / monitoring only - Reviewing the details of the hits I don't see many false positives and have strengthened its actions to add a tag and warning

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:57, 9 April 2026 (UTC)

== Block request ==

Please block ~2026-20985-80/~2026-21079-90/~2026-21223-88. Reason: Vandalism. [[User:Àncilu|Àncilu]] ([[User talk:Àncilu|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Àncilu|contribs]]) 23:24, 5 April 2026 (UTC)

:All edits should be deleted and the first is blocked by Atcovi. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:33, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

== Antispam - Filter 12 ==
{{ping|Codename Noreste}} Thanks for contacting me with a suggested [[Special:AbuseFilter|abuse filter]] for the coupon spam we've been getting. A very much appreciated time saver. Per your suggestion, abuse filter 12 has been reactivated with your updated regex. It should tag and prevent page creation actions for coupon promo etc. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:33, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Please do the following to filter 12:
:# Enable the block action (temporary for unregistered users, indefinite for registered users)
:# Disable both the disallow and tag actions, since that filter will be set to block
: Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:42, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
::Excellent. Done:
::* Block duration for non-registered users = 1 week
::* Block duration for registered users = indefinite
::* Disallow and tagging disabled
::Thankyou. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:24, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== Urgent! error message This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed ==

While submitting the post this error was coming &quot;This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please inform an administrator of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link&quot; How to resolve it?

Here is the content:

{{note|marketing material removed}}

[[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] ([[User talk:EasyshikshaMarketing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EasyshikshaMarketing|contribs]]) 05:14, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
: That's because Wikiversity doesn't accept advertising. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:20, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
::So this is fine
::'''Online Internship and Digital Learning for Students'''
::Online learning has become an important part of modern education. With the help of the internet and digital tools, students can now study, practice, and gain experience without being physically present in a classroom. One key part of this system is the online internship, which helps students learn real-world skills along with their studies.
::An online internship allows students to work on tasks and projects through digital platforms. This makes learning more practical and useful, especially for those who want to understand how real work environments function.
::'''Background'''
::The concept of online learning developed from distance education, where students learned from remote locations. Over time, with the growth of digital technology, learning has become more interactive and flexible.
::The introduction of the online internship has added another important layer to digital education. It combines theoretical learning with practical experience, helping students prepare for future careers.
::During global events such as the COVID-19 pandemic, online education and online internship programs became essential. They helped students continue learning and gaining experience despite restrictions on physical movement.
::'''Importance of Online Internship'''
::An online internship plays an important role in student development. It helps bridge the gap between academic knowledge and practical skills.
::'''Some key points include:'''
::Students understand how real work is done
::They develop basic professional skills
::It supports career readiness
::It allows learning without location limits
::By participating in an online internship, students can improve their confidence and gain early exposure to different fields.
::'''Features of Online Internship-Based Learning'''
::Modern education platforms often include online internship opportunities as part of their learning system. These usually offer:
::Flexible schedules for students
::Access to learning from home
::Beginner-friendly tasks and projects
::A combination of theory and practice
::Such features make online internship programs suitable for a wide range of learners, including beginners.
::'''Learning Tasks'''
::Explore how online internship programs support student learning in digital environments.
::Identify how students can gain practical experience through an online internship
::Analyze the role of flexible learning in improving student engagement
::Understand how online education and internships work together
::'''References'''
::[https://ijpsl.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/E-Learning_Hanaaya-Navaneeth.pdf The Past, Present and Future of E-Learning: Hanaaya Varyani and Navaneeth M S]
::[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9788102 Current Trends and Future Perspectives of e-Learning in India]
::'''See Also'''
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/internship Online Internship]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/ Online Courses]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/kids-learning Kids Learning]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/career_helper/ Career Guidance] [[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] ([[User talk:EasyshikshaMarketing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EasyshikshaMarketing|contribs]]) 05:27, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:::@[[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] Wikiversity is a resource for education, or a space for education. However, your intention to link to another website is obvious, and such content does not belong here, as it contradicts the purpose of Wikiversity. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 11:38, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

==AI-generated images==
Seeking your advice.

Myself and students use some AI-generated images in the [[Motivation and emotion]] project.

[[User:Dronebogus]] has been removing some of these images from Wikiversity pages and nominating them for deletion at Commons. As a result, some have been deleted and some have been kept.

Dronebogus has made some useful edits and image suggestions for [[Motivation and emotion]] which I've appreciated and  incorporated. However, there are other edits to remove an AI image by Dronebogus that I've reverted where I think the image is more educational than no image or an alternative image suggested by Dronebogus.

There are a couple of pages where Dronebogus has reverted my reversion, so we are at risk of edit warring. We have briefly discussed and warned each other on our user talk pages, but it seems to come down to a difference in perception about the educational usefulness of the AI images.

So, I'm asking here for others to please review the recent edit histories for these pages:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Stockholm syndrome emotion]]

and let us know what you think about the AI image suitability vs. using no image or alternative images suggested by Dronebogus.

Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:45, 26 April 2026 (UTC)

:I think Jtneill needs to try harder to find non-AI alternatives both on Commons and the web. I’m not reiterating the well known problems with generative AI— you can read about those on Wikipedia and the broader Internet. Needless to say it’s kind of just inherently toxic. If you use it, it should be the last resort of last resorts. Just my stance, which I consider perfectly valid and reasonable. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 04:10, 27 April 2026 (UTC)

== Request for Page Creation Approval - Research on Dr. Ian Stevenson ==


'''Hello Administrators,'''

I am a digital archivist and researcher attempting to create an educational page regarding Dr. Ian Stevenson's scientific work, specifically titled &quot;Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect&quot; and its official Vietnamese edition.

My edits are purely constructive, aimed at integrating local research context with global structured data (including '''Wikidata Q139548587'''). The automated filter is currently preventing publication due to &quot;new user external link limits.&quot;

I have ensured that all citations, references, and images (sourced from Wikimedia Commons) are strictly academic and non-promotional. Could you please review my contributions and consider whitelisting my account or approving this specific page creation?

Thank you for your assistance in preserving this research '''legacy''' within the open knowledge ecosystem.

'''Best regards,''' [[User:Ian Stevenson777|Ian Stevenson777]] ([[User talk:Ian Stevenson777|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ian Stevenson777|contribs]]) 07:26, 28 April 2026 (UTC)
: The page title should probably be in English, as this is English Wikiversity. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:19, 28 April 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Ian Stevenson777|Ian Stevenson777]] I looked at the text and it seems to me that it is informative, but the user cannot learn anything from it because they would have to buy the book. In this regard, it seems to me that it is enough [[:w:Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect|to have that article on Wikipedia]] and there is no need to duplicate it here on Wikiversity. If you are particularly interested with its Vietnamese translation, I would focus on Vietnamese Wikipedia, but it seems to me, that the article there [https://vi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=N%C6%A1i_lu%C3%A2n_h%E1%BB%93i_v%C3%A0_sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc_giao_nhau&amp;oldid=75029095 have some problems at the moment]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:51, 5 May 2026 (UTC)

== Call for custodians and bureaucrats ==

Can I encourage currently active [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]] to consider putting themselves forward for [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodianship]] and/or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucrat|bureaucratship]]. We have a productive, capable group of [[Wikiversity:Staff|staff]] at the moment who should probably have more rights to better support the project and we are light on for active custodians and bureaucrats. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:34, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
: I'm willing to do so. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 11:48, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== Interface administrator flag request ==

@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], @[[User:Mu301|Mu301]] I am requesting IA flag to delete [[MediaWiki:Gadget-WikiSign.js]]. It was requested for deletion by [[User:Sophivorus|a trusted user]] and I think it can be deleted. Once I delete it, I will notify you and you can remove the flag. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:24, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

:Can you enable two-factor authentication? 
:Policy: [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:27, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

== Block request ==

Hi. Please block @[[User:Skibidi Titan 5.0|Skibidi Titan 5.0]]. Reason : Vandalism.

Thanks, [[User:Locpac|Locpac]] ([[User talk:Locpac|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Locpac|contribs]]) 15:10, 10 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>tc4yeixa579wy9u9fujsv5rybgkb2ai</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808243</id>
      <parentid>2808242</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-10T15:25:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Block request 2 */ Reply</comment>
      <origin>2808243</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="41427" sha1="5euyqvqj9t9n7ughleaqm1d3daf30ig" xml:space="preserve">{{/Header}}
== Dan Polansky ==

I would like to ask you to assess the behavior of Dan Polansky, who in my opinion continues to violate [[Wikiversity:Etiquette|Etiquette]], calls users who disagree with him trolls, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Harold_Foppele&amp;oldid=2760143#Your_qualification questions their expertise], tests them, etc. This is most evident in [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Dan Polansky]], where he has already indicated that two discussion opponents are trolls. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:05, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
: The coddling of overt disruptor Harold Foppele (substantiation is in RCA above) and proven provocateur and disruptor Juandev (substantiation in CR above) must stop. The English Wikiversity must start to properly curate its content and discipline disruptive editors. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:10, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
:[[Wikiversity:Community Review/Dan Polansky]] is underway; outcome pending. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:03, 27 November 2025 (UTC)
::It has been closed with consensus to ban him indefinitely from this project, I believe there is nothing else to do here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:06, 11 March 2026 (UTC)

== Sidewide count.js ==

i would like something like: [[Template:User contrib count/count.js]]. i created [[Template:User contrib count]] and a user/common.js. {{User contrib count}}.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; so a &quot;count.js&quot; would complete it. See [[User:Harold Foppele/common.js]].
If an Administrator could help please. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 19:22, 18 January 2026 (UTC)

== need to add my profile ==

im trying to add new profile content  [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:03, 4 February 2026 (UTC)

:You can edit it now. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:05, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::where can create a new one [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:51, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
:::i have created and its in sandbox. i would like to know when it will be approved  [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 19:38, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::::Please don’t create [[wv:spam|spam]] pages as it will be deleted. Please also read [[WV:Scope]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:01, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

== Im trying to add new profile while add content its shows not alowed ==

This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Exceeded New Page Limit

This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:51, 4 February 2026 (UTC)

== New User: cannot create talk page ==

Hi, I am a new user of Wikiversity and I wanted to create a talk page for the article [[ChatGPT's Essay on Kohlberg's Theory: AI's Use in Academic Writing]]. As a new user, I was barred from performing this action. The text that I wanted to add to the talk page is:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
I have doubts as to to the reliability of this essay. Take for rexample the sentence:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Due to its efficiency, AI has saved 380,000-403,000 lives per year in European healthcare as reported in a recent Deloitte and MedTech Europe report&lt;ref&gt;Dantas, C., Mackiewicz, K., Tageo, V., Jacucci, G., Guardado, D., Ortet, S., Varlamis, I., Maniadakis, M., De Lera, E., Quintas, J., Kocsis, O., &amp; Vassiliou, C. (2021). Benefits and hurdles of AI in the workplace – what comes next? ''International Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems, 10'', 9-17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351993615_Benefits_and_Hurdles_of_AI_In_The_Workplace_-What_Comes_Next&lt;/ref&gt;.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Reading the reference (freely available on ResearchGate), one notes:

# that the reference is from 2021 (predating the widespread use of LLMs such as ChatGPT and the associated 'AI' boom), and
# that the reference factually contradicts this essay.

Quoting from the reference:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
There are enormous benefits of applying AI-based solutions to monitor workers’ health and prevent accidents or, currently, COVID-19 infections, and those benefits are reported with enormous potential. According to the recent Deloitte and MedTech Europe report [11], implementing AI in European healthcare systems could save up 380,000 to 403,000 lives annually or €170.9 to 212.4 billion per year.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Not that the reference says ''could save'', not ''saves'' as in the essay.

This calls into question the reliability of the essay.

&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Could an administrator make this addition for me? Thank you! 
{{reflist}}
[[User:Æolus|Æolus]] ([[User talk:Æolus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Æolus|contribs]]) 06:53, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Æolus|Æolus]] I have added it for you, you can change the header and sign it now. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 08:05, 5 February 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you! [[User:Æolus|Æolus]] ([[User talk:Æolus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Æolus|contribs]]) 12:43, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

== Disallowed to add a page on a course ==

I'm trying to populate a newly created course on Wikiversity, but it blocks me from creating more pages with &quot;New User Exceeded New Page Limit&quot;. Could this be lifted please? [[User:Berkeleywho|Berkeleywho]] ([[User talk:Berkeleywho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Berkeleywho|contribs]]) 13:21, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

:Sorry! Never mind. I was trying to create a new article instead of a new page. All good now. [[User:Berkeleywho|Berkeleywho]] ([[User talk:Berkeleywho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Berkeleywho|contribs]]) 14:03, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

== Harold Foppele adding LLM-generated nonsense and personal fiction ==

I became aware of [[User:Harold Foppele]]'s editing after I deleted some of his uploads on Commons. He appears to be adding a large amount of text and images that are some combination of personal fiction and LLM-generated nonsense. This includes:
*[[Quantum Ultra fast lasers#Future thought experiment|Personal speculative fiction]] in an otherwise &quot;nonfiction&quot; article
*Uploading nonsense LLM-created [[:File:Rontosecond pulse laser (Schematic).jpg|diagrams]] and [[:File:Rontosecond pulse laser (Futuristic).jpg|renders]] for nonexistent lab equipment, with fake source (on Commons, he indicated these files as having been created by him using an LLM)
*Uploading nonsense LLM-created images of equations with obvious artifacts. These images, such as [[:File:Redfield equation (non-Markovian).png]] and [[:File:Lindblad equation (Markovian).png]], don't even match the text he puts them with.
Much of his writing is also of extremely poor quality, to the point where it's not clear whether it's written by him or an LLM. I'm not an active editor on this project, so I'm not as familiar with the standards here, but I believe this is worth custodian attention. [[User:Pi.1415926535|Pi.1415926535]] ([[User talk:Pi.1415926535|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi.1415926535|contribs]]) 03:06, 23 February 2026 (UTC)

:Fake source ''and'' contradictory copyright info, claiming both public domain and CC license. Moreover, if they are indeed nearly-direct LLM output, depending on jurisdiction they may not even be eligible for copyright.
:I've put speedy deletion marks for the equations, because they're obviously not coherent mathematical equations (the parentheses don't match, the symbols merge into each other the way text in image models often do, etc) [[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]] ([[User talk:Sesquilinear|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sesquilinear|contribs]]) 21:50, 7 March 2026 (UTC)

== Repeated removal of RFD notices by Harold Foppele ==

{{User|Harold Foppele }}

This editor is appearing in multiple noticeboards for behaviour which is contentious. Ther latest adventure is the repeated removal of tye RFD notice at [[Quantum/Henry C. Kapteyn]]. You will see from their contributions record the number of times. I have warned Tham on their user tag page that this is tantaomunt to volunteering to be blocked here. They have a track record of achieving blocks on enWiki and Commons already.

They have all the appearance of shooting not to understand when given direct information about their behaviour, whichever project they are editing, and are fast becoming a time sink. Their behaviour across multiple WMF sites may well lead to a Global Lock, but I do not believe they have quite reached the threshold for that.

I believe that what is required is a preventative block to seek to ensure thatchy understand the seriousness of their behaviour, and the need to be collegial. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 23:03, 4 March 2026 (UTC)
: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:45, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

== Blocks for sockpuppet ==

Please block [[User:Harold Foppele]] and [[User:Johnwilliamsiii]] for sockpuppetry based on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Sockpuppet_investigations/Harold_Foppele en wiki] CU and [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?diff=1177465640 commons] CU investigations. The user has also violated copyright, see the above discussion. A block is necessary to prevent further abuse. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:30, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;small&gt;@[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]]&lt;/small&gt; [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:31, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
:: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:44, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
:CC. @[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]], @[[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]], @[[User:Pi.1415926535|Pi.1415926535]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:33, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you for the ping. I concur based on [[w:en:WP:DUCK|behaviour]]. CUs appear divided. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 11:41, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

== Problem when trying to start a discussion with authors of the Plurilingual education portal ==

The authors I wanted to discuss with are called &quot;Project PEP&quot; and my name is Franch Chandler. How can I be allowed to do so ? [[User:French Chandler|French Chandler]] ([[User talk:French Chandler|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/French Chandler|contribs]]) 18:25, 16 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:French Chandler|French Chandler]] place your qestion [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Projet_PEP&amp;action=edit into the dialog box] on this link and hit Publish page. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:22, 16 March 2026 (UTC)

== Please publish my post ==

My post is about &quot;Every child grows and develops at their own pace, but some may experience challenges that affect their ability to perform everyday tasks. These challenges can include difficulties with fine motor skills, sensory processing, handwriting, feeding, and self-regulation. When these issues are not addressed early, they can impact a child’s confidence, academic performance, and independence.

With the rise of digital healthcare services, '''online physical therapy''' has emerged as a powerful and accessible solution for parents seeking support for their children. This modern approach provides structured, personalized therapy programs that can be accessed from the comfort of home, making it easier for families to ensure consistent care.&quot; [[User:Skyabovetherapy|Skyabovetherapy]] ([[User talk:Skyabovetherapy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Skyabovetherapy|contribs]]) 12:28, 28 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Skyabovetherapy|Skyabovetherapy]] Well, you can publish it yourself, Wikiversity is a free environement, where everybody can create educational resources. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 14:11, 29 March 2026 (UTC)
::They actually triggered some abuse filters. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:24, 29 March 2026 (UTC)
:I looked at your attempts to add this text and I see a link to one website repeated many times, which reminds me of the misuse of Wikiversity for self-promotion or to increase the importance of the website. It is necessary to remind you here that Wikiversity is not a place for promotion, but a place for education. So if you want to educate, it will not be a problem to create the page without external links with a clearly defined procedure for how people should use it and what to expect from it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:07, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

== New user limit ==

Hi, I am creating an AIPA Method learning resource page. 

I am the author of the linked research, and I hit the “new user limit” and “new page with external link” filters while publishing. 

Here is the link to the page in creation: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=AIPA_Method&amp;veaction=edit] 

Thank you for your help. 

Best regards, 

Senad Dizdarević [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:19, 30 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] I should admit I dont know, what is &quot;new user limit&quot;, but if filter blocks your page because of certain external link, you may force to save anyway and sometimes it works. It should not work, when the website is blacklisted. As of now, I am not seeing you to save page in main namespace, so try to save it without external links first. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:30, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you, you are very kind. 
::I will wait a day, and try again (without links, too). 
::Today, I already created About Me info page, and maybe that is enough for the filters for one day.  [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:53, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
:::Well, I have analyzed your contribution to Wikiversity and I should point out here, that this project is not a place for advertising, so there is no way of promoting your books and authority this way. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:56, 1 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Hi, my About Me page is just an info page with the neutral as possible presentation of my work. 
::::There is a big difference between informing and advertising. Informing is neutrally stating that something exists and requiring no action, while advertising is a special communication form with intent to cause certain action from readers. For example, click here, click there, order this, buy that. 
::::There is no such intention, form, or terms on my info page. Just neutral information. I don't hide and I am not ashamed that I am write and author, and that is a part of the usual bio, including works. I checked your user page: &quot;I graduated from the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague and studied information science at the Faculty of Arts of Charles University.&quot; I think that if you had written a book on Life Science, you would have mentioned that as well.
::::Most of the Info page is about my research and AIPA Method which is a valid contribution to psychology, consciousness studies, identity theory, and personality development. Actually, my paper '''AIPA Method: A Cognitive-Phenomenological Model for Identity Reconstruction and Stabilization in Pure Awareness''' is now in the peer review procedure at Journal of Consciousness Studies. 
::::Here is a part from the Wikiversity AIPA Method page in creation (waiting for the end of the time limit for new users):    [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:47, 2 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::For the unknown reasons, the form didn't publish my second part of the message: 
:::::I believe this is a valid contribution to Wikiversity. 
:::::Best Regards, 
:::::Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:52, 2 April 2026 (UTC)
::::::And the third try: 
:::::: == Introduction ==
::::::The AIPA Method addresses a gap in contemporary personal development and consciousness science: most evidence‑based approaches (CBT, MBSR, MBCT, standard meditation) operate at the level of mental content—reframing thoughts, observing them, or reducing their impact—rather than at the level of identity structure. In contrast, AIPA targets the structural relationship between the self and the mind, aiming at durable identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness rather than symptom management.
::::::The central research question of the primary AIPA preprint is whether a structured, sequentially staged method can produce permanent identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness, and how such a method compares to established approaches in scope, mechanism, and outcome.
:::::: == Theoretical foundations ==
::::::The AIPA framework is grounded in the cognitive‑phenomenological tradition (e.g., McAdams, Varela, Metzinger, Erikson), contemporary consciousness science on minimal phenomenal experience, and qualitative methods advocacy in psychology. It builds directly on:
::::::* Empirical work on pure awareness and Minimal Phenomenal Experience (MPE), especially Gamma &amp; Metzinger’s large‑scale study of content‑reduced awareness states.
::::::* Metzinger’s proposal of minimal phenomenal experience as an entry point for a minimal unifying model of consciousness.
::::::* Narrative identity and partial‑self models within personality and identity theory.
::::::Within this backdrop, AIPA proposes Pure Awareness as a distinct, operationally specified state that can become a structural ground of identity rather than a transient meditative experience.
:::::: == Experiential empiricism ==
::::::The empirical foundation of the AIPA Method is explicitly first‑person and experiential, combining:
::::::* A 22‑year longitudinal autoethnographic self‑study (2003–2025) documenting partial personality episodes, protocol use, and outcomes.
::::::* A 13‑year prospective verification period with zero self‑reported recurrence of targeted harmful behaviors after a dated stabilization point (1 January 2006).
::::::* A high‑ecological‑validity “stress test” during acute bereavement, used to examine whether non‑reactive awareness remains stable under maximal provocation.
::::::* Two independent practitioner cases (an Amazon‑verified report and a structured questionnaire case) providing preliminary convergent signals across cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and identity dimensions.
::::::All central constructs (Pure Awareness, partial personalities, the Switch, identity stabilization) are operationalized with explicit phenomenological and behavioral criteria intended to enable replication and future third‑person measurement.
::::::I believe this is a valid contribution to Wikiversity. 
::::::Best regards, 
::::::Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:54, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

== Unable to publish pages  ==

Whenever I try to publish a page with linked sources it gets flagged and says I'm a new user attempting to publish content with outside links. Those outside links are my sources. [[User:Soboyed|Soboyed]] ([[User talk:Soboyed|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Soboyed|contribs]]) 04:52, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

:This restriction is automatically lifted after you have edited for a certain time (I don't recall that time off-hand, but it is not long). This is designed to stop spam. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 04:53, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

== Showing error to publish a Post ==

My  action was constructive, not destructive, please allow to publish it. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-20906-18|&amp;#126;2026-20906-18]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-20906-18|talk]]) 08:06, 4 April 2026 (UTC)

:Maybe you got caught in a filter. Consider [[Special:CreateAccount|creating an account]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:06, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
:Your edits, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special:AbuseLog&amp;wpSearchUser=%7E2026-20906-18 these ones], seems to have tripped a filter when you tried to create a page on [[Create]] which external links. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:58, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
:Have you read my [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2802219 previous reply] to you @[[User:~2026-20906-18|~2026-20906-18]]? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:02, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

== Abuse filters which should be deleted ==

Hi, there are some abuse filters which should probably be deleted.
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/1]] (not needed anymore)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/2]] (no hits since 2018)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] (not needed since there are global filters that disallow this specific type of spam filter 3 would have catched)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]] (looking at the logs, there are too many false positives)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/5]] (no hits since 2023)
* Abuse filters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (these filters are not needed anymore)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/17]] (no hits since 2022)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/19]] (no hits since 2019)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/21]] (false positives, vandal currently inactive)
Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:51, 5 April 2026 (UTC)

:Why do these need to be deleted rather than inactivated? Do inactive abuse filters cause a server strain? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:39, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:: Deleted filters do not cause strain to the servers. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:28, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:These sounds like sensible suggestions but, yes, would inactivation perhaps make more sense than deletion for at least some  filters? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:35, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:I would keep them @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]. Alternatively, I would turn off the ones that haven't caught anything for a long time, but I would leave them enabled in case they need to be turned on or improved. If someone has already written the code and we don't have hundreds of free man-hours of programmers on Wikiversity, the server load seems secondary to me, and is negligible compared to other things. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:11, 6 April 2026 (UTC)
:: I know how to write abuse filter code and regex, but I would recommend disabling filters that have never caught anything in a long time ''and'' those who made lots of false positives. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:09, 6 April 2026 (UTC)
:::Of course @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]], there are people here today who are capable of changing the code. But the question is what it will be like in a few years, the question is what will happen if those two are busy for a long time, etc. That's why I would leave it so that those who don't know much about code can be inspired by it and will need to do something with it someday - plus, more code for different types of filtering is actually great educational material on how those filters work. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 11:41, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

Here's the updated list of abuse filters under review with actions I've taken (several disabled, one basic code improvement, and some actions changed) - none have been deleted so they can all be edited and reactivayed - please suggest any further changes:
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/1]] (not needed anymore) - One time account spam bot - 4 hits over 10 years ago - Disabled in 2024 - May be useful in future
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/2]] (no hits since 2018) - Userspace spamming - 778 hits; none since 2018 likely due to global filters - Now disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] (not needed since there are global filters that disallow this specific type of spam filter 3 would have catched) - Specific user page spam - 1,101 hits most recent 7 March 2026 - Still active - Kept enabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]] (looking at the logs, there are too many false positives) - Questionable Language (profanity) - 6,055 hits including very recently - However it was logging hits without taking any actions - Edited to reduce likelihood of false positives by only applying filter to users with low (&lt; 20) edit count and applied weak actions to tag and warn but not prevent publishing the content
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/5]] (no hits since 2023) - Blocked Solicitation Links - 95 hits; none since 2023 - blocks specific historical spam sites - Non-active - Now disabled
* Abuse filters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (these filters are not needed anymore) - Not reviewed - They are currently disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/17]] (no hits since 2022) - Fundamental Physics Edits - 347 hits; none since 2022 - Non-active and very specific for a historical issue - Now disabled 
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/19]] (no hits since 2019) - Page Creation - 20 hits; none since 2019 - Retained for historical reference and possible future updates - Now disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/21]] (false positives, vandal currently inactive) - Globally Banned Editor (renamed to Low-edit Spam Monitor) - 2,829 hits including very recent - Only applies to users with less than 5 edits and takes no actions / monitoring only - Reviewing the details of the hits I don't see many false positives and have strengthened its actions to add a tag and warning

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:57, 9 April 2026 (UTC)

== Block request ==

Please block ~2026-20985-80/~2026-21079-90/~2026-21223-88. Reason: Vandalism. [[User:Àncilu|Àncilu]] ([[User talk:Àncilu|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Àncilu|contribs]]) 23:24, 5 April 2026 (UTC)

:All edits should be deleted and the first is blocked by Atcovi. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:33, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

== Antispam - Filter 12 ==
{{ping|Codename Noreste}} Thanks for contacting me with a suggested [[Special:AbuseFilter|abuse filter]] for the coupon spam we've been getting. A very much appreciated time saver. Per your suggestion, abuse filter 12 has been reactivated with your updated regex. It should tag and prevent page creation actions for coupon promo etc. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:33, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Please do the following to filter 12:
:# Enable the block action (temporary for unregistered users, indefinite for registered users)
:# Disable both the disallow and tag actions, since that filter will be set to block
: Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:42, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
::Excellent. Done:
::* Block duration for non-registered users = 1 week
::* Block duration for registered users = indefinite
::* Disallow and tagging disabled
::Thankyou. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:24, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== Urgent! error message This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed ==

While submitting the post this error was coming &quot;This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please inform an administrator of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link&quot; How to resolve it?

Here is the content:

{{note|marketing material removed}}

[[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] ([[User talk:EasyshikshaMarketing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EasyshikshaMarketing|contribs]]) 05:14, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
: That's because Wikiversity doesn't accept advertising. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:20, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
::So this is fine
::'''Online Internship and Digital Learning for Students'''
::Online learning has become an important part of modern education. With the help of the internet and digital tools, students can now study, practice, and gain experience without being physically present in a classroom. One key part of this system is the online internship, which helps students learn real-world skills along with their studies.
::An online internship allows students to work on tasks and projects through digital platforms. This makes learning more practical and useful, especially for those who want to understand how real work environments function.
::'''Background'''
::The concept of online learning developed from distance education, where students learned from remote locations. Over time, with the growth of digital technology, learning has become more interactive and flexible.
::The introduction of the online internship has added another important layer to digital education. It combines theoretical learning with practical experience, helping students prepare for future careers.
::During global events such as the COVID-19 pandemic, online education and online internship programs became essential. They helped students continue learning and gaining experience despite restrictions on physical movement.
::'''Importance of Online Internship'''
::An online internship plays an important role in student development. It helps bridge the gap between academic knowledge and practical skills.
::'''Some key points include:'''
::Students understand how real work is done
::They develop basic professional skills
::It supports career readiness
::It allows learning without location limits
::By participating in an online internship, students can improve their confidence and gain early exposure to different fields.
::'''Features of Online Internship-Based Learning'''
::Modern education platforms often include online internship opportunities as part of their learning system. These usually offer:
::Flexible schedules for students
::Access to learning from home
::Beginner-friendly tasks and projects
::A combination of theory and practice
::Such features make online internship programs suitable for a wide range of learners, including beginners.
::'''Learning Tasks'''
::Explore how online internship programs support student learning in digital environments.
::Identify how students can gain practical experience through an online internship
::Analyze the role of flexible learning in improving student engagement
::Understand how online education and internships work together
::'''References'''
::[https://ijpsl.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/E-Learning_Hanaaya-Navaneeth.pdf The Past, Present and Future of E-Learning: Hanaaya Varyani and Navaneeth M S]
::[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9788102 Current Trends and Future Perspectives of e-Learning in India]
::'''See Also'''
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/internship Online Internship]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/ Online Courses]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/kids-learning Kids Learning]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/career_helper/ Career Guidance] [[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] ([[User talk:EasyshikshaMarketing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EasyshikshaMarketing|contribs]]) 05:27, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:::@[[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] Wikiversity is a resource for education, or a space for education. However, your intention to link to another website is obvious, and such content does not belong here, as it contradicts the purpose of Wikiversity. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 11:38, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

==AI-generated images==
Seeking your advice.

Myself and students use some AI-generated images in the [[Motivation and emotion]] project.

[[User:Dronebogus]] has been removing some of these images from Wikiversity pages and nominating them for deletion at Commons. As a result, some have been deleted and some have been kept.

Dronebogus has made some useful edits and image suggestions for [[Motivation and emotion]] which I've appreciated and  incorporated. However, there are other edits to remove an AI image by Dronebogus that I've reverted where I think the image is more educational than no image or an alternative image suggested by Dronebogus.

There are a couple of pages where Dronebogus has reverted my reversion, so we are at risk of edit warring. We have briefly discussed and warned each other on our user talk pages, but it seems to come down to a difference in perception about the educational usefulness of the AI images.

So, I'm asking here for others to please review the recent edit histories for these pages:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Stockholm syndrome emotion]]

and let us know what you think about the AI image suitability vs. using no image or alternative images suggested by Dronebogus.

Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:45, 26 April 2026 (UTC)

:I think Jtneill needs to try harder to find non-AI alternatives both on Commons and the web. I’m not reiterating the well known problems with generative AI— you can read about those on Wikipedia and the broader Internet. Needless to say it’s kind of just inherently toxic. If you use it, it should be the last resort of last resorts. Just my stance, which I consider perfectly valid and reasonable. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 04:10, 27 April 2026 (UTC)

== Request for Page Creation Approval - Research on Dr. Ian Stevenson ==


'''Hello Administrators,'''

I am a digital archivist and researcher attempting to create an educational page regarding Dr. Ian Stevenson's scientific work, specifically titled &quot;Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect&quot; and its official Vietnamese edition.

My edits are purely constructive, aimed at integrating local research context with global structured data (including '''Wikidata Q139548587'''). The automated filter is currently preventing publication due to &quot;new user external link limits.&quot;

I have ensured that all citations, references, and images (sourced from Wikimedia Commons) are strictly academic and non-promotional. Could you please review my contributions and consider whitelisting my account or approving this specific page creation?

Thank you for your assistance in preserving this research '''legacy''' within the open knowledge ecosystem.

'''Best regards,''' [[User:Ian Stevenson777|Ian Stevenson777]] ([[User talk:Ian Stevenson777|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ian Stevenson777|contribs]]) 07:26, 28 April 2026 (UTC)
: The page title should probably be in English, as this is English Wikiversity. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:19, 28 April 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Ian Stevenson777|Ian Stevenson777]] I looked at the text and it seems to me that it is informative, but the user cannot learn anything from it because they would have to buy the book. In this regard, it seems to me that it is enough [[:w:Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect|to have that article on Wikipedia]] and there is no need to duplicate it here on Wikiversity. If you are particularly interested with its Vietnamese translation, I would focus on Vietnamese Wikipedia, but it seems to me, that the article there [https://vi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=N%C6%A1i_lu%C3%A2n_h%E1%BB%93i_v%C3%A0_sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc_giao_nhau&amp;oldid=75029095 have some problems at the moment]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:51, 5 May 2026 (UTC)

== Call for custodians and bureaucrats ==

Can I encourage currently active [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]] to consider putting themselves forward for [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodianship]] and/or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucrat|bureaucratship]]. We have a productive, capable group of [[Wikiversity:Staff|staff]] at the moment who should probably have more rights to better support the project and we are light on for active custodians and bureaucrats. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:34, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
: I'm willing to do so. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 11:48, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== Interface administrator flag request ==

@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], @[[User:Mu301|Mu301]] I am requesting IA flag to delete [[MediaWiki:Gadget-WikiSign.js]]. It was requested for deletion by [[User:Sophivorus|a trusted user]] and I think it can be deleted. Once I delete it, I will notify you and you can remove the flag. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:24, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

:Can you enable two-factor authentication? 
:Policy: [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:27, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

== Block request ==

Hi. Please block @[[User:Skibidi Titan 5.0|Skibidi Titan 5.0]]. Reason : Vandalism.

Thanks, [[User:Locpac|Locpac]] ([[User talk:Locpac|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Locpac|contribs]]) 15:10, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

:Thankyou. Done. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 15:25, 10 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>5euyqvqj9t9n7ughleaqm1d3daf30ig</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808302</id>
      <parentid>2808243</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T08:20:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Juandev</username>
        <id>2651</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Interface administrator flag request */ Reply</comment>
      <origin>2808302</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="41590" sha1="lqfyqsmik7z55grjq3kxjsic55ev2zu" xml:space="preserve">{{/Header}}
== Dan Polansky ==

I would like to ask you to assess the behavior of Dan Polansky, who in my opinion continues to violate [[Wikiversity:Etiquette|Etiquette]], calls users who disagree with him trolls, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Harold_Foppele&amp;oldid=2760143#Your_qualification questions their expertise], tests them, etc. This is most evident in [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Dan Polansky]], where he has already indicated that two discussion opponents are trolls. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:05, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
: The coddling of overt disruptor Harold Foppele (substantiation is in RCA above) and proven provocateur and disruptor Juandev (substantiation in CR above) must stop. The English Wikiversity must start to properly curate its content and discipline disruptive editors. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:10, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
:[[Wikiversity:Community Review/Dan Polansky]] is underway; outcome pending. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:03, 27 November 2025 (UTC)
::It has been closed with consensus to ban him indefinitely from this project, I believe there is nothing else to do here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:06, 11 March 2026 (UTC)

== Sidewide count.js ==

i would like something like: [[Template:User contrib count/count.js]]. i created [[Template:User contrib count]] and a user/common.js. {{User contrib count}}.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; so a &quot;count.js&quot; would complete it. See [[User:Harold Foppele/common.js]].
If an Administrator could help please. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 19:22, 18 January 2026 (UTC)

== need to add my profile ==

im trying to add new profile content  [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:03, 4 February 2026 (UTC)

:You can edit it now. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:05, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::where can create a new one [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:51, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
:::i have created and its in sandbox. i would like to know when it will be approved  [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 19:38, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::::Please don’t create [[wv:spam|spam]] pages as it will be deleted. Please also read [[WV:Scope]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:01, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

== Im trying to add new profile while add content its shows not alowed ==

This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Exceeded New Page Limit

This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:51, 4 February 2026 (UTC)

== New User: cannot create talk page ==

Hi, I am a new user of Wikiversity and I wanted to create a talk page for the article [[ChatGPT's Essay on Kohlberg's Theory: AI's Use in Academic Writing]]. As a new user, I was barred from performing this action. The text that I wanted to add to the talk page is:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
I have doubts as to to the reliability of this essay. Take for rexample the sentence:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Due to its efficiency, AI has saved 380,000-403,000 lives per year in European healthcare as reported in a recent Deloitte and MedTech Europe report&lt;ref&gt;Dantas, C., Mackiewicz, K., Tageo, V., Jacucci, G., Guardado, D., Ortet, S., Varlamis, I., Maniadakis, M., De Lera, E., Quintas, J., Kocsis, O., &amp; Vassiliou, C. (2021). Benefits and hurdles of AI in the workplace – what comes next? ''International Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems, 10'', 9-17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351993615_Benefits_and_Hurdles_of_AI_In_The_Workplace_-What_Comes_Next&lt;/ref&gt;.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Reading the reference (freely available on ResearchGate), one notes:

# that the reference is from 2021 (predating the widespread use of LLMs such as ChatGPT and the associated 'AI' boom), and
# that the reference factually contradicts this essay.

Quoting from the reference:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
There are enormous benefits of applying AI-based solutions to monitor workers’ health and prevent accidents or, currently, COVID-19 infections, and those benefits are reported with enormous potential. According to the recent Deloitte and MedTech Europe report [11], implementing AI in European healthcare systems could save up 380,000 to 403,000 lives annually or €170.9 to 212.4 billion per year.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Not that the reference says ''could save'', not ''saves'' as in the essay.

This calls into question the reliability of the essay.

&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Could an administrator make this addition for me? Thank you! 
{{reflist}}
[[User:Æolus|Æolus]] ([[User talk:Æolus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Æolus|contribs]]) 06:53, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Æolus|Æolus]] I have added it for you, you can change the header and sign it now. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 08:05, 5 February 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you! [[User:Æolus|Æolus]] ([[User talk:Æolus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Æolus|contribs]]) 12:43, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

== Disallowed to add a page on a course ==

I'm trying to populate a newly created course on Wikiversity, but it blocks me from creating more pages with &quot;New User Exceeded New Page Limit&quot;. Could this be lifted please? [[User:Berkeleywho|Berkeleywho]] ([[User talk:Berkeleywho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Berkeleywho|contribs]]) 13:21, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

:Sorry! Never mind. I was trying to create a new article instead of a new page. All good now. [[User:Berkeleywho|Berkeleywho]] ([[User talk:Berkeleywho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Berkeleywho|contribs]]) 14:03, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

== Harold Foppele adding LLM-generated nonsense and personal fiction ==

I became aware of [[User:Harold Foppele]]'s editing after I deleted some of his uploads on Commons. He appears to be adding a large amount of text and images that are some combination of personal fiction and LLM-generated nonsense. This includes:
*[[Quantum Ultra fast lasers#Future thought experiment|Personal speculative fiction]] in an otherwise &quot;nonfiction&quot; article
*Uploading nonsense LLM-created [[:File:Rontosecond pulse laser (Schematic).jpg|diagrams]] and [[:File:Rontosecond pulse laser (Futuristic).jpg|renders]] for nonexistent lab equipment, with fake source (on Commons, he indicated these files as having been created by him using an LLM)
*Uploading nonsense LLM-created images of equations with obvious artifacts. These images, such as [[:File:Redfield equation (non-Markovian).png]] and [[:File:Lindblad equation (Markovian).png]], don't even match the text he puts them with.
Much of his writing is also of extremely poor quality, to the point where it's not clear whether it's written by him or an LLM. I'm not an active editor on this project, so I'm not as familiar with the standards here, but I believe this is worth custodian attention. [[User:Pi.1415926535|Pi.1415926535]] ([[User talk:Pi.1415926535|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi.1415926535|contribs]]) 03:06, 23 February 2026 (UTC)

:Fake source ''and'' contradictory copyright info, claiming both public domain and CC license. Moreover, if they are indeed nearly-direct LLM output, depending on jurisdiction they may not even be eligible for copyright.
:I've put speedy deletion marks for the equations, because they're obviously not coherent mathematical equations (the parentheses don't match, the symbols merge into each other the way text in image models often do, etc) [[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]] ([[User talk:Sesquilinear|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sesquilinear|contribs]]) 21:50, 7 March 2026 (UTC)

== Repeated removal of RFD notices by Harold Foppele ==

{{User|Harold Foppele }}

This editor is appearing in multiple noticeboards for behaviour which is contentious. Ther latest adventure is the repeated removal of tye RFD notice at [[Quantum/Henry C. Kapteyn]]. You will see from their contributions record the number of times. I have warned Tham on their user tag page that this is tantaomunt to volunteering to be blocked here. They have a track record of achieving blocks on enWiki and Commons already.

They have all the appearance of shooting not to understand when given direct information about their behaviour, whichever project they are editing, and are fast becoming a time sink. Their behaviour across multiple WMF sites may well lead to a Global Lock, but I do not believe they have quite reached the threshold for that.

I believe that what is required is a preventative block to seek to ensure thatchy understand the seriousness of their behaviour, and the need to be collegial. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 23:03, 4 March 2026 (UTC)
: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:45, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

== Blocks for sockpuppet ==

Please block [[User:Harold Foppele]] and [[User:Johnwilliamsiii]] for sockpuppetry based on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Sockpuppet_investigations/Harold_Foppele en wiki] CU and [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?diff=1177465640 commons] CU investigations. The user has also violated copyright, see the above discussion. A block is necessary to prevent further abuse. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:30, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;small&gt;@[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]]&lt;/small&gt; [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:31, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
:: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:44, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
:CC. @[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]], @[[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]], @[[User:Pi.1415926535|Pi.1415926535]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:33, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you for the ping. I concur based on [[w:en:WP:DUCK|behaviour]]. CUs appear divided. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 11:41, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

== Problem when trying to start a discussion with authors of the Plurilingual education portal ==

The authors I wanted to discuss with are called &quot;Project PEP&quot; and my name is Franch Chandler. How can I be allowed to do so ? [[User:French Chandler|French Chandler]] ([[User talk:French Chandler|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/French Chandler|contribs]]) 18:25, 16 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:French Chandler|French Chandler]] place your qestion [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Projet_PEP&amp;action=edit into the dialog box] on this link and hit Publish page. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:22, 16 March 2026 (UTC)

== Please publish my post ==

My post is about &quot;Every child grows and develops at their own pace, but some may experience challenges that affect their ability to perform everyday tasks. These challenges can include difficulties with fine motor skills, sensory processing, handwriting, feeding, and self-regulation. When these issues are not addressed early, they can impact a child’s confidence, academic performance, and independence.

With the rise of digital healthcare services, '''online physical therapy''' has emerged as a powerful and accessible solution for parents seeking support for their children. This modern approach provides structured, personalized therapy programs that can be accessed from the comfort of home, making it easier for families to ensure consistent care.&quot; [[User:Skyabovetherapy|Skyabovetherapy]] ([[User talk:Skyabovetherapy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Skyabovetherapy|contribs]]) 12:28, 28 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Skyabovetherapy|Skyabovetherapy]] Well, you can publish it yourself, Wikiversity is a free environement, where everybody can create educational resources. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 14:11, 29 March 2026 (UTC)
::They actually triggered some abuse filters. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:24, 29 March 2026 (UTC)
:I looked at your attempts to add this text and I see a link to one website repeated many times, which reminds me of the misuse of Wikiversity for self-promotion or to increase the importance of the website. It is necessary to remind you here that Wikiversity is not a place for promotion, but a place for education. So if you want to educate, it will not be a problem to create the page without external links with a clearly defined procedure for how people should use it and what to expect from it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:07, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

== New user limit ==

Hi, I am creating an AIPA Method learning resource page. 

I am the author of the linked research, and I hit the “new user limit” and “new page with external link” filters while publishing. 

Here is the link to the page in creation: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=AIPA_Method&amp;veaction=edit] 

Thank you for your help. 

Best regards, 

Senad Dizdarević [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:19, 30 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] I should admit I dont know, what is &quot;new user limit&quot;, but if filter blocks your page because of certain external link, you may force to save anyway and sometimes it works. It should not work, when the website is blacklisted. As of now, I am not seeing you to save page in main namespace, so try to save it without external links first. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:30, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you, you are very kind. 
::I will wait a day, and try again (without links, too). 
::Today, I already created About Me info page, and maybe that is enough for the filters for one day.  [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:53, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
:::Well, I have analyzed your contribution to Wikiversity and I should point out here, that this project is not a place for advertising, so there is no way of promoting your books and authority this way. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:56, 1 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Hi, my About Me page is just an info page with the neutral as possible presentation of my work. 
::::There is a big difference between informing and advertising. Informing is neutrally stating that something exists and requiring no action, while advertising is a special communication form with intent to cause certain action from readers. For example, click here, click there, order this, buy that. 
::::There is no such intention, form, or terms on my info page. Just neutral information. I don't hide and I am not ashamed that I am write and author, and that is a part of the usual bio, including works. I checked your user page: &quot;I graduated from the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague and studied information science at the Faculty of Arts of Charles University.&quot; I think that if you had written a book on Life Science, you would have mentioned that as well.
::::Most of the Info page is about my research and AIPA Method which is a valid contribution to psychology, consciousness studies, identity theory, and personality development. Actually, my paper '''AIPA Method: A Cognitive-Phenomenological Model for Identity Reconstruction and Stabilization in Pure Awareness''' is now in the peer review procedure at Journal of Consciousness Studies. 
::::Here is a part from the Wikiversity AIPA Method page in creation (waiting for the end of the time limit for new users):    [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:47, 2 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::For the unknown reasons, the form didn't publish my second part of the message: 
:::::I believe this is a valid contribution to Wikiversity. 
:::::Best Regards, 
:::::Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:52, 2 April 2026 (UTC)
::::::And the third try: 
:::::: == Introduction ==
::::::The AIPA Method addresses a gap in contemporary personal development and consciousness science: most evidence‑based approaches (CBT, MBSR, MBCT, standard meditation) operate at the level of mental content—reframing thoughts, observing them, or reducing their impact—rather than at the level of identity structure. In contrast, AIPA targets the structural relationship between the self and the mind, aiming at durable identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness rather than symptom management.
::::::The central research question of the primary AIPA preprint is whether a structured, sequentially staged method can produce permanent identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness, and how such a method compares to established approaches in scope, mechanism, and outcome.
:::::: == Theoretical foundations ==
::::::The AIPA framework is grounded in the cognitive‑phenomenological tradition (e.g., McAdams, Varela, Metzinger, Erikson), contemporary consciousness science on minimal phenomenal experience, and qualitative methods advocacy in psychology. It builds directly on:
::::::* Empirical work on pure awareness and Minimal Phenomenal Experience (MPE), especially Gamma &amp; Metzinger’s large‑scale study of content‑reduced awareness states.
::::::* Metzinger’s proposal of minimal phenomenal experience as an entry point for a minimal unifying model of consciousness.
::::::* Narrative identity and partial‑self models within personality and identity theory.
::::::Within this backdrop, AIPA proposes Pure Awareness as a distinct, operationally specified state that can become a structural ground of identity rather than a transient meditative experience.
:::::: == Experiential empiricism ==
::::::The empirical foundation of the AIPA Method is explicitly first‑person and experiential, combining:
::::::* A 22‑year longitudinal autoethnographic self‑study (2003–2025) documenting partial personality episodes, protocol use, and outcomes.
::::::* A 13‑year prospective verification period with zero self‑reported recurrence of targeted harmful behaviors after a dated stabilization point (1 January 2006).
::::::* A high‑ecological‑validity “stress test” during acute bereavement, used to examine whether non‑reactive awareness remains stable under maximal provocation.
::::::* Two independent practitioner cases (an Amazon‑verified report and a structured questionnaire case) providing preliminary convergent signals across cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and identity dimensions.
::::::All central constructs (Pure Awareness, partial personalities, the Switch, identity stabilization) are operationalized with explicit phenomenological and behavioral criteria intended to enable replication and future third‑person measurement.
::::::I believe this is a valid contribution to Wikiversity. 
::::::Best regards, 
::::::Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:54, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

== Unable to publish pages  ==

Whenever I try to publish a page with linked sources it gets flagged and says I'm a new user attempting to publish content with outside links. Those outside links are my sources. [[User:Soboyed|Soboyed]] ([[User talk:Soboyed|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Soboyed|contribs]]) 04:52, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

:This restriction is automatically lifted after you have edited for a certain time (I don't recall that time off-hand, but it is not long). This is designed to stop spam. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 04:53, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

== Showing error to publish a Post ==

My  action was constructive, not destructive, please allow to publish it. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-20906-18|&amp;#126;2026-20906-18]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-20906-18|talk]]) 08:06, 4 April 2026 (UTC)

:Maybe you got caught in a filter. Consider [[Special:CreateAccount|creating an account]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:06, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
:Your edits, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special:AbuseLog&amp;wpSearchUser=%7E2026-20906-18 these ones], seems to have tripped a filter when you tried to create a page on [[Create]] which external links. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:58, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
:Have you read my [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2802219 previous reply] to you @[[User:~2026-20906-18|~2026-20906-18]]? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:02, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

== Abuse filters which should be deleted ==

Hi, there are some abuse filters which should probably be deleted.
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/1]] (not needed anymore)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/2]] (no hits since 2018)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] (not needed since there are global filters that disallow this specific type of spam filter 3 would have catched)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]] (looking at the logs, there are too many false positives)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/5]] (no hits since 2023)
* Abuse filters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (these filters are not needed anymore)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/17]] (no hits since 2022)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/19]] (no hits since 2019)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/21]] (false positives, vandal currently inactive)
Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:51, 5 April 2026 (UTC)

:Why do these need to be deleted rather than inactivated? Do inactive abuse filters cause a server strain? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:39, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:: Deleted filters do not cause strain to the servers. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:28, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:These sounds like sensible suggestions but, yes, would inactivation perhaps make more sense than deletion for at least some  filters? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:35, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:I would keep them @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]. Alternatively, I would turn off the ones that haven't caught anything for a long time, but I would leave them enabled in case they need to be turned on or improved. If someone has already written the code and we don't have hundreds of free man-hours of programmers on Wikiversity, the server load seems secondary to me, and is negligible compared to other things. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:11, 6 April 2026 (UTC)
:: I know how to write abuse filter code and regex, but I would recommend disabling filters that have never caught anything in a long time ''and'' those who made lots of false positives. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:09, 6 April 2026 (UTC)
:::Of course @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]], there are people here today who are capable of changing the code. But the question is what it will be like in a few years, the question is what will happen if those two are busy for a long time, etc. That's why I would leave it so that those who don't know much about code can be inspired by it and will need to do something with it someday - plus, more code for different types of filtering is actually great educational material on how those filters work. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 11:41, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

Here's the updated list of abuse filters under review with actions I've taken (several disabled, one basic code improvement, and some actions changed) - none have been deleted so they can all be edited and reactivayed - please suggest any further changes:
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/1]] (not needed anymore) - One time account spam bot - 4 hits over 10 years ago - Disabled in 2024 - May be useful in future
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/2]] (no hits since 2018) - Userspace spamming - 778 hits; none since 2018 likely due to global filters - Now disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] (not needed since there are global filters that disallow this specific type of spam filter 3 would have catched) - Specific user page spam - 1,101 hits most recent 7 March 2026 - Still active - Kept enabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]] (looking at the logs, there are too many false positives) - Questionable Language (profanity) - 6,055 hits including very recently - However it was logging hits without taking any actions - Edited to reduce likelihood of false positives by only applying filter to users with low (&lt; 20) edit count and applied weak actions to tag and warn but not prevent publishing the content
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/5]] (no hits since 2023) - Blocked Solicitation Links - 95 hits; none since 2023 - blocks specific historical spam sites - Non-active - Now disabled
* Abuse filters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (these filters are not needed anymore) - Not reviewed - They are currently disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/17]] (no hits since 2022) - Fundamental Physics Edits - 347 hits; none since 2022 - Non-active and very specific for a historical issue - Now disabled 
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/19]] (no hits since 2019) - Page Creation - 20 hits; none since 2019 - Retained for historical reference and possible future updates - Now disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/21]] (false positives, vandal currently inactive) - Globally Banned Editor (renamed to Low-edit Spam Monitor) - 2,829 hits including very recent - Only applies to users with less than 5 edits and takes no actions / monitoring only - Reviewing the details of the hits I don't see many false positives and have strengthened its actions to add a tag and warning

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:57, 9 April 2026 (UTC)

== Block request ==

Please block ~2026-20985-80/~2026-21079-90/~2026-21223-88. Reason: Vandalism. [[User:Àncilu|Àncilu]] ([[User talk:Àncilu|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Àncilu|contribs]]) 23:24, 5 April 2026 (UTC)

:All edits should be deleted and the first is blocked by Atcovi. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:33, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

== Antispam - Filter 12 ==
{{ping|Codename Noreste}} Thanks for contacting me with a suggested [[Special:AbuseFilter|abuse filter]] for the coupon spam we've been getting. A very much appreciated time saver. Per your suggestion, abuse filter 12 has been reactivated with your updated regex. It should tag and prevent page creation actions for coupon promo etc. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:33, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Please do the following to filter 12:
:# Enable the block action (temporary for unregistered users, indefinite for registered users)
:# Disable both the disallow and tag actions, since that filter will be set to block
: Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:42, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
::Excellent. Done:
::* Block duration for non-registered users = 1 week
::* Block duration for registered users = indefinite
::* Disallow and tagging disabled
::Thankyou. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:24, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== Urgent! error message This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed ==

While submitting the post this error was coming &quot;This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please inform an administrator of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link&quot; How to resolve it?

Here is the content:

{{note|marketing material removed}}

[[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] ([[User talk:EasyshikshaMarketing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EasyshikshaMarketing|contribs]]) 05:14, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
: That's because Wikiversity doesn't accept advertising. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:20, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
::So this is fine
::'''Online Internship and Digital Learning for Students'''
::Online learning has become an important part of modern education. With the help of the internet and digital tools, students can now study, practice, and gain experience without being physically present in a classroom. One key part of this system is the online internship, which helps students learn real-world skills along with their studies.
::An online internship allows students to work on tasks and projects through digital platforms. This makes learning more practical and useful, especially for those who want to understand how real work environments function.
::'''Background'''
::The concept of online learning developed from distance education, where students learned from remote locations. Over time, with the growth of digital technology, learning has become more interactive and flexible.
::The introduction of the online internship has added another important layer to digital education. It combines theoretical learning with practical experience, helping students prepare for future careers.
::During global events such as the COVID-19 pandemic, online education and online internship programs became essential. They helped students continue learning and gaining experience despite restrictions on physical movement.
::'''Importance of Online Internship'''
::An online internship plays an important role in student development. It helps bridge the gap between academic knowledge and practical skills.
::'''Some key points include:'''
::Students understand how real work is done
::They develop basic professional skills
::It supports career readiness
::It allows learning without location limits
::By participating in an online internship, students can improve their confidence and gain early exposure to different fields.
::'''Features of Online Internship-Based Learning'''
::Modern education platforms often include online internship opportunities as part of their learning system. These usually offer:
::Flexible schedules for students
::Access to learning from home
::Beginner-friendly tasks and projects
::A combination of theory and practice
::Such features make online internship programs suitable for a wide range of learners, including beginners.
::'''Learning Tasks'''
::Explore how online internship programs support student learning in digital environments.
::Identify how students can gain practical experience through an online internship
::Analyze the role of flexible learning in improving student engagement
::Understand how online education and internships work together
::'''References'''
::[https://ijpsl.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/E-Learning_Hanaaya-Navaneeth.pdf The Past, Present and Future of E-Learning: Hanaaya Varyani and Navaneeth M S]
::[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9788102 Current Trends and Future Perspectives of e-Learning in India]
::'''See Also'''
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/internship Online Internship]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/ Online Courses]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/kids-learning Kids Learning]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/career_helper/ Career Guidance] [[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] ([[User talk:EasyshikshaMarketing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EasyshikshaMarketing|contribs]]) 05:27, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:::@[[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] Wikiversity is a resource for education, or a space for education. However, your intention to link to another website is obvious, and such content does not belong here, as it contradicts the purpose of Wikiversity. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 11:38, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

==AI-generated images==
Seeking your advice.

Myself and students use some AI-generated images in the [[Motivation and emotion]] project.

[[User:Dronebogus]] has been removing some of these images from Wikiversity pages and nominating them for deletion at Commons. As a result, some have been deleted and some have been kept.

Dronebogus has made some useful edits and image suggestions for [[Motivation and emotion]] which I've appreciated and  incorporated. However, there are other edits to remove an AI image by Dronebogus that I've reverted where I think the image is more educational than no image or an alternative image suggested by Dronebogus.

There are a couple of pages where Dronebogus has reverted my reversion, so we are at risk of edit warring. We have briefly discussed and warned each other on our user talk pages, but it seems to come down to a difference in perception about the educational usefulness of the AI images.

So, I'm asking here for others to please review the recent edit histories for these pages:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Stockholm syndrome emotion]]

and let us know what you think about the AI image suitability vs. using no image or alternative images suggested by Dronebogus.

Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:45, 26 April 2026 (UTC)

:I think Jtneill needs to try harder to find non-AI alternatives both on Commons and the web. I’m not reiterating the well known problems with generative AI— you can read about those on Wikipedia and the broader Internet. Needless to say it’s kind of just inherently toxic. If you use it, it should be the last resort of last resorts. Just my stance, which I consider perfectly valid and reasonable. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 04:10, 27 April 2026 (UTC)

== Request for Page Creation Approval - Research on Dr. Ian Stevenson ==


'''Hello Administrators,'''

I am a digital archivist and researcher attempting to create an educational page regarding Dr. Ian Stevenson's scientific work, specifically titled &quot;Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect&quot; and its official Vietnamese edition.

My edits are purely constructive, aimed at integrating local research context with global structured data (including '''Wikidata Q139548587'''). The automated filter is currently preventing publication due to &quot;new user external link limits.&quot;

I have ensured that all citations, references, and images (sourced from Wikimedia Commons) are strictly academic and non-promotional. Could you please review my contributions and consider whitelisting my account or approving this specific page creation?

Thank you for your assistance in preserving this research '''legacy''' within the open knowledge ecosystem.

'''Best regards,''' [[User:Ian Stevenson777|Ian Stevenson777]] ([[User talk:Ian Stevenson777|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ian Stevenson777|contribs]]) 07:26, 28 April 2026 (UTC)
: The page title should probably be in English, as this is English Wikiversity. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:19, 28 April 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Ian Stevenson777|Ian Stevenson777]] I looked at the text and it seems to me that it is informative, but the user cannot learn anything from it because they would have to buy the book. In this regard, it seems to me that it is enough [[:w:Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect|to have that article on Wikipedia]] and there is no need to duplicate it here on Wikiversity. If you are particularly interested with its Vietnamese translation, I would focus on Vietnamese Wikipedia, but it seems to me, that the article there [https://vi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=N%C6%A1i_lu%C3%A2n_h%E1%BB%93i_v%C3%A0_sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc_giao_nhau&amp;oldid=75029095 have some problems at the moment]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:51, 5 May 2026 (UTC)

== Call for custodians and bureaucrats ==

Can I encourage currently active [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]] to consider putting themselves forward for [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodianship]] and/or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucrat|bureaucratship]]. We have a productive, capable group of [[Wikiversity:Staff|staff]] at the moment who should probably have more rights to better support the project and we are light on for active custodians and bureaucrats. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:34, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
: I'm willing to do so. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 11:48, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== Interface administrator flag request ==

@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], @[[User:Mu301|Mu301]] I am requesting IA flag to delete [[MediaWiki:Gadget-WikiSign.js]]. It was requested for deletion by [[User:Sophivorus|a trusted user]] and I think it can be deleted. Once I delete it, I will notify you and you can remove the flag. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:24, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

:Can you enable two-factor authentication? 
:Policy: [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:27, 10 May 2026 (UTC)
::Done @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:20, 11 May 2026 (UTC)

== Block request ==

Hi. Please block @[[User:Skibidi Titan 5.0|Skibidi Titan 5.0]]. Reason : Vandalism.

Thanks, [[User:Locpac|Locpac]] ([[User talk:Locpac|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Locpac|contribs]]) 15:10, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

:Thankyou. Done. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 15:25, 10 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>lqfyqsmik7z55grjq3kxjsic55ev2zu</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808308</id>
      <parentid>2808302</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T09:57:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Interface administrator flag request */ Reply</comment>
      <origin>2808308</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="41777" sha1="inzxmzjeh7ctnwklnnmz5xa27y9t1yj" xml:space="preserve">{{/Header}}
== Dan Polansky ==

I would like to ask you to assess the behavior of Dan Polansky, who in my opinion continues to violate [[Wikiversity:Etiquette|Etiquette]], calls users who disagree with him trolls, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Harold_Foppele&amp;oldid=2760143#Your_qualification questions their expertise], tests them, etc. This is most evident in [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Dan Polansky]], where he has already indicated that two discussion opponents are trolls. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:05, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
: The coddling of overt disruptor Harold Foppele (substantiation is in RCA above) and proven provocateur and disruptor Juandev (substantiation in CR above) must stop. The English Wikiversity must start to properly curate its content and discipline disruptive editors. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:10, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
:[[Wikiversity:Community Review/Dan Polansky]] is underway; outcome pending. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:03, 27 November 2025 (UTC)
::It has been closed with consensus to ban him indefinitely from this project, I believe there is nothing else to do here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:06, 11 March 2026 (UTC)

== Sidewide count.js ==

i would like something like: [[Template:User contrib count/count.js]]. i created [[Template:User contrib count]] and a user/common.js. {{User contrib count}}.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; so a &quot;count.js&quot; would complete it. See [[User:Harold Foppele/common.js]].
If an Administrator could help please. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 19:22, 18 January 2026 (UTC)

== need to add my profile ==

im trying to add new profile content  [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:03, 4 February 2026 (UTC)

:You can edit it now. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:05, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::where can create a new one [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:51, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
:::i have created and its in sandbox. i would like to know when it will be approved  [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 19:38, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::::Please don’t create [[wv:spam|spam]] pages as it will be deleted. Please also read [[WV:Scope]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:01, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

== Im trying to add new profile while add content its shows not alowed ==

This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Exceeded New Page Limit

This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:51, 4 February 2026 (UTC)

== New User: cannot create talk page ==

Hi, I am a new user of Wikiversity and I wanted to create a talk page for the article [[ChatGPT's Essay on Kohlberg's Theory: AI's Use in Academic Writing]]. As a new user, I was barred from performing this action. The text that I wanted to add to the talk page is:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
I have doubts as to to the reliability of this essay. Take for rexample the sentence:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Due to its efficiency, AI has saved 380,000-403,000 lives per year in European healthcare as reported in a recent Deloitte and MedTech Europe report&lt;ref&gt;Dantas, C., Mackiewicz, K., Tageo, V., Jacucci, G., Guardado, D., Ortet, S., Varlamis, I., Maniadakis, M., De Lera, E., Quintas, J., Kocsis, O., &amp; Vassiliou, C. (2021). Benefits and hurdles of AI in the workplace – what comes next? ''International Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems, 10'', 9-17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351993615_Benefits_and_Hurdles_of_AI_In_The_Workplace_-What_Comes_Next&lt;/ref&gt;.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Reading the reference (freely available on ResearchGate), one notes:

# that the reference is from 2021 (predating the widespread use of LLMs such as ChatGPT and the associated 'AI' boom), and
# that the reference factually contradicts this essay.

Quoting from the reference:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
There are enormous benefits of applying AI-based solutions to monitor workers’ health and prevent accidents or, currently, COVID-19 infections, and those benefits are reported with enormous potential. According to the recent Deloitte and MedTech Europe report [11], implementing AI in European healthcare systems could save up 380,000 to 403,000 lives annually or €170.9 to 212.4 billion per year.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Not that the reference says ''could save'', not ''saves'' as in the essay.

This calls into question the reliability of the essay.

&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Could an administrator make this addition for me? Thank you! 
{{reflist}}
[[User:Æolus|Æolus]] ([[User talk:Æolus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Æolus|contribs]]) 06:53, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Æolus|Æolus]] I have added it for you, you can change the header and sign it now. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 08:05, 5 February 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you! [[User:Æolus|Æolus]] ([[User talk:Æolus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Æolus|contribs]]) 12:43, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

== Disallowed to add a page on a course ==

I'm trying to populate a newly created course on Wikiversity, but it blocks me from creating more pages with &quot;New User Exceeded New Page Limit&quot;. Could this be lifted please? [[User:Berkeleywho|Berkeleywho]] ([[User talk:Berkeleywho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Berkeleywho|contribs]]) 13:21, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

:Sorry! Never mind. I was trying to create a new article instead of a new page. All good now. [[User:Berkeleywho|Berkeleywho]] ([[User talk:Berkeleywho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Berkeleywho|contribs]]) 14:03, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

== Harold Foppele adding LLM-generated nonsense and personal fiction ==

I became aware of [[User:Harold Foppele]]'s editing after I deleted some of his uploads on Commons. He appears to be adding a large amount of text and images that are some combination of personal fiction and LLM-generated nonsense. This includes:
*[[Quantum Ultra fast lasers#Future thought experiment|Personal speculative fiction]] in an otherwise &quot;nonfiction&quot; article
*Uploading nonsense LLM-created [[:File:Rontosecond pulse laser (Schematic).jpg|diagrams]] and [[:File:Rontosecond pulse laser (Futuristic).jpg|renders]] for nonexistent lab equipment, with fake source (on Commons, he indicated these files as having been created by him using an LLM)
*Uploading nonsense LLM-created images of equations with obvious artifacts. These images, such as [[:File:Redfield equation (non-Markovian).png]] and [[:File:Lindblad equation (Markovian).png]], don't even match the text he puts them with.
Much of his writing is also of extremely poor quality, to the point where it's not clear whether it's written by him or an LLM. I'm not an active editor on this project, so I'm not as familiar with the standards here, but I believe this is worth custodian attention. [[User:Pi.1415926535|Pi.1415926535]] ([[User talk:Pi.1415926535|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi.1415926535|contribs]]) 03:06, 23 February 2026 (UTC)

:Fake source ''and'' contradictory copyright info, claiming both public domain and CC license. Moreover, if they are indeed nearly-direct LLM output, depending on jurisdiction they may not even be eligible for copyright.
:I've put speedy deletion marks for the equations, because they're obviously not coherent mathematical equations (the parentheses don't match, the symbols merge into each other the way text in image models often do, etc) [[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]] ([[User talk:Sesquilinear|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sesquilinear|contribs]]) 21:50, 7 March 2026 (UTC)

== Repeated removal of RFD notices by Harold Foppele ==

{{User|Harold Foppele }}

This editor is appearing in multiple noticeboards for behaviour which is contentious. Ther latest adventure is the repeated removal of tye RFD notice at [[Quantum/Henry C. Kapteyn]]. You will see from their contributions record the number of times. I have warned Tham on their user tag page that this is tantaomunt to volunteering to be blocked here. They have a track record of achieving blocks on enWiki and Commons already.

They have all the appearance of shooting not to understand when given direct information about their behaviour, whichever project they are editing, and are fast becoming a time sink. Their behaviour across multiple WMF sites may well lead to a Global Lock, but I do not believe they have quite reached the threshold for that.

I believe that what is required is a preventative block to seek to ensure thatchy understand the seriousness of their behaviour, and the need to be collegial. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 23:03, 4 March 2026 (UTC)
: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:45, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

== Blocks for sockpuppet ==

Please block [[User:Harold Foppele]] and [[User:Johnwilliamsiii]] for sockpuppetry based on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Sockpuppet_investigations/Harold_Foppele en wiki] CU and [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?diff=1177465640 commons] CU investigations. The user has also violated copyright, see the above discussion. A block is necessary to prevent further abuse. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:30, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;small&gt;@[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]]&lt;/small&gt; [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:31, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
:: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:44, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
:CC. @[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]], @[[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]], @[[User:Pi.1415926535|Pi.1415926535]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:33, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you for the ping. I concur based on [[w:en:WP:DUCK|behaviour]]. CUs appear divided. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 11:41, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

== Problem when trying to start a discussion with authors of the Plurilingual education portal ==

The authors I wanted to discuss with are called &quot;Project PEP&quot; and my name is Franch Chandler. How can I be allowed to do so ? [[User:French Chandler|French Chandler]] ([[User talk:French Chandler|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/French Chandler|contribs]]) 18:25, 16 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:French Chandler|French Chandler]] place your qestion [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Projet_PEP&amp;action=edit into the dialog box] on this link and hit Publish page. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:22, 16 March 2026 (UTC)

== Please publish my post ==

My post is about &quot;Every child grows and develops at their own pace, but some may experience challenges that affect their ability to perform everyday tasks. These challenges can include difficulties with fine motor skills, sensory processing, handwriting, feeding, and self-regulation. When these issues are not addressed early, they can impact a child’s confidence, academic performance, and independence.

With the rise of digital healthcare services, '''online physical therapy''' has emerged as a powerful and accessible solution for parents seeking support for their children. This modern approach provides structured, personalized therapy programs that can be accessed from the comfort of home, making it easier for families to ensure consistent care.&quot; [[User:Skyabovetherapy|Skyabovetherapy]] ([[User talk:Skyabovetherapy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Skyabovetherapy|contribs]]) 12:28, 28 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Skyabovetherapy|Skyabovetherapy]] Well, you can publish it yourself, Wikiversity is a free environement, where everybody can create educational resources. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 14:11, 29 March 2026 (UTC)
::They actually triggered some abuse filters. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:24, 29 March 2026 (UTC)
:I looked at your attempts to add this text and I see a link to one website repeated many times, which reminds me of the misuse of Wikiversity for self-promotion or to increase the importance of the website. It is necessary to remind you here that Wikiversity is not a place for promotion, but a place for education. So if you want to educate, it will not be a problem to create the page without external links with a clearly defined procedure for how people should use it and what to expect from it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:07, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

== New user limit ==

Hi, I am creating an AIPA Method learning resource page. 

I am the author of the linked research, and I hit the “new user limit” and “new page with external link” filters while publishing. 

Here is the link to the page in creation: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=AIPA_Method&amp;veaction=edit] 

Thank you for your help. 

Best regards, 

Senad Dizdarević [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:19, 30 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] I should admit I dont know, what is &quot;new user limit&quot;, but if filter blocks your page because of certain external link, you may force to save anyway and sometimes it works. It should not work, when the website is blacklisted. As of now, I am not seeing you to save page in main namespace, so try to save it without external links first. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:30, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you, you are very kind. 
::I will wait a day, and try again (without links, too). 
::Today, I already created About Me info page, and maybe that is enough for the filters for one day.  [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:53, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
:::Well, I have analyzed your contribution to Wikiversity and I should point out here, that this project is not a place for advertising, so there is no way of promoting your books and authority this way. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:56, 1 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Hi, my About Me page is just an info page with the neutral as possible presentation of my work. 
::::There is a big difference between informing and advertising. Informing is neutrally stating that something exists and requiring no action, while advertising is a special communication form with intent to cause certain action from readers. For example, click here, click there, order this, buy that. 
::::There is no such intention, form, or terms on my info page. Just neutral information. I don't hide and I am not ashamed that I am write and author, and that is a part of the usual bio, including works. I checked your user page: &quot;I graduated from the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague and studied information science at the Faculty of Arts of Charles University.&quot; I think that if you had written a book on Life Science, you would have mentioned that as well.
::::Most of the Info page is about my research and AIPA Method which is a valid contribution to psychology, consciousness studies, identity theory, and personality development. Actually, my paper '''AIPA Method: A Cognitive-Phenomenological Model for Identity Reconstruction and Stabilization in Pure Awareness''' is now in the peer review procedure at Journal of Consciousness Studies. 
::::Here is a part from the Wikiversity AIPA Method page in creation (waiting for the end of the time limit for new users):    [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:47, 2 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::For the unknown reasons, the form didn't publish my second part of the message: 
:::::I believe this is a valid contribution to Wikiversity. 
:::::Best Regards, 
:::::Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:52, 2 April 2026 (UTC)
::::::And the third try: 
:::::: == Introduction ==
::::::The AIPA Method addresses a gap in contemporary personal development and consciousness science: most evidence‑based approaches (CBT, MBSR, MBCT, standard meditation) operate at the level of mental content—reframing thoughts, observing them, or reducing their impact—rather than at the level of identity structure. In contrast, AIPA targets the structural relationship between the self and the mind, aiming at durable identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness rather than symptom management.
::::::The central research question of the primary AIPA preprint is whether a structured, sequentially staged method can produce permanent identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness, and how such a method compares to established approaches in scope, mechanism, and outcome.
:::::: == Theoretical foundations ==
::::::The AIPA framework is grounded in the cognitive‑phenomenological tradition (e.g., McAdams, Varela, Metzinger, Erikson), contemporary consciousness science on minimal phenomenal experience, and qualitative methods advocacy in psychology. It builds directly on:
::::::* Empirical work on pure awareness and Minimal Phenomenal Experience (MPE), especially Gamma &amp; Metzinger’s large‑scale study of content‑reduced awareness states.
::::::* Metzinger’s proposal of minimal phenomenal experience as an entry point for a minimal unifying model of consciousness.
::::::* Narrative identity and partial‑self models within personality and identity theory.
::::::Within this backdrop, AIPA proposes Pure Awareness as a distinct, operationally specified state that can become a structural ground of identity rather than a transient meditative experience.
:::::: == Experiential empiricism ==
::::::The empirical foundation of the AIPA Method is explicitly first‑person and experiential, combining:
::::::* A 22‑year longitudinal autoethnographic self‑study (2003–2025) documenting partial personality episodes, protocol use, and outcomes.
::::::* A 13‑year prospective verification period with zero self‑reported recurrence of targeted harmful behaviors after a dated stabilization point (1 January 2006).
::::::* A high‑ecological‑validity “stress test” during acute bereavement, used to examine whether non‑reactive awareness remains stable under maximal provocation.
::::::* Two independent practitioner cases (an Amazon‑verified report and a structured questionnaire case) providing preliminary convergent signals across cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and identity dimensions.
::::::All central constructs (Pure Awareness, partial personalities, the Switch, identity stabilization) are operationalized with explicit phenomenological and behavioral criteria intended to enable replication and future third‑person measurement.
::::::I believe this is a valid contribution to Wikiversity. 
::::::Best regards, 
::::::Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:54, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

== Unable to publish pages  ==

Whenever I try to publish a page with linked sources it gets flagged and says I'm a new user attempting to publish content with outside links. Those outside links are my sources. [[User:Soboyed|Soboyed]] ([[User talk:Soboyed|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Soboyed|contribs]]) 04:52, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

:This restriction is automatically lifted after you have edited for a certain time (I don't recall that time off-hand, but it is not long). This is designed to stop spam. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 04:53, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

== Showing error to publish a Post ==

My  action was constructive, not destructive, please allow to publish it. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-20906-18|&amp;#126;2026-20906-18]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-20906-18|talk]]) 08:06, 4 April 2026 (UTC)

:Maybe you got caught in a filter. Consider [[Special:CreateAccount|creating an account]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:06, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
:Your edits, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special:AbuseLog&amp;wpSearchUser=%7E2026-20906-18 these ones], seems to have tripped a filter when you tried to create a page on [[Create]] which external links. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:58, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
:Have you read my [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2802219 previous reply] to you @[[User:~2026-20906-18|~2026-20906-18]]? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:02, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

== Abuse filters which should be deleted ==

Hi, there are some abuse filters which should probably be deleted.
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/1]] (not needed anymore)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/2]] (no hits since 2018)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] (not needed since there are global filters that disallow this specific type of spam filter 3 would have catched)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]] (looking at the logs, there are too many false positives)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/5]] (no hits since 2023)
* Abuse filters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (these filters are not needed anymore)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/17]] (no hits since 2022)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/19]] (no hits since 2019)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/21]] (false positives, vandal currently inactive)
Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:51, 5 April 2026 (UTC)

:Why do these need to be deleted rather than inactivated? Do inactive abuse filters cause a server strain? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:39, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:: Deleted filters do not cause strain to the servers. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:28, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:These sounds like sensible suggestions but, yes, would inactivation perhaps make more sense than deletion for at least some  filters? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:35, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:I would keep them @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]. Alternatively, I would turn off the ones that haven't caught anything for a long time, but I would leave them enabled in case they need to be turned on or improved. If someone has already written the code and we don't have hundreds of free man-hours of programmers on Wikiversity, the server load seems secondary to me, and is negligible compared to other things. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:11, 6 April 2026 (UTC)
:: I know how to write abuse filter code and regex, but I would recommend disabling filters that have never caught anything in a long time ''and'' those who made lots of false positives. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:09, 6 April 2026 (UTC)
:::Of course @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]], there are people here today who are capable of changing the code. But the question is what it will be like in a few years, the question is what will happen if those two are busy for a long time, etc. That's why I would leave it so that those who don't know much about code can be inspired by it and will need to do something with it someday - plus, more code for different types of filtering is actually great educational material on how those filters work. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 11:41, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

Here's the updated list of abuse filters under review with actions I've taken (several disabled, one basic code improvement, and some actions changed) - none have been deleted so they can all be edited and reactivayed - please suggest any further changes:
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/1]] (not needed anymore) - One time account spam bot - 4 hits over 10 years ago - Disabled in 2024 - May be useful in future
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/2]] (no hits since 2018) - Userspace spamming - 778 hits; none since 2018 likely due to global filters - Now disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] (not needed since there are global filters that disallow this specific type of spam filter 3 would have catched) - Specific user page spam - 1,101 hits most recent 7 March 2026 - Still active - Kept enabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]] (looking at the logs, there are too many false positives) - Questionable Language (profanity) - 6,055 hits including very recently - However it was logging hits without taking any actions - Edited to reduce likelihood of false positives by only applying filter to users with low (&lt; 20) edit count and applied weak actions to tag and warn but not prevent publishing the content
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/5]] (no hits since 2023) - Blocked Solicitation Links - 95 hits; none since 2023 - blocks specific historical spam sites - Non-active - Now disabled
* Abuse filters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (these filters are not needed anymore) - Not reviewed - They are currently disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/17]] (no hits since 2022) - Fundamental Physics Edits - 347 hits; none since 2022 - Non-active and very specific for a historical issue - Now disabled 
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/19]] (no hits since 2019) - Page Creation - 20 hits; none since 2019 - Retained for historical reference and possible future updates - Now disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/21]] (false positives, vandal currently inactive) - Globally Banned Editor (renamed to Low-edit Spam Monitor) - 2,829 hits including very recent - Only applies to users with less than 5 edits and takes no actions / monitoring only - Reviewing the details of the hits I don't see many false positives and have strengthened its actions to add a tag and warning

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:57, 9 April 2026 (UTC)

== Block request ==

Please block ~2026-20985-80/~2026-21079-90/~2026-21223-88. Reason: Vandalism. [[User:Àncilu|Àncilu]] ([[User talk:Àncilu|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Àncilu|contribs]]) 23:24, 5 April 2026 (UTC)

:All edits should be deleted and the first is blocked by Atcovi. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:33, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

== Antispam - Filter 12 ==
{{ping|Codename Noreste}} Thanks for contacting me with a suggested [[Special:AbuseFilter|abuse filter]] for the coupon spam we've been getting. A very much appreciated time saver. Per your suggestion, abuse filter 12 has been reactivated with your updated regex. It should tag and prevent page creation actions for coupon promo etc. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:33, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Please do the following to filter 12:
:# Enable the block action (temporary for unregistered users, indefinite for registered users)
:# Disable both the disallow and tag actions, since that filter will be set to block
: Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:42, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
::Excellent. Done:
::* Block duration for non-registered users = 1 week
::* Block duration for registered users = indefinite
::* Disallow and tagging disabled
::Thankyou. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:24, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== Urgent! error message This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed ==

While submitting the post this error was coming &quot;This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please inform an administrator of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link&quot; How to resolve it?

Here is the content:

{{note|marketing material removed}}

[[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] ([[User talk:EasyshikshaMarketing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EasyshikshaMarketing|contribs]]) 05:14, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
: That's because Wikiversity doesn't accept advertising. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:20, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
::So this is fine
::'''Online Internship and Digital Learning for Students'''
::Online learning has become an important part of modern education. With the help of the internet and digital tools, students can now study, practice, and gain experience without being physically present in a classroom. One key part of this system is the online internship, which helps students learn real-world skills along with their studies.
::An online internship allows students to work on tasks and projects through digital platforms. This makes learning more practical and useful, especially for those who want to understand how real work environments function.
::'''Background'''
::The concept of online learning developed from distance education, where students learned from remote locations. Over time, with the growth of digital technology, learning has become more interactive and flexible.
::The introduction of the online internship has added another important layer to digital education. It combines theoretical learning with practical experience, helping students prepare for future careers.
::During global events such as the COVID-19 pandemic, online education and online internship programs became essential. They helped students continue learning and gaining experience despite restrictions on physical movement.
::'''Importance of Online Internship'''
::An online internship plays an important role in student development. It helps bridge the gap between academic knowledge and practical skills.
::'''Some key points include:'''
::Students understand how real work is done
::They develop basic professional skills
::It supports career readiness
::It allows learning without location limits
::By participating in an online internship, students can improve their confidence and gain early exposure to different fields.
::'''Features of Online Internship-Based Learning'''
::Modern education platforms often include online internship opportunities as part of their learning system. These usually offer:
::Flexible schedules for students
::Access to learning from home
::Beginner-friendly tasks and projects
::A combination of theory and practice
::Such features make online internship programs suitable for a wide range of learners, including beginners.
::'''Learning Tasks'''
::Explore how online internship programs support student learning in digital environments.
::Identify how students can gain practical experience through an online internship
::Analyze the role of flexible learning in improving student engagement
::Understand how online education and internships work together
::'''References'''
::[https://ijpsl.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/E-Learning_Hanaaya-Navaneeth.pdf The Past, Present and Future of E-Learning: Hanaaya Varyani and Navaneeth M S]
::[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9788102 Current Trends and Future Perspectives of e-Learning in India]
::'''See Also'''
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/internship Online Internship]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/ Online Courses]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/kids-learning Kids Learning]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/career_helper/ Career Guidance] [[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] ([[User talk:EasyshikshaMarketing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EasyshikshaMarketing|contribs]]) 05:27, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:::@[[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] Wikiversity is a resource for education, or a space for education. However, your intention to link to another website is obvious, and such content does not belong here, as it contradicts the purpose of Wikiversity. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 11:38, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

==AI-generated images==
Seeking your advice.

Myself and students use some AI-generated images in the [[Motivation and emotion]] project.

[[User:Dronebogus]] has been removing some of these images from Wikiversity pages and nominating them for deletion at Commons. As a result, some have been deleted and some have been kept.

Dronebogus has made some useful edits and image suggestions for [[Motivation and emotion]] which I've appreciated and  incorporated. However, there are other edits to remove an AI image by Dronebogus that I've reverted where I think the image is more educational than no image or an alternative image suggested by Dronebogus.

There are a couple of pages where Dronebogus has reverted my reversion, so we are at risk of edit warring. We have briefly discussed and warned each other on our user talk pages, but it seems to come down to a difference in perception about the educational usefulness of the AI images.

So, I'm asking here for others to please review the recent edit histories for these pages:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Stockholm syndrome emotion]]

and let us know what you think about the AI image suitability vs. using no image or alternative images suggested by Dronebogus.

Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:45, 26 April 2026 (UTC)

:I think Jtneill needs to try harder to find non-AI alternatives both on Commons and the web. I’m not reiterating the well known problems with generative AI— you can read about those on Wikipedia and the broader Internet. Needless to say it’s kind of just inherently toxic. If you use it, it should be the last resort of last resorts. Just my stance, which I consider perfectly valid and reasonable. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 04:10, 27 April 2026 (UTC)

== Request for Page Creation Approval - Research on Dr. Ian Stevenson ==


'''Hello Administrators,'''

I am a digital archivist and researcher attempting to create an educational page regarding Dr. Ian Stevenson's scientific work, specifically titled &quot;Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect&quot; and its official Vietnamese edition.

My edits are purely constructive, aimed at integrating local research context with global structured data (including '''Wikidata Q139548587'''). The automated filter is currently preventing publication due to &quot;new user external link limits.&quot;

I have ensured that all citations, references, and images (sourced from Wikimedia Commons) are strictly academic and non-promotional. Could you please review my contributions and consider whitelisting my account or approving this specific page creation?

Thank you for your assistance in preserving this research '''legacy''' within the open knowledge ecosystem.

'''Best regards,''' [[User:Ian Stevenson777|Ian Stevenson777]] ([[User talk:Ian Stevenson777|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ian Stevenson777|contribs]]) 07:26, 28 April 2026 (UTC)
: The page title should probably be in English, as this is English Wikiversity. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:19, 28 April 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Ian Stevenson777|Ian Stevenson777]] I looked at the text and it seems to me that it is informative, but the user cannot learn anything from it because they would have to buy the book. In this regard, it seems to me that it is enough [[:w:Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect|to have that article on Wikipedia]] and there is no need to duplicate it here on Wikiversity. If you are particularly interested with its Vietnamese translation, I would focus on Vietnamese Wikipedia, but it seems to me, that the article there [https://vi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=N%C6%A1i_lu%C3%A2n_h%E1%BB%93i_v%C3%A0_sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc_giao_nhau&amp;oldid=75029095 have some problems at the moment]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:51, 5 May 2026 (UTC)

== Call for custodians and bureaucrats ==

Can I encourage currently active [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]] to consider putting themselves forward for [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodianship]] and/or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucrat|bureaucratship]]. We have a productive, capable group of [[Wikiversity:Staff|staff]] at the moment who should probably have more rights to better support the project and we are light on for active custodians and bureaucrats. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:34, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
: I'm willing to do so. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 11:48, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== Interface administrator flag request ==

@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], @[[User:Mu301|Mu301]] I am requesting IA flag to delete [[MediaWiki:Gadget-WikiSign.js]]. It was requested for deletion by [[User:Sophivorus|a trusted user]] and I think it can be deleted. Once I delete it, I will notify you and you can remove the flag. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:24, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

:Can you enable two-factor authentication? 
:Policy: [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:27, 10 May 2026 (UTC)
::Done @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:20, 11 May 2026 (UTC)
:::You are an interface administrator for 24 hours. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:57, 11 May 2026 (UTC)

== Block request ==

Hi. Please block @[[User:Skibidi Titan 5.0|Skibidi Titan 5.0]]. Reason : Vandalism.

Thanks, [[User:Locpac|Locpac]] ([[User talk:Locpac|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Locpac|contribs]]) 15:10, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

:Thankyou. Done. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 15:25, 10 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>inzxmzjeh7ctnwklnnmz5xa27y9t1yj</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808309</id>
      <parentid>2808308</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T09:59:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Juandev</username>
        <id>2651</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Interface administrator flag request */ Reply</comment>
      <origin>2808309</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="41971" sha1="6mlymzftqhskgk60amcarc4nxm7l1oj" xml:space="preserve">{{/Header}}
== Dan Polansky ==

I would like to ask you to assess the behavior of Dan Polansky, who in my opinion continues to violate [[Wikiversity:Etiquette|Etiquette]], calls users who disagree with him trolls, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Harold_Foppele&amp;oldid=2760143#Your_qualification questions their expertise], tests them, etc. This is most evident in [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Dan Polansky]], where he has already indicated that two discussion opponents are trolls. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:05, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
: The coddling of overt disruptor Harold Foppele (substantiation is in RCA above) and proven provocateur and disruptor Juandev (substantiation in CR above) must stop. The English Wikiversity must start to properly curate its content and discipline disruptive editors. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:10, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
:[[Wikiversity:Community Review/Dan Polansky]] is underway; outcome pending. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:03, 27 November 2025 (UTC)
::It has been closed with consensus to ban him indefinitely from this project, I believe there is nothing else to do here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:06, 11 March 2026 (UTC)

== Sidewide count.js ==

i would like something like: [[Template:User contrib count/count.js]]. i created [[Template:User contrib count]] and a user/common.js. {{User contrib count}}.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; so a &quot;count.js&quot; would complete it. See [[User:Harold Foppele/common.js]].
If an Administrator could help please. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 19:22, 18 January 2026 (UTC)

== need to add my profile ==

im trying to add new profile content  [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:03, 4 February 2026 (UTC)

:You can edit it now. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:05, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::where can create a new one [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:51, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
:::i have created and its in sandbox. i would like to know when it will be approved  [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 19:38, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::::Please don’t create [[wv:spam|spam]] pages as it will be deleted. Please also read [[WV:Scope]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:01, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

== Im trying to add new profile while add content its shows not alowed ==

This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Exceeded New Page Limit

This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:51, 4 February 2026 (UTC)

== New User: cannot create talk page ==

Hi, I am a new user of Wikiversity and I wanted to create a talk page for the article [[ChatGPT's Essay on Kohlberg's Theory: AI's Use in Academic Writing]]. As a new user, I was barred from performing this action. The text that I wanted to add to the talk page is:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
I have doubts as to to the reliability of this essay. Take for rexample the sentence:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Due to its efficiency, AI has saved 380,000-403,000 lives per year in European healthcare as reported in a recent Deloitte and MedTech Europe report&lt;ref&gt;Dantas, C., Mackiewicz, K., Tageo, V., Jacucci, G., Guardado, D., Ortet, S., Varlamis, I., Maniadakis, M., De Lera, E., Quintas, J., Kocsis, O., &amp; Vassiliou, C. (2021). Benefits and hurdles of AI in the workplace – what comes next? ''International Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems, 10'', 9-17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351993615_Benefits_and_Hurdles_of_AI_In_The_Workplace_-What_Comes_Next&lt;/ref&gt;.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Reading the reference (freely available on ResearchGate), one notes:

# that the reference is from 2021 (predating the widespread use of LLMs such as ChatGPT and the associated 'AI' boom), and
# that the reference factually contradicts this essay.

Quoting from the reference:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
There are enormous benefits of applying AI-based solutions to monitor workers’ health and prevent accidents or, currently, COVID-19 infections, and those benefits are reported with enormous potential. According to the recent Deloitte and MedTech Europe report [11], implementing AI in European healthcare systems could save up 380,000 to 403,000 lives annually or €170.9 to 212.4 billion per year.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Not that the reference says ''could save'', not ''saves'' as in the essay.

This calls into question the reliability of the essay.

&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Could an administrator make this addition for me? Thank you! 
{{reflist}}
[[User:Æolus|Æolus]] ([[User talk:Æolus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Æolus|contribs]]) 06:53, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Æolus|Æolus]] I have added it for you, you can change the header and sign it now. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 08:05, 5 February 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you! [[User:Æolus|Æolus]] ([[User talk:Æolus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Æolus|contribs]]) 12:43, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

== Disallowed to add a page on a course ==

I'm trying to populate a newly created course on Wikiversity, but it blocks me from creating more pages with &quot;New User Exceeded New Page Limit&quot;. Could this be lifted please? [[User:Berkeleywho|Berkeleywho]] ([[User talk:Berkeleywho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Berkeleywho|contribs]]) 13:21, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

:Sorry! Never mind. I was trying to create a new article instead of a new page. All good now. [[User:Berkeleywho|Berkeleywho]] ([[User talk:Berkeleywho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Berkeleywho|contribs]]) 14:03, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

== Harold Foppele adding LLM-generated nonsense and personal fiction ==

I became aware of [[User:Harold Foppele]]'s editing after I deleted some of his uploads on Commons. He appears to be adding a large amount of text and images that are some combination of personal fiction and LLM-generated nonsense. This includes:
*[[Quantum Ultra fast lasers#Future thought experiment|Personal speculative fiction]] in an otherwise &quot;nonfiction&quot; article
*Uploading nonsense LLM-created [[:File:Rontosecond pulse laser (Schematic).jpg|diagrams]] and [[:File:Rontosecond pulse laser (Futuristic).jpg|renders]] for nonexistent lab equipment, with fake source (on Commons, he indicated these files as having been created by him using an LLM)
*Uploading nonsense LLM-created images of equations with obvious artifacts. These images, such as [[:File:Redfield equation (non-Markovian).png]] and [[:File:Lindblad equation (Markovian).png]], don't even match the text he puts them with.
Much of his writing is also of extremely poor quality, to the point where it's not clear whether it's written by him or an LLM. I'm not an active editor on this project, so I'm not as familiar with the standards here, but I believe this is worth custodian attention. [[User:Pi.1415926535|Pi.1415926535]] ([[User talk:Pi.1415926535|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi.1415926535|contribs]]) 03:06, 23 February 2026 (UTC)

:Fake source ''and'' contradictory copyright info, claiming both public domain and CC license. Moreover, if they are indeed nearly-direct LLM output, depending on jurisdiction they may not even be eligible for copyright.
:I've put speedy deletion marks for the equations, because they're obviously not coherent mathematical equations (the parentheses don't match, the symbols merge into each other the way text in image models often do, etc) [[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]] ([[User talk:Sesquilinear|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sesquilinear|contribs]]) 21:50, 7 March 2026 (UTC)

== Repeated removal of RFD notices by Harold Foppele ==

{{User|Harold Foppele }}

This editor is appearing in multiple noticeboards for behaviour which is contentious. Ther latest adventure is the repeated removal of tye RFD notice at [[Quantum/Henry C. Kapteyn]]. You will see from their contributions record the number of times. I have warned Tham on their user tag page that this is tantaomunt to volunteering to be blocked here. They have a track record of achieving blocks on enWiki and Commons already.

They have all the appearance of shooting not to understand when given direct information about their behaviour, whichever project they are editing, and are fast becoming a time sink. Their behaviour across multiple WMF sites may well lead to a Global Lock, but I do not believe they have quite reached the threshold for that.

I believe that what is required is a preventative block to seek to ensure thatchy understand the seriousness of their behaviour, and the need to be collegial. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 23:03, 4 March 2026 (UTC)
: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:45, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

== Blocks for sockpuppet ==

Please block [[User:Harold Foppele]] and [[User:Johnwilliamsiii]] for sockpuppetry based on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Sockpuppet_investigations/Harold_Foppele en wiki] CU and [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?diff=1177465640 commons] CU investigations. The user has also violated copyright, see the above discussion. A block is necessary to prevent further abuse. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:30, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;small&gt;@[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]]&lt;/small&gt; [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:31, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
:: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:44, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
:CC. @[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]], @[[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]], @[[User:Pi.1415926535|Pi.1415926535]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:33, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you for the ping. I concur based on [[w:en:WP:DUCK|behaviour]]. CUs appear divided. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 11:41, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

== Problem when trying to start a discussion with authors of the Plurilingual education portal ==

The authors I wanted to discuss with are called &quot;Project PEP&quot; and my name is Franch Chandler. How can I be allowed to do so ? [[User:French Chandler|French Chandler]] ([[User talk:French Chandler|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/French Chandler|contribs]]) 18:25, 16 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:French Chandler|French Chandler]] place your qestion [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Projet_PEP&amp;action=edit into the dialog box] on this link and hit Publish page. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:22, 16 March 2026 (UTC)

== Please publish my post ==

My post is about &quot;Every child grows and develops at their own pace, but some may experience challenges that affect their ability to perform everyday tasks. These challenges can include difficulties with fine motor skills, sensory processing, handwriting, feeding, and self-regulation. When these issues are not addressed early, they can impact a child’s confidence, academic performance, and independence.

With the rise of digital healthcare services, '''online physical therapy''' has emerged as a powerful and accessible solution for parents seeking support for their children. This modern approach provides structured, personalized therapy programs that can be accessed from the comfort of home, making it easier for families to ensure consistent care.&quot; [[User:Skyabovetherapy|Skyabovetherapy]] ([[User talk:Skyabovetherapy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Skyabovetherapy|contribs]]) 12:28, 28 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Skyabovetherapy|Skyabovetherapy]] Well, you can publish it yourself, Wikiversity is a free environement, where everybody can create educational resources. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 14:11, 29 March 2026 (UTC)
::They actually triggered some abuse filters. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:24, 29 March 2026 (UTC)
:I looked at your attempts to add this text and I see a link to one website repeated many times, which reminds me of the misuse of Wikiversity for self-promotion or to increase the importance of the website. It is necessary to remind you here that Wikiversity is not a place for promotion, but a place for education. So if you want to educate, it will not be a problem to create the page without external links with a clearly defined procedure for how people should use it and what to expect from it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:07, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

== New user limit ==

Hi, I am creating an AIPA Method learning resource page. 

I am the author of the linked research, and I hit the “new user limit” and “new page with external link” filters while publishing. 

Here is the link to the page in creation: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=AIPA_Method&amp;veaction=edit] 

Thank you for your help. 

Best regards, 

Senad Dizdarević [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:19, 30 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] I should admit I dont know, what is &quot;new user limit&quot;, but if filter blocks your page because of certain external link, you may force to save anyway and sometimes it works. It should not work, when the website is blacklisted. As of now, I am not seeing you to save page in main namespace, so try to save it without external links first. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:30, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you, you are very kind. 
::I will wait a day, and try again (without links, too). 
::Today, I already created About Me info page, and maybe that is enough for the filters for one day.  [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:53, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
:::Well, I have analyzed your contribution to Wikiversity and I should point out here, that this project is not a place for advertising, so there is no way of promoting your books and authority this way. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:56, 1 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Hi, my About Me page is just an info page with the neutral as possible presentation of my work. 
::::There is a big difference between informing and advertising. Informing is neutrally stating that something exists and requiring no action, while advertising is a special communication form with intent to cause certain action from readers. For example, click here, click there, order this, buy that. 
::::There is no such intention, form, or terms on my info page. Just neutral information. I don't hide and I am not ashamed that I am write and author, and that is a part of the usual bio, including works. I checked your user page: &quot;I graduated from the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague and studied information science at the Faculty of Arts of Charles University.&quot; I think that if you had written a book on Life Science, you would have mentioned that as well.
::::Most of the Info page is about my research and AIPA Method which is a valid contribution to psychology, consciousness studies, identity theory, and personality development. Actually, my paper '''AIPA Method: A Cognitive-Phenomenological Model for Identity Reconstruction and Stabilization in Pure Awareness''' is now in the peer review procedure at Journal of Consciousness Studies. 
::::Here is a part from the Wikiversity AIPA Method page in creation (waiting for the end of the time limit for new users):    [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:47, 2 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::For the unknown reasons, the form didn't publish my second part of the message: 
:::::I believe this is a valid contribution to Wikiversity. 
:::::Best Regards, 
:::::Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:52, 2 April 2026 (UTC)
::::::And the third try: 
:::::: == Introduction ==
::::::The AIPA Method addresses a gap in contemporary personal development and consciousness science: most evidence‑based approaches (CBT, MBSR, MBCT, standard meditation) operate at the level of mental content—reframing thoughts, observing them, or reducing their impact—rather than at the level of identity structure. In contrast, AIPA targets the structural relationship between the self and the mind, aiming at durable identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness rather than symptom management.
::::::The central research question of the primary AIPA preprint is whether a structured, sequentially staged method can produce permanent identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness, and how such a method compares to established approaches in scope, mechanism, and outcome.
:::::: == Theoretical foundations ==
::::::The AIPA framework is grounded in the cognitive‑phenomenological tradition (e.g., McAdams, Varela, Metzinger, Erikson), contemporary consciousness science on minimal phenomenal experience, and qualitative methods advocacy in psychology. It builds directly on:
::::::* Empirical work on pure awareness and Minimal Phenomenal Experience (MPE), especially Gamma &amp; Metzinger’s large‑scale study of content‑reduced awareness states.
::::::* Metzinger’s proposal of minimal phenomenal experience as an entry point for a minimal unifying model of consciousness.
::::::* Narrative identity and partial‑self models within personality and identity theory.
::::::Within this backdrop, AIPA proposes Pure Awareness as a distinct, operationally specified state that can become a structural ground of identity rather than a transient meditative experience.
:::::: == Experiential empiricism ==
::::::The empirical foundation of the AIPA Method is explicitly first‑person and experiential, combining:
::::::* A 22‑year longitudinal autoethnographic self‑study (2003–2025) documenting partial personality episodes, protocol use, and outcomes.
::::::* A 13‑year prospective verification period with zero self‑reported recurrence of targeted harmful behaviors after a dated stabilization point (1 January 2006).
::::::* A high‑ecological‑validity “stress test” during acute bereavement, used to examine whether non‑reactive awareness remains stable under maximal provocation.
::::::* Two independent practitioner cases (an Amazon‑verified report and a structured questionnaire case) providing preliminary convergent signals across cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and identity dimensions.
::::::All central constructs (Pure Awareness, partial personalities, the Switch, identity stabilization) are operationalized with explicit phenomenological and behavioral criteria intended to enable replication and future third‑person measurement.
::::::I believe this is a valid contribution to Wikiversity. 
::::::Best regards, 
::::::Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:54, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

== Unable to publish pages  ==

Whenever I try to publish a page with linked sources it gets flagged and says I'm a new user attempting to publish content with outside links. Those outside links are my sources. [[User:Soboyed|Soboyed]] ([[User talk:Soboyed|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Soboyed|contribs]]) 04:52, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

:This restriction is automatically lifted after you have edited for a certain time (I don't recall that time off-hand, but it is not long). This is designed to stop spam. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 04:53, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

== Showing error to publish a Post ==

My  action was constructive, not destructive, please allow to publish it. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-20906-18|&amp;#126;2026-20906-18]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-20906-18|talk]]) 08:06, 4 April 2026 (UTC)

:Maybe you got caught in a filter. Consider [[Special:CreateAccount|creating an account]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:06, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
:Your edits, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special:AbuseLog&amp;wpSearchUser=%7E2026-20906-18 these ones], seems to have tripped a filter when you tried to create a page on [[Create]] which external links. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:58, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
:Have you read my [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2802219 previous reply] to you @[[User:~2026-20906-18|~2026-20906-18]]? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:02, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

== Abuse filters which should be deleted ==

Hi, there are some abuse filters which should probably be deleted.
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/1]] (not needed anymore)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/2]] (no hits since 2018)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] (not needed since there are global filters that disallow this specific type of spam filter 3 would have catched)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]] (looking at the logs, there are too many false positives)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/5]] (no hits since 2023)
* Abuse filters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (these filters are not needed anymore)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/17]] (no hits since 2022)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/19]] (no hits since 2019)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/21]] (false positives, vandal currently inactive)
Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:51, 5 April 2026 (UTC)

:Why do these need to be deleted rather than inactivated? Do inactive abuse filters cause a server strain? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:39, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:: Deleted filters do not cause strain to the servers. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:28, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:These sounds like sensible suggestions but, yes, would inactivation perhaps make more sense than deletion for at least some  filters? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:35, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:I would keep them @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]. Alternatively, I would turn off the ones that haven't caught anything for a long time, but I would leave them enabled in case they need to be turned on or improved. If someone has already written the code and we don't have hundreds of free man-hours of programmers on Wikiversity, the server load seems secondary to me, and is negligible compared to other things. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:11, 6 April 2026 (UTC)
:: I know how to write abuse filter code and regex, but I would recommend disabling filters that have never caught anything in a long time ''and'' those who made lots of false positives. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:09, 6 April 2026 (UTC)
:::Of course @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]], there are people here today who are capable of changing the code. But the question is what it will be like in a few years, the question is what will happen if those two are busy for a long time, etc. That's why I would leave it so that those who don't know much about code can be inspired by it and will need to do something with it someday - plus, more code for different types of filtering is actually great educational material on how those filters work. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 11:41, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

Here's the updated list of abuse filters under review with actions I've taken (several disabled, one basic code improvement, and some actions changed) - none have been deleted so they can all be edited and reactivayed - please suggest any further changes:
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/1]] (not needed anymore) - One time account spam bot - 4 hits over 10 years ago - Disabled in 2024 - May be useful in future
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/2]] (no hits since 2018) - Userspace spamming - 778 hits; none since 2018 likely due to global filters - Now disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] (not needed since there are global filters that disallow this specific type of spam filter 3 would have catched) - Specific user page spam - 1,101 hits most recent 7 March 2026 - Still active - Kept enabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]] (looking at the logs, there are too many false positives) - Questionable Language (profanity) - 6,055 hits including very recently - However it was logging hits without taking any actions - Edited to reduce likelihood of false positives by only applying filter to users with low (&lt; 20) edit count and applied weak actions to tag and warn but not prevent publishing the content
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/5]] (no hits since 2023) - Blocked Solicitation Links - 95 hits; none since 2023 - blocks specific historical spam sites - Non-active - Now disabled
* Abuse filters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (these filters are not needed anymore) - Not reviewed - They are currently disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/17]] (no hits since 2022) - Fundamental Physics Edits - 347 hits; none since 2022 - Non-active and very specific for a historical issue - Now disabled 
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/19]] (no hits since 2019) - Page Creation - 20 hits; none since 2019 - Retained for historical reference and possible future updates - Now disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/21]] (false positives, vandal currently inactive) - Globally Banned Editor (renamed to Low-edit Spam Monitor) - 2,829 hits including very recent - Only applies to users with less than 5 edits and takes no actions / monitoring only - Reviewing the details of the hits I don't see many false positives and have strengthened its actions to add a tag and warning

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:57, 9 April 2026 (UTC)

== Block request ==

Please block ~2026-20985-80/~2026-21079-90/~2026-21223-88. Reason: Vandalism. [[User:Àncilu|Àncilu]] ([[User talk:Àncilu|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Àncilu|contribs]]) 23:24, 5 April 2026 (UTC)

:All edits should be deleted and the first is blocked by Atcovi. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:33, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

== Antispam - Filter 12 ==
{{ping|Codename Noreste}} Thanks for contacting me with a suggested [[Special:AbuseFilter|abuse filter]] for the coupon spam we've been getting. A very much appreciated time saver. Per your suggestion, abuse filter 12 has been reactivated with your updated regex. It should tag and prevent page creation actions for coupon promo etc. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:33, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Please do the following to filter 12:
:# Enable the block action (temporary for unregistered users, indefinite for registered users)
:# Disable both the disallow and tag actions, since that filter will be set to block
: Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:42, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
::Excellent. Done:
::* Block duration for non-registered users = 1 week
::* Block duration for registered users = indefinite
::* Disallow and tagging disabled
::Thankyou. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:24, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== Urgent! error message This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed ==

While submitting the post this error was coming &quot;This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please inform an administrator of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link&quot; How to resolve it?

Here is the content:

{{note|marketing material removed}}

[[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] ([[User talk:EasyshikshaMarketing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EasyshikshaMarketing|contribs]]) 05:14, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
: That's because Wikiversity doesn't accept advertising. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:20, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
::So this is fine
::'''Online Internship and Digital Learning for Students'''
::Online learning has become an important part of modern education. With the help of the internet and digital tools, students can now study, practice, and gain experience without being physically present in a classroom. One key part of this system is the online internship, which helps students learn real-world skills along with their studies.
::An online internship allows students to work on tasks and projects through digital platforms. This makes learning more practical and useful, especially for those who want to understand how real work environments function.
::'''Background'''
::The concept of online learning developed from distance education, where students learned from remote locations. Over time, with the growth of digital technology, learning has become more interactive and flexible.
::The introduction of the online internship has added another important layer to digital education. It combines theoretical learning with practical experience, helping students prepare for future careers.
::During global events such as the COVID-19 pandemic, online education and online internship programs became essential. They helped students continue learning and gaining experience despite restrictions on physical movement.
::'''Importance of Online Internship'''
::An online internship plays an important role in student development. It helps bridge the gap between academic knowledge and practical skills.
::'''Some key points include:'''
::Students understand how real work is done
::They develop basic professional skills
::It supports career readiness
::It allows learning without location limits
::By participating in an online internship, students can improve their confidence and gain early exposure to different fields.
::'''Features of Online Internship-Based Learning'''
::Modern education platforms often include online internship opportunities as part of their learning system. These usually offer:
::Flexible schedules for students
::Access to learning from home
::Beginner-friendly tasks and projects
::A combination of theory and practice
::Such features make online internship programs suitable for a wide range of learners, including beginners.
::'''Learning Tasks'''
::Explore how online internship programs support student learning in digital environments.
::Identify how students can gain practical experience through an online internship
::Analyze the role of flexible learning in improving student engagement
::Understand how online education and internships work together
::'''References'''
::[https://ijpsl.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/E-Learning_Hanaaya-Navaneeth.pdf The Past, Present and Future of E-Learning: Hanaaya Varyani and Navaneeth M S]
::[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9788102 Current Trends and Future Perspectives of e-Learning in India]
::'''See Also'''
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/internship Online Internship]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/ Online Courses]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/kids-learning Kids Learning]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/career_helper/ Career Guidance] [[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] ([[User talk:EasyshikshaMarketing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EasyshikshaMarketing|contribs]]) 05:27, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:::@[[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] Wikiversity is a resource for education, or a space for education. However, your intention to link to another website is obvious, and such content does not belong here, as it contradicts the purpose of Wikiversity. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 11:38, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

==AI-generated images==
Seeking your advice.

Myself and students use some AI-generated images in the [[Motivation and emotion]] project.

[[User:Dronebogus]] has been removing some of these images from Wikiversity pages and nominating them for deletion at Commons. As a result, some have been deleted and some have been kept.

Dronebogus has made some useful edits and image suggestions for [[Motivation and emotion]] which I've appreciated and  incorporated. However, there are other edits to remove an AI image by Dronebogus that I've reverted where I think the image is more educational than no image or an alternative image suggested by Dronebogus.

There are a couple of pages where Dronebogus has reverted my reversion, so we are at risk of edit warring. We have briefly discussed and warned each other on our user talk pages, but it seems to come down to a difference in perception about the educational usefulness of the AI images.

So, I'm asking here for others to please review the recent edit histories for these pages:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Stockholm syndrome emotion]]

and let us know what you think about the AI image suitability vs. using no image or alternative images suggested by Dronebogus.

Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:45, 26 April 2026 (UTC)

:I think Jtneill needs to try harder to find non-AI alternatives both on Commons and the web. I’m not reiterating the well known problems with generative AI— you can read about those on Wikipedia and the broader Internet. Needless to say it’s kind of just inherently toxic. If you use it, it should be the last resort of last resorts. Just my stance, which I consider perfectly valid and reasonable. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 04:10, 27 April 2026 (UTC)

== Request for Page Creation Approval - Research on Dr. Ian Stevenson ==


'''Hello Administrators,'''

I am a digital archivist and researcher attempting to create an educational page regarding Dr. Ian Stevenson's scientific work, specifically titled &quot;Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect&quot; and its official Vietnamese edition.

My edits are purely constructive, aimed at integrating local research context with global structured data (including '''Wikidata Q139548587'''). The automated filter is currently preventing publication due to &quot;new user external link limits.&quot;

I have ensured that all citations, references, and images (sourced from Wikimedia Commons) are strictly academic and non-promotional. Could you please review my contributions and consider whitelisting my account or approving this specific page creation?

Thank you for your assistance in preserving this research '''legacy''' within the open knowledge ecosystem.

'''Best regards,''' [[User:Ian Stevenson777|Ian Stevenson777]] ([[User talk:Ian Stevenson777|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ian Stevenson777|contribs]]) 07:26, 28 April 2026 (UTC)
: The page title should probably be in English, as this is English Wikiversity. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:19, 28 April 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Ian Stevenson777|Ian Stevenson777]] I looked at the text and it seems to me that it is informative, but the user cannot learn anything from it because they would have to buy the book. In this regard, it seems to me that it is enough [[:w:Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect|to have that article on Wikipedia]] and there is no need to duplicate it here on Wikiversity. If you are particularly interested with its Vietnamese translation, I would focus on Vietnamese Wikipedia, but it seems to me, that the article there [https://vi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=N%C6%A1i_lu%C3%A2n_h%E1%BB%93i_v%C3%A0_sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc_giao_nhau&amp;oldid=75029095 have some problems at the moment]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:51, 5 May 2026 (UTC)

== Call for custodians and bureaucrats ==

Can I encourage currently active [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]] to consider putting themselves forward for [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodianship]] and/or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucrat|bureaucratship]]. We have a productive, capable group of [[Wikiversity:Staff|staff]] at the moment who should probably have more rights to better support the project and we are light on for active custodians and bureaucrats. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:34, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
: I'm willing to do so. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 11:48, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== Interface administrator flag request ==

@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], @[[User:Mu301|Mu301]] I am requesting IA flag to delete [[MediaWiki:Gadget-WikiSign.js]]. It was requested for deletion by [[User:Sophivorus|a trusted user]] and I think it can be deleted. Once I delete it, I will notify you and you can remove the flag. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:24, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

:Can you enable two-factor authentication? 
:Policy: [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:27, 10 May 2026 (UTC)
::Done @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:20, 11 May 2026 (UTC)
:::You are an interface administrator for 24 hours. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:57, 11 May 2026 (UTC)
::::Thx @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I have just deleted the page. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:59, 11 May 2026 (UTC)

== Block request ==

Hi. Please block @[[User:Skibidi Titan 5.0|Skibidi Titan 5.0]]. Reason : Vandalism.

Thanks, [[User:Locpac|Locpac]] ([[User talk:Locpac|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Locpac|contribs]]) 15:10, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

:Thankyou. Done. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 15:25, 10 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>6mlymzftqhskgk60amcarc4nxm7l1oj</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808326</id>
      <parentid>2808309</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T10:59:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Call for custodians and bureaucrats */ Reply</comment>
      <origin>2808326</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="42190" sha1="nxlfl2fhuphqzd37e1av74ooyrofc3i" xml:space="preserve">{{/Header}}
== Dan Polansky ==

I would like to ask you to assess the behavior of Dan Polansky, who in my opinion continues to violate [[Wikiversity:Etiquette|Etiquette]], calls users who disagree with him trolls, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Harold_Foppele&amp;oldid=2760143#Your_qualification questions their expertise], tests them, etc. This is most evident in [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Dan Polansky]], where he has already indicated that two discussion opponents are trolls. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:05, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
: The coddling of overt disruptor Harold Foppele (substantiation is in RCA above) and proven provocateur and disruptor Juandev (substantiation in CR above) must stop. The English Wikiversity must start to properly curate its content and discipline disruptive editors. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:10, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
:[[Wikiversity:Community Review/Dan Polansky]] is underway; outcome pending. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:03, 27 November 2025 (UTC)
::It has been closed with consensus to ban him indefinitely from this project, I believe there is nothing else to do here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:06, 11 March 2026 (UTC)

== Sidewide count.js ==

i would like something like: [[Template:User contrib count/count.js]]. i created [[Template:User contrib count]] and a user/common.js. {{User contrib count}}.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; so a &quot;count.js&quot; would complete it. See [[User:Harold Foppele/common.js]].
If an Administrator could help please. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 19:22, 18 January 2026 (UTC)

== need to add my profile ==

im trying to add new profile content  [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:03, 4 February 2026 (UTC)

:You can edit it now. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:05, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::where can create a new one [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:51, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
:::i have created and its in sandbox. i would like to know when it will be approved  [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 19:38, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::::Please don’t create [[wv:spam|spam]] pages as it will be deleted. Please also read [[WV:Scope]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:01, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

== Im trying to add new profile while add content its shows not alowed ==

This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Exceeded New Page Limit

This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:51, 4 February 2026 (UTC)

== New User: cannot create talk page ==

Hi, I am a new user of Wikiversity and I wanted to create a talk page for the article [[ChatGPT's Essay on Kohlberg's Theory: AI's Use in Academic Writing]]. As a new user, I was barred from performing this action. The text that I wanted to add to the talk page is:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
I have doubts as to to the reliability of this essay. Take for rexample the sentence:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Due to its efficiency, AI has saved 380,000-403,000 lives per year in European healthcare as reported in a recent Deloitte and MedTech Europe report&lt;ref&gt;Dantas, C., Mackiewicz, K., Tageo, V., Jacucci, G., Guardado, D., Ortet, S., Varlamis, I., Maniadakis, M., De Lera, E., Quintas, J., Kocsis, O., &amp; Vassiliou, C. (2021). Benefits and hurdles of AI in the workplace – what comes next? ''International Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems, 10'', 9-17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351993615_Benefits_and_Hurdles_of_AI_In_The_Workplace_-What_Comes_Next&lt;/ref&gt;.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Reading the reference (freely available on ResearchGate), one notes:

# that the reference is from 2021 (predating the widespread use of LLMs such as ChatGPT and the associated 'AI' boom), and
# that the reference factually contradicts this essay.

Quoting from the reference:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
There are enormous benefits of applying AI-based solutions to monitor workers’ health and prevent accidents or, currently, COVID-19 infections, and those benefits are reported with enormous potential. According to the recent Deloitte and MedTech Europe report [11], implementing AI in European healthcare systems could save up 380,000 to 403,000 lives annually or €170.9 to 212.4 billion per year.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Not that the reference says ''could save'', not ''saves'' as in the essay.

This calls into question the reliability of the essay.

&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Could an administrator make this addition for me? Thank you! 
{{reflist}}
[[User:Æolus|Æolus]] ([[User talk:Æolus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Æolus|contribs]]) 06:53, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Æolus|Æolus]] I have added it for you, you can change the header and sign it now. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 08:05, 5 February 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you! [[User:Æolus|Æolus]] ([[User talk:Æolus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Æolus|contribs]]) 12:43, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

== Disallowed to add a page on a course ==

I'm trying to populate a newly created course on Wikiversity, but it blocks me from creating more pages with &quot;New User Exceeded New Page Limit&quot;. Could this be lifted please? [[User:Berkeleywho|Berkeleywho]] ([[User talk:Berkeleywho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Berkeleywho|contribs]]) 13:21, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

:Sorry! Never mind. I was trying to create a new article instead of a new page. All good now. [[User:Berkeleywho|Berkeleywho]] ([[User talk:Berkeleywho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Berkeleywho|contribs]]) 14:03, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

== Harold Foppele adding LLM-generated nonsense and personal fiction ==

I became aware of [[User:Harold Foppele]]'s editing after I deleted some of his uploads on Commons. He appears to be adding a large amount of text and images that are some combination of personal fiction and LLM-generated nonsense. This includes:
*[[Quantum Ultra fast lasers#Future thought experiment|Personal speculative fiction]] in an otherwise &quot;nonfiction&quot; article
*Uploading nonsense LLM-created [[:File:Rontosecond pulse laser (Schematic).jpg|diagrams]] and [[:File:Rontosecond pulse laser (Futuristic).jpg|renders]] for nonexistent lab equipment, with fake source (on Commons, he indicated these files as having been created by him using an LLM)
*Uploading nonsense LLM-created images of equations with obvious artifacts. These images, such as [[:File:Redfield equation (non-Markovian).png]] and [[:File:Lindblad equation (Markovian).png]], don't even match the text he puts them with.
Much of his writing is also of extremely poor quality, to the point where it's not clear whether it's written by him or an LLM. I'm not an active editor on this project, so I'm not as familiar with the standards here, but I believe this is worth custodian attention. [[User:Pi.1415926535|Pi.1415926535]] ([[User talk:Pi.1415926535|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi.1415926535|contribs]]) 03:06, 23 February 2026 (UTC)

:Fake source ''and'' contradictory copyright info, claiming both public domain and CC license. Moreover, if they are indeed nearly-direct LLM output, depending on jurisdiction they may not even be eligible for copyright.
:I've put speedy deletion marks for the equations, because they're obviously not coherent mathematical equations (the parentheses don't match, the symbols merge into each other the way text in image models often do, etc) [[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]] ([[User talk:Sesquilinear|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sesquilinear|contribs]]) 21:50, 7 March 2026 (UTC)

== Repeated removal of RFD notices by Harold Foppele ==

{{User|Harold Foppele }}

This editor is appearing in multiple noticeboards for behaviour which is contentious. Ther latest adventure is the repeated removal of tye RFD notice at [[Quantum/Henry C. Kapteyn]]. You will see from their contributions record the number of times. I have warned Tham on their user tag page that this is tantaomunt to volunteering to be blocked here. They have a track record of achieving blocks on enWiki and Commons already.

They have all the appearance of shooting not to understand when given direct information about their behaviour, whichever project they are editing, and are fast becoming a time sink. Their behaviour across multiple WMF sites may well lead to a Global Lock, but I do not believe they have quite reached the threshold for that.

I believe that what is required is a preventative block to seek to ensure thatchy understand the seriousness of their behaviour, and the need to be collegial. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 23:03, 4 March 2026 (UTC)
: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:45, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

== Blocks for sockpuppet ==

Please block [[User:Harold Foppele]] and [[User:Johnwilliamsiii]] for sockpuppetry based on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Sockpuppet_investigations/Harold_Foppele en wiki] CU and [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?diff=1177465640 commons] CU investigations. The user has also violated copyright, see the above discussion. A block is necessary to prevent further abuse. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:30, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;small&gt;@[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]]&lt;/small&gt; [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:31, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
:: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:44, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
:CC. @[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]], @[[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]], @[[User:Pi.1415926535|Pi.1415926535]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:33, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you for the ping. I concur based on [[w:en:WP:DUCK|behaviour]]. CUs appear divided. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 11:41, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

== Problem when trying to start a discussion with authors of the Plurilingual education portal ==

The authors I wanted to discuss with are called &quot;Project PEP&quot; and my name is Franch Chandler. How can I be allowed to do so ? [[User:French Chandler|French Chandler]] ([[User talk:French Chandler|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/French Chandler|contribs]]) 18:25, 16 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:French Chandler|French Chandler]] place your qestion [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Projet_PEP&amp;action=edit into the dialog box] on this link and hit Publish page. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:22, 16 March 2026 (UTC)

== Please publish my post ==

My post is about &quot;Every child grows and develops at their own pace, but some may experience challenges that affect their ability to perform everyday tasks. These challenges can include difficulties with fine motor skills, sensory processing, handwriting, feeding, and self-regulation. When these issues are not addressed early, they can impact a child’s confidence, academic performance, and independence.

With the rise of digital healthcare services, '''online physical therapy''' has emerged as a powerful and accessible solution for parents seeking support for their children. This modern approach provides structured, personalized therapy programs that can be accessed from the comfort of home, making it easier for families to ensure consistent care.&quot; [[User:Skyabovetherapy|Skyabovetherapy]] ([[User talk:Skyabovetherapy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Skyabovetherapy|contribs]]) 12:28, 28 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Skyabovetherapy|Skyabovetherapy]] Well, you can publish it yourself, Wikiversity is a free environement, where everybody can create educational resources. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 14:11, 29 March 2026 (UTC)
::They actually triggered some abuse filters. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:24, 29 March 2026 (UTC)
:I looked at your attempts to add this text and I see a link to one website repeated many times, which reminds me of the misuse of Wikiversity for self-promotion or to increase the importance of the website. It is necessary to remind you here that Wikiversity is not a place for promotion, but a place for education. So if you want to educate, it will not be a problem to create the page without external links with a clearly defined procedure for how people should use it and what to expect from it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:07, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

== New user limit ==

Hi, I am creating an AIPA Method learning resource page. 

I am the author of the linked research, and I hit the “new user limit” and “new page with external link” filters while publishing. 

Here is the link to the page in creation: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=AIPA_Method&amp;veaction=edit] 

Thank you for your help. 

Best regards, 

Senad Dizdarević [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:19, 30 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] I should admit I dont know, what is &quot;new user limit&quot;, but if filter blocks your page because of certain external link, you may force to save anyway and sometimes it works. It should not work, when the website is blacklisted. As of now, I am not seeing you to save page in main namespace, so try to save it without external links first. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:30, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you, you are very kind. 
::I will wait a day, and try again (without links, too). 
::Today, I already created About Me info page, and maybe that is enough for the filters for one day.  [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:53, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
:::Well, I have analyzed your contribution to Wikiversity and I should point out here, that this project is not a place for advertising, so there is no way of promoting your books and authority this way. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:56, 1 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Hi, my About Me page is just an info page with the neutral as possible presentation of my work. 
::::There is a big difference between informing and advertising. Informing is neutrally stating that something exists and requiring no action, while advertising is a special communication form with intent to cause certain action from readers. For example, click here, click there, order this, buy that. 
::::There is no such intention, form, or terms on my info page. Just neutral information. I don't hide and I am not ashamed that I am write and author, and that is a part of the usual bio, including works. I checked your user page: &quot;I graduated from the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague and studied information science at the Faculty of Arts of Charles University.&quot; I think that if you had written a book on Life Science, you would have mentioned that as well.
::::Most of the Info page is about my research and AIPA Method which is a valid contribution to psychology, consciousness studies, identity theory, and personality development. Actually, my paper '''AIPA Method: A Cognitive-Phenomenological Model for Identity Reconstruction and Stabilization in Pure Awareness''' is now in the peer review procedure at Journal of Consciousness Studies. 
::::Here is a part from the Wikiversity AIPA Method page in creation (waiting for the end of the time limit for new users):    [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:47, 2 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::For the unknown reasons, the form didn't publish my second part of the message: 
:::::I believe this is a valid contribution to Wikiversity. 
:::::Best Regards, 
:::::Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:52, 2 April 2026 (UTC)
::::::And the third try: 
:::::: == Introduction ==
::::::The AIPA Method addresses a gap in contemporary personal development and consciousness science: most evidence‑based approaches (CBT, MBSR, MBCT, standard meditation) operate at the level of mental content—reframing thoughts, observing them, or reducing their impact—rather than at the level of identity structure. In contrast, AIPA targets the structural relationship between the self and the mind, aiming at durable identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness rather than symptom management.
::::::The central research question of the primary AIPA preprint is whether a structured, sequentially staged method can produce permanent identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness, and how such a method compares to established approaches in scope, mechanism, and outcome.
:::::: == Theoretical foundations ==
::::::The AIPA framework is grounded in the cognitive‑phenomenological tradition (e.g., McAdams, Varela, Metzinger, Erikson), contemporary consciousness science on minimal phenomenal experience, and qualitative methods advocacy in psychology. It builds directly on:
::::::* Empirical work on pure awareness and Minimal Phenomenal Experience (MPE), especially Gamma &amp; Metzinger’s large‑scale study of content‑reduced awareness states.
::::::* Metzinger’s proposal of minimal phenomenal experience as an entry point for a minimal unifying model of consciousness.
::::::* Narrative identity and partial‑self models within personality and identity theory.
::::::Within this backdrop, AIPA proposes Pure Awareness as a distinct, operationally specified state that can become a structural ground of identity rather than a transient meditative experience.
:::::: == Experiential empiricism ==
::::::The empirical foundation of the AIPA Method is explicitly first‑person and experiential, combining:
::::::* A 22‑year longitudinal autoethnographic self‑study (2003–2025) documenting partial personality episodes, protocol use, and outcomes.
::::::* A 13‑year prospective verification period with zero self‑reported recurrence of targeted harmful behaviors after a dated stabilization point (1 January 2006).
::::::* A high‑ecological‑validity “stress test” during acute bereavement, used to examine whether non‑reactive awareness remains stable under maximal provocation.
::::::* Two independent practitioner cases (an Amazon‑verified report and a structured questionnaire case) providing preliminary convergent signals across cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and identity dimensions.
::::::All central constructs (Pure Awareness, partial personalities, the Switch, identity stabilization) are operationalized with explicit phenomenological and behavioral criteria intended to enable replication and future third‑person measurement.
::::::I believe this is a valid contribution to Wikiversity. 
::::::Best regards, 
::::::Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:54, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

== Unable to publish pages  ==

Whenever I try to publish a page with linked sources it gets flagged and says I'm a new user attempting to publish content with outside links. Those outside links are my sources. [[User:Soboyed|Soboyed]] ([[User talk:Soboyed|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Soboyed|contribs]]) 04:52, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

:This restriction is automatically lifted after you have edited for a certain time (I don't recall that time off-hand, but it is not long). This is designed to stop spam. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 04:53, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

== Showing error to publish a Post ==

My  action was constructive, not destructive, please allow to publish it. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-20906-18|&amp;#126;2026-20906-18]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-20906-18|talk]]) 08:06, 4 April 2026 (UTC)

:Maybe you got caught in a filter. Consider [[Special:CreateAccount|creating an account]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:06, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
:Your edits, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special:AbuseLog&amp;wpSearchUser=%7E2026-20906-18 these ones], seems to have tripped a filter when you tried to create a page on [[Create]] which external links. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:58, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
:Have you read my [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2802219 previous reply] to you @[[User:~2026-20906-18|~2026-20906-18]]? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:02, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

== Abuse filters which should be deleted ==

Hi, there are some abuse filters which should probably be deleted.
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/1]] (not needed anymore)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/2]] (no hits since 2018)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] (not needed since there are global filters that disallow this specific type of spam filter 3 would have catched)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]] (looking at the logs, there are too many false positives)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/5]] (no hits since 2023)
* Abuse filters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (these filters are not needed anymore)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/17]] (no hits since 2022)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/19]] (no hits since 2019)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/21]] (false positives, vandal currently inactive)
Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:51, 5 April 2026 (UTC)

:Why do these need to be deleted rather than inactivated? Do inactive abuse filters cause a server strain? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:39, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:: Deleted filters do not cause strain to the servers. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:28, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:These sounds like sensible suggestions but, yes, would inactivation perhaps make more sense than deletion for at least some  filters? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:35, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:I would keep them @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]. Alternatively, I would turn off the ones that haven't caught anything for a long time, but I would leave them enabled in case they need to be turned on or improved. If someone has already written the code and we don't have hundreds of free man-hours of programmers on Wikiversity, the server load seems secondary to me, and is negligible compared to other things. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:11, 6 April 2026 (UTC)
:: I know how to write abuse filter code and regex, but I would recommend disabling filters that have never caught anything in a long time ''and'' those who made lots of false positives. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:09, 6 April 2026 (UTC)
:::Of course @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]], there are people here today who are capable of changing the code. But the question is what it will be like in a few years, the question is what will happen if those two are busy for a long time, etc. That's why I would leave it so that those who don't know much about code can be inspired by it and will need to do something with it someday - plus, more code for different types of filtering is actually great educational material on how those filters work. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 11:41, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

Here's the updated list of abuse filters under review with actions I've taken (several disabled, one basic code improvement, and some actions changed) - none have been deleted so they can all be edited and reactivayed - please suggest any further changes:
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/1]] (not needed anymore) - One time account spam bot - 4 hits over 10 years ago - Disabled in 2024 - May be useful in future
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/2]] (no hits since 2018) - Userspace spamming - 778 hits; none since 2018 likely due to global filters - Now disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] (not needed since there are global filters that disallow this specific type of spam filter 3 would have catched) - Specific user page spam - 1,101 hits most recent 7 March 2026 - Still active - Kept enabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]] (looking at the logs, there are too many false positives) - Questionable Language (profanity) - 6,055 hits including very recently - However it was logging hits without taking any actions - Edited to reduce likelihood of false positives by only applying filter to users with low (&lt; 20) edit count and applied weak actions to tag and warn but not prevent publishing the content
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/5]] (no hits since 2023) - Blocked Solicitation Links - 95 hits; none since 2023 - blocks specific historical spam sites - Non-active - Now disabled
* Abuse filters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (these filters are not needed anymore) - Not reviewed - They are currently disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/17]] (no hits since 2022) - Fundamental Physics Edits - 347 hits; none since 2022 - Non-active and very specific for a historical issue - Now disabled 
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/19]] (no hits since 2019) - Page Creation - 20 hits; none since 2019 - Retained for historical reference and possible future updates - Now disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/21]] (false positives, vandal currently inactive) - Globally Banned Editor (renamed to Low-edit Spam Monitor) - 2,829 hits including very recent - Only applies to users with less than 5 edits and takes no actions / monitoring only - Reviewing the details of the hits I don't see many false positives and have strengthened its actions to add a tag and warning

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:57, 9 April 2026 (UTC)

== Block request ==

Please block ~2026-20985-80/~2026-21079-90/~2026-21223-88. Reason: Vandalism. [[User:Àncilu|Àncilu]] ([[User talk:Àncilu|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Àncilu|contribs]]) 23:24, 5 April 2026 (UTC)

:All edits should be deleted and the first is blocked by Atcovi. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:33, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

== Antispam - Filter 12 ==
{{ping|Codename Noreste}} Thanks for contacting me with a suggested [[Special:AbuseFilter|abuse filter]] for the coupon spam we've been getting. A very much appreciated time saver. Per your suggestion, abuse filter 12 has been reactivated with your updated regex. It should tag and prevent page creation actions for coupon promo etc. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:33, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Please do the following to filter 12:
:# Enable the block action (temporary for unregistered users, indefinite for registered users)
:# Disable both the disallow and tag actions, since that filter will be set to block
: Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:42, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
::Excellent. Done:
::* Block duration for non-registered users = 1 week
::* Block duration for registered users = indefinite
::* Disallow and tagging disabled
::Thankyou. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:24, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== Urgent! error message This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed ==

While submitting the post this error was coming &quot;This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please inform an administrator of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link&quot; How to resolve it?

Here is the content:

{{note|marketing material removed}}

[[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] ([[User talk:EasyshikshaMarketing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EasyshikshaMarketing|contribs]]) 05:14, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
: That's because Wikiversity doesn't accept advertising. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:20, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
::So this is fine
::'''Online Internship and Digital Learning for Students'''
::Online learning has become an important part of modern education. With the help of the internet and digital tools, students can now study, practice, and gain experience without being physically present in a classroom. One key part of this system is the online internship, which helps students learn real-world skills along with their studies.
::An online internship allows students to work on tasks and projects through digital platforms. This makes learning more practical and useful, especially for those who want to understand how real work environments function.
::'''Background'''
::The concept of online learning developed from distance education, where students learned from remote locations. Over time, with the growth of digital technology, learning has become more interactive and flexible.
::The introduction of the online internship has added another important layer to digital education. It combines theoretical learning with practical experience, helping students prepare for future careers.
::During global events such as the COVID-19 pandemic, online education and online internship programs became essential. They helped students continue learning and gaining experience despite restrictions on physical movement.
::'''Importance of Online Internship'''
::An online internship plays an important role in student development. It helps bridge the gap between academic knowledge and practical skills.
::'''Some key points include:'''
::Students understand how real work is done
::They develop basic professional skills
::It supports career readiness
::It allows learning without location limits
::By participating in an online internship, students can improve their confidence and gain early exposure to different fields.
::'''Features of Online Internship-Based Learning'''
::Modern education platforms often include online internship opportunities as part of their learning system. These usually offer:
::Flexible schedules for students
::Access to learning from home
::Beginner-friendly tasks and projects
::A combination of theory and practice
::Such features make online internship programs suitable for a wide range of learners, including beginners.
::'''Learning Tasks'''
::Explore how online internship programs support student learning in digital environments.
::Identify how students can gain practical experience through an online internship
::Analyze the role of flexible learning in improving student engagement
::Understand how online education and internships work together
::'''References'''
::[https://ijpsl.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/E-Learning_Hanaaya-Navaneeth.pdf The Past, Present and Future of E-Learning: Hanaaya Varyani and Navaneeth M S]
::[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9788102 Current Trends and Future Perspectives of e-Learning in India]
::'''See Also'''
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/internship Online Internship]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/ Online Courses]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/kids-learning Kids Learning]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/career_helper/ Career Guidance] [[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] ([[User talk:EasyshikshaMarketing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EasyshikshaMarketing|contribs]]) 05:27, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:::@[[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] Wikiversity is a resource for education, or a space for education. However, your intention to link to another website is obvious, and such content does not belong here, as it contradicts the purpose of Wikiversity. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 11:38, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

==AI-generated images==
Seeking your advice.

Myself and students use some AI-generated images in the [[Motivation and emotion]] project.

[[User:Dronebogus]] has been removing some of these images from Wikiversity pages and nominating them for deletion at Commons. As a result, some have been deleted and some have been kept.

Dronebogus has made some useful edits and image suggestions for [[Motivation and emotion]] which I've appreciated and  incorporated. However, there are other edits to remove an AI image by Dronebogus that I've reverted where I think the image is more educational than no image or an alternative image suggested by Dronebogus.

There are a couple of pages where Dronebogus has reverted my reversion, so we are at risk of edit warring. We have briefly discussed and warned each other on our user talk pages, but it seems to come down to a difference in perception about the educational usefulness of the AI images.

So, I'm asking here for others to please review the recent edit histories for these pages:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Stockholm syndrome emotion]]

and let us know what you think about the AI image suitability vs. using no image or alternative images suggested by Dronebogus.

Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:45, 26 April 2026 (UTC)

:I think Jtneill needs to try harder to find non-AI alternatives both on Commons and the web. I’m not reiterating the well known problems with generative AI— you can read about those on Wikipedia and the broader Internet. Needless to say it’s kind of just inherently toxic. If you use it, it should be the last resort of last resorts. Just my stance, which I consider perfectly valid and reasonable. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 04:10, 27 April 2026 (UTC)

== Request for Page Creation Approval - Research on Dr. Ian Stevenson ==


'''Hello Administrators,'''

I am a digital archivist and researcher attempting to create an educational page regarding Dr. Ian Stevenson's scientific work, specifically titled &quot;Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect&quot; and its official Vietnamese edition.

My edits are purely constructive, aimed at integrating local research context with global structured data (including '''Wikidata Q139548587'''). The automated filter is currently preventing publication due to &quot;new user external link limits.&quot;

I have ensured that all citations, references, and images (sourced from Wikimedia Commons) are strictly academic and non-promotional. Could you please review my contributions and consider whitelisting my account or approving this specific page creation?

Thank you for your assistance in preserving this research '''legacy''' within the open knowledge ecosystem.

'''Best regards,''' [[User:Ian Stevenson777|Ian Stevenson777]] ([[User talk:Ian Stevenson777|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ian Stevenson777|contribs]]) 07:26, 28 April 2026 (UTC)
: The page title should probably be in English, as this is English Wikiversity. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:19, 28 April 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Ian Stevenson777|Ian Stevenson777]] I looked at the text and it seems to me that it is informative, but the user cannot learn anything from it because they would have to buy the book. In this regard, it seems to me that it is enough [[:w:Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect|to have that article on Wikipedia]] and there is no need to duplicate it here on Wikiversity. If you are particularly interested with its Vietnamese translation, I would focus on Vietnamese Wikipedia, but it seems to me, that the article there [https://vi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=N%C6%A1i_lu%C3%A2n_h%E1%BB%93i_v%C3%A0_sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc_giao_nhau&amp;oldid=75029095 have some problems at the moment]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:51, 5 May 2026 (UTC)

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: I'm willing to do so. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 11:48, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::Awesome. Could you self-nominate at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]]? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:59, 11 May 2026 (UTC)

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:Can you enable two-factor authentication? 
:Policy: [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:27, 10 May 2026 (UTC)
::Done @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:20, 11 May 2026 (UTC)
:::You are an interface administrator for 24 hours. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:57, 11 May 2026 (UTC)
::::Thx @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I have just deleted the page. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:59, 11 May 2026 (UTC)

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:Thankyou. Done. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 15:25, 10 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
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    <title>Mohr's circle</title>
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      <text bytes="7651" sha1="bk374276nh6lpsi2e66x1f517k00oct" xml:space="preserve">This article is part of the [[solid mechanics]] course, aimed at engineering students. Please leave feedback in the discussion section above.

'''Introduction'''

How would you break a metal rod if you could only use your hands?

'''1.''' Pull it apart or compress it (not usually the easiest way)

'''2.''' Twist it 

'''3.''' Bend it 

Each of these methods induce stress into the rod in a different way. Mohr's circle helps analyse this. For now, only the first two ways will be analysed.


'''1.Tension/compression: '''

Below is a diagram of a rod with a circular cross-section that is subjected to a tensile force at either end.(When you pull the rod apart you are exerting a tensile force). Let us look at a square element at the surface of the rod:


[[File:Diag1.JPG]]

How do you imagine the square element would react to the tensile force?

The force will 'stretch' the rod and the square element, as shown below:


[[File:Mohr diag2.JPG]]


Therefore the force applied at either end has produced a tensile stress, &lt;big&gt;'''&lt;math&gt;\sigma_x&lt;/math&gt;'''&lt;/big&gt;, on the element, as shown below:


[[File:Mohr_diag3.JPG‎ ]]


where: &lt;math&gt;\sigma_x = \frac{F}{A} &lt;/math&gt;


Similarly, a Compressive force on the rod would induce a compressive stress on the square element, as shown below:

[[File:Mohr30.PNG]]

'''2. Torsion '''

In this case, the rod is subjected to a torque (twisting force) at either end:


[[File:Mohr diag5.JPG]]

How do you imagine the element would stretch this time?

Answer: The left side of the square element would stretch upwards, the right side would stretch downwards, as shown below. The stress induced by this shearing motion is called shear stress. It's symbol is, &lt;big&gt;'''&lt;math&gt;\tau&lt;/math&gt;'''&lt;/big&gt;. It is shown on the square element below:


[[File:Mohr diag7.JPG]]

Although it may be more difficult to visualize, there is also shear stress on the horizontal edges of the square element. The square element is drawn as follows:

[[File:Mohr diag8.JPG]]

If the torque was applied in the opposite direction, the shear stress on the element would look like this:

[[File:Mohr diag19.JPG]]

calculate shear stress using:
&lt;math&gt;\tau = \frac{Tr}{J}&lt;/math&gt;

where:

T = Torque 

r = Radius of the rod 

J = polar moment of area. For a rod with a circular cross-section : &lt;math&gt;J= \frac{\pi r^4}{2}&lt;/math&gt;


'''Tensile Force and Torque'''

If there is both a tensile force and torque applied at either end, you superimpose the two solutions and the square element would look like this:

[[File:Mohr diag9.JPG]]


'''The idea behind Mohr's circle - It's not essential that you read this'''

Imagine you rotated the square element by &lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt; degree as shown below. 

[[File:Mohr diag10.JPG]]


Take &lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt; to be 45 degrees. How do you imagine the element would react to the torque in this case? This one is more difficult to imagine. It would stretch as shown below:

[[File:Mohr diag11.JPG]]

Thus, you would draw the stresses on the element like so:

[[File:Mohr diag12.JPG]]

Note that there is no shear stress acting on the element at this orientation. When there is no shear stress acting on the element, the element is called the &quot;principal element&quot;, and the 2 stresses on the element &lt;math&gt;\sigma_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sigma_2&lt;/math&gt; are known as the principal stresses. 

The objective of the Mohr's circle method is to find the orientation of the principal element (i.e.&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;, which for this simple case was 45 degrees), and find the values of &lt;math&gt;\sigma_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sigma_2&lt;/math&gt;. 


'''Finally - The method of Mohr's Circle'''

Consider a square element that experiences the following stresses:

[[File:Mohr diag14.JPG]]

(&lt;math&gt;\sigma_y&lt;/math&gt; = 0, in the examples previously shown )


At A:

&lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; = &lt;math&gt;\sigma_y&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\tau&lt;/math&gt; = &lt;math&gt;-\tau_1&lt;/math&gt;.

We take the shear stress as negative, because the shear stress at surface A tries to rotate the square element in an anticlockwise direction (about the centre of the element). This is the general convention used. 

At B:

&lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; = &lt;math&gt;\sigma_x&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;\tau&lt;/math&gt; = &lt;math&gt;+\tau_1&lt;/math&gt; (it causes a clockwise rotation - hence, it is positive)


Plot points A and B as shown below and draw a straight line across them:

[[File:Mohr diag15.JPG]]

Now draw a circle with a centre '''C''' and radius '''R''', such that circle passes through points A and B as shown below:


[[File:Mohr diag17.JPG]]


As you can see from the diagram, C is the midpoint of A and B, hence its co-ordinate is calculated as: C = &lt;math&gt;\frac{\sigma_x+ \sigma_y}{2}&lt;/math&gt;

Observe the right angled triangle BC&lt;math&gt;\sigma_x&lt;/math&gt;. Using Pythagoras' theorem, R can be calculated:
&lt;math&gt;R^2&lt;/math&gt; =  &lt;math&gt;(\sigma_x -C)^2&lt;/math&gt;  + &lt;math&gt;\tau_1^2&lt;/math&gt;

Also, draw an angle of 2&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;, going from the line AB to the &lt;math&gt;\sigma_x&lt;/math&gt; axis.
Notice that in this case, this is a clockwise angle.

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt; can be calculated through &lt;math&gt;\tan(2\theta) = \frac{\tau_1}{\sigma_x - C}&lt;/math&gt;


Finally, the principal stresses &lt;math&gt; \sigma_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sigma_2&lt;/math&gt; occur where the circle meets the &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; -axis. (Notice that these points have zero shear stress.)

From the diagram:

&lt;math&gt;\sigma_1&lt;/math&gt; = C + R

&lt;math&gt;\sigma_2&lt;/math&gt; = C - R


Finally, to transform into the coordinate system of the principal axes, rotate the original square element by &lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt; degrees clockwise (because you draw 2&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt; as a clockwise angle in the above diagram):

[[File:Mohr diag18.svg|200px]] 

==Example ==

A rod is subjected to a tensile force and a torque, as shown below. Use Mohr's circle to work out the principal stresses and draw the rotated square element. (I recommend you try this first before seeing the answer)

[[File:Mohr23.JPG]] 

F = 2000N 

T = 10 Nm  

r = 0.005m 
 
A (cross sectional area) = &lt;math&gt;\pi r^2 = 8 \cdot 10^{-5} &lt;/math&gt; m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\sigma_x = \frac{F}{A}= &lt;/math&gt;  26,000,000 Pa = '''26 MPa''' 

&lt;math&gt;J= \frac{\pi r^4}{2}  = 9.8 \cdot 10^{-10} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\tau = \frac{T\cdot r}{J} = &lt;/math&gt;   '''51 MPa'''

[[File:Mohr22.svg]] 
 
At A:

&lt;math&gt;\sigma = 0\,&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\tau = 51\,&lt;/math&gt;


At B:

&lt;math&gt;\sigma = 26\,&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\tau = -51\,&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Mohr24.JPG]] 

&lt;math&gt; C = \frac{0 + 26}{2} = 13&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Mohr25.JPG]] 

&lt;math&gt;R^2 = (26 - 13)^2 + 51^2\;\;\Rightarrow \; R = 53&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\sigma_1 = 13 + 53 = 66 \; \mathrm{MPa}\,&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\sigma_2 = 13 - 53 = -40 \;\mathrm{MPa}\,&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\tan(2\theta) = \frac{51}{26 - 13} \;\;\Rightarrow \; \theta=38^{\circ}\,&lt;/math&gt;


[[File:Mohr26.JPG]] 


Notice that 66MPa is drawn as a tensile stress (as &lt;math&gt;\sigma_1\, &lt;/math&gt; is positive), and 40MPa as a compressive stress (as &lt;math&gt;\sigma_2\, &lt;/math&gt; is negative)


That's it! If you have found this article useful, please comment in the discussion section (at the top of the page), as this will help me decide whether to write more articles like this. Also please comment if there are other topics you want covered, or you would like something in this article to be written in more detail.

[[solid mechanics|Back to the solid mechanics course]]

[[Category:Mechanics]]
==External Links==
* [https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/mohrs-circle/ Mohr's Circle Calculator]
* [http://bendingmomentdiagram.com/free-calculator/mohrs-circle-calculator/ Online Mohr's Circle Calculator.]
* [https://civilengineer.webinfolist.com/mech/stress-transformation.htm Free Online Calculator for calculation of stresses on inclined plane and princpal stresses.]</text>
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      <text bytes="7297" sha1="ez3ipmzdg7a41pvsiblicjhg35uu5ms" xml:space="preserve">This article is part of the [[solid mechanics]] course, aimed at engineering students. Please leave feedback in the discussion section above.

'''Introduction'''

How would you break a metal rod if you could only use your hands?

'''1.''' Pull it apart or compress it (not usually the easiest way)

'''2.''' Twist it 

'''3.''' Bend it 

Each of these methods induce stress into the rod in a different way. Mohr's circle helps analyse this. For now, only the first two ways will be analysed.


'''1.Tension/compression: '''

Below is a diagram of a rod with a circular cross-section that is subjected to a tensile force at either end.(When you pull the rod apart you are exerting a tensile force). Let us look at a square element at the surface of the rod:


[[File:Diag1.JPG]]

How do you imagine the square element would react to the tensile force?

The force will 'stretch' the rod and the square element, as shown below:


[[File:Mohr diag2.JPG]]


Therefore the force applied at either end has produced a tensile stress, &lt;big&gt;'''&lt;math&gt;\sigma_x&lt;/math&gt;'''&lt;/big&gt;, on the element, as shown below:


[[File:Mohr_diag3.JPG‎ ]]


where: &lt;math&gt;\sigma_x = \frac{F}{A} &lt;/math&gt;


Similarly, a Compressive force on the rod would induce a compressive stress on the square element, as shown below:

[[File:Mohr30.PNG]]

'''2. Torsion '''

In this case, the rod is subjected to a torque (twisting force) at either end:


[[File:Mohr diag5.JPG]]

How do you imagine the element would stretch this time?

Answer: The left side of the square element would stretch upwards, the right side would stretch downwards, as shown below. The stress induced by this shearing motion is called shear stress. It's symbol is, &lt;big&gt;'''&lt;math&gt;\tau&lt;/math&gt;'''&lt;/big&gt;. It is shown on the square element below:


[[File:Mohr diag7.JPG]]

Although it may be more difficult to visualize, there is also shear stress on the horizontal edges of the square element. The square element is drawn as follows:

[[File:Mohr diag8.JPG]]

If the torque was applied in the opposite direction, the shear stress on the element would look like this:

[[File:Mohr diag19.JPG]]

calculate shear stress using:
&lt;math&gt;\tau = \frac{Tr}{J}&lt;/math&gt;

where:

T = Torque 

r = Radius of the rod 

J = polar moment of area. For a rod with a circular cross-section : &lt;math&gt;J= \frac{\pi r^4}{2}&lt;/math&gt;


'''Tensile Force and Torque'''

If there is both a tensile force and torque applied at either end, you superimpose the two solutions and the square element would look like this:

[[File:Mohr diag9.JPG]]


'''The idea behind Mohr's circle - It's not essential that you read this'''

Imagine you rotated the square element by &lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt; degree as shown below. 

[[File:Mohr diag10.JPG]]


Take &lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt; to be 45 degrees. How do you imagine the element would react to the torque in this case? This one is more difficult to imagine. It would stretch as shown below:

[[File:Mohr diag11.JPG]]

Thus, you would draw the stresses on the element like so:

[[File:Mohr diag12.JPG]]

Note that there is no shear stress acting on the element at this orientation. When there is no shear stress acting on the element, the element is called the &quot;principal element&quot;, and the 2 stresses on the element &lt;math&gt;\sigma_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sigma_2&lt;/math&gt; are known as the principal stresses. 

The objective of the Mohr's circle method is to find the orientation of the principal element (i.e.&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;, which for this simple case was 45 degrees), and find the values of &lt;math&gt;\sigma_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sigma_2&lt;/math&gt;. 


'''Finally - The method of Mohr's Circle'''

Consider a square element that experiences the following stresses:

[[File:Mohr diag14.JPG]]

(&lt;math&gt;\sigma_y&lt;/math&gt; = 0, in the examples previously shown )


At A:

&lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; = &lt;math&gt;\sigma_y&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\tau&lt;/math&gt; = &lt;math&gt;-\tau_1&lt;/math&gt;.

We take the shear stress as negative, because the shear stress at surface A tries to rotate the square element in an anticlockwise direction (about the centre of the element). This is the general convention used. 

At B:

&lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; = &lt;math&gt;\sigma_x&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;\tau&lt;/math&gt; = &lt;math&gt;+\tau_1&lt;/math&gt; (it causes a clockwise rotation - hence, it is positive)


Plot points A and B as shown below and draw a straight line across them:

[[File:Mohr diag15.JPG]]

Now draw a circle with a centre '''C''' and radius '''R''', such that circle passes through points A and B as shown below:


[[File:Mohr diag17.JPG]]


As you can see from the diagram, C is the midpoint of A and B, hence its co-ordinate is calculated as: C = &lt;math&gt;\frac{\sigma_x+ \sigma_y}{2}&lt;/math&gt;

Observe the right angled triangle BC&lt;math&gt;\sigma_x&lt;/math&gt;. Using Pythagoras' theorem, R can be calculated:
&lt;math&gt;R^2&lt;/math&gt; =  &lt;math&gt;(\sigma_x -C)^2&lt;/math&gt;  + &lt;math&gt;\tau_1^2&lt;/math&gt;

Also, draw an angle of 2&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;, going from the line AB to the &lt;math&gt;\sigma_x&lt;/math&gt; axis.
Notice that in this case, this is a clockwise angle.

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt; can be calculated through &lt;math&gt;\tan(2\theta) = \frac{\tau_1}{\sigma_x - C}&lt;/math&gt;


Finally, the principal stresses &lt;math&gt; \sigma_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sigma_2&lt;/math&gt; occur where the circle meets the &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; -axis. (Notice that these points have zero shear stress.)

From the diagram:

&lt;math&gt;\sigma_1&lt;/math&gt; = C + R

&lt;math&gt;\sigma_2&lt;/math&gt; = C - R


Finally, to transform into the coordinate system of the principal axes, rotate the original square element by &lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt; degrees clockwise (because you draw 2&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt; as a clockwise angle in the above diagram):

[[File:Mohr diag18.svg|200px]] 

==Example ==

A rod is subjected to a tensile force and a torque, as shown below. Use Mohr's circle to work out the principal stresses and draw the rotated square element. (I recommend you try this first before seeing the answer)

[[File:Mohr23.JPG]] 

F = 2000N 

T = 10 Nm  

r = 0.005m 
 
A (cross sectional area) = &lt;math&gt;\pi r^2 = 8 \cdot 10^{-5} &lt;/math&gt; m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\sigma_x = \frac{F}{A}= &lt;/math&gt;  26,000,000 Pa = '''26 MPa''' 

&lt;math&gt;J= \frac{\pi r^4}{2}  = 9.8 \cdot 10^{-10} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\tau = \frac{T\cdot r}{J} = &lt;/math&gt;   '''51 MPa'''

[[File:Mohr22.svg]] 
 
At A:

&lt;math&gt;\sigma = 0\,&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\tau = 51\,&lt;/math&gt;


At B:

&lt;math&gt;\sigma = 26\,&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\tau = -51\,&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Mohr24.JPG]] 

&lt;math&gt; C = \frac{0 + 26}{2} = 13&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Mohr25.JPG]] 

&lt;math&gt;R^2 = (26 - 13)^2 + 51^2\;\;\Rightarrow \; R = 53&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\sigma_1 = 13 + 53 = 66 \; \mathrm{MPa}\,&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\sigma_2 = 13 - 53 = -40 \;\mathrm{MPa}\,&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\tan(2\theta) = \frac{51}{26 - 13} \;\;\Rightarrow \; \theta=38^{\circ}\,&lt;/math&gt;


[[File:Mohr26.JPG]] 


Notice that 66MPa is drawn as a tensile stress (as &lt;math&gt;\sigma_1\, &lt;/math&gt; is positive), and 40MPa as a compressive stress (as &lt;math&gt;\sigma_2\, &lt;/math&gt; is negative)


That's it! If you have found this article useful, please comment in the discussion section (at the top of the page), as this will help me decide whether to write more articles like this. Also please comment if there are other topics you want covered, or you would like something in this article to be written in more detail.

[[solid mechanics|Back to the solid mechanics course]]

[[Category:Mechanics]]
==External Links==</text>
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    <id>99125</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2808256</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-05-10T19:19:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>HJ Mitchell</username>
        <id>118344</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Undid revision [[Special:Diff/2808029|2808029]] by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-28012-73|~2026-28012-73]] ([[User talk:~2026-28012-73|talk]]) spam</comment>
      <origin>2808256</origin>
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      <text bytes="12428" sha1="b3i22vs78hjmqn837soa5r6pfbavytd" xml:space="preserve">This article is part of the [[solid mechanics]] course, aimed at engineering students. Please leave feedback in the discussion section above.

== What is shear force? ==
Below a force of 10N is exerted at point A on a beam. This is an external force. However because the beam is a rigid structure, the force will be internally transferred all along the beam. This internal force is known as shear force. The shear force between point A and B is usually plotted on a shear force diagram. As the shear force is 10N all along the beam, the plot is just a straight line, in this example.

[[File:Shear2.PNG]]

The idea of shear force might seem odd, maybe this example will help clarify. Imagine pushing an object along a kitchen table, with a 10N force. Even though you're applying the force only at one point on the object, it's not just that point of the object that moves forward. The whole object moves forward, which tells you that the force must have transferred all along the object, such that every atom of the object is experiencing this 10N force.

Please note that this is not the full explanation of what shear force actually is. 

==Basic shear diagram==

What if there is more than one force, as shown in the diagram below, what would the shear force diagram look like then? 

[[File:Shear5.PNG]]

The way you go about this is by figuring out the shear force at points A,B,C,E (as there is an external force acting at these points). The way you work out the shear force at any point, is by covering (either with your hand or a piece of paper), everything to right of that point, and simply adding up the external forces. Then plot the point on the shear force diagram. For illustration purposes, this is done for point D:

[[File:Shear6.PNG]]

Shear force at D = 10N - 20N + 40N = 30Newtons

[[File:Shear7.PNG]]

Now, let's do this for point B. BUT - slight complication - there's a force acting at point B, are you going to include it? The answer is both yes and no. You need to take 2 measurements. Firstly put your piece of paper, so it's JUST before point B:

[[File:Shear8.PNG]]

Shear force at B = 10N

[[File:Shear9.PNG]]

Now place your paper JUST after point B:

[[File:Shear10.PNG]]

Shear force at B = 10N - 20N = -10N

[[File:Shear11.PNG]]

(B' is vertically below B)

Now, do point A, D and E, and finally join the points. your diagram should look like the one below. If you don't understand why, leave a message on the discussion section of this page (its at the top), I will elaborate on the explanation:

[[File:Shear12.PNG]]

Notice how nothing exciting happens at point D, which is why you wouldn't normally analyse the shear force at that point. For clarity, when doing these diagrams it is recommended you move you paper from left to right, and hence analyse points A,B, C, and E, in that order. You can also do this procedure covering the left side instead of the right, your diagram will be &quot;upside down&quot; though. Both diagrams are correct.

==Basic bending moment diagram==

Bending moment refers to the internal moment that causes something to bend. When you bend a ruler, even though apply the forces/moments at the ends of the ruler, bending occurs all along the ruler, which indicates that there is a bending moment acting all along the ruler. Hence bending moment is shown on a bending moment diagram. The same case from before will be used here:

[[File:Shear5.PNG]]

To work out the bending moment at any point, cover (with a piece of paper) everything to the right of that point, and take moments about that point. (I will take clockwise moments to be positive). To illustrate, I shall work out the bending moment at point C:

[[File:Shear13.PNG]]

Bending moment at C = 10Nx3m - 20Nx2m = -10Nm

(Please note that the two diagrams below should show units in &quot;Nm&quot;, not in &quot;N&quot; as it is currently showing)

[[File:Shear14.PNG]]

Notice that there's no need to work out the bending moment &quot;just before and just after&quot; point C, (as in the case for the shear force diagram). This is because the 40N force at point C exerts no moment about point C, either way. 

Repeating the procedure for points A,B and E, and joining all the points:

[[File:Shear15.PNG]]

Normally you would expect the diagram to start and end at zero, in this case it doesn't. This is my fault, and it happened because I accidentally chose my forces such that there is a moment disequilibrium. i.e. take moments about any point (without covering the right of the point), and you'll notice that the moments aren't balanced, as they should be. It also means that if you're covering the left side as opposed to the right, you will get a completely different diagram. Sorry about this...
Upon inspection, the forces are unbalanced, so it is immediately expected that the diagram will most likely not be balanced.

==Point moments==
Point moments are something that you may not have come across before. Below, a point moment of 20Nm is exerted at point C. Work out the reaction of A and D:

[[File:Shear16.PNG]]

Force equilibrium: R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; + R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 40

Taking moments about A (clockwise is positive): 40·2 - 20 - 6·R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 0

R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = 30N , R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 10N

If instead you were to take moments about D you would get: - 20 - 40·4 + 6·R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = 0

I think it's important for you to see that wherever you take moments about, the point moment is always taken as a negative (because it's a counter clockwise moment). 

So how does a point moment affect the shear force and bending moment diagrams? &lt;br&gt;
Well. It has absolutely no effect on the shear force diagram. You can just ignore point C when drawing the shear force diagram. When drawing the bending moment diagram you will need to work out the bending moment just before and just after point C:

[[File:Shear21.PNG]]

Just before: bending moment at C = 3·30 - 1·40 = 50Nm

Just after: bending moment at C = 3·30 - 1·40 - 20 = 30Nm

Then work out the bending moment at points A, B and D (no need to do before and after for these points). And plot. 

'''Cantilever beam'''

Until now, you may have only dealt with &quot;simply supported beams&quot; (like in the diagram above), where a beam is supported by 2 pivots at either end. Below is a cantilever beam, which means - a beam that rigidly attached to a wall. Just like a pivot, the wall is capable of exerting an upwards reaction force R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; on the beam. However it is also capable of exerting a point moment M&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; on the beam. 
 
[[File:Shear17.PNG]]

Force equilibrium: R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = 10N

Taking moments about A: -M&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; + 10·2 = 0 → M&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = 20Nm

== Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL) ==
Below is a brick lying on a beam. The weight of the brick is uniformly distributed on the beam (shown in diagram A). The brick has a weight of 5N per meter of brick (5N/m). Since the brick is 6 meters long the total weight of the brick is 30N. This is shown in diagram B. Diagram B is a simplification of diagram A. As you will see, you will need to be able to convert a type A diagram to a type B.

[[File:Shear18.PNG]]
 
To make your life more difficult I have added an external force at point C, and a point moment to the diagram below. This is the most difficult type of question I can think of, and I will do the shear force and bending moment diagram for it, step by step.

[[File:Shear19.PNG]]

Firstly identify the key points at which you will work out the shear force and bending moment at. These will be points: A,B,C,D,E and F. 

As you would have noticed when working out the bending moment and shear force at any given point, sometimes you just work it out at the point, and sometimes you work it out just before and after. Here is a summary: When drawing a shear force diagram, if you are dealing with a point force (points A,C and F in the above diagram), work out the shear force before and after the point. Otherwise (for points B and D), just work it out right at that point. When drawing a bending moment diagram, if you are dealing with a point moment (point E), work out the bending moment before and after the point. Otherwise (for points A,B,C,D, and F), work out the bending moment at the point. 

After identifying the key points, you want to work out the values of R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. You now need to convert to a type B diagram, as shown below. Notice the 30N force acts right in the middle between points B and D. 

[[File:Shear20.PNG]] 

Force equilibrium: R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; + R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 50 &lt;br&gt;
Take moments about A: 4·30 + 5·20 + 40 - 10·R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 0 &lt;br&gt;
R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = 24N , R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;= 26N

Update original diagram:

[[File:Shear22.PNG]] 

=== '''Shear force diagram''' === 

'''point A:'''

[[File:Shear23.PNG]] 


'''point B:'''

[[File:Shear24.PNG]] 

Notice that the uniformly distributed load has no effect on point B. 

'''point C:'''

Just before C:

[[File:Shear25.PNG]]

Now convert to a type B diagram. Total weight of brick from point B to C = 5x4 = 20N 

[[File:Shear26.PNG]]

Shear force before C: 24 - 20 = 4N
 
[[File:Shear27.PNG]]

Shear force after C: 24 - 20 - 20 = -16N

'''point D:'''

[[File:Shear28.PNG]]

Shear force at D: 24 - 30 - 20 = -26N
 
'''point F:'''

(I have already converted to a type B diagram, below)
 
[[File:Shear29.PNG]]

Finally plot all the points on the shear force diagram and join them up:

[[File:Shear30.PNG]]

=== '''Bending moment diagram''' === 

'''Point A'''

[[File:Shear31.PNG]]

Bending moment at A: 0Nm

'''Point B'''

[[File:Shear35.PNG]] 

Bending moment at B: 24·1 = 24Nm

'''point C:'''

(I have already converted to a type B diagram, below)

[[File:Shear27.PNG]]
 
Bending moment at C: 24·5 - 20·2 = 80Nm

'''point D:'''

(I have already converted to a type B diagram, below)

[[File:Shear32.PNG]]

Bending moment at D: 24·7 - 30·3 - 20·2 = 38Nm

'''point E:'''

(I have already converted to a type B diagram, below)

[[File:Shear33.PNG]]

'''point F:'''

(I have already converted to a type B diagram, below)

[[File:Shear34.PNG]]

Bending moment at F: 24·10 - 30·6 - 20·5 + 40 = 0Nm

Finally, plot the points on the bending moment diagram. Join all the points up, EXCEPT those that are under the uniformly distributed load (UDL), which are points B,C and D. As seen below, you need to draw a curve between these points. Unless requested, I will not explain why this happens. 

[[File:Shear39.PNG]]

Note: The diagram is not at all drawn to scale.

I have drawn 2 curves. One from B to C, one from C to D. Notice that each of these curves resembles some part of a negative parabola. 

[[File:Shear37.PNG]]

Rule: When drawing a bending moment diagram, under a UDL, you must connect the points with a curve. This curve must resemble some part of a negative parabola. 

Note: The convention used throughout this page is &quot;clockwise moments are taken as positive&quot;. If the convention was &quot;counter-clockwise moments are taken as positive&quot;, you would need to draw a positive parabola.

==== '''Hypothetical scenario''' ==== 

For a hypothetical question, what if points B, C and D, were plotted as shown below. Notice how I have drawn the curves for this case. 
 
[[File:Shear38.PNG]]

If you wanted to find the peak of the curve, how would you do it? Simple. On the original diagram (used at the start of the question) add an additional point (point G), centrally between point B and C. Then work out the bending moment at point G. 
 
That's it! If you have found this article useful, please comment in the discussion section (at the top of the page), as this will help me decide whether to write more articles like this. Also please comment if there are other topics you want covered, or you would like something in this article to be written more clearly.

[[solid mechanics|Back to the solid mechanics course]]

[[User:Taltastic|Taltastic]] 14:11, 15 September 2010 (UTC)

[[Category:Mechanics]]
[[Category:solid mechanics course]]

==External Links==
* [https://skyciv.com/free-beam-calculator/ FREE Online Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagram (SFD &amp; BMD) Calculator.]
* [https://skyciv.com/docs/tutorials/beam-tutorials/how-to-draw-bending-moment-diagrams/ Tutorial on how to draw bending moment diagrams]
* [https://civilengineeronline.com/mech/bmcalc.htm Free Calculator for Calculations of shear force and bending moment]
* [https://solveredu.com/en/post/internal-force-diagrams/ Free tutorial about internal forces diagrams]</text>
      <sha1>b3i22vs78hjmqn837soa5r6pfbavytd</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808276</id>
      <parentid>2808256</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-28504-75</username>
        <id>3071838</id>
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      <comment>/* External Links */</comment>
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      <text bytes="11949" sha1="7igqwg73gygwqnjyda2ntrxkf6kcf74" xml:space="preserve">This article is part of the [[solid mechanics]] course, aimed at engineering students. Please leave feedback in the discussion section above.

== What is shear force? ==
Below a force of 10N is exerted at point A on a beam. This is an external force. However because the beam is a rigid structure, the force will be internally transferred all along the beam. This internal force is known as shear force. The shear force between point A and B is usually plotted on a shear force diagram. As the shear force is 10N all along the beam, the plot is just a straight line, in this example.

[[File:Shear2.PNG]]

The idea of shear force might seem odd, maybe this example will help clarify. Imagine pushing an object along a kitchen table, with a 10N force. Even though you're applying the force only at one point on the object, it's not just that point of the object that moves forward. The whole object moves forward, which tells you that the force must have transferred all along the object, such that every atom of the object is experiencing this 10N force.

Please note that this is not the full explanation of what shear force actually is. 

==Basic shear diagram==

What if there is more than one force, as shown in the diagram below, what would the shear force diagram look like then? 

[[File:Shear5.PNG]]

The way you go about this is by figuring out the shear force at points A,B,C,E (as there is an external force acting at these points). The way you work out the shear force at any point, is by covering (either with your hand or a piece of paper), everything to right of that point, and simply adding up the external forces. Then plot the point on the shear force diagram. For illustration purposes, this is done for point D:

[[File:Shear6.PNG]]

Shear force at D = 10N - 20N + 40N = 30Newtons

[[File:Shear7.PNG]]

Now, let's do this for point B. BUT - slight complication - there's a force acting at point B, are you going to include it? The answer is both yes and no. You need to take 2 measurements. Firstly put your piece of paper, so it's JUST before point B:

[[File:Shear8.PNG]]

Shear force at B = 10N

[[File:Shear9.PNG]]

Now place your paper JUST after point B:

[[File:Shear10.PNG]]

Shear force at B = 10N - 20N = -10N

[[File:Shear11.PNG]]

(B' is vertically below B)

Now, do point A, D and E, and finally join the points. your diagram should look like the one below. If you don't understand why, leave a message on the discussion section of this page (its at the top), I will elaborate on the explanation:

[[File:Shear12.PNG]]

Notice how nothing exciting happens at point D, which is why you wouldn't normally analyse the shear force at that point. For clarity, when doing these diagrams it is recommended you move you paper from left to right, and hence analyse points A,B, C, and E, in that order. You can also do this procedure covering the left side instead of the right, your diagram will be &quot;upside down&quot; though. Both diagrams are correct.

==Basic bending moment diagram==

Bending moment refers to the internal moment that causes something to bend. When you bend a ruler, even though apply the forces/moments at the ends of the ruler, bending occurs all along the ruler, which indicates that there is a bending moment acting all along the ruler. Hence bending moment is shown on a bending moment diagram. The same case from before will be used here:

[[File:Shear5.PNG]]

To work out the bending moment at any point, cover (with a piece of paper) everything to the right of that point, and take moments about that point. (I will take clockwise moments to be positive). To illustrate, I shall work out the bending moment at point C:

[[File:Shear13.PNG]]

Bending moment at C = 10Nx3m - 20Nx2m = -10Nm

(Please note that the two diagrams below should show units in &quot;Nm&quot;, not in &quot;N&quot; as it is currently showing)

[[File:Shear14.PNG]]

Notice that there's no need to work out the bending moment &quot;just before and just after&quot; point C, (as in the case for the shear force diagram). This is because the 40N force at point C exerts no moment about point C, either way. 

Repeating the procedure for points A,B and E, and joining all the points:

[[File:Shear15.PNG]]

Normally you would expect the diagram to start and end at zero, in this case it doesn't. This is my fault, and it happened because I accidentally chose my forces such that there is a moment disequilibrium. i.e. take moments about any point (without covering the right of the point), and you'll notice that the moments aren't balanced, as they should be. It also means that if you're covering the left side as opposed to the right, you will get a completely different diagram. Sorry about this...
Upon inspection, the forces are unbalanced, so it is immediately expected that the diagram will most likely not be balanced.

==Point moments==
Point moments are something that you may not have come across before. Below, a point moment of 20Nm is exerted at point C. Work out the reaction of A and D:

[[File:Shear16.PNG]]

Force equilibrium: R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; + R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 40

Taking moments about A (clockwise is positive): 40·2 - 20 - 6·R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 0

R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = 30N , R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 10N

If instead you were to take moments about D you would get: - 20 - 40·4 + 6·R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = 0

I think it's important for you to see that wherever you take moments about, the point moment is always taken as a negative (because it's a counter clockwise moment). 

So how does a point moment affect the shear force and bending moment diagrams? &lt;br&gt;
Well. It has absolutely no effect on the shear force diagram. You can just ignore point C when drawing the shear force diagram. When drawing the bending moment diagram you will need to work out the bending moment just before and just after point C:

[[File:Shear21.PNG]]

Just before: bending moment at C = 3·30 - 1·40 = 50Nm

Just after: bending moment at C = 3·30 - 1·40 - 20 = 30Nm

Then work out the bending moment at points A, B and D (no need to do before and after for these points). And plot. 

'''Cantilever beam'''

Until now, you may have only dealt with &quot;simply supported beams&quot; (like in the diagram above), where a beam is supported by 2 pivots at either end. Below is a cantilever beam, which means - a beam that rigidly attached to a wall. Just like a pivot, the wall is capable of exerting an upwards reaction force R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; on the beam. However it is also capable of exerting a point moment M&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; on the beam. 
 
[[File:Shear17.PNG]]

Force equilibrium: R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = 10N

Taking moments about A: -M&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; + 10·2 = 0 → M&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = 20Nm

== Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL) ==
Below is a brick lying on a beam. The weight of the brick is uniformly distributed on the beam (shown in diagram A). The brick has a weight of 5N per meter of brick (5N/m). Since the brick is 6 meters long the total weight of the brick is 30N. This is shown in diagram B. Diagram B is a simplification of diagram A. As you will see, you will need to be able to convert a type A diagram to a type B.

[[File:Shear18.PNG]]
 
To make your life more difficult I have added an external force at point C, and a point moment to the diagram below. This is the most difficult type of question I can think of, and I will do the shear force and bending moment diagram for it, step by step.

[[File:Shear19.PNG]]

Firstly identify the key points at which you will work out the shear force and bending moment at. These will be points: A,B,C,D,E and F. 

As you would have noticed when working out the bending moment and shear force at any given point, sometimes you just work it out at the point, and sometimes you work it out just before and after. Here is a summary: When drawing a shear force diagram, if you are dealing with a point force (points A,C and F in the above diagram), work out the shear force before and after the point. Otherwise (for points B and D), just work it out right at that point. When drawing a bending moment diagram, if you are dealing with a point moment (point E), work out the bending moment before and after the point. Otherwise (for points A,B,C,D, and F), work out the bending moment at the point. 

After identifying the key points, you want to work out the values of R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. You now need to convert to a type B diagram, as shown below. Notice the 30N force acts right in the middle between points B and D. 

[[File:Shear20.PNG]] 

Force equilibrium: R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; + R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 50 &lt;br&gt;
Take moments about A: 4·30 + 5·20 + 40 - 10·R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 0 &lt;br&gt;
R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = 24N , R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;= 26N

Update original diagram:

[[File:Shear22.PNG]] 

=== '''Shear force diagram''' === 

'''point A:'''

[[File:Shear23.PNG]] 


'''point B:'''

[[File:Shear24.PNG]] 

Notice that the uniformly distributed load has no effect on point B. 

'''point C:'''

Just before C:

[[File:Shear25.PNG]]

Now convert to a type B diagram. Total weight of brick from point B to C = 5x4 = 20N 

[[File:Shear26.PNG]]

Shear force before C: 24 - 20 = 4N
 
[[File:Shear27.PNG]]

Shear force after C: 24 - 20 - 20 = -16N

'''point D:'''

[[File:Shear28.PNG]]

Shear force at D: 24 - 30 - 20 = -26N
 
'''point F:'''

(I have already converted to a type B diagram, below)
 
[[File:Shear29.PNG]]

Finally plot all the points on the shear force diagram and join them up:

[[File:Shear30.PNG]]

=== '''Bending moment diagram''' === 

'''Point A'''

[[File:Shear31.PNG]]

Bending moment at A: 0Nm

'''Point B'''

[[File:Shear35.PNG]] 

Bending moment at B: 24·1 = 24Nm

'''point C:'''

(I have already converted to a type B diagram, below)

[[File:Shear27.PNG]]
 
Bending moment at C: 24·5 - 20·2 = 80Nm

'''point D:'''

(I have already converted to a type B diagram, below)

[[File:Shear32.PNG]]

Bending moment at D: 24·7 - 30·3 - 20·2 = 38Nm

'''point E:'''

(I have already converted to a type B diagram, below)

[[File:Shear33.PNG]]

'''point F:'''

(I have already converted to a type B diagram, below)

[[File:Shear34.PNG]]

Bending moment at F: 24·10 - 30·6 - 20·5 + 40 = 0Nm

Finally, plot the points on the bending moment diagram. Join all the points up, EXCEPT those that are under the uniformly distributed load (UDL), which are points B,C and D. As seen below, you need to draw a curve between these points. Unless requested, I will not explain why this happens. 

[[File:Shear39.PNG]]

Note: The diagram is not at all drawn to scale.

I have drawn 2 curves. One from B to C, one from C to D. Notice that each of these curves resembles some part of a negative parabola. 

[[File:Shear37.PNG]]

Rule: When drawing a bending moment diagram, under a UDL, you must connect the points with a curve. This curve must resemble some part of a negative parabola. 

Note: The convention used throughout this page is &quot;clockwise moments are taken as positive&quot;. If the convention was &quot;counter-clockwise moments are taken as positive&quot;, you would need to draw a positive parabola.

==== '''Hypothetical scenario''' ==== 

For a hypothetical question, what if points B, C and D, were plotted as shown below. Notice how I have drawn the curves for this case. 
 
[[File:Shear38.PNG]]

If you wanted to find the peak of the curve, how would you do it? Simple. On the original diagram (used at the start of the question) add an additional point (point G), centrally between point B and C. Then work out the bending moment at point G. 
 
That's it! If you have found this article useful, please comment in the discussion section (at the top of the page), as this will help me decide whether to write more articles like this. Also please comment if there are other topics you want covered, or you would like something in this article to be written more clearly.

[[solid mechanics|Back to the solid mechanics course]]

[[User:Taltastic|Taltastic]] 14:11, 15 September 2010 (UTC)

[[Category:Mechanics]]
[[Category:solid mechanics course]]

==External Links==
*</text>
      <sha1>7igqwg73gygwqnjyda2ntrxkf6kcf74</sha1>
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    <title>User:Deaa it</title>
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    <id>126647</id>
    <revision>
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      <contributor>
        <username>CommonsDelinker</username>
        <id>9184</id>
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      <comment>Removing [[:c:File:الابتسامه)_لغة_الإشارات_بالأيدي_والوجه_).jpg|الابتسامه)_لغة_الإشارات_بالأيدي_والوجه_).jpg]], it has been deleted from Commons by [[:c:User:Krd|Krd]] because: No license since 3 May 2026.</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="59389" sha1="7ssvz1gtfek2oub7h3scovtkdvgzki1" xml:space="preserve">== تقنيبات التعليم والاتصال ==
===الاتصال التعليمي ===
'' '''التعليم Instruction  '''هو عملية اتصال منظم تهدف إلى إحداث التعليم Learning حيث يسعى المعلم دائما إلى زيادة التفاعل بينه وبين المتعلم من خلال المواقف الاتصالية Communicative Situations  التي يرسم لها أهداف إجرائية أي يصممها وينفذها ويقومها . ''

ويعد '''الاتصال التعليمي ''Instructional Communication '' '''هو أساس كل موقف تعليمي حيث يهدف إلى نقل خبرات متنوعة : معرفية ومهارية ووجدانية للمتعلمين بحيث تنمي شخصية المتعلم بجوانبها المختلفة : العقلية ، الجسمية ، النفسية ، الدينية ، الاجتماعية ، الفنية .

ومن جانب آخر تعددت وسائل الاتصال المختلفة مما أدى إلى طفرة هائلة في تناول المعلومات ، وزيادة المعرفة الإنسانية ، وسهولة نقلها من مكان لآخر في أقل وقت ممكن ، فأصبح العصر الذي نعيشه هو عصر ثورة الاتصالات ، وعصر الكمبيوتر والإنترنت ، وعصر الأقمار الصناعية ، وبات العالم كله قرية صغيرة .

ونظرا لأهمية وسائل الاتصال المختلفة والتقدم الهائل في علم الاتصال ، رأى التربويون أهمية استعارة المفاهيم المختلفة لعلم الاتصال في ميدان التعليم للمساعدة في تحقيق أهداف العملية التعليمية ، وأطلق على وسائل الاتصال : وسائل اتصال تعليمية أو وسائل تعليمية '' Instructional Media '' ، وأصبحت تشكل عنصرا هاما من عناصر المنظومة التعليمية يتأثر ويؤثر في بقية العناصر أو المكونات الأخرى ، وتمثل أيضا وسائل تكنولوجيا التعليم أي الجانب التطبيقي العملي لتكنولوجيا التعليم .

ولذلك نقدم هذا الفصل للتعرف على المحاور الآتية آملين أن يكون له الأثر في تحسين أداء المعلم للمواقف التدريسية الاتصالية في مجال التخصص الدقيق :

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! # !! تمهيـــــد 
|-
| أولا ||  تعريف الاتصال والاتصال التعليمي
|-
| ثانيا || المنظور الإسلامي للاتصال
|-
| ثالثا || سمات الاتصال من المنظور الإسلامي
|-
| رابعا || عناصر عملية الاتصال التعليمي
|-
| خامسا ||  نماذج عملية الاتصال التعليمي
|-
| سادسا || خصائص عملية الاتصال
|-
| سابعا || لغات الاتصال التعليمي 
|-
| ثامنا || العوامل المؤثرة في عملية الاتصال 
|-
| تاسعا || أشكال الاتصال وأنواعه
|-
| عاشرا || معوقات الاتصال التعليمي
|-
| احد عشر || أسئلة وأنشطة تطبيقية  
|}

=== أولا : تعريف الاتصال والاتصال التعليمي : ===
توجد تعريفات عديدة لمفهوم الاتصال '' Communication  '' ويرجع ذلك إلى أن عملية الاتصال لا ترتبط بميدان واحد من ميادين الحياة بل تدخل في جميع ميادين الحياة : الاجتماعية والسياسية والهندسية والاقتصادية والتربوية ، وكذلك ترتبط بالإنسان والحيوان والنبات .

* في اللغة العربية ، تشتق كلمة '''(اتصال) ''' من الفعل الثلاثي &quot;وصل&quot; والمضارع منه &quot;يصل&quot; ويقال &quot;وصل الشيء&quot; أو &quot;وصل إلى الشيء وصولا&quot; أي بلغة وانتهى إليه.

* وفي اللغتين الإنجليزية والفرنسية ، ترجع كلمة (اتصال)'' Communication / La Communication '' إلى الكلمة اللاتينية'' Communis '' بمعنى اشتراك . ويعرف قاموس'' Dictionnaire de Didactique des Langues '' الاتصال بأنه : &quot;نقل المعلومات بين مرسل ومستقبل بواسطة رسالة ما والتي تنقل بينهما من خلال قناة اتصال&quot;.&lt;ref&gt; Galisson, R.; Coste, D. (1976). Dietionnaire de Didactique des Langues. Librairie Hachette &lt;/ref&gt;

* ويعرف علماء الاجتماع الاتصال بأنه : &quot;تبادل المعلومات&quot;.

* ''ويعرفه كمال زيتون (1998) بأنه : &quot;عملية تفاعل بين طرفين حول رسالة معينة : أي مفهوم أو فكرة ، أو رأي ، أو مبدأ ، أو مهارة ، أو اتجاه إلى أن تصير الرسالة مشتركة بينهما&quot;.'' &lt;ref&gt;كمال زيتون (1998). التدريس: نماذجه ومهاراته، الإسكندرية، المكتب العلمى للنشر والتوزيع &lt;/ref&gt;

* '' ويعرفه رضا البغدادي (1999) بأنه : &quot;عملية نقل الرسالة بين مرسل ومستقبل خلال فترة من الزمن ، والعملية ليس لها بداية أو نهاية أو تسلسل في الأحداث&quot;.'' &lt;ref&gt;محمد رضا البغدادي (1999). تكنولوجيا التعليم والتعلم، القاهرة، دار الفكر العربي. &lt;/ref&gt;

* '' ويعرفه حسين الطوبجي (2001) بأنه : &quot;العملية'' Process ''أو الطريقة التي يتم عن طريقها انتقال المعرفة من شخص لآخر حتى تصبح مشاعا بينهما وتؤدي إلى التفاهم بين هذين الشخصين أو أكثر ، وبذلك يصبح لهذه العملية عناصر ومكونات ولها اتجاه تسير فيه وهدف تسعى لتحقيقه ومجال تعمل فيه ويؤثر فيها&quot;.'' 
&lt;ref&gt;حسين الطوبجي (2001). وسائل الاتصال والتكنولوجيا في التعليم، الطبعة الثامنة، الكويت، دار القلم. &lt;/ref&gt;

*''  تعريف الاتصال : يمكن لنا تعريف الاتصال بأنه &quot;عملية ديناميكية تتم باللغة اللفظية وغير اللفظية بين المرسل والمستقبل لنقل محتوى رسالة معينة من خلال القنوات المناسبة بغرض تحقيق أهداف معينة&quot; .''

* '' تعريف الاتصال التعليمي : وبتطبيق مفهوم &quot;الاتصال&quot; في ميدان التعليم ظهر مفهوم &quot;الاتصال التعليمي&quot; '' Instructional Communication '' والذي يمكننا تعريفه بأنه : &quot;عملية تفاعل مشتركة بالرموز اللفظية وغير اللفظية بين المعلم والمتعلم حيث يقدم الأول خبرات تعليمية (معرفية ومهارية ووجدانية) من خلال القنوات المناسبة بغرض تحقيق نتاجات تعليمية مرضية&quot; .''

=== ثانيا : المنظور الإسلامي للاتصال : ===
'''الاتصال '''هو أساس الحياة بين البشر ، وبالاتصال تتقارب الشعوب والقبائل والأمم وتنصهر الثقافات وتذوب الفوارق بين الطبقات ، والدين الإسلامي الحنيف يدعو إلى الاتصال وإلى التعارف والتآلف . ويقول الله سبحان وتعالى في كتابه العزيز :    ﴿ يأيها الناس إنا خلقنكم من ذكر وأنثى وجعلنكم شعوبا وقبائل لتعارفوا إن أكرمكم عند الله أتقكم إن الله عليم خبير ﴾ (سورة الحجرات ، آية13) .

ويأخذ الاتصال في المنظور الإسلامي عدة أشكال هي :
* الاتصال الروحي الإلهامي :
وهو يتمثل في اتصال الأنبياء بالله عز وجل من خلال الوحي واتصال المؤمنين برب العرش العظيم من خلال الصلاة والدعاء ، وهذا الاتصال موجود منذ خلق الله آدم عليه السلام وأنزله ليعمر الأرض ، وأنزل معه الهدى الذي أبلغه آدم إلى أولاده وهم بالتالي قاموا بإبلاغه إلى من جاء بعدهم ، قال تعالى: ﴿ يأيها الناس إنا خلقنكم من ذكر وأنثى وجعلنكم شعوبا وقبائل لتعارفوا إن أكرمكم عند الله أتقكم إن الله عليم خبير ﴾ (سورة الحجرات ، آية13) .

ويتمثل أيضا هذا الاتصال بين العبد وربه – الذي يمثل أرقى أنواع الاتصال – فيما وصف به سيدنا موسى عليه السلام بأنه &quot;كليم الله&quot; .
وقال تعالى في اتصال المؤمنين بربهم عز وجل : ﴿وإذا سألك عبادي عني فإني قريب أجيب دعوة الداع إذا دعان فليستجيبوا لي وليؤمنوا بي لعلهم يرشدون﴾ (سورة البقرة ، آية 186)
وقال تعالى: ﴿ادعوا ربكم تضرعا وخفية إنه لا يحب المعتدين﴾ (سورة الأعراف ، آية 55)
وقال الرسول صلى الله عليه وسلم &quot;إن أقرب ما يكون العبد إلى ربه وهو ساجد&quot; ، وهذا يعتبر أرقى وأعمق درجات الاتصال الإنساني بالله عز وجل عندما يخضع ويتضرع الإنسان إلى ربه .
  
* الاتصال الروحي العضوي :
ويرتبط هذا الاتصال بالحواس وهو أكثر أنواع الاتصال فعالية ويتمثل في ضم جبريل عليه السلام للرسول الكريم ثلاثا في أول مرة لنزول الوحي في غار حراء وقال له أقرأ ..
وفي القرآن الكريم قوله تعالى : ﴿أفلم يسيروا في الأرض فتكون لهم قلوب يعقلون بها أو أذان يسمعون بها فإنها لا تعمى الأبصر ولكن تعمى القلوب التي في الصدور﴾''' (سورة الحج ، آية 46) .'''

* الاتصال الروحي الإنساني (الجماهيري) :
يقول الله عز وجل فى القرآن الكريم : ﴿يأيها الرسول بلغ ما أنزل إليك من ربك وإن لم تفعل فما بلغت رسالته والله يعصمك من الناس إن الله لا يهدي القوم الكفرين﴾''' (سورة المائدة ، آية 67) .'''
وقال تعالى: ''﴿أبلغكم رسلت ربي وأنصح لكم وأعلم من الله ما لا تعلمون﴾'' ''' (سورة الأعراف ، آية 62) .'''

=== ثالثا : سمات الاتصال من المنظور الإسلامي : ===
للاتصال بين المسلم والمسلم وبين المسلم وغير المسلم ، وبين المسلم ورب العرش العظيم مجموعة من السمات يمكن الاستدلال على بعضها من الكتاب والسنة النبوية المطهرة كما توضحها النقاط التالية :

==== أن يتوفر حسن الظن في الاتصال بين المرسل والمستقبل : ====
حسن الظن من الأمور الهامة التي يجب أن تتوافر في عملية الاتصال الإنساني بين المرسل والمستقبل ، لأنه أساس نجاح هذه العملية ، فإذا كان هذا في الاتصال بين الناس ، فما بالك في الاتصال بين الإنسان وربه من خلال الصلاة وأداء الصدقة والدعاء .
قال رسول الله عن ربه في الحديث القدسي :''' &quot;أنا عند حسن ظن عبدي بي&quot; .'''
==== 1/ أن تتوفر السرية في الاتصال : ====
عندما يعبد الإنسان ربه في السر ويناجيه ويتقرب إليه ، فتكون العبادات والصلوات والصدقات أكثر صدقا بعيدا عن العلن والجهر ، فهذا أرقي وأسمى أنواع الاتصال .
قال رسول الله صلى الله علية وسلم: &quot;ورجل تصدق بصدقة فأخفاها حتى لا تعلم شماله ما قدمت يمينه&quot; .

والاتصال الإنساني يحتاج أيضا إلى السرية في بعض مواقفه مثلا : المواقف التي تتعلق بالصالح العام ، مع العلم أن هناك مواقف اتصال تحتاج إلى الجهر والإعلان ، ولقد نهى الإسلام عن إفشاء الأسرار في الأحاديث أو نقلها بين الناس.
قال الرسول صلى الله عليه وسلم: &quot;إذا حدث الرجل الحديث ثم التفت فهي أمانة&quot; .

==== 2/ أن يتوفر في الاتصال القول الحسن وقول الخير والبعد عن القول الباطل أو الصمت : ====
قال الله سبحانه وتعالى : '''﴿والذين اجتنبوا الطغوت أن يعبدوها وأنابوا إلى الله لهم البشرى فبشر عباد (17) الذين يستمعون القول فيتبعون أحسنه أؤلئك الذين هداهم الله وأولئك هم أولوا الألبب﴾ (سورة الزمر ، آية 17-18) .'''

وأسمى درجات الاتصال التي يمارسها المسلم مع ربه تكون من خلال  الصلاة والأذكار والأدعية عندما يلتقي المسلم مع ربه تقربا وتضرعا وأملا في قبول مطلبه . يقول الرسول صلى الله عليه وسلم: &quot;أقرب ما يكون العبد إلى ربه وهو ساجد&quot;، وقال الرسول صلى الله عليه وسلم: &quot;من كان يؤمن بالله واليوم الأخر فليقل خيرا ، أو ليصمت&quot; ، ''وقال الرسول صلى الله عليه وسلم'': '''&quot;رحم الله عبدا تكلم فغنم أو سكت فسلم&quot; .'''

جاء أعرابي إلى رسول الله صلى الله علية وسلم فقال دلني على عمل يدخلني الجنة قال : &quot;أطعم الجائع واسق الظمآن وأمر بالمعروف وأنه عن المنكر فإن لم تطق فكف لسانك إلا من خير ، فإنك بذلك تغلب الشيطان&quot; .
قال الله سبحانه وتعالى :''' ﴿ما يلفظ من قول إلا لديه رقيب عتيد﴾ (سورة ق ، آية18)'''


==== 3/ أن تتوفر الشفافية والتأثر وقوة الاتصال الإيماني بين العبد وربه :==== 
عندما يستمع المسلم إلى تلاوة القرآن الكريم في المذياع أو في التليفزيون نلاحظ التأثر والروحانية وصفاء النفس ، ويصل التأثر إلى درجة البكاء ويتضح هذا في الآيات القرآنية الكريمة&quot; :
قال الله تعالى : '''﴿الله نزل أحسن الحديث كتبا متشبها مثاني تقشعر منه جلود الذين يخشون ربهم ثم تلين جلودهم وقلوبهم إلى ذكر الله ذلك هدى الله يهدي به من يشاء ومن يضلل الله فما له من هاد﴾ (سورة الزمر ، آية23) .'''
وقال تعالى :''' ﴿وإذا سمعوا ما أنزل إلى الرسول ترى أعينهم تفيض من الدمع مما عرفوا من الحق يقولون ربنا أمنا فاكتبنا مع الشهدين﴾ (سورة المائدة ، آية83) .'''
وفي الحديث الشريف قال الرسول الكريم صلى الله عليه وسلم :''' &quot;عينان لا تمسهما النار عين باتت تحرس في سبيل الله ، وعين بكت من خشية الله&quot; .'''

====4/  البعد عن الثرثرة والتكلف في الاتصال : ====
قال صلى الله عليه وسلم :''' &quot;إن أبغضكم إلى وأبعدكم مني مجلسا الثرثارون ، المتفيهقون المتشدقون في الكلام&quot; .'''
ويقول صلى الله عليه وسلم : '''&quot;أنا وأتقياء أمتي براء من التكلف&quot; .'''

====5/  أن يخلوا الاتصال من السخرية : ====
قال الله تعالى :''' ﴿يأيها الذين امنوا لا يسخر قوم من قوم عسى أن يكونوا خيرا منهم ولا نساء من نساء عسى أن يكن خيرا منهن ولا تلمزوا أنفسكم ولا تنابزوا بالألقب بئس الاسم الفسوق بعد الإيمن ومن لم يتب فأولئك هم الظلمون﴾  '''
                                                                                                '''(سورة الحجرات ، آية11)'''
 
====6/  أن يتوفر في الاتصال الصدق وعدم الكذب : ====
قال الله تعالى : '''﴿والذين هم لأماناتهم وعهدم رعون﴾ (سورة المؤمنون ، آية8)'''
قال صلى الله عليه وسلم: '''&quot;إياكم والكذب فإنه من الفجور وهما في النار&quot; .'''
وقال صلى الله عليه وسلم: ''' &quot;كبرت خيانة أن تحدث أخاك حديثا هو لك به مصدق وأنت له به كاذب&quot;''' .&lt;ref&gt;عبد العزيز العقيلي (1999). تقنيات التعليم والاتصال، الطبعة الثالثة، الرياض، بدون ناشر. عبد الله عطار، إحسان كنسارة (1418هـ). وسائل الاتصال التعليمية، مكة المكرمة، بدون ناشر &lt;/ref&gt;

=== رابعاً: عناصر عملية الاتصال التعليمي=== 
تعددت النماذج أو المخططات التي وضعها علماء الاتصال والتي توضح عناصر عملية الاتصال. وبتحليل بعض هذه النماذج وجدنا أن معظم عناصرها مشتركة في الموقف الاتصالي، ويمكن تلخيص عناصر عملية الاتصال وفقاً للمواقف التعليمية في النموذجين التاليين:

                  * نموذج الاتصال التعليمي التقليدي :
                  * نموذج الاتصال التعليمي الحديث :

====1/  نموذج الاتصال التعليمي التقليدي ====
وتتضح مكوناته أو عناصره من خلال الشكل التالي:

[[File:نموذج الاتصال التعليمي التقليدي.JPG|نموذج الاتصال التعليمي التقليدي]]

==== 2/  نموذج الاتصال التعليمي الحديث: ====
ويتكون من العناصر الموضحة في الشكل التالي:

[[File:نموذج الاتصال التعليمي الحديث.jpg|thumb|Add caption here]]

ووفقاً للنموذجين السابقين التقليدي والحديث، تتكون عملية الاتصال التعليمي من عناصر أساسية مشتركة (المرسل والمستقبل والرسالة وقناة الاتصال)، ولكن يمتاز نموذج الاتصال الحديث بوجود عنصر خامس هو التغذية الراجعة، وفيما يلي تفصيل للعناصر الأساسية لعملية الاتصال كما يلي:

* المرسل      * الرسالة      * الوسيلة      * المستقبل      * التغذية الراجعة


==== المرسل (Sender/ Encoder/ Source): ====
هو العنصر الأول من عناصر عملية الاتصال وهو مصدر الرسالة التي يترتب عليها التفاعل في موقف الاتصال. والمعلم في الموقف التعليمي هو الذي يقوم بصياغة الرسالة أي وضعها في صورة ألفاظ أو رسوم أو رموز بغرض الوصول إلى هدف محدد. وقد يكون المرسل شخصاً واحداً أو مجموعة من الأشخاص وقد يكون آلة تعليمية.

ويجب أن تتوفر في المرسل (المعلم) مجموعة من الصفات والخصائص أو الشروط:

أن يكون المرسل :

* متمكناً من تخصصه العلمي.
* قادراً على التعبير الجيد عن رسالته أمام تلاميذه مع وضوح صوته.
* ملماً بأنواع قنوات الاتصال.
* ملماً بخصائص من يتعامل معهم من حيث العمر الزمني والمستوى الاجتماعي والثقافي والاقتصادي.
* قادراً على تحديد الهدف أو الأهداف من رسالته.
* قادراً على تصميم وبناء مواقف تعليمية اتصالية جديدة.
* قادراً على الاستجابة والرد على أسئلة التلاميذ.
* مرناً في التعامل مع تلاميذه.
* قادراً على التعامل بود ولطف مع تلاميذه.
* قادراً على الاستخدام الجيد للغة اللفظية واللغة غير اللفظية.
* قادراً على إيصال رسالته بطرق وأساليب متنوعة ومناسبة.
* ملماً بمهارات الاتصال المختلفة.
* قادراً على إثارة دافعية التلاميذ للتعلم.
* قادراً على إدارة الموقف التعليمي الاتصالي إدارة فاعلة
* قادراً على التعديل في رسالته أو في عملية الاتصال بناءً على التغذية الراجعة.

==== الرسالة '' (Message)'' ====

هي المحتوى أي المعلومات والمفاهيم والمهارات والقيم التي يُريد المرسل إرسالها إلى المستقبلين لتعديل سلوكهم، ويقوم المرسل بصياغتها باللغة اللفظية أو غير اللفظية أو بمزيج من اللغتين وفقاً لطبيعة محتوى الرسالة وطبيعة المستقبلين، وهي الهدف من عملية الاتصال.
وتمر الرسالة بمرحلتين:
المرحلة الأولى: وهي مرحلة تصميم الرسالة.
المرحلة الثانية: هي مرحلة إرسال الرسالة أي تنفيذها وقد يتم التعديل في الرسالة المصممة وفقا للموقف الاتصالي.
وتوجد مجموعة من النقاط أو الشروط التي يجب أن يراعيها المرسل أو المعلم أثناء إعداده وإرساله للرسالة:

* أن يكون محتوى الرسالة مناسباً لميول وحاجات وقدرات التلاميذ ومستواهم المعرفي والثقافي.
* أن يكون محتوى الرسالة صحيحاً علمياً وخالياً من التكرار والتعقيد.
* أن تكون لغة الرسالة واضحة وبسيطة.
* أن تكون الرسالة جذابة ومثيرة لانتباه وتفكير التلاميذ.
* أن يعرضها المعلم بطريقة شائقة وغير تقليدية.
* أن يلجأ المعلم إلى الإطناب أثناء تنفيذ الرسالة وهو إعادة جزء أو بعض أجزاء الرسالة بطريقة مختلفة وجديدة.
* أن يختار المعلم الوقت والمكان المناسبين للتلاميذ لاستقبال الرسالة.
* ن تسمح للتلاميذ بالمشاركة الفعالة.

==== قناة الاتصال أو الوسيلة ''(Communication Channel / Media) ''==== 
وهي الأداة التي تحمل الرسالة من المرسل إلى المستقبل، ومن أمثلة قنوات الاتصال التي تستخدم في مواقف الاتصال التعليمي: الكتب، المجلات، الصحف، التلفزيون، الراديو، الحديث الشفهي، الحاسوب، الإنترنت.
وتتكون قناة الاتصال من أكثر من أداة اتصال: فمثلاً في الموقف الاتصالي التعليمي عندما يشرح المعلم الدرس، يعتبر الجهاز الصوتي للمعلم هو الأداة الأولى، ثم الهواء الذي يحمل الرسالة الأداة الثانية ثم الجهاز السمعي للمستقبل هو الأداة الثالثة.
وتعتبر الحواس الخمس هي القنوات الناقلة للرسالة في عملية الاتصال. وتلعب الأجهزة دوراً في عملية الاتصال حيث تزيد من سعة الحواس، فعن طريقها يستطيع الإنسان الاتصال من بعد كالرؤية من بعد والسماع من بعد، مثل التليفون والتلفاز.
ومن العسير فصل قناة الاتصال عن لغة الاتصال، فلا توجد لغة بدون أداة، فبدون الجهاز الصوتي لا يمكن للإنسان أن يخرج لغة لفظية تفهم، بل إن أي عطب في جزء من هذا الجهاز يشكل صعوبة في إلقاء الرسالة كسقوط سنة من الأسنان فالعلاقة تكاملية بين اللغة والأداة وغير قابلة للفصل. واللغات هي مزيج من تفاعل بين الأفكار وأدوات نقلها.&lt;ref&gt;علي عبد المنعم (1998).  تكنولوجيا التعليم والوسائل التعليمية، كلية التربية، جامعة الأزهر.&lt;/ref&gt;

ومن العوامل التي قد تؤثر سلباً في الأدوات التي تنقل الرسالة، عملية التشويش ''(Noise)'' فلا تصل الرسالة واضحة، فمرور القطار بجوار المدرسة قد يؤثر على الاستماع الجيد للتلاميذ، كما أن بعض المعلومات التي تحمل تفاصيل غير ضرورية يمكن أن تحدث تشويشاً للرسالة.
ويجب أن تتوفر في الوسيلة بعض الصفات أو الخصائص التي تحكم جودتها ومناسبتها للموقف التعليمي ومنها:&lt;ref&gt;محمد علي السيد (1999). الوسائل التعليمية وتكنولوجيا التعليم، عمان، دار الشروق. &lt;/ref&gt;

* أن تكون الوسيلة التعليمية نابعة من المنهج الدراسي وتؤدي إلى تحقيق الهدف منها كتقديم المعلومات أو بعض المهارات.
* أن تشوق المعلم وترغبه في الإطلاع والبحث والاستقصاء وتساعده على استنباط خبرات جديدة.
* أن تربط الخبرات السابقة بالخبرات الجديدة.
* أن تجمع بين الدقة العلمية والجمال الفني مع المحافظة على وظيفة الوسيلة.
* أن تكون رخيصة التكاليف متينة الصنع.
* أن تكون الوسيلة مناسبة ليستفاد منها في أكثر من مستوى.
* أن يتناسب حجمها أو مساحتها أو صوتها وعدد الدارسين.
* أن تتناسب الوسيلة والتطوير التكنولوجي والعلمي للمجتمع.
* أن تكون الوسيلة واقعية أو قريبة من الواقع.

==== المستقبل'' (Receiver/ Decoder/ Destination)'' ====
وهو العنصر الرابع من عناصر الاتصال، وهو الشخص أو مجموعة الأشخاص التي تتلقى الرسالة، ودور المستقبل هو فك رموز الرسالة ومحاولة فهم محتواها والتأثر بها، فهو أساس تصميم الرسالة فكل عناصر عملية الاتصال تعمل من أجل المستقبل (التلميذ).

ويجب أن تتوفر لدى المستقبل بعض النقاط أو الشروط الهامة:
* تأهب المستقبل واستعداده لاستقبال الرسالة.
* امتلاكه الخبرة اللازمة للاستقبال الجيد للرسالة.
* القدرة على الإنصات الجيد للآخرين.
* القدرة على تبادل الأدوار مع مرسل الرسالة.
* القدرة على التفكير الناقد والابتكار.
* شعوره بأهمية الرسالة.
* تمكنه من اللغة اللفظية (شفهية وتحريرية) وغير اللفظية (إشارات وحركات ...) بالقدر الذي يمكنه من استقبال الرسالة.

هذه هي الأربعة عناصر الرئيسية في عملية الاتصال في كلا النموذجين التقليدي والحديث (مع ملاحظة اختلاف طبيعة الأدوار في كلا النموذجين أي أن دور المرسل مثلاً في النموذج التقليدي يختلف عن دور نظيره في النموذج الحديث) ، فإذا توقفت عملية الاتصال عند هذا الحد - أي اقتصر استقبال المستقبل للرسالة دون رد فعل منه فإنها تمثل النموذج التقليدي للاتصال والذي يقتصر على قيام المعلم بالشرح والإلقاء والتلقين والتكرار وقيام التلميذ بالاستماع والإنصات والخضوع والحفظ والاستظهار بدون أي مناقشات أو حوارات بينه وبين المعلم فبذلك تسير عملية الاتصال في اتجاه خطي وتنتهي عند استقبال التلميذ للرسالة ولا يهتم المعلم بحدوث أثر أو تعديل في سلوك التلميذ من خلال تلك العملية.

==== التغذية الراجعة '' (Feedback)'' ====
وهي رد فعل المستقبل على الرسالة وفي هذه الحالة يصبح مرسلاً وتكتمل دائرة الاتصال الأولى، وتفتح دائرة الاتصال الثانية وهكذا، والتغذية الراجعة قد تكون إيجابية (الموافقة والقبول مثل إجابتك صحيحة، برافو، تحريك الرأس من اليمين إلى اليسار ...) وبالتالي تمثل التغذية الراجعة التفاعل والاستمرارية بين عناصر الاتصال، وتجعل عملية الاتصال دائرية حيوية ومستمرة مما يؤكد على أهمية تطبيق النموذج الحديث للاتصال التعليمي في فصولنا وقاعاتنا الدراسية بمراحلها المختلفة.

وللتغذية الراجعة فائدة كبيرة في الموقف التواصلي:
* تمكن المعلم من معرفة تأثير رسالته على تلاميذه من خلال استجاباتهم المختلفة.
* تؤكد على أن عملية الاتصال هي عملية تبادل للأدوار فمن كان مرسلاً يصبح بعد ذلك مستقبلاً ومن هو مستقبلاً يصبح بعد قليل مرسلاً وبالتالي تتحقق عملية    التفاعل الإيجابي بين المعلم والتلميذ.

=== خامسا : نماذج عملية الاتصال : ===
لمزيد من المعرفة حول نماذج الاتصال ، يمكن أن نذكر النماذج التالية على سبيل المثال لا الحصر :

==== 1/  نموذج شانون وويفر :'' Shannon &amp; Weaver Model'' ====
يتكون هذا النموذج من خمسة عناصر هي : المصدر ، المرسل ، الإشارة ، المستقبل ، الهدف .
[[File:نموذج شانون وويفر للاتصال.jpg|thumb|Add caption here]]
&lt;ref&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon%E2%80%93Weaver_model&lt;/ref&gt;
==== نموذج شرام : ''Schramm Model''====

[[File:نموذج شرام.jpg|thumb|Add caption here]]
&lt;ref&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oded_Schramm&lt;/ref&gt;
==== نموذج لاسويل :'' Lasswell Model'' ====
ويحدد لاسويل عناصر عملية الاتصال من خلال الإجابة عن خمسة أسئلة هي : 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! # !! السؤال !! التحديد
|-
| 1|| من يقول ؟|| (المرسل)
|-
| 2|| ماذا يقول ؟|| (الرسالة)
|-
| 3|| لمن يقول ؟|| (المستقبل)
|-
| 4|| بأي وسيلة أو قناة ؟|| (قناة الاتصال)
|-
| 5|| ما التأثير ؟|| (التغذية الراجعة)
|}

[[File:نموذج لاسويل للاتصال.jpg|thumb|Add caption here]]

=== سادسا : خصائص أو سمات عملية الاتصال فيما يلي : === 
* الاتصال عملية هادفة .
* الاتصال عملية ديناميكية .
* الاتصال عملية منظمة .
* الاتصال عملية دائرية .
* الاتصال عملية متنوعة .


==== الاتصال عملية هادفة  : ====
يرمي الاتصال إلى تحقيق هدف محدد : وهو إرسال المعلومات والبيانات (أو نقل فكرة أو الترفية أو التعليم) وفهمها من الطرف الآخر وبذلك يتطلب مجموعة من الإجراءات والخطوات المرتبطة بعضها ببعض مثل تصميم الرسالة ، وإرسالها ، والإشراف على وصولها ، واستقبال الرد .

==== الاتصال عملية ديناميكية : ==== 
تتضمن عملية الاتصال تفاعلا بين المرسل والمستقبل ، الأول يؤثر والأخر يتأثر ولا تتوقف عملية الاتصال عن هذا الحد بل قد يتبادل الطرفان الأدوار بينهما وبذلك فإن عملية الاتصال متغيرة من حيث الزمان والمكان ، أي أن عملية الاتصال عملية ديناميكية وليست استاتيكية ومثال ذلك ما يحدث في الفصل الدراسي بين المعلم وتلاميذه .&lt;ref&gt;علي عبد المنعم (1998).  تكنولوجيا التعليم والوسائل التعليمية، كلية التربية، جامعة الأزهر&lt;/ref&gt;

==== الاتصال عملية منظمة : ====
تتصف عملية الاتصال بأنها منظمة فهي باعتبارها عملية تعليم تعتبر بالضرورة عملية مقصودة يتم تخطيطها وتصميمها وتنفيذها وإدارتها بصورة منظمة لإحداث التعلم ، ومن جانب آخر يقوم كل عنصر من عناصر عملية الاتصال بأدوار محددة ، فالمرسل مثلا يقوم بعملية ترميز الرسالة ، والمستقبل عليه فك رموز الرسالة أي ترجمتها وتفسيرها .&lt;ref&gt;علي عبد المنعم (1998).  تكنولوجيا التعليم والوسائل التعليمية، كلية التربية، جامعة الأزهر. &lt;/ref&gt;

==== الاتصال عملية منظمة : ====

عملية الاتصال ليست عملية خطية تسير في اتجاه واحد من المرسل إلى المستقبل وتتوقف عند ذلك الحد ولكنها عملية دائرية تبدأ بالمرسل لنقل رسالة إلى المستقبل حيث يكون له رد فعل عن طريق التغذية الراجعة فيستقبل المرسل الرسالة ليبدأ نشاطا جديدا لتحقيق هدف أخر أو يعدل في رسالته الأولى إذا لم يتحقق الهدف منها وهكذا تستمر عملية الاتصال .&lt;ref&gt;علي عبد المنعم (1998).  تكنولوجيا التعليم والوسائل التعليمية، كلية التربية، جامعة الأزهر. &lt;/ref&gt;

[[ملف:[[File:شكل 6.7.jpg|thumb|) الاتصال في اتجاه واحد
الاتصال في اتجاهين
]]]]
 
==== الاتصال عملية متنوعة :  ====
يمتاز الاتصال الإنساني بأنه عملية اجتماعية لا تتوقف عند استخدام اللغة اللفظية : الشفهية أو التحريرية فقط بل يتم أيضا استخدام اللغة غير اللفظية ، كالإشارات والحركات والإيماءات .

===  سابعا : لغات الاتصال التعليمي :===
إن تنفيذ عملية الاتصال في مجال التعليم أو في أي مجال آخر يتطلب استخدام لغة اتصال بين المرسل والمستقبل ، واللغة سواء كانت اللغة الأم أو لغة أجنبية تنقسم إلى نوعين هما :

* اللغة اللفظية :'' Verbal Language ''                                     
* اللغة غير اللفظية'' Non-Verbal Language''

والإنسان عندما يحاول التواصل مع الآخرين في موقف اتصال فإنه يستخدم اللغتان ولا يمكن فصلهما ، فعندما يذكر عبارة للتعبير عن فكرته أو رأيه في موضوع معين (لغة لفظية) نجده يحرك يديه يمينا ويسارا أو ترتسم تعبيرات على وجهه ، أو يستخدم إشارات معينة (لغة غير لفظية) ، ويتضح ذك جليا في مواقف الاتصال التعليمي .

==== اللغة اللفظية : ''Verbal Language'' ====

وهي مجموعة من الرموز المنطوقة أو المكتوبة – صوتية ، نحوية ، مفردات لغوية – والتي يتم استخدامها في جمل وعبارات تعبر عن المعنى .
وتعتبر اللغة اللفظية هي وسيلة الاتصال الشفهية والتحريرية التي يستخدمها الإنسان أو المعلم للتعبير عما يجول في خاطره من خلال ما يستخدمه من كلمات وأصوات وقواعد نحوية حيث تربط هذه المكونات في محتوى مفيد يعبر عما يريد الفر إيصاله للآخرين سواء كان بالصيغة الشفهية أم بالصيغة التحريرية .


واللغة اللفظية كاللغة العربية أو اللغة الإنجليزية أو اللغة الفرنسية تتضمن جانبين : اللغة الشفهية واللغة التحريرية واللغة الشفهية تشمل مهارتي استقبال وإرسال (إنتاج) وهما الاستماع والتحدث ، وكذلك تشمل اللغة التحريرية مهارتي إحداهما استقبال وهي (القراءة) والأخرى إرسال/ أنتاج وهي (الكتابة) وبالتالي تتضمن كل لغة حية أربع مهارات رئيسية هي :

1-	مهارة الفهم السماعي (الاستماع) .
2-	مهارة التعبير الشفهي (التحدث) .
3-	مهارة الفهم القرائي (القراءة) .
4-	مهارة التعبير التحريري (الكتابة) 

الفرق بين المهارة اللغوية ومهارة الاتصال : تتمثل المهارة اللغوية في تكوين جمل أو عبارات صحيحة نحويا ، أما مهارة الاتصال فتتمثل في استخدام جمل أو عبارات ذات معنى ودلالة في الموقف التواصلي .
ويمكن القول أنه لا توجد مهارة اتصال بدون المهارة اللغوية لأن المهارة اللغوية (قواعد- صوتيات- مفردات لغوية) هي الأساس لمهارة الاتصال والأخيرة هي الأعم و الأشمل وتتضمن بداخلها المهارة اللغوية فإذا استخدمت اللغة كوسيلة اتصال ، فيجب أن تستخدم كمهارة اتصال ولا تقتصر عند حد دورها كمهارة لغوية فقط وعند استخدام معلم الرياضيات أو العلوم أو اللغة العربية أو اللغة الأجنبية للغة اللفظية في الاتصال التعليمي مع تلاميذه يجب أن يراعى ما يلي :

1- التحدث بصوت مرتفع يسمعه كل التلاميذ .
2- التحدث بلباقة وبأسلوب واضح يفهمه كل التلاميذ .
3- النطق الصحيح للغة (أوات – كلمات – جمل) .
4- التنويع في نبرات صوته خلال الحصة الدراسية .
5- الاستماع الجيد لتلاميذه .
6- الاستخدام الصحيح للغة التحريرية ووضوح الكتابة على السبورة .
7- استخدام المفردات اللغوية الواضحة والبسيطة التي يمكن من خلالها إيصال معلومات المادة العلمية ببساطة إلى التلاميذ .
8- البعد عن تكرار مفردات معينة بصفة مستمرة حتى لا تعتبرها التلاميذ لزمات لديه .

==== اللغة غير اللفظية :'' Non-Verbal Language'' ==== 
لقد استخدم الإنسان اللغة غير اللفظية عبر التاريخ قبل استخدامه للغة اللفظية لكي يتمكن من نقل بعض المعلومات وتبادل الخبرات وتشمل اللغة غير اللفظية الإشارة والحركات والأفعال ولغة الأشياء ويتضح ذلك في المثالين التاليين : 
الشخص الذي يرفع يده لكي يلقي السلام على زميله أ والشخص الذي يحرك رأسه من اليمين إلى اليسار لكي يعبر عن رفض شيئا ما .
ولقد أختلف العلماء حول اعتبار اللغة اللفظية لغة فبعضهم رفض إطلاق كلمة لغة على المواد التعليمية غير اللفظية ، والبعض وجد أن اللغة تؤدي وظيفة وهي أنها وسيلة اتصال وتفاهم بين البشر فإذا كانت المواد التعليمية غير اللفظية تؤدي أيضا هذه الوظيفة فيمكن أن تدخل في مجال اللغة .
وذكر'' Richard Paget ''أن الفرد بإمكانه أن يؤدي '''(700000) '''إيماءة أو إشارة مختلفة وبذلك فإن عدد الإشارات أكثر من قوائم الكلمات المتداولة في أوسع القواميس الإنجليزية وهي التي لا تزيد عدد كلماتها عن '''(100000)''' كلمة ولكن لإتمام عمليات الاتصال فهي بحاجة إلى أعداد أكبر بكثير من هذا العدد ، الأمر الذي يتطلب بالضرورة استخدام لغة أخرى غير اللفظية مثل لغة الإشارة والإيماءات أي اللغة غير اللفظية التي تسهم في زيادة التذكر ، فقد وجد أن التذكر يزداد كلما دخلت أكثر الحواس في تلقي الرسالة ، فنجد العين على رأس الأعضاء في الاتصال البشري وخاصة في ظل اللغة غير اللفظية .
إن الأيدي والوجه يمكن أن يضيفا الكثير إلى اللغة اللفظية من خلال الإشارات والإيماءات الصادرة عنهما كما في الشكل فالمعلم عندما يقدم درسا في الفصل الدراسي ولا تظهر أي تعبيرات على وجهه نجد التلاميذ قد يشردون منه ولا ينجذبوا إلى حديثه ، والمعلم الذي تكثر حركته داخل الفصل كأن يتنقل بسرعة بين الصفوف بصفة مستمرة ويتحدث مستخدما إشارات الأيدي بداعي وبدون داعي (أي إشارات يدوية غير طبيعية) نجد انشغال التلاميذ بما يقوم به من حركات وإشارات دون الربط بين اللغة اللفظية واللغة غير اللفظية لفهم موضوع ما يشرحه المعلم ولذلك على المعلم عند الجمع بين اللغتين أن يدرك أن أفضل الحالات هي الاستخدام الصحيح (الوظيفي) لهما .&lt;ref&gt;عبد العظيم الفرجاني (1997). التربية التكنولوجية وتكنولوجيا التربية، القاهرة، دار غريب للطباعة والنشر&lt;/ref&gt;
[[ملف: ]]
                                             شكل (8) لغة الإشارات بالأيدي والوجه (الابتسامة)

وتجدر الإشارة إلى أن استخدام الإشارة والإيماءات مهما للغاية في المواقف التواصلية التعليمية مع معلمي المواد المختلفة وخاصة معلمي اللغات الأجنبية لأنها تسهل فهم الكلمات الصعبة باللغة الأجنبية بدلا من ترجمتها إلى اللغة العربية .

أما بالنسبة لدور المعلم عند استخدامه للغة غير اللفظية ، فيجب أن :
-	يدرك أهمية استخدام الاتصال غير اللفظي أو الرموز – غير اللفظية ودوره في إيصال الرسالة إلى تلاميذه .
-	ينوع في استخدام اللغتين اللفظية وغير اللفظية لأنه لا يمكن فصلها .
-	يهتم باستخدام صور اللغة غير اللفظية المختلفة كالإشارات وحركات الجسم وتعبيرات الوجه والتواصل العيني والإيماءات والرسوم واللوحات والصور الثابتة .

وتجدر الإشارة في هذا المقام أن كليات التربية تهتم بتنمية مهارات الاتصال التعليمي لدى الطالب المعلم خلال عملية الإعداد المهني نظريا وعمليا في التربية الميدانية وذلك لزيادة جودة وفاعلية المواقف الاتصالية .&lt;ref&gt;عبد الرحمن الشاعر، إمام محمد إمام (1417). مفاهيم أساسية لانتاج واستخدام الوسائل التعليمية، الطبعة الثالثة، الرياض، دار الجسر للطباعة والنشر&lt;/ref&gt;

===  ثامنا : العوامل المؤثرة في عملية الاتصال : ===  
تخضع عملية الاتصال لعوامل عدة ، وهذه العوامل إما أن تزيد من كفاءة عملية الاتصال أو تقلل من تلك الكفاءة ومن هذه العوامل ما يلي :

==== التشويش/ الضجيج'' Noise '': ====
وهو من أهم العوامل المؤثرة في مدى وضوح الرسالة المنقولة من المصدر ، ومدى استيعابها من قبل المستقبل كما في الشكل وقد يأخذ أشكالا عديدة إلا أنه ينقسم إلى قسمين رئيسيين هما :
(أ)التشويش الداخلي .
(ب) التشويش الخارجي .

شكل (9) يعبر عن تأثير التشويش ''(Noise)'' في عملية الاتصال
[[ملف:[[File:شكل يعبر عن تأثير التشويش.jpg|thumb|شكل يعبر عن تأثير التشويش]]]]
(أ) التشويش الداخلي : 
(ب)التشويش الخارجي : 
ويشمل جميع العوامل الخارجية التي تقلق الشخص المتلقي للرسالة مثل : الأصوات المزعجة ، ودرجة الحرارة والرطوبة ، وضعف الإضاءة أو شدتها ، والقاعة ، والمقاعد ، والبعد أو القرب من مصدر الرسالة والوقت الذي ترسل فيه الرسالة ، كل هذه العوامل تقلل من مدى تفهم الشخص لغرض الرسالة وهدفها المعني بالرسالة .

==== الدقة في نقل الرسالة'' Fidelity '': ==== 
عند إعداد الرسالة يجب أن يراعي تحري الدقة في نقل المعلومات وتدوينها ، وحتى إرسالها إلى المستقبل فتسلسل الأفكار وتدعيمها بالأمثلة والبراهين ، وربط المفهوم بالواقع في شرح الموضوعات ، وتبسيط الحقائق العلمية ، عوامل مهمة في تقريب المعلومات إلى ذهن متلقيها ، وبالتالي نصل إلى الهدف المنشود من نقل الرسالة وكما أسلفنا قد لا تكون الرسالة المنقولة ألفاظا بل قد تكون رموزا أو شواخص إرشادية أو تحذيرية مثل لوحات الإرشاد المروري أو التحذير من خطر التدخين ، أو إشارات ضوئية مثل إشارات المرور بألوانها الثلاثة المتفق عليها آنذاك يستلزم إعداد هذه الشواخص والرموز إعدادا جيدا ، وطالما أن المعلومات المستخدمة في هذه الحالة مستقاة من مصادر موثوقه تعتبر بحد ذاتها المصدر الرئيسي للمعلومات المرسلة فمثلا الإشارات المرورية الضوئية تعطي معلومات مصدرها الأساسي هو إدارة المرور ، ولوحات ممنوع التدخين في قاعة الدراسة والممرات في الكلية هي معلومات وتحذيرات مصدرها إدارة الجامعة وتفسير جميع هذه المعلومات أو الاستجابة لها من قبل المستقبل يكون تفسيرا حسيا في الوقت الذي يكون إعدادها قد تم بأسلوب حركي حسي إلا أن بعض الاستجابات للمعلومات المرسلة قد تكون حركية ، وذلك عندما تأخذ عملية الاتصال الأسلوب الديناميكي المرتد .

==== مهارات الاتصال ''Communication Skills '':==== 
إن مهارات الاتصال إلى جانب أنها موهبة فإنها كذلك مهارة مكتسبة تلعب العوامل الثقافية والاجتماعية دورا مهما في درجة اكتساب الفرد لها فكم من متحدث أو خطيب أكتظ مجلسه بالمستمعين ، وأخر أخذ مستمعوه بالتناقص قبل أن ينتهي من حديثه .
ومهارات الاتصال لا تكمن في الحركات واختلاف نبرات الصوت ، والتشديد على النقاط المهمة فحسب ، بل بربط الحديث بواقع الحياة اليومية ، واستخدام الجمل الإخبارية إلى جانب الجمل الاستفهامية ، كل ذلك مهارات يتمتع بها بعض المعلمين وحرم منها آخرون وهي ما يجب أن يتحلى بها المعلم فكلما نجح في إتقان هذه المهارات كانت درجة الاستجابة لدى الطلاب أكبر ، وذلك لتوافر عنصر التشويق والانتباه إن استخدام الوسائل التعليمية ساعد في تقريب الفجوات الناتجة عن الفروق الفردية بين المعلمين ، فكانت العلاج الملائم لهذه المشكلة .

===  تاسعا : أشكال الاتصال وأنواعه : ===  
توجد أشكالا عديدة من الاتصال ، نذكر منها ما يلي :
==== الاتصال الأعلى : ==== 
ويمكن أن نطلق عليه الاتصال الروحاني الإلهامي ، وهو اتصال المخلوق بالخالق ، ويتم هذا الاتصال بطريقة غير مباشرة من خلال العبادة ، والتأمل ، والدعاء .

==== الاتصال الذاتي : ====
وهو الاتصال الذي يتم بين الفرد وذاته ، أي عن طريق الاتصال الداخلي مع الذات ويشمل العمليات العقلية الإدراكية الداخلية ، كالتفكير ، والتخيل ، والتصوير ، وكل فرد يمر بهذه العملية عندما يكون بصدد الإعلان عن رأي ، أو اتخاذ قرار ما .

==== الاتصال الشخصي : ====
وهو الاتصال الذي يتم بين شخصين ، وهو من أكثر أنواع الاتصال شيوعا وهو نوعان :
أ‌-مباشر : ويتم وجها لوجه حيث يكون المرسل والمستقبل في نفس المكان ، ويحصل المرسل على رد فعل مباشر من المستقبل ، ويمكن أن يصبح مستقبلا ويعود مرة أخرى ويصبح مرسلا .

ب‌- غير مباشر : ويتم عن طريق واسطة ما كالهاتف ، أو المراسلة ، أو التخاطب بالحاسوب وفي هذا النوع لا يكون هناك مواجهة بين المرسل والمستقبل ، والتغذية الراجعة قد تتأخر .

==== الاتصال الجماعي : ==== 
وهو اتصال يتم بين شخص وعدد من الأشخاص المتواجدين في المكان نفسه ، كما يحدث في الفصل الدراسي بين المعلم وتلاميذه ، وفي المسجد بين الخطيب والمصلين وتكون المجموعة المستهدفة معروفة من قبل المرسل ، والمرسل معروف من قبل المستقبلين .

==== الاتصال الجماهيري : ==== 
وهو اتصال يتم ما بين شخص وعدة مئات أو ألاف أو ملاين من البشر ، لا يتواجدون في المكان نفسه ، ويكون المرسل معروفا لدى المستقبلين ، بينما المرسل لا يعرف المستقبلين ، كما يحدث في وسائل الإعلام مثل التلفاز ، والمذياع ، والصحافة ، ويكون الاتصال في اتجاه واحد فقط من المرسل إلى المستقبلين ولا يحدث العكس ورد الفعل غير معروف بالنسبة للمرسل .&lt;ref&gt;محمد الحيلة (2008).  تكنولوجيا التعليم بين النظرية والتطبيق، الطبعة الثانية، عمان ، دار المسيرة للنشر والتوزيع&lt;/ref&gt;

===  عاشرا : معوقات الاتصال التعليمي : ===  
يحتاج الاتصال في المواقف التعليمية داخل الفصل الدراسي أو خارجه إلى تهيئة الجو المناسب لانتقال الرسالة من المعلم إلى المتعلم ورد فعل المتعلم حتى يؤدي إلى وضوح وسهولة الرسالة ، ولذلك من الضروري مراجعة ووضع حلول مناسبة لبعض العوائق التي قد تؤدي إلى فشل إتمام عملية الاتصال بفاعلية ، ومن أهم هذه العوائق :


==== 1/ استخدام المعلم الطريقة التقليدية : ==== 
يعتمد عدد غير قليل من المعلمين على الطريقة اللفظية في عرض المادة العلمية (محتوى الرسالة) فيقوم المعلم بالإلقاء والتلقين اعتمادا على استخدام الرموز والألفاظ الجافة والمجردة مع عدم استخدام اللغة غير اللفظية لتسهيل فهم هذه المعاني من قبل التلاميذ ، كل هذا يدفع التلاميذ إلى الانصراف عن الموقف التعليمي والشعور بعد الدافعية ، وعدم الإحساس بأهمية وقيمة ما يتم تعلمه .. فما العمل ؟

==== 2/ عدم مراعاة الفروق الفردية بين التلاميذ : ====
قيام المعلم بالإلقاء اللفظي لمحتوى الرسالة وبطريقة واحدة ، يجعل عددا كبيرا من التلاميذ لا يستطيعوا فهم ومتابعة هذه الرسالة ، ومن جانب أخر قد تكون هذه الرسالة بعيدة عن خبرات التلاميذ وكذلك ما يقدمه المعلم من أمثلة قد تبتعد عن واقع التلاميذ ، فيعتبر ذلك عائقا عن إتمام عملية الاتصال .. فما العمل ؟

====3/  شرود ذهن التلاميذ : ====
نتيجة للفظية الزائدة من قبل المعلم ، وعدم استخدامه للوسائل التعليمية والخبرات التعليمية المباشرة ، وعدم استعداد التلاميذ لاستقبال الرسالة ، ومعرفتهم السابقة بالرسالة أو المرسل ، يؤدي ذلك إلى شرود ذهن التلاميذ وعدم الانتباه والتركيز في الموقف التعليمي وفقد الثقة بالمعلم .. فما العمل ؟

==== 4/ الظروف الفيزيقية للفصل الدراسي : ==== 
إن وجود أعداد كبيرة من التلاميذ في فصول صغيرة الحجم وعلى مقاعد غير مريحة ، وعدم الرؤية الواضحة للسبورة ، وارتفاع السبورة ومكانها غير المناسبين ، وسوء التهوية وعدم تنظيم البيئة الصفية يترتب عليه عدم نجاح عملية الاتصال التعليمي .. فما العمل ؟

====5/  عدم كفاية المعلم الأكاديمية في أداء وظيفته : ==== 
إن عدم إلمام المعلم بتخصصه إلماما جيدا يؤدي إلى صعوبة توصيل الرسالة إلى تلاميذه وفقد الثقة به .. فما العمل ؟

====6/ عدم كفاية المعلم المهنية في أداء وظيفته : ==== 
إن عدم قدرة المعلم على إدارة الصف والتحكم في تلاميذه ، وانخفاض صوت المعلم ، وعدم وضوح نبرات الصوت ، وعدم القدرة على الاستخدام الجيد للسبورة ، وعدم القدرة على التحدث بلباقة ووضوح ، وعدم الكتابة الصحيحة يترتب عليه فشل عملية الاتصال بينه وبين تلاميذه .. فما العمل ؟

==== وجود بعض الإعاقات لدى التلاميذ : ==== 
إن ضعف بعض الحواس لدى التلاميذ مثل طول أو قصر النظر او ضعف السمع يؤدي إلى عدم نجاح عملية الاتصال بالشكل الذي يحقق أهدافها .. فما العمل ؟


== مراجع ==


{{ثبت المراجع}}

== وصلات خارجية ==

* [ http://mediacom.jeeran.com/archive/2009/9/942309.html ]
* [http://etaftech.wordpress.com/2011/03/19/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%84-%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%84-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A-2/]
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hbJqlF6yxjc]
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E1Vk3aW5lB8]


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      <text bytes="7395" sha1="gzihwo0vxbrjx7nz5w2a45tvg7wvml3" xml:space="preserve">{{Policy|WV:CUR}}
[[File:Wikiversity Curator.svg|right|130px|link=]]
A Wikiversity '''curator''' is a user who has rights to manage content on Wikiversity, including [[#Deletion of pages|delete]], [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]], [[Wikiversity:Import|import]] from other wikis, and [[#Edit and move protection of pages|protect]] pages.

== How does one become a curator? ==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/HOW}}
Any [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|Wikiversity participant]] willing to do a lot of [[#What can curators do?|dull and boring work]] for the community can become a curator. If you have a good editing record, then you are likely to be trusted and granted the privileges and responsibilities of curatorship. If you are still interested in being a curator, here is the process:

{| style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;
 | style=&quot;padding: 10px; text-align: center&quot; | I
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&lt;div id=&quot;Request&quot;&gt;
;Request
&lt;/div&gt;
You must request or be nominated for curatorship at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship]]. State your reasons for seeking this position and in what areas you are or would like to be active. You may also refer to your contributions and indicate whether you have similar responsibilities at other projects.
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&lt;div id=&quot;Mentorship&quot;&gt;
;Mentorship
&lt;/div&gt;
[[Wikiversity:List of custodian mentors|Custodian mentors]] are expected to guide and advise you on the appropriate use of curator privileges in accordance with established policy and community consensus. If any experienced custodian agrees to mentor you and you agree to their mentorship, then you will be approved as a curator. If you have any questions or concerns, you should contact your mentor(s) for guidance and advice. If you or your mentor terminate the mentorship agreement, you will have 48 hours to find a new mentor. Otherwise, your mentor may remove curator privileges after 48 hours without any further notice or community discussion.
|}

== What can curators do? ==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/WHAT}}
=== Deletion of pages ===
{{see also|Wikiversity:Deletions}}
[[File:Delete and Protect buttons.png|200px|right]] {{shortcut|WV:CUR/D}}
Curators can delete pages including images, categories, templates, and so on. Deletion is subject to [[Wikiversity:Policies|policy]]. Deletion requests may be submitted by any user at [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]].

Deleting a page does not actually remove it from the database. It is merely invisible to non-custodians and can be restored at request, which may be submitted at [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]]. Page deletions and restorations can be monitored by viewing the [[Special:Log/delete|deletion log]]. Curators may delete pages, but they do not have undelete rights.

Before deleting a page, you are encouraged to read: [[Wikiversity:Welcome templates]].

=== Edit and move protection of pages ===
{{See also|Wikiversity:Page protection}}
Curators can [[Wikiversity:Page protection|protect pages]] to prevent editing. There are two types of page protection: semi-protection, which prevents anonymous and new users from editing, and full protection, which prevents all non-custodians and non-curators from editing. A page can also be protected to prevent moving. Page protection can be lifted by any custodian or curator upon request at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]]. Page protections and unprotections can be monitored by viewing the [[Special:Log/protect|protection log]].

=== Rollback ===
{{see also|Wikiversity:Rollback}}
[[Image:Rollback button.png|thumb|300px|Rollback button]]
Curators have a ''[[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback tool]]'' to revert the last change or group of changes made to a page by the same user. There is no option to provide an edit summary when using this tool. Instead, a summary such as &quot;{{int:Revertpage}}&quot; will be used automatically. This tool is primarily used to respond to obvious vandalism. For other edit reversions, the rollback button should not be used and a good edit summary should be provided.

=== Import ===
{{see also|Wikiversity:Import}}
Curators have access to the [[Special:Import|import tool]], to bring materials from Wikipedia, Wikibooks, Beta Wikiversity, Wikiquote, and Wikisource.

== What can't curators do? ==
Curators can't block users or change user rights. These actions require [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodianship]] and [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucratship]] respectively.

== How are curators expected to act? ==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/E}}
Curators are supposed to follow the same principles as every other user, including [[Wikiversity:Civility|being civil]], [[Wikiversity:Assume Good Faith|assuming good faith]], and understanding [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?|what Wikiversity is]]. They are expected to act professionally, and to respect policy and [[Wikiversity:Consensus|community consensus]].

==Problems with curators==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/P}}
If you have a question about an action (page deletion, page protection, violation of Wikiversity policy or some other action that does serious damage to the project) by a Wikiversity curator, the first thing to do is leave a message on that curator's user discussion page. Curators should always be able to explain how their actions support the Wikiversity project. If you did not get a satisfactory answer after a discussion with the curator, follow up with their mentor. Actions of a curator are ultimately the responsibility of their mentor(s). Any custodian may remove a curator's rights, but first try to resolve all curator problems by discussion. Post a request at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]] if discussion does not successfully resolve the issue.

== Notes ==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/N}}
* Curatorship is a responsibility, not a right. While everyone is encouraged to apply for curatorship, the position is not suited for everyone. Please also note that in all instances not listed above, curators have no more power or weight than other users. &quot;Curatorship is not a big deal.&quot;
* Curators should set their &quot;user preferences&quot; so as to provide for email contacts from other Wikiversity participants. If you do not use email, then you must make yourself easily available by some other means such as [[Wikiversity:Chat|IRC chat]].
* The maximum time period of inactivity &lt;u&gt;without community review&lt;/u&gt; for curators is two years (consistent with the [[:meta:Category:Global policies|global policy]] described at [[meta:Admin activity review|Admin activity review]] which applies for [[Wikiversity:Custodianship#Notes|Custodians]] and [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrats]]). The curator should be notified on their talk page and, if there is no response after one month, a custodian will remove the rights.

== Useful reads for curators ==
===Wikiversity===
* [[Wikiversity:No shrines for vandals]]
* [[Wikiversity:Policies]]
* [[How to be a Wikimedia sysop/Wikiversity]]

===MediaWiki/Wikimedia===
* [[How to be a Wikimedia sysop]]
* [[b:MediaWiki Administrator's Handbook|MediaWiki Administrator's Handbook]]

==See also==
* [[Special:ListUsers/curator|List of current Wikiversity curators]]
* [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Support staff|Wikiversity:Staff]]


[[Category:Wikiversity administration]]
[[Category:Wikiversity custodianship]]
[[Category:Wikiversity user roles]]</text>
      <sha1>gzihwo0vxbrjx7nz5w2a45tvg7wvml3</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808310</id>
      <parentid>2808271</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T10:07:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
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      <text bytes="7390" sha1="p7f5nam1feqhxnu47xpw1jxxeu0tgf7" xml:space="preserve">{{Policy|WV:CUR}}
[[File:Wikiversity Curator.svg|right|130px|link=]]
A Wikiversity '''curator''' is a user who has rights to manage content on Wikiversity, including [[#Deletion of pages|delete]], [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]], [[Wikiversity:Import|import]] from other wikis, and [[#Edit and move protection of pages|protect]] pages.

== How does one become a curator? ==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/HOW}}
Any [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|Wikiversity participant]] willing to do a lot of [[#What can curators do?|dull and boring work]] for the community can become a curator. If you have a good editing record, then you are likely to be trusted and granted the privileges and responsibilities of curatorship. If you are still interested in being a curator, here is the process:

{| style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;
 | style=&quot;padding: 10px; text-align: center&quot; | I
 |
&lt;div id=&quot;Request&quot;&gt;
;Request
&lt;/div&gt;
You must request or be nominated for curatorship at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship]]. State your reasons for seeking this position and in what areas you are or would like to be active. You may also refer to your contributions and indicate whether you have similar responsibilities at other projects.
 |-
 | style=&quot;padding: 10px; text-align: center&quot; | II
 |
&lt;div id=&quot;Mentorship&quot;&gt;
;Mentorship
&lt;/div&gt;
[[Wikiversity:List of custodian mentors|Custodian mentors]] are expected to guide and advise you on the appropriate use of curator privileges in accordance with established policy and community consensus. If any experienced custodian agrees to mentor you and you agree to their mentorship, then you will be approved as a curator. If you have any questions or concerns, you should contact your mentor(s) for guidance and advice. If you or your mentor terminate the mentorship agreement, you will have 48 hours to find a new mentor. Otherwise, your mentor may remove curator privileges after 48 hours without any further notice or community discussion.
|}

== What can curators do? ==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/WHAT}}
=== Deletion of pages ===
{{see also|Wikiversity:Deletions}}
[[File:Delete and Protect buttons.png|200px|right]] {{shortcut|WV:CUR/D}}
Curators can delete pages including images, categories, templates, and so on. Deletion is subject to [[Wikiversity:Policies|policy]]. Deletion requests may be submitted by any user at [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]].

Deleting a page does not actually remove it from the database. It is merely invisible to non-custodians and can be restored at request, which may be submitted at [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]]. Page deletions and restorations can be monitored by viewing the [[Special:Log/delete|deletion log]]. Curators may delete pages, but they do not have undelete rights.

Before deleting a page, you are encouraged to read: [[Wikiversity:Welcome templates]].

=== Edit and move protection of pages ===
{{See also|Wikiversity:Page protection}}
Curators can [[Wikiversity:Page protection|protect pages]] to prevent editing. There are two types of page protection: semi-protection, which prevents anonymous and new users from editing, and full protection, which prevents all non-custodians and non-curators from editing. A page can also be protected to prevent moving. Page protection can be lifted by any custodian or curator upon request at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]]. Page protections and unprotections can be monitored by viewing the [[Special:Log/protect|protection log]].

=== Rollback ===
{{see also|Wikiversity:Rollback}}
[[Image:Rollback button.png|thumb|300px|Rollback button]]
Curators have a ''[[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback tool]]'' to revert the last change or group of changes made to a page by the same user. There is no option to provide an edit summary when using this tool. Instead, a summary such as &quot;{{int:Revertpage}}&quot; will be used automatically. This tool is primarily used to respond to obvious vandalism. For other edit reversions, the rollback button should not be used and a good edit summary should be provided.

=== Import ===
{{see also|Wikiversity:Import}}
Curators have access to the [[Special:Import|import tool]], to bring materials from Wikipedia, Wikibooks, Beta Wikiversity, Wikiquote, and Wikisource.

== What can't curators do? ==
Curators can't block users or change user rights. These actions require [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodianship]] and [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucratship]] respectively.

== How are curators expected to act? ==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/E}}
Curators are supposed to follow the same principles as every other user, including [[Wikiversity:Civility|being civil]], [[Wikiversity:Assume Good Faith|assuming good faith]], and understanding [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?|what Wikiversity is]]. They are expected to act professionally, and to respect policy and [[Wikiversity:Consensus|community consensus]].

==Problems with curators==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/P}}
If you have a question about an action (page deletion, page protection, violation of Wikiversity policy or some other action that does serious damage to the project) by a Wikiversity curator, the first thing to do is leave a message on that curator's user discussion page. Curators should always be able to explain how their actions support the Wikiversity project. If you did not get a satisfactory answer after a discussion with the curator, follow up with their mentor. Actions of a curator are ultimately the responsibility of their mentor(s). Any custodian may remove a curator's rights, but first try to resolve all curator problems by discussion. Post a request at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]] if discussion does not successfully resolve the issue.

== Notes ==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/N}}
* Curatorship is a responsibility, not a right. While everyone is encouraged to apply for curatorship, the position is not suited for everyone. Please also note that in all instances not listed above, curators have no more power or weight than other users. &quot;Curatorship is not a big deal.&quot;
* Curators should set their &quot;user preferences&quot; so as to provide for email contacts from other Wikiversity participants. If you do not use email, then you must make yourself easily available by some other means such as [[Wikiversity:Chat|IRC chat]].
* The maximum time period of inactivity &lt;u&gt;without community review&lt;/u&gt; for curators is two years (consistent with the [[:meta:Category:Global policies|global policy]] described at [[meta:Admin activity review|Admin activity review]] which applies for [[Wikiversity:Custodianship#Notes|Custodians]] and [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrats]]). The curator should be notified on their talk page and, if there is no response after one month, a custodian will remove the rights.

== Useful reads for curators ==
===Wikiversity===
* [[Wikiversity:No shrines for vandals]]
* [[Wikiversity:Policies]]
* [[How to be a Wikimedia sysop/Wikiversity]]

===MediaWiki/Wikimedia===
* [[How to be a Wikimedia sysop]]
* [[b:MediaWiki Administrator's Handbook|MediaWiki Administrator's Handbook]]

==See also==
* [[Special:ListUsers/curator|List of current Wikiversity curators]]
* [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Support staff|Wikiversity:Staff]]


[[Category:Wikiversity administration]]
[[Category:Wikiversity curators]]
[[Category:Wikiversity user roles]]</text>
      <sha1>p7f5nam1feqhxnu47xpw1jxxeu0tgf7</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808311</id>
      <parentid>2808310</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T10:08:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
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      <text bytes="7393" sha1="26pbf46o6o61n0ofmapimfq8rvc0ql8" xml:space="preserve">{{Policy|WV:CUR}}
[[File:Wikiversity Curator.svg|right|130px|link=]]
A Wikiversity '''curator''' is a user who has rights to manage content on Wikiversity, including [[#Deletion of pages|delete]], [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]], [[Wikiversity:Import|import]] from other wikis, and [[#Edit and move protection of pages|protect]] pages.

== How does one become a curator? ==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/HOW}}
Any [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|Wikiversity participant]] willing to do a lot of [[#What can curators do?|dull and boring work]] for the community can become a curator. If you have a good editing record, then you are likely to be trusted and granted the privileges and responsibilities of curatorship. If you are still interested in being a curator, here is the process:

{| style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;
 | style=&quot;padding: 10px; text-align: center&quot; | I
 |
&lt;div id=&quot;Request&quot;&gt;
;Request
&lt;/div&gt;
You must request or be nominated for curatorship at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship]]. State your reasons for seeking this position and in what areas you are or would like to be active. You may also refer to your contributions and indicate whether you have similar responsibilities at other projects.
 |-
 | style=&quot;padding: 10px; text-align: center&quot; | II
 |
&lt;div id=&quot;Mentorship&quot;&gt;
;Mentorship
&lt;/div&gt;
[[Wikiversity:List of custodian mentors|Custodian mentors]] are expected to guide and advise you on the appropriate use of curator privileges in accordance with established policy and community consensus. If any experienced custodian agrees to mentor you and you agree to their mentorship, then you will be approved as a curator. If you have any questions or concerns, you should contact your mentor(s) for guidance and advice. If you or your mentor terminate the mentorship agreement, you will have 48 hours to find a new mentor. Otherwise, your mentor may remove curator privileges after 48 hours without any further notice or community discussion.
|}

== What can curators do? ==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/WHAT}}
=== Deletion of pages ===
{{see also|Wikiversity:Deletions}}
[[File:Delete and Protect buttons.png|200px|right]] {{shortcut|WV:CUR/D}}
Curators can delete pages including images, categories, templates, and so on. Deletion is subject to [[Wikiversity:Policies|policy]]. Deletion requests may be submitted by any user at [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]].

Deleting a page does not actually remove it from the database. It is merely invisible to non-custodians and can be restored at request, which may be submitted at [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]]. Page deletions and restorations can be monitored by viewing the [[Special:Log/delete|deletion log]]. Curators may delete pages, but they do not have undelete rights.

Before deleting a page, you are encouraged to read: [[Wikiversity:Welcome templates]].

=== Edit and move protection of pages ===
{{See also|Wikiversity:Page protection}}
Curators can [[Wikiversity:Page protection|protect pages]] to prevent editing. There are two types of page protection: semi-protection, which prevents anonymous and new users from editing, and full protection, which prevents all non-custodians and non-curators from editing. A page can also be protected to prevent moving. Page protection can be lifted by any custodian or curator upon request at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]]. Page protections and unprotections can be monitored by viewing the [[Special:Log/protect|protection log]].

=== Rollback ===
{{see also|Wikiversity:Rollback}}
[[Image:Rollback button.png|thumb|300px|Rollback button]]
Curators have a ''[[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback tool]]'' to revert the last change or group of changes made to a page by the same user. There is no option to provide an edit summary when using this tool. Instead, a summary such as &quot;{{int:Revertpage}}&quot; will be used automatically. This tool is primarily used to respond to obvious vandalism. For other edit reversions, the rollback button should not be used and a good edit summary should be provided.

=== Import ===
{{see also|Wikiversity:Import}}
Curators have access to the [[Special:Import|import tool]], to bring materials from Wikipedia, Wikibooks, Beta Wikiversity, Wikiquote, and Wikisource.

== What can't curators do? ==
Curators can't block users or change user rights. These actions require [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodianship]] and [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucratship]] respectively.

== How are curators expected to act? ==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/E}}
Curators are supposed to follow the same principles as every other user, including [[Wikiversity:Civility|being civil]], [[Wikiversity:Assume Good Faith|assuming good faith]], and understanding [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?|what Wikiversity is]]. They are expected to act professionally, and to respect policy and [[Wikiversity:Consensus|community consensus]].

==Problems with curators==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/P}}
If you have a question about an action (page deletion, page protection, violation of Wikiversity policy or some other action that does serious damage to the project) by a Wikiversity curator, the first thing to do is leave a message on that curator's user discussion page. Curators should always be able to explain how their actions support the Wikiversity project. If you did not get a satisfactory answer after a discussion with the curator, follow up with their mentor. Actions of a curator are ultimately the responsibility of their mentor(s). Any custodian may remove a curator's rights, but first try to resolve all curator problems by discussion. Post a request at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]] if discussion does not successfully resolve the issue.

== Notes ==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/N}}
* Curatorship is a responsibility, not a right. While everyone is encouraged to apply for curatorship, the position is not suited for everyone. Please also note that in all instances not listed above, curators have no more power or weight than other users. &quot;Curatorship is not a big deal.&quot;
* Curators should set their &quot;user preferences&quot; so as to provide for email contacts from other Wikiversity participants. If you do not use email, then you must make yourself easily available by some other means such as [[Wikiversity:Chat|IRC chat]].
* The maximum time period of inactivity &lt;u&gt;without community review&lt;/u&gt; for curators is two years (consistent with the [[:meta:Category:Global policies|global policy]] described at [[meta:Admin activity review|Admin activity review]] which applies for [[Wikiversity:Custodianship#Notes|Custodians]] and [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrats]]). The curator should be notified on their talk page and, if there is no response after one month, a custodian will remove the rights.

== Useful reads for curators ==
===Wikiversity===
* [[Wikiversity:No shrines for vandals]]
* [[Wikiversity:Policies]]
* [[How to be a Wikimedia sysop/Wikiversity]]

===MediaWiki/Wikimedia===
* [[How to be a Wikimedia sysop]]
* [[b:MediaWiki Administrator's Handbook|MediaWiki Administrator's Handbook]]

==See also==
* [[Special:ListUsers/curator|List of current Wikiversity curators]]
* [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Support staff|Wikiversity:Staff]]


[[Category:Wikiversity administration]]
[[Category:Wikiversity curatorship]]
[[Category:Wikiversity user roles]]</text>
      <sha1>26pbf46o6o61n0ofmapimfq8rvc0ql8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808313</id>
      <parentid>2808311</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T10:10:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Jtneill moved page [[Wikiversity:Curators]] to [[Wikiversity:Curatorship]] over redirect: To be consistent with naming of equivalent pages for other user roles</comment>
      <origin>2808311</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="7393" sha1="26pbf46o6o61n0ofmapimfq8rvc0ql8" xml:space="preserve">{{Policy|WV:CUR}}
[[File:Wikiversity Curator.svg|right|130px|link=]]
A Wikiversity '''curator''' is a user who has rights to manage content on Wikiversity, including [[#Deletion of pages|delete]], [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]], [[Wikiversity:Import|import]] from other wikis, and [[#Edit and move protection of pages|protect]] pages.

== How does one become a curator? ==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/HOW}}
Any [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|Wikiversity participant]] willing to do a lot of [[#What can curators do?|dull and boring work]] for the community can become a curator. If you have a good editing record, then you are likely to be trusted and granted the privileges and responsibilities of curatorship. If you are still interested in being a curator, here is the process:

{| style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;
 | style=&quot;padding: 10px; text-align: center&quot; | I
 |
&lt;div id=&quot;Request&quot;&gt;
;Request
&lt;/div&gt;
You must request or be nominated for curatorship at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship]]. State your reasons for seeking this position and in what areas you are or would like to be active. You may also refer to your contributions and indicate whether you have similar responsibilities at other projects.
 |-
 | style=&quot;padding: 10px; text-align: center&quot; | II
 |
&lt;div id=&quot;Mentorship&quot;&gt;
;Mentorship
&lt;/div&gt;
[[Wikiversity:List of custodian mentors|Custodian mentors]] are expected to guide and advise you on the appropriate use of curator privileges in accordance with established policy and community consensus. If any experienced custodian agrees to mentor you and you agree to their mentorship, then you will be approved as a curator. If you have any questions or concerns, you should contact your mentor(s) for guidance and advice. If you or your mentor terminate the mentorship agreement, you will have 48 hours to find a new mentor. Otherwise, your mentor may remove curator privileges after 48 hours without any further notice or community discussion.
|}

== What can curators do? ==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/WHAT}}
=== Deletion of pages ===
{{see also|Wikiversity:Deletions}}
[[File:Delete and Protect buttons.png|200px|right]] {{shortcut|WV:CUR/D}}
Curators can delete pages including images, categories, templates, and so on. Deletion is subject to [[Wikiversity:Policies|policy]]. Deletion requests may be submitted by any user at [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]].

Deleting a page does not actually remove it from the database. It is merely invisible to non-custodians and can be restored at request, which may be submitted at [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]]. Page deletions and restorations can be monitored by viewing the [[Special:Log/delete|deletion log]]. Curators may delete pages, but they do not have undelete rights.

Before deleting a page, you are encouraged to read: [[Wikiversity:Welcome templates]].

=== Edit and move protection of pages ===
{{See also|Wikiversity:Page protection}}
Curators can [[Wikiversity:Page protection|protect pages]] to prevent editing. There are two types of page protection: semi-protection, which prevents anonymous and new users from editing, and full protection, which prevents all non-custodians and non-curators from editing. A page can also be protected to prevent moving. Page protection can be lifted by any custodian or curator upon request at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]]. Page protections and unprotections can be monitored by viewing the [[Special:Log/protect|protection log]].

=== Rollback ===
{{see also|Wikiversity:Rollback}}
[[Image:Rollback button.png|thumb|300px|Rollback button]]
Curators have a ''[[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback tool]]'' to revert the last change or group of changes made to a page by the same user. There is no option to provide an edit summary when using this tool. Instead, a summary such as &quot;{{int:Revertpage}}&quot; will be used automatically. This tool is primarily used to respond to obvious vandalism. For other edit reversions, the rollback button should not be used and a good edit summary should be provided.

=== Import ===
{{see also|Wikiversity:Import}}
Curators have access to the [[Special:Import|import tool]], to bring materials from Wikipedia, Wikibooks, Beta Wikiversity, Wikiquote, and Wikisource.

== What can't curators do? ==
Curators can't block users or change user rights. These actions require [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodianship]] and [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucratship]] respectively.

== How are curators expected to act? ==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/E}}
Curators are supposed to follow the same principles as every other user, including [[Wikiversity:Civility|being civil]], [[Wikiversity:Assume Good Faith|assuming good faith]], and understanding [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?|what Wikiversity is]]. They are expected to act professionally, and to respect policy and [[Wikiversity:Consensus|community consensus]].

==Problems with curators==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/P}}
If you have a question about an action (page deletion, page protection, violation of Wikiversity policy or some other action that does serious damage to the project) by a Wikiversity curator, the first thing to do is leave a message on that curator's user discussion page. Curators should always be able to explain how their actions support the Wikiversity project. If you did not get a satisfactory answer after a discussion with the curator, follow up with their mentor. Actions of a curator are ultimately the responsibility of their mentor(s). Any custodian may remove a curator's rights, but first try to resolve all curator problems by discussion. Post a request at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]] if discussion does not successfully resolve the issue.

== Notes ==
{{shortcut|WV:CUR/N}}
* Curatorship is a responsibility, not a right. While everyone is encouraged to apply for curatorship, the position is not suited for everyone. Please also note that in all instances not listed above, curators have no more power or weight than other users. &quot;Curatorship is not a big deal.&quot;
* Curators should set their &quot;user preferences&quot; so as to provide for email contacts from other Wikiversity participants. If you do not use email, then you must make yourself easily available by some other means such as [[Wikiversity:Chat|IRC chat]].
* The maximum time period of inactivity &lt;u&gt;without community review&lt;/u&gt; for curators is two years (consistent with the [[:meta:Category:Global policies|global policy]] described at [[meta:Admin activity review|Admin activity review]] which applies for [[Wikiversity:Custodianship#Notes|Custodians]] and [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrats]]). The curator should be notified on their talk page and, if there is no response after one month, a custodian will remove the rights.

== Useful reads for curators ==
===Wikiversity===
* [[Wikiversity:No shrines for vandals]]
* [[Wikiversity:Policies]]
* [[How to be a Wikimedia sysop/Wikiversity]]

===MediaWiki/Wikimedia===
* [[How to be a Wikimedia sysop]]
* [[b:MediaWiki Administrator's Handbook|MediaWiki Administrator's Handbook]]

==See also==
* [[Special:ListUsers/curator|List of current Wikiversity curators]]
* [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]]
* [[Wikiversity:Support staff|Wikiversity:Staff]]


[[Category:Wikiversity administration]]
[[Category:Wikiversity curatorship]]
[[Category:Wikiversity user roles]]</text>
      <sha1>26pbf46o6o61n0ofmapimfq8rvc0ql8</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikiversity talk:Curatorship</title>
    <ns>5</ns>
    <id>204761</id>
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      <id>2808315</id>
      <parentid>2767327</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T10:10:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Jtneill moved page [[Wikiversity talk:Curators]] to [[Wikiversity talk:Curatorship]]: To be consistent with naming of equivalent pages for other user roles</comment>
      <origin>2767327</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="17336" sha1="l54nqu1oiigxxzrkie6utjs8u4klih8" xml:space="preserve">Please see [[/Archive 1]] for prior discussions.

== Curator Role ==
Initial Curator role discussions were based on:
# [[Wikiversity talk:Custodianship/Archive 4#Proposal to split the tools]]
# [[Wikiversity:Colloquium/archives/May 2015#Community support/vote to create the &quot;assistant&quot; usergroup]]
# [[Wikiversity:Colloquium/archives/November 2015#Assistant custodians group]]
# [[Wikiversity talk:User access levels]]

Also potentially related:
# [[Wikiversity:Colloquium/archives/September 2013#Opt-in to global sysops]]
[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:25, 3 November 2019 (UTC)

== Clarification of Role, Membership, and Staff Listing ==

I'm starting this discussion here, but it relates to the historical [[Wikiversity:Probationary custodians]], some of the initial discussion of this role as assistant custodians / teachers (linked at the top of the page), some of the recent additions to the Curators group, a [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Hasley|pending Curator nomination]], and perhaps other pages.

When the role was initially proposed, probationary custodians were added not by community support, but by lack of community objection. We were ultimately told by WMF that this was not acceptable. Anyone with access to deleted content was required to have community support. The Probationary Custodian role is, therefore, obsolete and historical.

Part of the early discussions regarding Curator were from a perspective that it was (and is) a relatively low-risk role. Curators can't block users. They can't protect or delete anything that can't just as easily be unprotected or undeleted. And, so far, we've never had anyone we had to remove rights from. It has been used well and appropriately in support of Wikiversity. The idea, among some of us at least, was that someone could be added to the Curators group relatively easily. Any teacher wanting to support their students or their content more effectively could be added, etc. A vote wasn't necessary, just a custodian willing to mentor/monitor and make sure they were acting consistent with the community's wishes.

Since then, some curators have been added by vote, and some added by administrative decision. There are a number of global users with appropriate tools elsewhere (stewards, global sysops, small wiki monitoring team, others?) who have a long history of helping support Wikiversity, but are often reluctant to delete content because they don't have explicit rights to do so. Examples include [[User:DannyS712]], [[User:Green Giant]], [[User:Koavf]], [[User:Praxidicae]], and [[User:Tegel]]. When there has been a user clearly trusted elsewhere who has repeatedly tagged content for deletion that they could just as well delete themselves if they had explicit rights, I have added them to the Curators group, but not listed them on the [[Wikiversity:Support staff]] page, as support staff wasn't something they had requested.

Recently, we have been drawing both more global support and more interest in support staff. At the same time, we are apparently now [[User talk:Vermont|hitting a limit]] that we have enough staff to support ourselves and don't need global assistance. This is far from true, as most people listed as staff don't do any day-to-day cleanup work.

So, sorry for the long introduction, but here are the questions raised that we should address. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 02:04, 3 November 2019 (UTC)

=== Must Curators be voted on by the community or may they be appointed by a custodian or bureaucrat? ===

* Dave Braunschweig - I would like to see both aspects. There are local community members who would like to be recognized by the community and provide community support. It provides a mechanism for probationary custodianship and a way for users to build trust within the community. There are also global community members who have already demonstrated trustworthiness both globally and here at Wikiversity. Giving them curator status without a lot of overhead required first makes their work and ours easier. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 02:07, 3 November 2019 (UTC)
* I concur. This is pretty much the de facto process that we've been using and I've seen no objections. It's time to officially retire the probationary custodian idea, update the ccustodian and curator pages to reflect current practice, and then adopt this as an official policy after discussion. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 20:08, 3 November 2019 (UTC)
* I am fine with a custodian or bureaucrat giving the rights. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:36, 4 November 2019 (UTC)
* I am also fine with bureaucrats and custodians granting the rights, but I would suggest some discussion and agreement between several sysops for a consensus decision on this. [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 03:26, 4 November 2019 (UTC)

=== If Curators may be appointed, are there minimum qualifications that the community would support to bypass the voting process? ===
* Dave Braunschweig - As originally envisioned, one of the uses of Curator was for someone who had a favorite project who wanted to be sure they could manage and protect it from vandalism. [[User:Mikael Häggström]] was such as user, wanting to protect WikiJournal. I, personally, am fine with granting someone Curator status if they are supervising a learning project large enough to require content oversight with multiple users, and an understanding that they will limit use of the tools primarily to that project. I would also like to see someone who already has earned similar rights elsewhere, and shows a repeated interest in supporting Wikiversity (vandalism monitoring, undo, tagging for deletion, etc.) over a period of time be able to be given explicit permissions as a Curator here. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 02:14, 3 November 2019 (UTC)
*I think this is a matter of trusting that person's judgement. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:36, 4 November 2019 (UTC)

=== If Curators are appointed, should they or must they be listed on the Wikiversity:Support staff page? ===
* Dave Braunschweig - I think that only users who explicitly are nominated and supported by the community should be listed on the Wikiversity:Support staff page. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 02:16, 3 November 2019 (UTC)
* That sounds reasonable. Also, those who are following cross-wiki vandalism to rollback or delete here aren't as likely to be available to respond to local help requests. Requests to staff tend to require more familiarity with our project than merely undoing obvious unwanted activity. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 20:13, 3 November 2019 (UTC)
*Yes, the goal is that someone can find the help he needs and directing them to more persons makes it more likely that the questioner will get help. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:37, 4 November 2019 (UTC)

=== Should the Curator role be removed from anyone who doesn't use the underlying rights? ===
* Dave Braunschweig - I'm inclined to remove Curator status, without prejudice, from anyone who doesn't use or no longer demonstrates need to use the rights. There's no particular advantage to having someone listed as a Curator if they aren't supporting the community. I think anyone who hasn't protected, deleted, imported, or rolled back content within the past year doesn't need Curator status. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 02:27, 3 November 2019 (UTC)
* The removal of the curator bit should be described as a routine administrative action - flipped off when obviously not needed and regranted when maintenance activity resumes. One year is a decent amount of time. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 20:32, 3 November 2019 (UTC)
*Yes, after [x] months of not using the tools and with a heads-up post to the user's talk page. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:38, 4 November 2019 (UTC)
*A number of wikis these days do have inactivity as a part of the admin review process. In general it is 6 months with no administrative actions. They are given a warning note on their talk page they have 30 days to respond, if that does not help they loose the rights. But yes I do agree with removal of rights from inactive users with higher rights, unless they have clearly stated they are taking a break for some reason so we know what is going on. Though on those occasions it may be better to remove the tools while they are away. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 03:20, 4 November 2019 (UTC)

=== Global rights usage here ===
* I also want to bring up the subject of those who already have the ability to intervene with vandalism here: Stewards, Global Sysops, and Global Rollbackers. It appears that there is some hesitancy or reluctance to use the tools that they already have on our site due to the number of active custodians here. (They consider a project outside their scope if there are 10+ of which 3+ are active.) I don't see a need to flag them as curator; it is redundant and maintaing the list would be tedious. Perhaps we could address this by posting a public statement on their message boards saying that we welcome and encourage them to take action if they follow cross-wiki activity here. I understand that they are cautious out of respect for the autonomy of our site. However, I would prefer that they were a bit less shy about stopping and removing activity that is clearly unwelcome. When I've seen them act locally it is clearly in the best interest of our community. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 20:58, 3 November 2019 (UTC)
* Participants on the [[meta:Small Wiki Monitoring Team]] who lack global rights could be granted curator status based on activity  and intent to help out here, as described above. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 21:09, 3 November 2019 (UTC)
*from memory the global sysops are actually restricted by meta policy from using the tools on sites with more than 10 sysops. Another reason for the one above, inactive admins can prevent the global sysops from assisting. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 03:22, 4 November 2019 (UTC)
::That is the default but [[meta:Global sysops]] describes that a project can opt-in or opt-out. We chose to opt-in a number of years ago.[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Colloquium/archives/September_2013#Opt-in_to_global_sysops] --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 03:27, 4 November 2019 (UTC)
*I'll read through this more thoroughly in a bit but I just wanted to note something before I forget. I've been more cautious to use the right here because it is also all available to me as a global sysop (since you're opted in) but by GS scope, you have too many &quot;active&quot; admins. Would it be possible to establish a consensus that it is also okay for us to deal with blatant spam and vandalism? See two examples here: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=People_who_really_pisses_me_off&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1 vandalism], [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:KelliWickens8&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1 spambot]. These are non-controversial actions but I try to err on the side of caution when using the GS tool set. [[User:Praxidicae|Praxidicae]] ([[User talk:Praxidicae|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Praxidicae|contribs]]) 16:20, 26 November 2019 (UTC)
::I consider this to be a case where there is  [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Colloquium/archives/September_2013#Opt-in_to_global_sysops long standing and strong consensus]. I generally welcome GS participation in anti-vandalism efforts. This has also been recently discussed at [[User_talk:Vermont#semi-protection]]. I wasn't even aware that there was an admin limit for when GS should not act. I had assumed that our opt-in was the only criteria needed. If we need to have a !vote to formalize this, we can start a discussion page. One of our 'crats could also post to a meta:gs noticeboard to inform them of our preference. Let us know what kind of message we need to send to grant our consent. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 20:49, 26 November 2019 (UTC)
::I agree that there is already strong consensus welcoming global sysop efforts. There's also an important reason associated with this. Global sysops are mostly anonymous (not identifiable in the real world by their username). Almost all Wikiversity admins are directly identifiable by their user profiles and subject to intense off-wiki harassment for our anti-vandalism efforts. We either need to clarify that global support is welcome and necessary, or we need to thin the ranks of local admins who aren't assisting in anti-vandalism efforts so that we qualify for global support. This is a Trust and Safety issue. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 22:21, 26 November 2019 (UTC)
*While we're on the topic: I also consider use of [[meta:Small Wiki Monitoring Team/Tools]] including those with global rollback rights to be welcome here. Not ''allowed'' but ''explicitly welcome''. I was very surprised to learn about the hesitancy to act here because I was unaware of the admin number GS rule. For six years Dave and I have been interpreting the opt-in as applying regardless of the number of local admins. {{ping|Praxidicae}} I just looked at [[Special:Undelete/People_who_really_pisses_me_off]]. Wow, you reverted 10 times without blocking even though you could! I consider that a waste of time. If you really want to be cautious block for a few days and ping us at a noticeboard. That case was too obvious and wouldn't be considered WV:BOLD here. Also, we wouldn't have granted you Curator if we didn't trust you with the tools. (not suggesting that a GS needs local Curator to act here.) {{ping|Vermont}} who also asked similar questions about this. Are there any other global rules that prevent action here that we should know about and grant you permission perform? --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 05:28, 27 November 2019 (UTC)
::In regard to making Global Sysop actions, no, the only limiting factor is the restricted scope.  As consensus is evidently to permit Global Sysops to make antivandalism actions here, and you have already explicitly opted in, the listed scope on meta can be disregarded in favor of local rules. (if/when you make a written policy/rule about it) [[User:Vermont|Vermont]] ([[User talk:Vermont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vermont|contribs]]) 10:21, 27 November 2019 (UTC)

=== Other Discussion ===

=== Summary ===
* I'm going to tag [[Wikiversity:Probationary custodians]] as {{tl|historical}}. It is clearly deprecated. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 21:13, 3 November 2019 (UTC)

== List of Curator's Mentors ==

I think it would be usefull to list here, who is a Mentor of each Curator, if the guideline calls fro comunication to Curator's mentors [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:47, 6 October 2025 (UTC)

== More links ==
More links related to curatorship:
* [[Wikiversity:User access levels]]
* [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T113109 T113109], phabricator.wikimedia.org -- started in September 2015
--[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 17:32, 7 November 2025 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>l54nqu1oiigxxzrkie6utjs8u4klih8</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Module:Excerpt</title>
    <ns>828</ns>
    <id>235890</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2808245</id>
      <parentid>2789903</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-10T15:45:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sophivorus</username>
        <id>85690</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Update from [[d:Special:GoToLinkedPage/enwiki/Q52428273|master]] using [[mw:Synchronizer| #Synchronizer]]</comment>
      <origin>2808245</origin>
      <model>Scribunto</model>
      <format>text/plain</format>
      <text bytes="24998" sha1="f13qcb3mtjeccbzr0i5jmt33ddc570f" xml:space="preserve">-- Module:Excerpt implements the Excerpt template
-- Documentation and master version: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Module:Excerpt
-- Authors: User:Sophivorus, User:Certes, User:Aidan9382 &amp; others
-- License: CC-BY-SA-3.0

local parser = require( 'Module:WikitextParser' )
local yesno = require( 'Module:Yesno' )

local ok, config = pcall( require, 'Module:Excerpt/config' )
if not ok then config = {} end

local Excerpt = {}

-- Main entry point for templates
function Excerpt.main( frame )

	-- Make sure the requested page exists and get the wikitext
	local page = Excerpt.getArg( 1 )
	if not page or page == '{{{1}}}' then return Excerpt.getError( 'no-page' ) end
	local title = mw.title.new( page )
	if not title then return Excerpt.getError( 'invalid-title', page ) end
	local fragment = title.fragment -- save for later
	if title.isRedirect then
		title = title.redirectTarget
		if fragment == &quot;&quot; then
			fragment = title.fragment -- page merge potential	
		end
	end
	if not title.exists then return Excerpt.getError( 'page-not-found', page ) end
	page = title.prefixedText
	local wikitext = title:getContent()

	-- Get the template params and process them
	local params = {
		hat = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'hat', true ) ),
		this = Excerpt.getArg( 'this' ),
		only = Excerpt.getArg( 'only' ),
		files = Excerpt.getArg( 'files', Excerpt.getArg( 'file' ) ),
		lists = Excerpt.getArg( 'lists', Excerpt.getArg( 'list' ) ),
		tables = Excerpt.getArg( 'tables', Excerpt.getArg( 'table' ) ),
		templates = Excerpt.getArg( 'templates', Excerpt.getArg( 'template' ) ),
		paragraphs = Excerpt.getArg( 'paragraphs', Excerpt.getArg( 'paragraph' ) ),
		references = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'references', true ) ),
		subsections = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'subsections', false ) ),
		links = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'links', true ) ),
		bold = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'bold', false ) ),
		briefDates = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'briefdates', false ) ),
		inline = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'inline' ) ),
		quote = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'quote' ) ),
		more = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'more' ) ),
		class = Excerpt.getArg( 'class' ),
		track = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'track', true ) ),
		displayTitle = Excerpt.getArg( 'displaytitle', page ),
	}

	-- Make sure the requested section exists and get the excerpt
	local excerpt
	local section = Excerpt.getArg( 2, fragment )
	section = mw.text.trim( section )
	if section == '' then section = nil end
	if section then
		excerpt = parser.getSectionTag( wikitext, section )
		if not excerpt then
			if params.subsections then
				excerpt = parser.getSection( wikitext, section )
			else
				local sections = parser.getSections( wikitext )
				excerpt = sections[ section ]
			end
		end
		if not excerpt then return Excerpt.getError( 'section-not-found', section ) end
		if excerpt == '' then return Excerpt.getError( 'section-empty', section ) end
	else
		excerpt = parser.getLead( wikitext )
		if excerpt == '' then return Excerpt.getError( 'lead-empty' ) end
	end

	-- Remove noinclude bits
	excerpt = excerpt:gsub( '&lt;[Nn][Oo][Ii][Nn][Cc][Ll][Uu][Dd][Ee]&gt;.-&lt;/[Nn][Oo][Ii][Nn][Cc][Ll][Uu][Dd][Ee]&gt;', '' )

	-- Filter various elements from the excerpt
	excerpt = Excerpt.filterFiles( excerpt, params.files )
	excerpt = Excerpt.filterLists( excerpt, params.lists )
	excerpt = Excerpt.filterTables( excerpt, params.tables )
	excerpt = Excerpt.filterParagraphs( excerpt, params.paragraphs )

	-- If no file is found, try to get one from the infobox
	if ( params.only == 'file' or params.only == 'files' or params.only == 'filename' or not params.only and ( not params.files or params.files ~= '0' ) ) -- caller asked for files
		and not section -- and we're in the lead section
		and config.captions -- and we have the config option required to try finding files in infoboxes
		and #parser.getFiles( excerpt ) == 0 -- and there're no files in the excerpt
	then
		excerpt = Excerpt.addInfoboxFile( excerpt )
	end

	-- Filter the templates by appending the templates blacklist to the templates filter
	if config.blacklist then
		local blacklist = table.concat( config.blacklist, ',' )
		if params.templates then
			if string.sub( params.templates, 1, 1 ) == '-' then
				params.templates = params.templates .. ',' .. blacklist
			end
		else
			params.templates = '-' .. blacklist
		end
	end
	excerpt = Excerpt.filterTemplates( excerpt, params.templates )

	-- Leave only the requested elements
	if params.only == 'file' or params.only == 'files' then
		local files = parser.getFiles( excerpt )
		excerpt = params.only == 'file' and files[1] or table.concat( files, '\n\n' )
	end
	if params.only == 'list' or params.only == 'lists' then
		local lists = parser.getLists( excerpt )
		excerpt = params.only == 'list' and lists[1] or table.concat( lists, '\n\n' )
	end
	if params.only == 'table' or params.only == 'tables' then
		local tables = parser.getTables( excerpt )
		excerpt = params.only == 'table' and tables[1] or table.concat( tables, '\n\n' )
	end
	if params.only == 'paragraph' or params.only == 'paragraphs' then
		local paragraphs = parser.getParagraphs( excerpt )
		excerpt = params.only == 'paragraph' and paragraphs[1] or table.concat( paragraphs, '\n\n' )
	end
	if params.only == 'template' or params.only == 'templates' then
		local templates = parser.getTemplates( excerpt )
		excerpt = params.only == 'template' and templates[1] or table.concat( templates, '\n\n' )
	end
	if params.only == 'filename' then
		local files = parser.getFiles( excerpt )
		local file = files[1]
		excerpt = file and parser.getFileName( file ) or 'Noimage.png'
		params.inline = true
	end

	-- @todo Make more robust and move downwards
	if params.briefDates then
		excerpt = Excerpt.fixDates( excerpt )
	end

	-- Remove unwanted elements
	excerpt = Excerpt.removeComments( excerpt )
	excerpt = Excerpt.removeSelfLinks( excerpt )
	excerpt = Excerpt.removeNonFreeFiles( excerpt )
	excerpt = Excerpt.removeBehaviorSwitches( excerpt )

	-- Fix or remove the references
	if params.references then
		excerpt = Excerpt.fixReferences( excerpt, page, wikitext )
	else
		excerpt = Excerpt.removeReferences( excerpt )
	end

	-- Remove wikilinks
	if not params.links then
		excerpt = Excerpt.removeLinks( excerpt )
	end

	-- Link the bold text near the start of most leads and then remove it
	if not section then
		excerpt = Excerpt.linkBold( excerpt, page )
	end
	if not params.bold then
		excerpt = Excerpt.removeBold( excerpt )
	end

	-- Remove extra line breaks but leave one before and after so the parser interprets lists, tables, etc. correctly
	excerpt = excerpt:gsub( '\n\n\n+', '\n\n' )
	excerpt = mw.text.trim( excerpt )
	excerpt = '\n' .. excerpt .. '\n'

	-- Remove nested categories
	excerpt = frame:preprocess( excerpt )
	excerpt = Excerpt.removeCategories( excerpt )

	-- Add tracking categories
	if params.track and config.categories then
		excerpt = Excerpt.addTrackingCategories( excerpt )
	end

	-- Build the final output
	if params.inline then
		return mw.text.trim( excerpt )
	end

	local tag = params.quote and 'blockquote' or 'div'
	local block = mw.html.create( tag ):addClass( 'excerpt-block' ):addClass( params.class )

	if config.styles then
		local styles = frame:extensionTag( 'templatestyles', '', { src = config.styles } )
		block:node( styles )
	end

	if params.hat then
		local hat = Excerpt.getHat( page, section, params )
		block:node( hat )
	end

	excerpt = mw.html.create( 'div' ):addClass( 'excerpt' ):wikitext( excerpt )
	block:node( excerpt )

	if params.more then
		local more = Excerpt.getReadMore( page, section )
		block:node( more )
	end

	return block
end

-- Filter the files in the given wikitext against the given filter
function Excerpt.filterFiles( wikitext, filter )
	if not filter then return wikitext end
	local filters, isBlacklist = Excerpt.parseFilter( filter )
	local files = parser.getFiles( wikitext )
	for index, file in pairs( files ) do
		local name = parser.getFileName( file )
		if isBlacklist and ( Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters ) or Excerpt.matchFilter( name, filters ) )
		or not isBlacklist and ( not Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters ) and not Excerpt.matchFilter( name, filters ) ) then 
			wikitext = Excerpt.removeString( wikitext, file )
		end
	end
	return wikitext
end

-- Filter the lists in the given wikitext against the given filter
function Excerpt.filterLists( wikitext, filter )
	if not filter then return wikitext end
	local filters, isBlacklist = Excerpt.parseFilter( filter )
	local lists = parser.getLists( wikitext )
	for index, list in pairs( lists ) do
		if isBlacklist and Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters )
		or not isBlacklist and not Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters ) then 
			wikitext = Excerpt.removeString( wikitext, list )
		end
	end
	return wikitext
end

-- Filter the tables in the given wikitext against the given filter
function Excerpt.filterTables( wikitext, filter )
	if not filter then return wikitext end
	local filters, isBlacklist = Excerpt.parseFilter( filter )
	local tables = parser.getTables( wikitext )
	for index, tableWikitext in pairs( tables ) do
		local id = parser.getTableAttribute( tableWikitext, 'id' )
		if isBlacklist and ( Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters ) or Excerpt.matchFilter( id, filters ) )
		or not isBlacklist and ( not Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters ) and not Excerpt.matchFilter( id, filters ) ) then 
			wikitext = Excerpt.removeString( wikitext, tableWikitext )
		end
	end
	return wikitext
end

-- Filter the paragraphs in the given wikitext against the given filter
function Excerpt.filterParagraphs( wikitext, filter )
	if not filter then return wikitext end
	local filters, isBlacklist = Excerpt.parseFilter( filter )
	local paragraphs = parser.getParagraphs( wikitext )
	for index, paragraph in pairs( paragraphs ) do
		if isBlacklist and Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters )
		or not isBlacklist and not Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters ) then 
			wikitext = Excerpt.removeString( wikitext, paragraph )
		end
	end
	return wikitext
end

-- Filter the templates in the given wikitext against the given filter
function Excerpt.filterTemplates( wikitext, filter )
	if not filter then return wikitext end
	local filters, isBlacklist = Excerpt.parseFilter( filter )
	local templates = parser.getTemplates( wikitext )
	for index, template in pairs( templates ) do
		local name = parser.getTemplateName( template )
		if isBlacklist and ( Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters ) or Excerpt.matchFilter( name, filters ) )
		or not isBlacklist and ( not Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters ) and not Excerpt.matchFilter( name, filters ) ) then 
			wikitext = Excerpt.removeString( wikitext, template )
		end
	end
	return wikitext
end

function Excerpt.addInfoboxFile( excerpt )
	-- We cannot distinguish the infobox from the other templates, so we search them all
	local templates = parser.getTemplates( excerpt )
	for _, template in pairs( templates ) do
		local parameters = parser.getTemplateParameters( template )
		local file, captions, caption, cssClasses, cssClass
		for _, pair in pairs( config.captions ) do
			file = pair[1]
			file = parameters[file]
			if file and Excerpt.matchAny( file, '^.*%.', { '[Jj][Pp][Ee]?[Gg]', '[Pp][Nn][Gg]', '[Gg][Ii][Ff]', '[Ss][Vv][Gg]' }, '.*' ) then
				file = string.match( file, '%[?%[?.-:([^{|]+)%]?%]?' ) or file -- [[File:Example.jpg{{!}}upright=1.5]] to Example.jpg
				captions = pair[2]
				for _, p in pairs( captions ) do
					if parameters[ p ] then caption = parameters[ p ] break end
				end
				-- Check for CSS classes
				-- We opt to use skin-invert-image instead of skin-invert
				-- in all other cases, the CSS provided in the infobox is used
				if pair[3] then
					cssClasses = pair[3]
					for _, p in pairs( cssClasses ) do
						if parameters[ p ] then
							cssClass = ( parameters[ p ] == 'skin-invert' ) and 'skin-invert-image' or parameters[ p ]
							break
						end
					end
				end
				local class = cssClass and ( '|class=' .. cssClass ) or ''
				return '[[File:' .. file .. class .. '|thumb|' .. ( caption or '' ) .. ']]\n' .. excerpt
			end
		end
	end
	return excerpt
end

function Excerpt.removeNonFreeFiles( wikitext )
	local files = parser.getFiles( wikitext )
	for _, file in pairs( files ) do
		local fileName = 'File:' .. parser.getFileName( file )
		local fileTitle = mw.title.new( fileName )
		if fileTitle then
			local fileDescription = fileTitle:getContent()
			if not fileDescription or fileDescription == '' then
				local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame()
				fileDescription = frame:preprocess( '{{' .. fileName .. '}}' ) -- try Commons
			end
			if fileDescription and string.match( fileDescription, '[Nn]on%-free' ) then
				wikitext = Excerpt.removeString( wikitext, file )
			end
		end
	end
	return wikitext
end

function Excerpt.getHat( page, section, params )
	local hat

	-- Build the text
	if params.this then
		hat = params.this
	elseif params.quote then
		hat = Excerpt.getMessage( 'this' )
	elseif params.only then
		hat = Excerpt.getMessage( params.only )
	else
		hat = Excerpt.getMessage( 'section' )
	end
	hat = hat .. ' ' .. Excerpt.getMessage( 'excerpt' )

	-- Build the link
	if section then
		hat = hat .. ' [[:' .. page .. '#' .. mw.uri.anchorEncode( section ) .. '|' .. params.displayTitle
			.. ' § ' .. section:gsub( '%[%[([^]|]+)|?[^]]*%]%]', '%1' ) .. ']].' -- remove nested links
	else
		hat = hat .. ' [[:' .. page .. '|' .. params.displayTitle .. ']].'
	end

	-- Build the edit link
	local title = mw.title.new( page )
	local editUrl = title:fullUrl( 'action=edit' )
	hat = hat .. '&lt;span class=&quot;mw-editsection-like plainlinks&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;mw-editsection-bracket&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;['
	hat = hat .. editUrl .. ' ' .. mw.message.new( 'editsection' ):plain()
	hat = hat .. ']&lt;span class=&quot;mw-editsection-bracket&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;'

	if config.hat then
		local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame()
		hat = config.hat .. hat .. '}}'
		hat = frame:preprocess( hat )
	else
		hat = mw.html.create( 'div' ):addClass( 'dablink excerpt-hat' ):wikitext( hat )
	end

	return hat
end

function Excerpt.getReadMore( page, section )
	local link = &quot;'''[[&quot; .. page
	if section then
		link = link .. '#' .. section
	end
	local text = Excerpt.getMessage( 'more' )
	link = link .. '|' .. text .. &quot;]]'''&quot;
	link = mw.html.create( 'div' ):addClass( 'noprint excerpt-more' ):wikitext( link )
	return link
end

-- Fix birth and death dates, but only in the first paragraph
-- @todo Use parser.getParagraphs() to get the first paragraph
function Excerpt.fixDates( excerpt )
	local start
	local s
	local e = 0
	repeat
		start = e + 1
		s, e = mw.ustring.find( excerpt, '%s*%b{}%s*', start )
	until not s or s &gt; start
	s, e = mw.ustring.find( excerpt, '%b()', start ) -- get (...), which may be (year–year)
	if s and s &lt; start + 100 then -- look only near the start
		local excerptStart = mw.ustring.sub( excerpt, s, e )
		local year1, conjunction, year2 = string.match( excerptStart, '(%d%d%d+)(.-)(%d%d%d+)' )
		if year1 and year2 and ( string.match( conjunction, '[%-–—]' ) or string.match( conjunction, '{{%s*[sS]nd%s*}}' ) ) then
			local y1 = tonumber( year1 )
			local y2 = tonumber( year2 )
			if y2 &gt; y1 and y2 &lt; y1 + 125 and y1 &lt;= tonumber( os.date( '%Y' ) ) then
				excerpt = mw.ustring.sub( excerpt, 1, s ) .. year1 .. '–' .. year2 .. mw.ustring.sub( excerpt, e )
			end
		end
	end
	return excerpt
end

-- Replace the first call to each reference defined outside of the excerpt for the full reference, to prevent undefined references
-- Then prefix the page title to the reference names to prevent conflicts
-- that is, replace &lt;ref name=&quot;Foo&quot;&gt; for &lt;ref name=&quot;Title of the article Foo&quot;&gt;
-- and also &lt;ref name=&quot;Foo&quot; /&gt; for &lt;ref name=&quot;Title of the article Foo&quot; /&gt;
-- also remove reference groups: &lt;ref name=&quot;Foo&quot; group=&quot;Bar&quot;&gt; for &lt;ref name=&quot;Title of the article Foo&quot;&gt;
-- and &lt;ref group=&quot;Bar&quot;&gt; for &lt;ref&gt;
-- @todo The current regex may fail in cases with both kinds of quotes, like &lt;ref name=&quot;Darwin's book&quot;&gt;
function Excerpt.fixReferences( excerpt, page, wikitext )
	local references = parser.getReferences( excerpt )
	local fixed = {}
	for _, reference in pairs( references ) do
		local name = parser.getTagAttribute( reference, 'name' )
		if not fixed[ name ] then -- fix each reference only once
			local content = parser.getTagContent( reference )
			if not content then -- reference is self-closing
				local full = parser.getReference( excerpt, name )
				if not full then -- the reference is not defined in the excerpt
					full = parser.getReference( wikitext, name )
					if full then
						excerpt = excerpt:gsub( Excerpt.escapeString( reference ), Excerpt.escapeString( full ), 1 )
					end
					table.insert( fixed, name )
				end
			end
		end
	end
	-- Prepend the page title to the reference names to prevent conflicts with other references in the transcluding page
	excerpt = excerpt:gsub( '&lt; *[Rr][Ee][Ff][^&gt;]*name *= *[&quot;\']?([^&quot;\'&gt;/]+)[&quot;\']?[^&gt;/]*(/?) *&gt;', '&lt;ref name=&quot;' .. page:gsub( '&quot;', '' ) .. ' %1&quot;%2&gt;' )
	-- Remove reference groups because they don't apply to the transcluding page
	excerpt = excerpt:gsub( '&lt; *[Rr][Ee][Ff] *group *= *[&quot;\']?[^&quot;\'&gt;/]+[&quot;\'] *&gt;', '&lt;ref&gt;' )
	return excerpt
end

function Excerpt.removeReferences( excerpt )
	local references = parser.getReferences( excerpt )
	for _, reference in pairs( references ) do
		excerpt = Excerpt.removeString( excerpt, reference )
	end
	return excerpt
end

function Excerpt.removeCategories( excerpt )
	local categories = parser.getCategories( excerpt )
	for _, category in pairs( categories ) do
		excerpt = Excerpt.removeString( excerpt, category )
	end
	return excerpt
end

function Excerpt.removeBehaviorSwitches( excerpt )
	return excerpt:gsub( '__[A-Z]+__', '' )
end

function Excerpt.removeComments( excerpt )
	return excerpt:gsub( '&lt;!%-%-.-%-%-&gt;', '' )
end

function Excerpt.removeBold( excerpt )
	return excerpt:gsub( &quot;'''&quot;, '' )
end

function Excerpt.removeLinks( excerpt )
	local links = parser.getLinks( excerpt )
	for _, link in pairs( links ) do
		excerpt = Excerpt.removeString( excerpt, link )
	end
	return excerpt
end

-- @todo Use parser.getLinks
function Excerpt.removeSelfLinks( excerpt )
	local lang = mw.language.getContentLanguage()
	local page = Excerpt.escapeString( mw.title.getCurrentTitle().prefixedText )
	local ucpage = lang:ucfirst( page )
	local lcpage = lang:lcfirst( page )
	excerpt = excerpt
		:gsub( '%[%[(' .. ucpage .. ')%]%]', '%1' )
		:gsub( '%[%[(' .. lcpage .. ')%]%]', '%1' )
		:gsub( '%[%[' .. ucpage .. '|([^]]+)%]%]', '%1' )
		:gsub( '%[%[' .. lcpage .. '|([^]]+)%]%]', '%1' )
	return excerpt
end

-- Replace the bold title or synonym near the start of the page by a link to the page
function Excerpt.linkBold( excerpt, page )
	local lang = mw.language.getContentLanguage()
	local position = mw.ustring.find( excerpt, &quot;'''&quot; .. lang:ucfirst( page ) .. &quot;'''&quot;, 1, true ) -- look for &quot;'''Foo''' is...&quot; (uc) or &quot;A '''foo''' is...&quot; (lc)
		or mw.ustring.find( excerpt, &quot;'''&quot; .. lang:lcfirst( page ) .. &quot;'''&quot;, 1, true ) -- plain search: special characters in page represent themselves
	if position then
		local length = mw.ustring.len( page )
		excerpt = mw.ustring.sub( excerpt, 1, position + 2 ) .. '[[' .. mw.ustring.sub( excerpt, position + 3, position + length + 2 ) .. ']]' .. mw.ustring.sub( excerpt, position + length + 3, -1 ) -- link it
	else -- look for anything unlinked in bold, assumed to be a synonym of the title (e.g. a person's birth name)
		excerpt = mw.ustring.gsub( excerpt, &quot;'''(.-'*)'''&quot;, function ( text )
			if not string.find( text, '%[' ) and not string.find( text, '%{' ) then -- if not wikilinked or some weird template
				return &quot;'''[[&quot; .. page .. '|' .. text .. &quot;]]'''&quot; -- replace '''Foo''' by '''[[page|Foo]]'''
			else
				return nil -- instruct gsub to make no change
			end
		end, 1 ) -- terminates the anonymous replacement function passed to gsub
	end
	return excerpt
end

function Excerpt.addTrackingCategories( excerpt )
	local currentTitle = mw.title.getCurrentTitle()
	local addedCategories = false
	local contentCategory = config.categories.content
	if contentCategory and currentTitle.isContentPage then
		addedCategories = true
		excerpt = excerpt .. '[[Category:' .. contentCategory .. ']]'
	end
	local namespaceCategory = config.categories[ currentTitle.namespace ]
	if namespaceCategory then
		addedCategories = true
		excerpt = excerpt .. '[[Category:' .. namespaceCategory .. ']]'
	end
	if addedCategories then
		excerpt = excerpt .. '\n'
	end
	return excerpt
end

-- Helper method to match from a list of regular expressions
-- Like so: match pre..list[1]..post or pre..list[2]..post or ...
function Excerpt.matchAny( text, pre, list, post, init )
	for i = 1, #list do
		local match = { mw.ustring.match( text, pre .. list[ i ] .. post, init ) }
		if match[1] then return unpack( match ) end
	end
	return nil
end

-- Helper function to get arguments
-- args from Lua calls have priority over parent args from template
function Excerpt.getArg( key, default )
	local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame()
	for k, value in pairs( frame:getParent().args ) do
		if k == key and mw.text.trim( value ) ~= '' then
			return value
		end
	end
	for k, value in pairs( frame.args ) do
		if k == key and mw.text.trim( value ) ~= '' then
			return value
		end
	end
	return default
end

-- Helper method to get an error message
-- This method also categorizes the current page in one of the configured error categories
function Excerpt.getError( key, value )
	local message = Excerpt.getMessage( 'error-' .. key, value )
	local markup = mw.html.create( 'div' ):addClass( 'error' ):wikitext( message )
	if config.categories and config.categories.errors and mw.title.getCurrentTitle().isContentPage then
		markup:node( '[[Category:' .. config.categories.errors .. ']]' )
	end
	return markup
end

-- Helper method to get a localized message
-- This method uses Module:TNT to get localized messages from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Data:I18n/Module:Excerpt.tab
-- If Module:TNT is not available or the localized message does not exist, the key is returned instead
function Excerpt.getMessage( key, value )
	local ok2, TNT = pcall( require, 'Module:TNT' )
	if not ok2 then return key end
	local ok3, message = pcall( TNT.format, 'I18n/Module:Excerpt.tab', key, value )
	if not ok3 then return key end
	return message
end

-- Helper method to escape a string for use in regexes
function Excerpt.escapeString( str )
	return str:gsub( '[%^%$%(%)%.%[%]%*%+%-%?%%]', '%%%0' )
end

-- Helper method to remove a string from a text
-- @param text Text from where to remove the string
-- @param str String to remove
-- @return The given text with the string removed
function Excerpt.removeString( text, str )
	local pattern = Excerpt.escapeString( str )
	if #pattern &gt; 9999 then -- strings longer than 10000 bytes can't be put into regexes
		pattern = Excerpt.escapeString( mw.ustring.sub( str, 1, 999 ) ) .. '.-' .. Excerpt.escapeString( mw.ustring.sub( str, -999 ) )
	end
	return text:gsub( pattern, '' )
end

-- Helper method to convert a comma-separated list of numbers or min-max ranges into a list of booleans
-- @param filter Required. Comma-separated list of numbers or min-max ranges, for example '1,3-5'
-- @return Map from integers to booleans, for example {1=true,2=false,3=true,4=true,5=true}
-- @return Boolean indicating whether the filters should be treated as a blacklist or not
-- @note Merging this into matchFilter is possible, but way too inefficient
function Excerpt.parseFilter( filter )
	local filters = {}
	local isBlacklist = false
	if string.sub( filter, 1, 1 ) == '-' then
		isBlacklist = true
		filter = string.sub( filter, 2 )
	end
	local values = mw.text.split( filter, ',' ) -- split values: '1,3-5' to {'1','3-5'}
	for _, value in pairs( values ) do
		value = mw.text.trim( value )
		local min, max = mw.ustring.match( value, '^(%d+)%s*[-–—]%s*(%d+)$' ) -- '3-5' to min=3 max=5
		if not max then min, max = string.match( value, '^((%d+))$' ) end -- '1' to min=1 max=1
		if max then
			for i = min, max do filters[ i ] = true end
		else
			filters[ value ] = true -- if we reach this point, the string had the form 'a,b,c' rather than '1,2,3'
		end
	end
	filter = { cache = {}, terms = filters }
	return filter, isBlacklist
end

-- Helper function to see if a value matches any of the given filters
function Excerpt.matchFilter( value, filter )
	if value == nil then
		return false
	elseif type(value) == &quot;number&quot; then
		return filter.terms[value]
	else
		local cached = filter.cache[value]
		if cached ~= nil then
			return cached
		end
		local lang = mw.language.getContentLanguage()
		local lcvalue = lang:lcfirst(value)
		local ucvalue = lang:ucfirst(value)
		for term in pairs( filter.terms ) do
			if value == tostring(term)
			or type(term) == &quot;string&quot; and (
				lcvalue == term
				or ucvalue == term
				or mw.ustring.match( value, term )
			) then
				filter.cache[value] = true
				return true
			end
		end
		filter.cache[value] = false
	end
end

return Excerpt</text>
      <sha1>f13qcb3mtjeccbzr0i5jmt33ddc570f</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>OpenStax</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>238631</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2808296</id>
      <parentid>2806310</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T07:46:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andy?yes</username>
        <id>3006471</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See Also */</comment>
      <origin>2808296</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3009" sha1="j0u8d9lt5euuqla4cgh01mwivn6fq3j" xml:space="preserve">'''OpenStax''' (formerly OpenStax College) is a nonprofit ed-tech initiative based at Rice University. Since 2012, OpenStax has created peer-reviewed, openly licensed textbooks, which are available as free downloadable PDFs, web versions, audiobooks&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://openstax.org/blog/guest-post-how-audio-technology-is-creating-more-inclusive-learning|title=OpenStax {{!}} How audio technology is creating more inclusive learning|website=openstax.org|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-20}}&lt;/ref&gt; and for a low cost in print. All textbook content is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution Licenses; specifically, the books are available under the CC BY license (except for American Government 4e and Calculus, which is CC BY-NC-SA), which means that instructors are free to use, adapt, and remix the content, as long as they attribute OpenStax.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: OpenStax]]&lt;/ref&gt;

The following Wikiversity resources devoted to OpenStax textbooks.  These resources also included materials available at [https://openstax.org/ '''openstax.org''']. Although some versions found on Wikiversity are out-of-date, some might find them more convenient to access.

*[[OpenStax American Government 3e]] (click to visit)
*[[OpenStax American Government 4e]] (click to visit)
*[[OpenStax University Physics|OpenStax University Physics (click to visit)]]

*[[OpenStax College Physics|OpenStax College Physics (click to visit)]]

*[[OpenStax Astronomy|OpenStax Astronomy (click to visit)]]
*[[OpenStax Astronomy 2e|OpenStax Astronomy 2e (click to visit)]]
*[[OpenStax Anatomy and Physiology 2e|OpenStax Anatomy &amp; Physiology 2e]]
*[[OpenStax Biology 2e]]
*[[OpenStax Business Ethics]]
*[[OpenStax Concepts of Biology]]
*[[OpenStax Introduction to Business]]
*[[OpenStax Introduction to Business 2e]]
*[[OpenStax Introduction to Political Science]]
*[[OpenStax Introduction to Sociology 3e]]
*[[OpenStax Lifespan Development]]
*[[OpenStax Principles of Macroeconomics 3e]]
*[[OpenStax Psychology 2e]]
*[[OpenStax US History]]
*[[OpenStax world history volume 1 to 1500|OpenStax World History, Volume 1: to 1500]]

*'''OpenStax Calculus: ''' No resources have been developed, but (out-of-date) pdf versions of the three volume textbook are posted on Wikiversity at: '''[[:File:CalculusVolume1-OP.pdf|V1]]''' | '''[[:File:CalculusVolume2-OP.pdf|V2]]''' | '''[[:File:CalculusVolume3-LR.pdf|V3]]''' 

== See Also ==
* [[Wikipedia: OpenStax]]

* [https://openstax.org/ OpenStax.org]
* [https://audileo.com/ Official OpenStax Audio Textbooks]

*[[:Category:openstax textbook]]
*[https://www.facebook.com/openstax/ OpenStax Facebook page]
* [https://www.ted.com/talks/richard_baraniuk_the_birth_of_the_open_source_learning_revolution TED Talk dated 2006-02] Founder Richard Baraniuk discussing Connexions
*[[Quizbank]]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xog2X2SnjvQ YouTube: Importing OpenStax content into Pressbooks]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{subpages/List}}

[[category:openstax file]] [[Category:Quizbank]]</text>
      <sha1>j0u8d9lt5euuqla4cgh01mwivn6fq3j</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808299</id>
      <parentid>2808296</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T07:55:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andy?yes</username>
        <id>3006471</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>2808299</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3052" sha1="liaauhfzvu265d4xusmpt74r50gx3b8" xml:space="preserve">'''OpenStax''' (formerly OpenStax College) is a nonprofit ed-tech initiative based at Rice University. Since 2012, OpenStax has created peer-reviewed, openly licensed textbooks, which are available as free downloadable PDFs, web versions, audiobooks&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://openstax.org/blog/guest-post-how-audio-technology-is-creating-more-inclusive-learning|title=OpenStax {{!}} How audio technology is creating more inclusive learning|website=openstax.org|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-20}}&lt;/ref&gt; and for a low cost in print. All textbook content is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution Licenses; specifically, the books are available under the CC BY license (except for American Government 4e and Calculus, which is CC BY-NC-SA), which means that instructors are free to use, adapt, and remix the content, as long as they attribute OpenStax.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: OpenStax]]&lt;/ref&gt;

The following Wikiversity resources devoted to OpenStax textbooks.  These resources also included materials available at [https://openstax.org/ '''openstax.org''']. Although some versions found on Wikiversity are out-of-date, some might find them more convenient to access.

*[[OpenStax American Government 3e]] (click to visit)
*[[OpenStax American Government 4e]] (click to visit)
*[[OpenStax University Physics|OpenStax University Physics (click to visit)]]

*[[OpenStax College Physics|OpenStax College Physics (click to visit)]]

*[[OpenStax Astronomy|OpenStax Astronomy (click to visit)]]
*[[OpenStax Astronomy 2e|OpenStax Astronomy 2e (click to visit)]]
*[[OpenStax Anatomy and Physiology 2e|OpenStax Anatomy &amp; Physiology 2e]]
*[[OpenStax Biology 2e]]
*[[OpenStax Business Ethics]]
*[[OpenStax Concepts of Biology]]
*[[OpenStax Introduction to Anthropology]]
*[[OpenStax Introduction to Business]]
*[[OpenStax Introduction to Business 2e]]
*[[OpenStax Introduction to Political Science]]
*[[OpenStax Introduction to Sociology 3e]]
*[[OpenStax Lifespan Development]]
*[[OpenStax Principles of Macroeconomics 3e]]
*[[OpenStax Psychology 2e]]
*[[OpenStax US History]]
*[[OpenStax world history volume 1 to 1500|OpenStax World History, Volume 1: to 1500]]

*'''OpenStax Calculus: ''' No resources have been developed, but (out-of-date) pdf versions of the three volume textbook are posted on Wikiversity at: '''[[:File:CalculusVolume1-OP.pdf|V1]]''' | '''[[:File:CalculusVolume2-OP.pdf|V2]]''' | '''[[:File:CalculusVolume3-LR.pdf|V3]]''' 

== See Also ==
* [[Wikipedia: OpenStax]]

* [https://openstax.org/ OpenStax.org]
* [https://audileo.com/ Official OpenStax Audio Textbooks]

*[[:Category:openstax textbook]]
*[https://www.facebook.com/openstax/ OpenStax Facebook page]
* [https://www.ted.com/talks/richard_baraniuk_the_birth_of_the_open_source_learning_revolution TED Talk dated 2006-02] Founder Richard Baraniuk discussing Connexions
*[[Quizbank]]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xog2X2SnjvQ YouTube: Importing OpenStax content into Pressbooks]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{subpages/List}}

[[category:openstax file]] [[Category:Quizbank]]</text>
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    <title>Occupational Health Risk Surveillance</title>
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      <comment>Removing [[:c:File:Dock_workers_history_Aarhus_harbour.png|Dock_workers_history_Aarhus_harbour.png]], it has been deleted from Commons by [[:c:User:Krd|Krd]] because: No license since 3 May 2026.</comment>
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      <text bytes="65514" sha1="7vqkq103rwp9q2ltukp38iakmd7gppz" xml:space="preserve">[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ramazzini_Center Link to Ramazzini Center]
[[ File:Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (13266806523).jpg|right|400px|thumb| &lt;small&gt;On March 24, 1989, the tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground on Bligh Reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska. The Exxon Valdez spilled approximately 11 million gallons of its 53 million gallon cargo of crude oil making the Exxon Valdez the largest oil spill in U.S. waters at the time - investigation of the causes : mainly human error. Today we know how to prevent these events based on the occupational medical research on the causes of fatigue at work. Still the working conditions change over time due to the changes in the industries with a need to monitor the conditions with programs like this program. An example: [http://www.minsa.gob.pa/programa/programa-salud-ocupacional MINSA Programa Salud Ocupacional](Ministry of Health), that needs help to continue&lt;/small&gt; ]]  

[[File:Construction workers not wearing fall protection equipment.jpg|right |500px|thumb|Construction workers not wearing fall protection equipment 2018 ]]
[[File:Alternate Port Concept 150605-Z-UM297-228.jpg|right |500px|thumb|Port workers 2010]]

Spanish: [https://es.wikiversity.org/wiki/Programa_de_Monitoreo_de_Riesgos_de_Salud_Ocupacional Programa de Monitoreo de Riesgos de Salud Ocupacional]

==[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Occupational_Epidemiology/Research_tools Research tools]==

== OH Cross-sectional studies==
Cross-sectional studies constitute an important epidemiological design in occupational medicine as well as in other medical specialties. Valuable knowledge can be provided with low economic costs by the students and researchers without long training and experience in epidemiology under supervision from skilled researchers. Also this method is prefered in countries without access for researchers to the health registers. Even where health register are available, they only tell about the health effects and not about the actual wellbeing and the hazardous workplace exposures. All professionals are invited to edit and correct these pages including linguistic corrections by following the Wiki terms of references. Help to language translations with parallel pages in other languages is mostly welcome. Please create your Username, login, edit and save (Publish) the changes. Please create your Username, login, edit and save (Publish) the changes: [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&amp;returnto=Wikipedia%3AWhy_create_an_account%3F Create Account]. 
So improvement of the wellbeing of the workers and safe workplaces can be provided by repeated use of interviews, observations, standard questionnaires and analysis of the reported injuries and diseases and dissemination of the results. This program was from the beginning inspired by the need to carry out epidemiological risk assessment in the maritime industry for the prevention of the health risks. However, the maritime industry is a minor part of the transport industry and the researchers are mostly isolated from other occupational health researchers. So to enforce our research activities we want to collaborate with other occupational health researchers and professionals. Now we aim is to establish ICOH Scientific Committees in transport and seafood harvesters and industrial processing workers. One of the main tasks for the health professionals is to make a continous assessment and priorities of what should be done where and how in the industries for the health and safety. A permanent monitoring of the health risks and the health conditions in different segments of the industry uses various research tools like self-reported data, clinical data, morbidity and mortality registry data. The responsibility and the initiative to implement the needed preventive actions lies on the shoulders of the industrial management a continuing education in the occupational health system is needed. 
The program aims to survey the work and living conditions related health risks in commercial shipping, dock workers, fishing, offshore workers and seafood processing workers. The aim is to produce the needed scientific data for the primary- , secondary- and the tertiary health prevention in the industries. The aim is also to contribute to develop the Wikibook on occupational medicine [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Saltrabook#Tropical_Occupational_Medicine Occupational Medicine Wikibook] .  [http://revsaludtrabajo.sld.cu/index.php/revsyt ''See also for example the interesting OH cross-sectional studies in Revista Cubana de Salud y Trabajo''] The Danish &quot;Society for Survey Research&quot; aims to be a forum for exchange of experience in relation to the promotion of research in and application of survey methods, ie. surveys using questionnaires [https://surveyselskab.dk (''Dansk Surveyselskab'' ) ] [https://www.europeansurveyresearch.org ''The European Survey Research Association''] ''provides links between European survey researchers and their colleagues in other parts of the world''

==Background==
A multitude of research over the latest decades show that the &quot;human factor&quot; is the main etiological factor for occupational accidents on board and ships disasters. &lt;ref&gt;admin. Safety at sea: human factors aboard ship [Internet]. Chartered Institute of Ergonomics &amp; Human Factors. 2015 [cited 2017 Apr 12]. Available from: http://www.ergonomics.org.uk/safety-at-sea-human-factors-aboard-ship/&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The human factor&quot; however, is not examined by the inspections by the Maritime Authorities and either by the MLC inspectors which can be crucial for the ships safety. MLC2006 surveys include inspection of the written agreements on rest,contracts for the crew, valid certificates, sufficient number of crew etc. The ships´ conditions are questioned, but the sailors are not questioned. The lack of a systematic monitoring of seafarers working environment in action at sea means that &quot;the human risk factors&quot; are not inspected by the National Maritime Authorities and neither by the MLC inspections. The ships inspectors are trained in ships safety but not in occupational health and public health. Moreover the inspections are completed while the ships are in harbor, so the inspectors cannot observe the work processes and see all the risks on board. That means that the active work activities and the related possible health risk exposures cannot be assessed. The seafarers are not asked about their self-rated impression of any possible health risk hazards and improvement of the MLC program implementation related to the daily work processes at sea. The work schedule on board is often 7 days a week and 12 hours a day where fatigue and lack of good sleep is never questioned. The MLC inspections should ideally inspect that the recommended limits of hours of work, the manning and work conditions are complied. The ILO's Maritime Labor Convention entered into force August 20, 2013. There is however no effect evaluation of the implementations as there should be in such a huge ILO program. So the question is whether this really provide a comprehensive protection for all the seafarers as the video says?? &lt;ref&gt;https://youtu.be/geT0lS5BhMk&lt;/ref&gt; or is it more like the &quot;The Emperor´s New Clothes&quot; ?  Register based morbidity and mortality studies can answer some of this with many years delay. The method we propose can give some answers here and now about the effect of the implementation of MLC programs. Surveys on the workers self-rated evaluation of the working conditions have been used for workers on shore in decades but only in very few studies for seafarers. In Sweden, electronic questionnaires were sent to approximately 5000 seafarers with an email address in the Swedish staffing register (35% response). The noise, risk of accidents, hand / arm vibration and psycho-social factors such as harassment were frequently reported as a major safety problems in the merchant fleet &lt;ref&gt;Karl Forsell et al. Int Arch Occup Environ Health (2017) 90: 161-168&lt;/ref&gt; A citation from one of the authors: &quot;The web-based questionnaire was quite extensive but many questions were tailored for different job-categories on board. The results ought to be quite rewarding also for the shipping companies, unions and the maritime authority, which can target their inserts where the most needed&quot;. In Norway, questionnaires were sent by mail to all employees (2265) in the Norwegian Navy (civilian and military) (58% participated). Exposure to noise, heavy lifting, hazardous postures and work close to the antennas and communication equipment occurred frequently in this population. The most commonly labor-related diseases were hand eczema, hearing loss and low back pain. It is concluded that the project provides a basis for further action with regard to work health safety and environment within RNoN. &lt;ref&gt;Bente e Moen et al. Internat. Marit. Health, 2008, 59, 1-4&lt;/ref&gt;  This method has been used on shore for many decenia in the OECD countries for the benefit of the workers´health, just to mention some of them : Sweden, Norway, Finland and Iceland. &quot;Nordic occupational health questionnaires&quot; has been developed and used international, first on musculo-skeletal complaints and later on skin diseases, psycho-social health and safety culture. The method has been introduced over the latest ten years in Latin-America  &lt;ref&gt;Rojas M, Gimeno D, Vargas-Prada S, Benavides FG. [Musculoskeletal pain in Central American workers: results of the First Survey on Working Conditions and Health in Central America]. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2015 Aug;38(2):120–8. &lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Benavides FG, Wesseling C, Delclos GL, Felknor S, Pinilla J, Rodrigo F, et al. Working conditions and health in Central America: a survey of 12,024 workers in six countries. Occup Environ Med. 2014 Jul;71(7):459–65. &lt;/ref&gt;  &lt;ref&gt;Benavides FG, Merino-Salazar P, Cornelio C, Assunção AA, Agudelo-Suárez AA, Amable M, et al. [Basic questionnaire and methodological criteria for Surveys on Working Conditions, Employment, and Health in Latin America and the Caribbean]. Cad Saude Publica. 2016 Oct 10;32(9):e00210715. &lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Work and health in Latin America: results from the working conditions surveys of Colombia, Argentina, Chile, Central America and Uruguay - oemed-2016-103899.full.pdf [Internet]. [cited 2017 Apr 16]. Available from: http://oem.bmj.com.proxy1-bib.sdu.dk:2048/content/oemed/early/2017/01/16/oemed-2016-103899.full.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Gómez García AR, Estacio Calderón BM, Betancourt Palacios D, Vilaret Serpa A, Peñaherrera Silva MG, Suasnavas Bermudez PR. Revisión documental de las encuestas sobre condiciones de seguridad y salud ocupacional realizadas en países de Centro y Latinoamérica. Higiene y Sanidad Ambiental. 2016;16(6):1451–6. &lt;/ref&gt; [http://r.search.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0LEVv2a3SpZThgAG7oPxQt.;_ylu=X3oDMTByOHZyb21tBGNvbG8DYmYxBHBvcwMxBHZ0aWQDBHNlYwNzcg--/RV=2/RE=1496010267/RO=10/RU=http%3a%2f%2fwww.salud-publica.es%2fsecciones%2frevista%2frevistaspdf%2fbc577a4278da76c_Hig.Sanid.Ambient.16.%283%29.1451-1456.%282016%29.pdf/RK=1/RS=9J1_9z1npGNkgCeJ5Ft82VyEQJE- Review of the surveys]. Like in other countries, the access to the data from the health registers are restricted and under-reported. So the use of survey is the only possibility to get useful data for the prevention.    
During the ISMH14 &lt;ref&gt;http://ismh14.com/ &lt;/ref&gt; some of the participants talked about the possibility to establish an IMHA-Research multi-center survey on the self-rated occupational health risk factors at sea in order to amend the gap of monitoring the human work and living conditions on board, which is crucial to prevent the negative human risk factors. The idea of this project is that each country contributes with comparable data that can be summed up for a more complete description of the human risk factors. The use of short forms with few items is supposed to give a higher response rate and students can use the survey as part of their thesis under supervision of qualified scientists. The students and the professional scientists will publish the results on their national issues and be the first authors of various publications and reports. Further the intention is to store all survey results and sum up the data in reviews to give an overall status of health and occupational health risks in different segments of the shipping industry. International collaboration in maritime health research is needed as the national research groups are often small and unable to do larger studies.&lt;ref&gt;Jensen OC. Collaborative, cross-national studies on health and safety in seafaring for evidence-based Maritime policy and regulations. Int Marit Health. 2009;60(1-2):10–3. &lt;/ref&gt;  Sharing the strengths will help to get more and better studies to help to obtain the best possible working- and living conditions for the seafarers. While the survey method gives useful results here and now, the register based cohort studies may be in some cases be useful as the evidence for insurance cases, but most often not for planning of intervention programs. We need to know whether these health risks exists today. An introductory review of register based studies was recently given by Forsell et al 2017: &lt;ref&gt; Forsell K, Eriksson H, Järvholm B, Lundh M, Andersson E, Nilsson R. Work environment and safety climate in the Swedish merchant fleet. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2017 Feb;90(2):161–8. &lt;/ref&gt; They point out that cancer, ischemic heart diseases, psychiatric diagnoses and suicides were more common among seafarers than on-shore workers at that time. However as the &quot;responsible&quot; health risk exposures happened 30-50 years ago, we cannot know if these exposures exist today and this underscores the need to use the survey method.

==Mission==
The idea behind this program is that we together take the responsibility and work for the development not only into a healthy maritime sector but also healthy onshore industries. This means that in an overall perspective we act as a responsible public- and occupational group of health professionals. This is needed in the absence of any other organ that takes an overall responsibility for the research on the health conditions for the workers globally. So we take the strategic responsibilities of health for all under the WHOs responsibilities in the programs of Health for All. 
Any professional specialist within our organization have to take their part of the responsibility for a quality in health in coordination with the others. This means for example that the medical personnel have to take the responsibility to survey and to help to amend any lack of validity of the laboratory results that comes from the routine health examinations, just as an example.

==Aims of the survey program ==
* To create an international network with the aim to monitor health and the work-related risk factors on board and onshore
* To perform intervention programs based on the studies and evaluate the effects
* To perform systematic literature reviews on selected problems 
* To increase the statistical strength by pooling samples with identical questions and demographic information
* To describe the prevalence trends of the risk indicators by repeating the same questions to the same persons with years intervals 
* To ask the seafarers and dock workers about their knowledge to solve the specific risk factors
* To provide the ships, companies, maritime authorities and the unions new knowledge about the risk factors for prevention
* To provide the companies with new data to identify areas where it is appropriate to take steps to reduce the risks

==Long-sighted aims==
* To evaluate the effect of the MLC implementation by summing up the data from all partners for a global status. 
* To strengthen and retain seafarers' working efficiency, health and job retention.
* To contribute to the best economy and competitiveness of the companies 
* To use the data to construct job-exposure matrix for research and the management  of  health, safety and environment
* To deliver data on how the safety, health, welfare, working- and environmental environment evolve over time 
* To support sustainable shipping with respect to health, safety, economy, energy and environmental protection 
* To deliver data showing companies' improvements over time and the effects on the above parameters
* To create a strategic intervention program on health and  evaluation

==Scientific aims==
The aim is to help to create Health promotion Program. The goal is for everyone to benefit from the project, both for seamen and fishermen and other types of industries. The project focuses on the safety and health but we also want to consider it as a management project, which has a good impact on corporate culture in the seafaring, the fisheries sector and all industries with the benefits all parties the workers, owners and the community. The scientific aim is to produce data and publications that convey new knowledge of high validity based on the newest scientific principles for conduct of studies in peer reviewed publications. Our vision is to produce and communicate high-quality research results that are relevant for all stakeholders for the development of health and safety at large. The production of new knowledge comes from larger or small scale research projects, e.g. surveys as part of university Diplomas and Master studies and more comprehensive studies as PhD studies. In any case we recommend to use  [http://www.equator-network.org/ ''The Equator-network''] guidelines in well designed epidemiological studies. An honest goal is to inspire and educate younger scientists on how to do high-quality research and publications for pre-grade thesis, and postgrade Diploma, Master and PhD studies. Further the aim is to create evidence based strategic intervention programs based on the survey exposure data linked to the health outcome data from the national health registers. The first survey and intervention programs will be on mental health among seafarers and occupational health and safety for dock workers.

==Expected use of the results in the workplaces ==
 
The constantly updated knowledge of occupational hazards in the working environment is expected to help employees and the companies keep pace with a good  working environment.  The analyses of the indicators in the different demographic variables, age, job, work area, etc., identify the most important areas for occupational health preventive interventions in the companies. The results could be used as training material and could spil over to relevant modules.

==Hypotheses==
It is the aims to test the hypothesis that the physical and psycho-social working environment of the companies/ships differs by ship type and size, area of work, job type of the ship and other industries onshore. Further that there is a connection between the working environment, lifestyle on board/at work and home and the health and welfare of the employees. More specific hypothesis will be launched in relation to the maritime/professional school surveys and for specific themes and questions in specific job-categories and types of companies.

==METHODS==

==The study populations==
The program is intended to be useful for planning of the preventive actions in different sectors of the maritime industry: merchant seafaring, cruise shipping, ferries, small and large fishing vessel, the oil- and gas industry platforms and the dock workers. Similar programs could be useful for shore based industries. The target study populations are smaller or larger samples in specific segments in shipping, job-types and work areas on the ship with follow-up for many years where this is possible and gives meaning. The idea is that the participant countries carries out surveys annually or biannually and the data are used for 3 purposes: 1) for analysis and publication of the national sample data, authored by the national partners  2) for pooling of the data from many countries for &quot;big data analyses&quot; to be used in PhD studies and similar and 3) for construction of job-exposure matrices in the different segments of the industry to be used for an updated exposure assessment and for exposure information in health register data cohort studies. This include cohorts for specific type of vessels and specific job-categories for example the engineers, where the union allows for the e-mails of their members. There is good evidence that '''the youngest workers at sea''' sustain the highest incidences of occupational injury and represent a vulnerable target group for health and safety prevention &lt;ref&gt; Salminen S. Work-Related Accidents Among Young Workers in Finland. Int J Occup Saf Ergon. 1996 Jan;2(4):305–14. &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;CDC - Young Worker Safety and Health - NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic [Internet]. [cited 2017 May 11]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/youth/default.html&lt;/ref&gt;  In shipping we also find the highest incidence rates of injuries at work in the youngest ages but not significantly in fishing &lt;ref&gt; Jensen OC, Sørensen JFL, Canals ML, Hu Y, Nikolic N, Mozer AA. Non-fatal occupational injuries related to slips, trips and falls in seafaring. Am J Ind Med. 2005 Feb;47(2):161–71. &lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Jensen OC, Sørensen JFL, Canals ML, Hu YP, Nikolic N, Thomas M. Incidence of self-reported occupational injuries in seafaring-an international study. Occup Med (Lond). 2004 Dec;54(8):548–55. &lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt; 	Jensen OC. Work related injuries in Danish fishermen. Occup Med (Lond). 1996 Dec;46(6):414–20. &lt;/ref&gt;A dropout rate of 60% from the fishing school in Thyborøn, Denmark has been reported recently &lt;ref&gt; Elever på fiskeriskole lider af søsyge 2016 DR.  Available from: https://www.dr.dk/ligetil/indland/elever-paa-fiskeriskole-lider-af-soesyge&lt;/ref&gt; In a Swedish study about 35% of the youngest fishermen left the job of different reasons in the first three years &lt;ref&gt;Törner MI, Nilsson E, Kadefors R. The influence of musculoskeletal load, and other factors, on staff turn-over in fishery: a post employment questionnaire study. Bull Inst Marit Trop Med Gdynia. 1990;41(1-4):97–108. &lt;/ref&gt; There seems to be good reasons to give more attention to the youngest age-groups at sea to keep them healthy and safe in the job for many years and thus to establish '''maritime school birth cohort studies'''.

==Study design==
[[File:Job-exposure data and health symptoms from Surveys. Deaths and Diseses from register data.png|thumb|400px| '''Figure 3'''  Job-exposure hazards and health complaints from Surveys. Mortality and morbidity incidence studies by cohort linking crew registers with national health registers]]
The self-rated and actual living- and working conditions are revealed directly from the '''cross-sectional study design''' in the surveys. The latency problem with mortality and morbidity register based cohort studies for planning of the preventive programs can be illustrated in Figure 3. In contrast the negative health effects from the actual health hazards have many years of latency after the exposure until the first symptoms appear and the more developed, diagnosed and registered diseases show up in register based long-term cohort studies &lt;ref&gt;[https://www.cdc.gov/OPHSS/CSELS/DSEPD/SS1978/Lesson1/Section9.html#ALT118  CDC Section 9: Natural History and Spectrum of Diseases ] &lt;/ref&gt; So in order to plan a timely and adequate preventive intervention program, cross-sectional study design on the seafarers own perceptions of hazards in the working environment are needed. But also objective '''technical measurements and observations on board''', are needed to supplement the cross-sectional studies. Even in the regular MLC tjeck points, the seafarers own perceptions of hazards in the working environment are not questioned. As all job-carriers at sea start at the maritime schools it seems natural and feasible to establish maritime school study cohorts also inspired by school based cohort studies in other industries  [https://mmrjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40779-015-0058-x adolescent ] [https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-016-3664-y health surveillance] International collaboration on '''birth cohort studies from maritime schools''' would give statistical sufficient large cohorts can be fruitful completed within a few years follow-up. The research questions include drop-out prevalence rates, the causes for drop out, injury incidences, mental health complaints and the  barriers to comply with the [[Wikipedia:Healthy eating pyramid|healthy eating pyramid advice]]. Also the students´ evaluation of the quality of the school programs and comparison of the schools´ curriculum in different countries can be done within a few years of follow-up. Extension of the follow-up time would be worth doing by pooling data from the maritime schools´ birth cohorts and link the data to the national mortality and morbidity registers regarding the fatal accidents and other registered health outcomes [[File:Healthy eating pyramid.jpg|thumb|200px|Healthy eating pyramid]]

== Mixed Methods==
The intention is to build on a wholistic approach to better monitor work related health and safety. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods for data collection are considered. Furthermore, data collected from twining Universities will be used for  cross-sectional studies with the respective countries. The research takes places with standardized, validated questionnaires. These questionnaires include: the Nordic Ergonomics Scheme, for the descrition of the ergonomic situation, the Nordic Safety Climate Scheme dealing with the safety issues in the working environment, the Copenhagen Psycho-Social Social Questionnaire (CoPSQ) reflecting besides the mental health issues, more general concerns related to the the organisation and management of the company and the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) which gives insigt to the employees health concerns.  All relevant demographic and epidemiological variables are taken into consideration for each country as well as:  discipline, position, type of vessel/workplace. These allow for valid comparisons over time and between the different disciplines and types of work to identify needs for prevention interventions. 


== [http://www.equator-network.org/reporting-guidelines/prisma-scr/ The equator-network reporting-guidelines] ==
Prior to conducting a cross-sectional survey, the field is searched as a systematic review. Specific requirements are set for a systematic review that must be adapted to the extent of published research. There are several guidelines for how to do this, PRISMA has been the standard for many years and now the Prima-scoping guideline has been added for areas that are less explored.

==The research groups ==

Students from the universities are inspired to do their thesis based on this program. Invitation to complete the electronic questionnaires on their mobile phones are sent by mail to the participants. Google Forms or other IT survey programs they are most familiar with. The universities have normally their own survey systems. The systems must be able to export the data in an 'Excel compatible form so that all the national survey data can be summed up in a common database for &quot;big data&quot; analysis. Data are collected directly from the classes in:

* Maritime universities/schools  
* Public Health Schools,  
* Medical schools,  
* Nursing schools,  
* Other maritime and dock workers training centers

==Datacollection==
Data collection is done in different places. The list of e-mails for the seafarers are handed over to the researchers from the institutions that are willing to do this under the highest ethical standard for personal privacy. The shipping companies, unions, maritime authorities and seafarers medical clinics will be asked to help with the list of mails: Alternatively the institutions keep the mail addresses by themselves and they send out the mails with the link to the questionnaires, collect the answers and send the results in the Excel file without any personal ID information for personal privacy. 
* Seafarers Union members´files, 
* Dock workers, seafarers, officers and fishermen´s training centers  
* Shipping companies´ manning registers, 
* Maritime authorities 
* The Seamens´ Church and the seafarers´ homes 
* The medical clinics request the seafarers to complete surveys in the waiting room 
* The Social Media like Facebook page with the address for Google Form Survey
*

==Survey themes and research questions ==
The selection of the survey themes and the research questions is based on the aims and strategy of the program and the researchers´ personal interests and not at least the existence of research groups with shared interests and willingness to offer their time for the work. The existence of validated questionnaires may also help to select the research questions. The preliminary proposed main research themes are the following: 
* Psycho-social work and free time environment and complaints
* Knowledge on risk factors and the relation to health complaints and diseases 
* Muscular and skeletal difficulty and physical workload
* Skin complaints
* Occupational injuries 
* Safety culture and management 
* Occupational epidemiology, job-exposure matrix
* Chemical working environment, toxicology, nano-safety and microbiology
* Welfare on board, sleep, rest, free time and contact to home
* Physical environment, noise, vibrations, heat, humidity
* Work hour schedules, number of months out and home
* Indicators a priori for repatriations from the sea

Experiences from the Swedish survey (Forsell et al. 2017) &lt;ref&gt; Forsell K, Eriksson H, Järvholm B, Lundh M, Andersson E, Nilsson R. Work environment and safety climate in the Swedish merchant fleet. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2017 Feb;90(2):161–8. &lt;/ref&gt; learned us that specific questionnaires are needed for specific segments of the seafarers and the ships. So it seem to be a feasible way that every country takes care of some specific segments of the industries and specific hazards.

==The Multi-center Program Statement==
The partners are requested to follow the ''multi-center program statement'' to strengthen the collaboration and the evidence from pooling comparable data from surveys in different countries 
# To establish national research groups and student groups
# To use the already validated questionnaires in the questionnaire library  
# To develop (modify, shorten down) new questionnaires for specific items and perform test-retest and psychometric validations
# To sample data from many countries same questionnaires, analysed as one big sample, like in the  [http://isaac.auckland.ac.nz/ '''ISAAC''' The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood ]
# To add variables about ship, person, birth year (school projects: matriculation year, type of education, maritime school, city, country) to obtain comparable data.
# To transform and edit the validated standard questionnaires for use in Google Forms and add them to the ''Blue Risk Survey Database'' 
# To complete a research (re-use texts) protocol, time schedule, budget and person tasks [https://www.strobe-statement.org/fileadmin/Strobe/uploads/checklists/STROBE_checklist_cross-sectional.doc ''Go to tjecklist cross-sectional''] 
# Use the scientific statements [http://www.equator-network.org/library/spanish-resources-recursos-en-espanol/ ''The Equator-Network''] for observational studies
# Publish articles in scientific journals, upload Excel data sheet, the protocol and the published articles in the ''Blue Risk Survey Database'' (see below)

==Step 1 Development of the survey tools==

The plan is to develop and re-use standardized questionnaires that are validated and have been shown to be useful in similar surveys before. The Danish National Research Center for the Working Environment in Copenhagen has developed and used questionnaires for surveys with self-rated evaluation of several important issues in the working environment over 30 years &lt;ref&gt;  National Research Centre for the Working Environment | Lersø Parkallé 105 | DK-2100 Copenhagen O | Denmark |  Phone +45 3916 5200 | fax +45 3916 5201 | e-mail: nfa@arbejdsmiljoforskning.dk &lt;/ref&gt;. [http://www.arbejdsmiljoforskning.dk/en/publikationer/spoergeskemaer/nosacq-50/nosacq-50-translations publikationer/spoergeskemaer/nosacq-50/nosacq-50-translations] The validated questionnaires have been developed for use in small, medium and the large sizes mainly for research use. Over the years a long row of scientific articles on the results and the validity tests of the questionnaires are published and allowed for free use. This is very appreciated by the maritime occupational health development, that stands years behind the occupational health research behind the shore based. Most of the validated questionnaires have been developed in collaboration within the Nordic countries with support from the Nordic Counsil. Some of the standard questionnaires can now be important parts of the maritime health multi-center project and the project can now take great advantage of the great work already done in the Danish National Occupational Health Research Center. 
Besides there is a need to develop and validate new questionnaire specifically for the maritime workers for example on dental status. Several cross-sectional studies on maritime occupational health have been published. The authors are invited to join the program and to validate their questionnaires for a the collaborative survey program. This will be a long process and the success depends on fruitful international collaborative results.

== Data reliability ==
Generally it is recommended to use questionnaires from studies where the validity has been tested with good results also for reasons of comparison of the results. In the Danish and the international seafarers surveillance project the questionnaire data about type of ships, position and work area on board and the number of days at sea was held up against data from the DMA that showed good comparability. Also test- retest of the questionnaires was used. In the projects the data validity also need to be evaluated. Study with the validity of The short version of COPSQ [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2736502/pdf/PSM-03-05.pdf Link to pdf ]&lt;ref&gt;Nübling M, Stößel U, Hasselhorn H-M, Michaelis M, Hofmann F. Measuring psychological stress and strain at work - Evaluation of the COPSOQ Questionnaire in Germany. Psychosoc Med [Internet]. 2006 Oct 18 [cited 2020 Jul 24];3. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2736502/
&lt;/ref&gt;

==Table 1 Questionnaires on single items ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|        '''Stage 1 The unedited versions'''   || '''English  versions'''  ||   '''References'''  || '''Spanish  versions'''  
|-
|Basic data      ||https://www.dropbox.com/s/scp3wjwkwy2ap12/Person%20and%20Ship%20questions.doc?dl=0
Person and ship basic variables]||  || || [https://www.dropbox.com/s/yq6j1v2tz93h8tz/Cuestionario%20Barcelona%20Seafarers%20Surv.doc?dl=0 Cuestionnario basico barco y persona] 
|-
|Skin problems    ||[https://books.google.com.pa/books?hl=da&amp;lr=&amp;id=XpxFi_Nj9nUC&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PA7&amp;dq=nordic+occupational+skin+questionnaire&amp;ots=XJtGace8Er&amp;sig=RnnjJS1uJJyuQXwWfYkksoA1bng#v=onepage&amp;q=nordic%20occupational%20skin%20questionnaire&amp;f=false English NOSQ ] [http://www.arbejdsmiljoforskning.dk/~/media/Spoergeskemaer/nosq/NOSQ-UK-SHORT-2002-03-01w.doc NOSQ-UK-SHORT-2002-03-01w.doc]  || || [http://www.arbejdsmiljoforskning.dk/~/media/Spoergeskemaer/nosq/NOSQ-ES-SHORT-2010w.doc NOSQ-ES-SHORT-2010w.doc] 
|-
|Musculoskeletal  || [https://www.dropbox.com/s/cgn1u59t2iqzd6u/Nordic%20Q%20Dickinson.pdf?dl=0 Nordic Q 1] [https://www.dropbox.com/s/h1povtx9rnn7d64/Nordic%20musculoskeletal%20questionnaire%20Kurinka.pdf?dl=0 Quest Kurinka]|| ||  [https://www.dropbox.com/pri/get/SO%204%20PROJECT%20EPI%20ALL%20QUESTIONNAIRES%20ESPANOL/Question%C3%A1rio%20N%C3%B3rdico%20M%C3%BAsculo-esquel%C3%A9tico.doc?_subject_uid=43017888&amp;w=AABoBJOb7o2XpvIqQ_IZrKruKoN1au85G4RySZI8BR6pCA Musculoskeletal Nordico] 
|-
|Indoor Climate||          [https://www.dropbox.com/s/qx1ojzze5lwepc2/Indoor%20climate%20questionnaire.pdf?dl=0 Inddor Climate ]   [http://www.mmquestionnaire.se/ Orebro surveys]    ||  || 
|-
|Maslach Burnout || [https://www.dropbox.com/s/5wy67dzp1jyfsle/Cuestionario%20de%20Maslach%20Burnout%20Inventory.pdf?dl=0 Maslach Burnout]||   || [https://www.dropbox.com/s/u9mfuz7ey5cgzb5/Cuestionario_de_Maslach_Burnout_Inventory.pdf?dl=0 Cuestionario de Maslach Burnout Inventory] 
|-
|Physical Activity  || [https://www.dropbox.com/s/gdvqjeuzm2q3v79/IPAQ_English_self-admin_short.doc?dl=0 IPAQ_English self-adm] ||   || [https://www.dropbox.com/s/49bk1y4inanoqvo/IPAQ_CUESTIONARIO%20INTERNACIONAL%20DE%20ACTIVIDAD%20F%C3%8DSICA.docx?dl=0 IPAQ Actividad physica ] 
|-
|Safety Climate ||  [https://www.dropbox.com/s/xwjeqcljo2d48tp/Safety%20Climate%20Nordic%20Questionnaire.pdf?dl=0 Safety Climate Nordic]     [https://www.dropbox.com/s/uqtt880atnpuzz6/Sikkerhedsklima%20dansk%20NOSACQ-50.%20pdf.pdf?dl=0 Danish Safety Climate COPSCQ] [https://www.dropbox.com/s/idoln3tgpg87zbd/Havnearbejdere%20Sp%C3%B8rgeskema%20om%20sikkerhedsklima%20og%20mental%20sundhed.pdf?dl=0 Havnearbejderes sikkerhedsklima og mental sundhed]   ||  ||  [https://www.dropbox.com/s/wwbrs02fxhkoidk/NOSACQ-50-Seguridad%20en%20el%20trabajo%20-2012.pdf?dl=0 NOSACQ-50-Seguridad en el trabajo] Nordic Safety Climate multi languages [http://nfa.dk/da/Vaerktoejer/Sporgeskemaer/Safety-Climate-Questionnaire-NOSACQ50 Safety-Climate-Questionnaire-NOSACQ50 mulitlinguistic]
|-
|SF-12  || [https://www.hss.edu/physician-files/huang/SF12-RCH.pdf SF12-RCH.pdf]Short Form health SF-12 
||   || [https://www.dropbox.com/s/s65r47lopbfs45u/SF-12%20Espanol.pdf?dl=0 SF-12 Espanol0] 
|-
|GHQ-12 Covid ||[https://www.dropbox.com/s/3phes3iugjng82p/%202020%20Google%20Forms%20A%20brief%20investigation%20using%20the%20GENERAL%20HEALTH%20QUESTIONNAIRE%20GHQ%2012%20-.pdf?dl=0 General Health GHQ-12 Covid-19]|| ] || 
|- 
|Patient Health Questionnaire    ||  [https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/health/practitioner-pro/bc-guidelines/depression_patient_health_questionnaire.pdf Patient Health Questionnaire.pdf ]  [https://www.integration.samhsa.gov/clinical-practice/gad708.19.08cartwright.pdf GAD General Anxiety Disorder]   || ||   ||  ||   
|- 
|CoPSQ || [http://nfa.dk/da/Vaerktoejer/Sporgeskemaer/Copenhagen-Psychosocial-Questionnaire-COPSOQ-II/Kort-udgave# Psychosocial-Questionnaire-COPSOQ-II/Kort-udgave#][https://www.dropbox.com/s/idoln3tgpg87zbd/Havnearbejdere%20Sp%C3%B8rgeskema%20om%20sikkerhedsklima%20og%20mental%20sundhed.pdf?dl=0 Havnearbejdere sikkerhedsklima mental sundhed på dansk]||   ||[https://www.dropbox.com/s/sua314peepirbh8/2014%20CopsoQ%20cuestionario_vc.pdf?dl=0  [http://www.arbejdsmiljoforskning.dk/en/publikationer/spoergeskemaer/ spoergeskemaer/]Copso cuestionario] 
|-
|Fatigue survey|| [https://www.dropbox.com/s/cyyj6vefk5kbr3d/Fisheries%20Stress%20GDM_Dr%20Ghailan%20tarik%20HFNov2018.pdf?dl=0 Fisheries Stress Marocco results Sigrid / Karasek ppt][https://www.dropbox.com/s/e7o2tkm4eyhxu8i/Brief%20Fatigue%20Inventory.pdf?dl=0 Brief fatigue survey]  ||    || 
|-
|Boredom || [https://www.questionpro.com/survey-templates/boredom-proneness-scale-survey-template/ Boredom proneness scale survey template] [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31237666 Jegaden et al. Dont forget boredom on board ...]  ||   || 
|-
|Social security||  [https://www.dropbox.com/s/odfiz59nrhda1zo/Questionnaire%20for%20Social%20security%20study.doc?dl=0 Survey form] [https://www.dropbox.com/s/lzbalfnyi3uuowt/2013%20Social%20security%20for%20seafarers.pdf?dl=0 Article Social Security for all 2013]||    || [https://www.dropbox.com/s/t5giqey464wwyh2/Cuestionario%20Marinos.doc?dl=0 Cuestionario Marinos] [https://www.dropbox.com/s/qfkr1eh65kwl2os/Cuestionario%20Pesca.doc?dl=0 Pesca] [https://www.dropbox.com/s/wcgjdphiilqgcel/Cuestionario_ESPANOLES%20Pesca.doc?dl=0 Pesca espanoles]
|-
|Fishing stress Marocco Sigrid  ||  [http://%5Bhttps://www.dropbox.com/s/cyyj6vefk5kbr3d/Fisheries%20Stress%20GDM_Dr%20Ghailan%20tarik%20HFNov2018.pdf?dl=0 000] ||    || 
|-
|Clinical data monitoring  ||  [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1dpgZqhKV1PMMpW22P1k_XM6FlQYErcFAoiT1DTdSOD0/edit Clinica Einstein data monitoring Google Forms from 21 March 2019] ||    || [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1TmJKXt3Uv4qiLwMv2vIe8vAzz1BD6x1hU3LpnwL9qkU/edit Google Forms enfermedades relacion del trabajo med del trabajo]
|-
|Newly hired seafarers Q  || [https://www.dropbox.com/s/0k32p66j9ghh1jc/Ques%20problems%20Encountered%20by%20Newlyhired%20Seafarers%20article.pdf?dl=0 Newly hired seafarers problems questionnaire]||   ||   ||     ||    || 
|-
|Dental hygiene Q  || [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4184328/ Article with questionnaire India] [https://www.who.int/oral_health/publications/pepannex7sohqbasicmethods.pdf?ua=1 WHO dental adult Q] || [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1aXaFb3v2K1j59mZPgYz1HkMfK9JbfYn2dCUVRBqzzXc/edit Google Form Q Tuan English ]   || [https://www.dropbox.com/s/5dnmp65rl8524am/Cuestionario%20dental%20al%20mar%20Parte%201.docx?dl=0 Cuestionario Dental health parte 1 ] [https://www.dropbox.com/s/77enrlehpf0obk8/Cuestionario%20dental%20al%20mar%20Parte%202%20.docx?dl=0 Cuestionario dental health parte 2] [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27029923 The questionnaire was formulated base on W.H.O and Syed 2016 research] 
|-
|}
https://www.questionpro.com/survey-templates/boredom-proneness-scale-survey-template/

==Composed questionnaires with many themes:==

==[https://www.dropbox.com/s/k2uek4k3241l4yf/Yale%20study%20General_wellness_Dec_15_final.pdf?dl=0 1. Yale General wellness]==

== [https://www.dropbox.com/s/5unp6e9q457s9ei/Sp%C3%B8rgeskema%20.pdf?dl=0 2. Danish questionnaire ]==

== [https://www.dropbox.com/s/gvqthcv67uera6g/Swedish%20questionnaire%202014.pdf?dl=0 3. A Swedish questionnaire]==

==Step 2 the questionnaires are prepared for electronic survey tools ==
In the second step, the original questionnaires with explanations will be further edited for use in the Google Forms. The translations to different languages is needed. The process of validation is reported. The Copenhagen questionnaires are already validated and used on shore.

==Data Processing and data analysis==
All data are transferred from the Excel format in the Google Survey instrument to be available as a SPSS data file for statistical calculations. Data will be handled in strict confidentiality anonymously by the respective researchers and they can receive help for analysis from other centers. The data will be kept in separate databases in order to pool the data for analysis and follow-up studies later. Data Protection Agencies are informed by applicable law. After data gathering is complete, the Excel files are converted to Spss file for analysis. Tables are provided in percentages, in numbers and kind of ward/department. Each national group can analyse their country-specific data and/or they can ask for help from other countries. Statistical analyses are performed and data are checked for outliers and normality. The analyses include descriptive frequency distributions for all variables; differences between groups are tested using chi-square test, student's t-test or variance analyses. Logistic regression analyses and multi-level analyses are used to examine trends and differences among seafarer´s groups, sectors and countries.

==Job-exposure matrices== 
Job-exposure matrices are constructed based on the cross-sectional data and the hygienic measurements on board to estimate the type and level of exposure in different job-categories. The aim is to establish a dose response relationship between the relevant exposures on different vessels- and job-types and the health effects in the long term. By assessing as an example the causes of hearing loss and tinnitus, the actual exposure levels of the crew to noise over several years in the relevant areas of the ships. This method is rapidly evolving at the work environment research among shore occupations, but has not previously been used at sea. This despite the fact that the method seems to be particularly useful for working on ships since the construction of the various types of ships globally are very similar. The possibility of a fruitful international cooperation on descriptions of the exposures is obvious. The development and the use of the job-exposure matrices and the linking to register health data in cohort studies is quite resource demanding and requires funding in the national research institutes. Rafi will take the lead of developing the strategy for this specific task.Shipbuilding traditions allow for comparability of the survey data. China, South Korea and Japan are the main constructors of merchant ships with 83% of all [[Wikipedia:Shipbuilding|Shipbuilding]] 2015. While modern shipbuilding makes considerable use of prefabricated sections, this allows for compare of data collected in different countries. The architecture of the large container-, tankers, cruise-  and passenger ships has been the same for years. Still the building year of the ships is needed to be recorded in the surveys for construct the year specific job-exposure matrices. ''Objective measurements'' should be applied to the matrices, for example on noise, heat and vibration levels.  These data might exist in the shipping companies and or occupational health service files. Its an important task is to search for this type of objective measurements of heat, noise, vibrations and particles in the in-door air on the ships, in the companies or in the Maritime Authorities. This is unknown in our group and far no-one has ever asked for such measurements, even that these parameters is of paramount importance for the objective assessments of the seafarers health environment.

== Informed consent ==
The participants will be explained the purpose and details of the study through consent from the beginning of the questionnaire before the start. All of information from the participants will be confidential and only used for scientific purpose. 

==Ethical requirements==
The ethical rules for database research in (Denmark and for the University of Southern Denmark) are complied with. Confidentiality in handling personal information is done according to the rules set out by the Danish Data Protection Agency. 
There are no personal sensitive information included so approval from the Ethics Committee or written informed consent is not necessary. Data and results will be used for (the public health master thesis in the University of Southern Denmark from the period...)
The supervisors take care to secure that the data is processed under the Act on medical confidentiality as guidelines for good epidemiological practice will be followed. The participants' anonymity will be protected in every way and this will be indicated in the project description and schedule. It will be ensured that the electronic table is locked so that the information can not be seen by anyone other than the researchers.

== Optimal 2-3 items in each of the surveys ==
* Basic information on person and ship, gender, nationality for all the surveys also for pooling of the data
* Days at se and hours of work
* Access to internet at sea
* Knowledge on work related risk factors and their health effects
* Safety culture and leadership climate on board
* Occupational exposures on board:
* Noise and vibrations
* Bullying 
* Women seafarers specific environment
* Dental health and knowledge on prevention
* Ergonomic health complaints and hazards  
* Tobacco alcohol (on board / home)
* Food and drink (on board / home)
* Physical activity (on board / home)
* Sleeping hours and quality 
* Mental health 
* Stressors and Symptoms
* Fatigue and burn out
*

==Stratification on types of ship, areas on board and job-position==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;

| '''Containers'''    || Bridge    || Deck        || Machine          ||  Galley       
|-
|Officer||Psycho-social  || Safety culture  ||Psycho-social  |||style=&quot;background:purple; &quot;|Safety culture    
|-
|Non-officer|| Mobbing and harassment || Safety culture   || Mobbing and harassment   ||Safety culture    

|-
|}

== Analysis of trends in health and exposure to specific risks over time in the main populations strata ==  
To apply data from repeated surveys and analyse the prevalence of indicators over the different strata of job position, work area, ship types, age, gender and nationality by logistic regression analyses like in these study examples:  [https://www.journaljesbs.com/index.php/JESBS/article/view/30160/56589 Due P et al. 2019 (Link to full text) ] &lt;ref&gt; Due P, Damsgaard MT, Rasmussen M, Holstein BE, Holstein BE. ''Trends in social inequality in exposure to bullying at school 1994-2018.'' 
&lt;/ref&gt; ''Trends in Social Inequality in Exposure to Bullying at School 1994-2018'' and Knoblauch AM et al. 2020: [https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/10/3633/htm (Link to full text) ]''Community Health Impacts of the Trident Copper Mine Project in Northwestern Zambia: Results from Repeated Cross-Sectional Surveys''&lt;ref&gt; Knoblauch AM, Farnham A, Zabré HR, Owuor M, Archer C, Nduna K, et al. Community Health Impacts of the Trident Copper Mine Project in Northwestern Zambia: Results from Repeated Cross-Sectional Surveys. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020 May 21;17(10). 
&lt;/ref&gt;

==Communication of results==
* National reports to the unions and funding entities
* Scientific articles to international journals
* Presentation of results at national conferences
* Presentation at the ISMH´s and other international conferences
*
== [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Occupational_Epidemiology/Clinical_data_monitoring_and_occupational_risk_indicators Clinical data monitoring and occupational risk indicators]==

The aim is to contribute to the prevention of occupational diseases in any type of industry. Method: registration of clinical data and work-anamnesis, from routine health examinations.  The scheme can completed on the iphone together with the patient, who can correct directly any errors. All answers are kept in Excel format with the ID and the answers can also be printed out in Pdf or paper. Summary data are analysed without names and with no personal identification, so that all information are kept strong confidential [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1dpgZqhKV1PMMpW22P1k_XM6FlQYErcFAoiT1DTdSOD0/edit Clinica Einstein Data monitering ]

== Occupational health and population register data monitoring and single studies ==
# Data from national and regional health surveys
# Data from Metro company and other companies statistics registers 
# National congenital anomaly and rare disease registrations
# Statutory notifications of infectious disease
# Laboratory reporting of microbiological data
# General practitioner clinical codes (SNOMED CT)
#

== [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Occupational_Epidemiology/The_Blue_Public_Health_Surveillance_and_Intervention_Program The Blue Public Health Surveillance and Intervention Program]==
 
The ILO introduced the SOLVE training package: Integrating health promotion into workplace OSH policies in 2012. The material covers the management of health promotion at the workplace to deal with nine topics: stress and economic stress, violence, tobacco and smoke-free workplaces, alcohol and drugs, nutrition, physical activity, healthy sleep and HIV/AIDS. The package includes a participant's workbook, a trainer’s guide, lesson plans and a CD-ROM with presentations and background material.A specific package has not been introduced for seafarers and fishermen, but is highly relevant and the program will be research based. 
The seafaring employees face more difficult working conditions and living conditions in the sea than the employees working on land. Their health is affected by the environment in which they live, often coupled with long working hours that contribute to eating more carbohydrate food and less physical activity in a working environment with high demands and long working hours loneliness and stress. This proposal seeks to improve the seafarers’ well-being on board that attracts the youngest seafarers to choose and to stay in the job by including the whole maritime industry. The task is to create responsibility among all stakeholders to help to create a comprehensive occupational- and public health program at sea that includes the whole maritime industry. 
Methods: The theories on empowerment, life-long- and problem oriented learning with inclusion of all stakeholders form the theoretical background. A joint action among the unions, ship owners, maritime authorities and a network of universities´ research centers and maritime health departments studies include &lt;ref&gt;Schiller C, Winters M, Hanson HM, Ashe MC. A framework for stakeholder identification in concept mapping and health research: a novel process and its application to older adult mobility and the built environment. BMC Public Health. 2013 May 2;13:428. &lt;/ref&gt;
We should establish an international comprehensive public- and occupational health promotion program for the whole shipping industry. The objective to improve the quality of life at sea by starting in the maritime schools. Theories on empowerment, life-long- and problem oriented learning with inclusion of all stakeholders form the theoretical background. A joint action among the unions, and a network of universities´ research centers and maritime health departments studies include: 
# Repeated surveys (and new scientific studies) on knowledge, attitudes and occupational health risk factors 
# Monitoring of clinical variables and exposures on board (physical, mental, chemical, ergonomic..) 
# Based on that, health and risk reduction education in the whole industry  
# Monitoring of health and working health risk indicators, diet and exercise 
# Based on that to point out polices with the specific needs for structural changes in the workplace (ILO SOLVE)
# Implementation of best practices for health promotion in the companies and on board and follow up of the effects 
# Empowerment of the youngest,training,  problem oriented learning to promote quality of life at sea 
# Political and international guidelines to reduce risk factors that will not else be changed due to economic factors.

== [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Occupational_Epidemiology/Maritime_Mental_Health_Surveillance_and_Intervention_Program Maritime Mental Health Surveillance and Intervention Program]==

The seafaring employees face more difficult working conditions in the sea than the employees working on land. Their mental health is affected by the environment in which they live, often coupled with long working hours that contribute to stress, anxiety, loneliness, depression and suicide. This proposal seeks to improve the seafarers’ mental health by introducing a comprehensive, evidence-based global maritime mental health promotion program that attracts the youngest seafarers to choose and to stay in the job. Methods: The theories on empowerment, life-long- and problem oriented learning with inclusion of all stakeholders form the theoretical background. Our main task is to create responsibility among all stakeholders to help to create a comprehensive occupational- and public health program at sea that includes the whole maritime industry. A joint action among the unions, the ship owners, the maritime authorities and a network of universities´ research centers in suicide prevention, public health and maritime health departments includes: 

# Review studies on: 1) suicide 2) prevalence of depression, quality of life, social isolation, loneliness and associated risk factors; 
# Cohort studies of students from maritime academies with baseline questionnaires and follow-up after experience gained at sea and every 5 years thereafter
# Studies of the level of knowledge and training needs in mental health and the risk factors for training development - also on diet and physical activity
# Analysis of the etiological indicators for the drop-out rates of the students and trained seafarers; 
# Training methods for the maritime students, seafarers and personnel in the shipping companies in groups with problem solving and life-long learning;  
# Organising the students into small groups that stay in contact via the social media and help each others while at sea and at home; 
# Training the students to assist each other in difficult situations and educating them in navigating mental health environments on-board and onshore; 
# Giving mental health care training to all employees and age groups through classes, online courses, information materials and through the obligatory health examinations.

The research-based background for the program is supposed to be effective with adequate amendments over time. Empowerment of the youngest seafarers through life-long- and problem oriented learning is supposed to be attractive while they are asked to help to create the quality of life at sea. Political and international guidelines will be needed to minimise those risk factors that will not else be changed due to economic factors. As mentioned in our mission, we see the maritime sector in an overall perspective where we act as a responsible public- and occupational group of maritime health professionals. This is needed in the absence of any other organ that takes an overall responsibility for the health conditions for the seafarers globally. So we take the strategic responsibilities of health for all seafarers under the WHOs responsibilities in the programs of Health for All. Any professional specialist within our organization have to take their part of the responsibility for a quality in health in coordination with the others. This means for example that the medical personnel have to take the responsibility to survey and to help to amend any lack of validity of the laboratory results that comes from the routine heatlh examinations, just as an example.

==[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Occupational_Epidemiology/Dock_Workers%C2%B4_Health_and_Safety_Surveillance_and_Intervention_Program_-_enter Dock Workers Health and Safety Surveillance and Intervention Program open here]==
The employers have the full responsibility for health and safety in the ports. However the unions often take initiatives for better safety and health together with the university research units and the regional occupational health departments. The strength of the unions participation is that the unions and workers know the workplace hazards by own experiences better than the owners and the administrators.

==Registration of Work related diseases in the clinics==
Patient records in clinics are unique resources that can provide knowledge for better patient diagnostics, treatment and prevention of the working conditions. All types of clinics can participate in collection of data for research. By using the forms the physicians will identify complaints that are work related and the prevention should be done at work. For a start to complete and analyse 100 schemes would be a great contribution to better knowledge and prevention. The schemes are prepared for General Medicine, Psychiatry, Dermatology and Maritime medicine but other specialties like Rheumatology, Cardiology, Respiratory- and Neurological clinics can benefit by using these schemes. 
*
* [https://www.dropbox.com/s/xhj8q7pjzzwvqrw/Medicina%20Maritima_Encuesta_sobre_enfermedades_del_trabajo.docx?dl=0 Medicina Maritima encuesta sobre enfermedades del trabajo]
* [https://www.dropbox.com/s/r66exzrvj0rrqiw/Dermatologia%20Encuesta%20sobre%20enfermedades%20del%20trabajo%20%20.docx?dl=0 Encuesta enfermedades dermatologia del trabajo]
* [https://www.dropbox.com/s/2lh5dh79irpeusj/Medico_familiar_Encuesta_sobre_enfermedades_del_trabajo.docx?dl=0 Medico familiar Encuesta sobre enfermedades del trabajo]
* [https://www.dropbox.com/s/zy3w46ovns2mpyv/Psychiatria%20Encuesta%20sobre%20enfermedades%20del%20trabajo%20%20.docx?dl=0 Encuesta enfermedades psychiatria del trabajo]
*

==Agenda and minutes from meetings==
* A general meeting with all partners will be held at the International Symposia of Maritime Health (Next Hamburg 2019)
* Partners in neighboring countries are inspired to meet and have Skype meetings
* The national partners have one of more annual meetings. 
* The minutes of the general meetings will state which standardized questionnaires are agreed to be used in the regional surveys. 
* The minutes of the national and general meetings will be posted in these pages  
*
==Finansial issues==
Different types of human resources and financial support needed: 1) small scale surveys with low budget and voluntary assistance can be done as part of students´ thesis and contribute to larger pool of data   2) more comprehensive studies, based on pooled data, development of exposure matrix and register based studies in PhD studies will need larger financial support from international funding.
* Minor surveys can be done for free by retired seafarers, retired medical doctors, scientists and others that can work &quot;con amore&quot; 
* Students can use the surveys to produce an article for their thesis also under a low budget
* Unions and other organizations that want to survey some specific questions is very welcomed
* The partner countries are responsible for human resource and/or financial support to their surveys and the coordination activities. 
* Application to national and international funds to support &quot;non-salary&quot; purposes, for travel, hotel and other expenses in national, regional and international meetings 
* Low budget communication with Skype meetings

==DISCUSSION==
Based on previous experiences, it is probably difficult or impossible to manage an active network of collaborators. However it has been shown to be realistic the students in public health and maritime educations do their thesis based on data from standardised surveys. The intention is that the students produce their thesis based on the international guidelines for reporting cross-sectional studies. In 2 cases the master thesis was later revised and published in an international scientific journal &lt;ref&gt; Nielsen NO, Nielsen SRG. Dockworkers’ health and safety. A cross-sectional study of self-perceived safety and psychosocial work environment amongst Danish dockworkers. Int Marit Health. 2019;70(3):171–179. &lt;/ref&gt;. &lt;ref&gt;
Fotteler ML, Jensen OC, Andrioti D. Seafarers’ views on the impact of the Maritime Labour Convention 2006 on their living and working conditions: results from a pilot study. Int Marit Health. 2018;69(4):257–63 &lt;/ref&gt; It is important to consider the response rates for electronic questionnaires; short questionnaires seem to improve the response rates  &lt;ref&gt;Edwards P, Roberts I, Clarke M, DiGuiseppi C, Pratap S, Wentz R, et al. Methods to increase response rates to postal questionnaires. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007 Apr 18;(2):MR000008. &lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Edwards PJ, Roberts I, Clarke MJ, Diguiseppi C, Wentz R, Kwan I, et al. Methods to increase response to postal and electronic questionnaires. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009 Jul 8;(3):MR000008. &lt;/ref&gt;

== [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Occupational_Epidemiology/Clinical_epidemiology Clinical epidemiology]==
== Other possible development ==
Standard test sleep fatigue cognition farhadazimi@aut.ac.ir

==Photo documentation==
Occupational medicine aims for the prevention among workers of departures from health caused by their working and living conditions. The protection of workers from risks resulting from factors adverse to health need to be studied by epidemiological-, qualitative and other types of research, including documentation with photos. Consider photos related to health and safety at the work places, in the transport etc. in 4 aspects: 1) the health effects, the symptoms and diseases on one side, 2) the exposures exposures on the other side, 3) the combination of risk factors and health and 4) the ships medical chest etc. The photos, preferently contemporary,  can then be in the categories and combinations: 1) Descriptions of different types of diseases like skin diseases, etc. 2) Documentation of the health service from the clinics, the hospitals shore, the hospitals, rescue situations with ambulances, etc. and 3) The prevention of the risk factors for health and safety at the workplaces. Often a permission to take and use the photo is needed. Photo documentation could be an important research theme, relatively easy by using the smart phone cameras. Such photos are important for the continued education of the workers, medical doctors, the companies, the occupational health services, the National Authorities', the training centres etc. Photos should be uploaded to Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page with a title and description of date, type and size of the ship, workplace or living room area on the ship, harbour, and the URL for use should be added in these pages. An exposition of the photos will be available here in this Wikiversity free available for teaching, information materials, publications and patient contacts.

==References==

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      <text bytes="2309" sha1="skc6guykbmiphdfe86xhdotjt99c6hf" xml:space="preserve">БРРР СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП БРРР СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП БРРР СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП БРРР СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП БРРР СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП БРРР СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП БРРР СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП БРРР СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП БРРР СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП БРРР СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП</text>
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Decrease body fat if overweight or obese. The effect of weight loss is often difficult to distinguish from dietary change, and evidence on weight reducing diets is limited.

如果超重或肥胖，减少身体脂肪。 体重减轻的影响通常难以与饮食改变区分开来，减肥饮食的证据有限。

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== Curator Mentorship ==
I am suggesting that the curator role be treated similar to a permanent probationary custodianship.  That is, a curator would always have a mentor who is ultimately responsible for their actions.  Thoughts?  -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 17:16, 10 December 2015 (UTC)

:A Curator can have a designated Mentor with any available other Custodians as Alternates should the designated Mentor be unavailable when needed. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 02:30, 11 December 2015 (UTC)

== Import tool ==

Phabricator task T115938 has been completed and Commons is now included. Importing from Commons includes the image, page history, and other details. I'm fairly sure it's okay to let Curators import from Commons. What do you think? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 02:27, 11 December 2015 (UTC)

:Importing is included in their rights.  They should be able to import from any resource custodians can import from.  -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 04:00, 11 December 2015 (UTC)

== Page describes &quot;custodians&quot; ==
This page currently says:

'''Deletion of pages'''
&lt;br&gt;Custodians can...

'''Edit and move protection of pages'''
&lt;br&gt;Custodians can...

As I understand from the introduction, Curators are also allowed to perform these tasks. I appreciate if this was stated in the corresponding sections as well. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 14:14, 26 January 2016 (UTC)

:Now corrected.  Let me know if I missed anything.  -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 15:10, 26 January 2016 (UTC)

::Thanks {{=)}} These were all the instances on the page. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 13:24, 27 January 2016 (UTC)</text>
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    <title>Portal:Complex Systems Digital Campus/CS-DC 2020 elections, manifestos and results</title>
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      <comment>/* Manifesto – Candidature for the Executive Committee of UNESCO UniTwin CS-DC */</comment>
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      <text bytes="62145" sha1="1ysoj3qd8jdvjjz4733o6jbed9yn0ze" xml:space="preserve">&lt;nowiki&gt;**&lt;/nowiki&gt;Please ''login'' in Wikiversity and then use the ''&lt;nowiki/&gt;'edit''' button: your edition mode will be 'WYSIWYG'. Each Candidature with its manifesto can take inspiration from those for previous years.  

''Decision of the 2025 General Assembly 27th April:''

''The 2026 elections are starting the 27th April, the date of the General Assembly:''

''(i) There will be an election for Vice-President starting the 27 April 2026.''

''(ii) To save time and effort - Instead of an election for 1/3 of the Executive Committee'' ''(EC) for 2025 we propose to keep the existing EC and invite members of the Council '''not on the EC''' to offer themselves as members of an enlarged Executive Committee. If less than six people propose themselves, they will be co-opted onto the Executive Committee. If more than six propose themselves we will hold an election for 1/3 EC.''

The deadline for your candidature is Saturday 16th May 2026 at 24:00 CET. 

== Candidature for the New Vice-President for [2026, 2027] ==
 
'''Manifesto – Candidature for New Vice-President of UNESCO UniTwin CS-DC'''


== New Candidatures to the Executive Committee for [2026] ==

=== Manifesto – Candidature for the Executive Committee of UNESCO UniTwin CS-DC ===

'''Flavia Mori SARTI, Ph.D., Professor and Researcher, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil'''

I present my interest in being candidate for the CS-DC Executive Committee to contribute to the dissemination of knowledge in complex systems at the local and global level. I am representative of the University of Sao Paulo (USP) at the CS-DC since 2012. I work with complex systems modeling since the creation of the Interdisciplinary Research Group of Complex Systems Modelling at the School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities (EACH-USP) in 2006. Our research group succesfully implemented the first interdisciplinary graduate program titled Master in Complex Systems Modeling in Brazil, in 2010. I have been participating in the program commission since 2010, and I was coordinator of the graduate program from 2010 to 2014.

I have supervised 12 students in the program and two postdoctoral fellows, followed by publication of several book chapters and papers on complex systems applied to public policies, including models on tax evasion, health systems regulation, health insurance, food policy and nutrition programs, and complex networks on scientific collaboration and global food trade. I have been invited to present seminars and talks on complex systems applied to food systems, health economics, and public policy.

My goals in the CS-DC Executive Committee include:

* To disseminate the role of CS-DC in education and research on complex systems, especially in developing countries;
* To support and to engage other research groups working with complex systems for participation in the CS-DC;
* To contribute further with management and organization of CS-DC activities during the period of 2022-2024;
* To continue supporting capacity building in complex systems through supervision and other academic activities;
* To foster innovation, research and development strategies through complex systems applications in public policy and entrepreneurship.


'''Alberto A. Rasia-Filho, MD, Ph.D, Professor and Researcher, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA) and Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Brazil'''

Dear Councilors of the UNESCO CS-DC,

It is an honor to submit my candidacy for the CS-DC Executive Committee for 2026. Please let me introduce myself as a Full Professor of Physiology (UFCSPA), Supervisor in the Biosciences (UFCSPA) and Neuroscience Graduate Programs (UFRGS), and a researcher on human neuronal morphology, dendritic spines, synaptic plasticity, and social/emotional neural networks (National Council for Scientific and Technological Development, Brazil). Professional Identifier/ORCID: 0000-0003-4623-5916.

Currently, I am participating as head of the e-Team &quot;Morphological Heterogeneity&quot; in the UNESCO CS-DC, led by Prof. Enver Oruro Puma, Principal Investigator of the Morphodynamic Neuroscience and Behavior eLab CS-DC, and Prof. Grace E. Pardo, Scientific Research Institute, Andean University of Cusco, Peru. We integrate morphodynamics across different scales of brain organization and neural network functions in complex systems, considering neuronal morphology itself as an emergent level of organization. The structure of neural cells and their connectivity within the brain volume are morphodynamic features with interactions from cellular morphogenetic elements, the local cell neighborhood, and synaptic connections. In turn, the emergent functions of networks are organized around a series of conceptual, experimental, and computational foundations.

These ideas were developed—and are now open to additional discussions—in the recent article from our group: “New Directions for Complex Systems in Contemporary Neuroscience: A Morphodynamic and Emergent Function Approach” (Research Topic: Theoretical and Computational Insights into Brain-Based Cognition/Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience). This represents an ongoing research line available for further collaborations in Complex Systems Science.

I will be (1) committed to the Action Plan 2026 (and beyond) from the current 2026-31 Action Plan/Complex Systems Digital Campus UNESCO UniTwin, (2) working to integrate interdisciplinary approaches and eTeams, sharing knowledge and opportunities for complex systems education and research, as well as (3) contributing to country and continent engagement and representation in line with worldwide aims, (4) including the academic formation of young scientists.

== Candidature for the New President for [2025, 2026] ==
 
'''Manifesto – Candidature for New President of UNESCO UniTwin CS-DC'''

'''Prof. Paul Bourgine''' : 

If elected, my main commitment is to create the conditions for a self-organized development of our UNESCO UniTwin CS-DC as autonomous communities of communities for our flagship TIMES and its Knowledge &amp; Knowhow Accelerator one-for-all &amp; all-for-one (KKA). We know now how to realize —for the two above commitments— the 3&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; UNESCO commitment, i.e., the ‘computational ecosystem’. It will use the mature part of Web 3.0, especially the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS). Thanks to our previous efforts especially of the two last years, the remaining work amount is ten times less than we were anticipating at the beginning of the 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; renewal of our UniTwin by UNESCO 2020-2026.  

If elected, my duty will be not only to fulfill entirely the commitments of our Cooperation Program with UNESCO but also starting an exponential increasing development wave for our UniTwin network (through their continent and country Councils) and of our e-Campus (through CS-DC’25 and e-Labs’26 Conferences especially for our Flagships for sustainable development). The Knowledge &amp; Knowhow Accelerator will directly benefit from 1) such conference series, 2) our past and new flagships for sustainable development and 3) a new decentralized strategy for collecting donations in our decentralized network of X-Legal Entities.

== New Candidatures to the Executive Committee for [2025] ==

=== Manifesto – Candidature for the Executive Committee of UNESCO UniTwin CS-DC ===
'''Prof. Silvius STANCIU, PhD in Economics, PhD in Engineering, Habil.'''

Full Professor, “Dunărea de Jos” University of Galați (UDJG), Romania

Editor-in-Chief, ''Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development Studies (JARDS)''

Former Vice-Rector, Former Director of DFCTT and CTT UGAL
----'''Dear Councillors,'''

It is a great honor for me to submit my candidacy for the Executive Committee of the UNESCO UniTwin Complex Systems Digital Campus (CS-DC). With more than '''30 years of experience in academia''', I am currently Full Professor and doctoral advisor at “Dunărea de Jos” University of Galați (UDJG), Romania — a public research university with a strong regional impact and a long-standing tradition in interdisciplinary education and innovation.

I hold two doctoral degrees — one in Economics and one in Engineering — and I am a habilitated professor. I have published '''163 ISI-indexed scientific articles''' and have a '''Clarivate H-index of 14'''. My research focuses on '''food security, circular economy, technological innovation, rural development''', and '''complex systems in agro-food value chains'''.

I am the founder and coordinator of Romania’s first doctoral program in ''Engineering and Management in Agriculture and Rural Development (IMADR)'', with '''9 PhD graduates''' and '''9 doctoral students''' currently under my supervision. I also serve as '''Editor-in-Chief''' of the ''Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development Studies (JARDS)'', dedicated to interdisciplinary research in sustainable food and rural systems.

Over the past decade, I have been involved as director or expert in '''more than 45 national and international research projects''', including Horizon-compatible initiatives and cross-border cooperation programs. I coordinated a '''Romania–Republic of Moldova cross-border project''' (2020–2021) and currently lead '''two new ROMD-funded projects''' entering implementation.

My former institutional leadership roles include:

* '''Vice-Rector for Research and Innovation'''
* '''Director of the Department for Institutional Development (DFCTT)''' and of the '''Technology Transfer Center (CTT UGAL)'''
* '''Member of national and international quality and research bodies''', including CNATDCU, ARACIS, and CMPTJ

----'''If elected, I am committed to:'''

* Expanding the CS-DC network in '''Eastern Europe and the Black Sea region''', enhancing scientific and territorial diversity;
* Supporting '''POEM''' and '''FOOD flagship programs''' through digital education, doctoral/postdoctoral collaboration, and innovation ecosystems;
* Promoting '''open science''', international e-seminars, and interdisciplinary MOOCs;
* Coordinating thematic initiatives in '''agro-complexity, food systems resilience''', and '''sustainable rural innovation'''.

As a representative of a '''UniTwin member institution''', I see this candidacy as a unique opportunity to strengthen UDJG’s role within the CS-DC ecosystem. I fully embrace the CS-DC mission to foster global collaboration, education, and research in complexity science.

I am ready to bring '''vision, experience, and energy''' to the Executive Committee and help shape the future of our UniTwin community.
----'''Sincerely,'''

'''Prof. Silvius STANCIU, PhD in Economics, PhD in Engineering, Habil.'''

Representative of “Dunărea de Jos” University of Galați (UDJG)

'''Professional Identifiers:'''

* Web of Science Author ID: R-8246-2017
* ORCID: 0000-0001-7697-0968
* Scopus ID: 36633317700
* Google Scholar: Silvius Stanciu
* ResearchGate: Silvius Stanciu

== New Candidatures to the Executive Committee for [2024] ==

'''Enver Oruro Puma, Ph.D., Principal Investigator of Neurocomputing, Social Simulation, and Complex Systems Laboratory at the Instituto Científico of Universidad Andina del Cusco, Peru''' 

Dear Councillor of the UNESCO UniTwin CS-DC. I am very honored to place my candidature for the UNESCO UniTwin CS-DC Executive Committee. I am Enver Miguel Oruro Puma, Ph.D., principal investigator of Neurocomputing, Social Simulation, and Complex Systems Laboratory at the Instituto Científico of Universidad Andina del Cusco, Peru (https://sites.google.com/view/orurolab/). Since 2009, I have promoted and organized conferences and academic events on Complex Systems in Latin America. Recently, I have promoted the area of computational neuroscience on infant attachment (https://sites.google.com/view/envermiguel/seminar-in-maternal-infant-relationship-studies).

It would be a great honor for me if given the opportunity to contribute to the Executive Committee of UNESCO UniTwin CS-DC in the integration of Complex System research groups in the Latin American Region. For this, I propose the creation of two periodical activities: 1) A Special Lectures Series on Complex Systems UNESCO UniTwin CS-DC oriented to experts on Complex Systems, and 2) A Invited Advanced Lectures UNESCO UniTwin CS-DC oriented to experts who do not identify explicitly with complex systems

'''Pierre Collet, full professor of Strasbourg University, on secondment to Universidad Andrés Bello, Instituto de Tecnología para la Innovación en Salud y Bienestar, Viña del Mar, Valparaiso, Chile'''.

Since 2012, I have contributed to the elaboration of the CS-DC Unesco UniTwin together with Paul Bourigne, Jeffrey Johnson and many others, and I have been co-coordinator of the CS-DC UniTwin with Cyrille Bertelle since its creation in 2014. Starting part of this great adventure has changed my academic and personal life: thanks to the UniTwin, I have changed my research from stochastic optimisation, artificial evolution and AI in general to complex systems and epistemology.

Participating in this UniTwin allowed me to make new contacts and start incredible projects that I could not have imagined before. It has even changed my life, as I am now living in Chile, having been recruited by ITISB, an institute founded by Carla Taramasco, the CS-DC representative for South America.

Together with Paul and others, we would like to revive UniTwin by preparing another world conference inspired by the great success of [https://cs-dc-15.org CS-DC'15] and also develop flagship projects such as POEM (Personalised Open Education for the Masses) and the [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Portal:Complex_Systems_Digital_Campus/E-Laboratory_on_complex_computational_ecosystems ECCE e-lab], which this year has welcomed a new very active [[Figures of Play/Les figures du Jeu e-team|Figures of Play]] that has started the [https://ludocorpus.org/ Ludocorpus] in France.

As said before, this incredible UniTwin adventure always pays off for those who invest in it and in its great challenge: to develop the new science of complex systems through research and education. Through its projects, it contributes to making the world a better place to live in, despite the constant attacks on science coming from the most unlikely places.

Science is the solution, not the problem, to many of the world's plagues. We must put our energy into developing it and defend it against all its detractors.

That is why I am once again standing for election to the Executive Committee of this great CS-DC UniTwin. Modern science is Complex Systems science. It is important that its beacon continues to illuminate the world, and we must invest our time and energy in it.

== Candidature Deputy President for [2024, 2025] ==
'''Jeffrey JOHNSON, Professor of Complexity Science and Design, The Open University, UK'''

I offer myself as a candidate both to be President and to the Executive Committee of The UNESCO UniTwin Complex Systems Digital Campus (CS-DC) so that I can help to drive it forward to achieve it goals.

I am particularly committed to our educational efforts. I have made four MOOCs on the FutureLearn Platform for CS-DC ( &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.futurelearn.com/partners/unesco-unitwin-complex-systems-digital-campus&lt;/nowiki&gt; ): Global Systems Science (2015-16); Systems Thinking and Complexity (2017-18); First Steps in Data Science with Google Analytics (2018-19) and COVID-19 - Pandemics, Modelling and Policy (2020). CS-DC has a great opportunity to become the global university providing interdisciplinary education for a better world.

I am also committed to our research mission with UNESCO towards the achieving the U.N. Sustainable Development Goals. My own research on representing the dynamics of complex multilevel systems is relevant to many of the research initiatives of CS-DC.

I have extensive experience working within the complex systems community. I have run various coordination actions supporting research programmes funded by the European Commission, I am a founder member and past president of the Complex Systems Society, and I am Deputy-President of the CS-DC. I believe this experience will enable me to make a significant contribution the CS-DC over the next three years.

== New Elected President for [2023, 2024] ==
Paul BOURGINE, present President of the UNESCO UniTwin CS-DC, Complex Systems Institute of Paris 
I offer myself as a candidate to be President of The UNESCO UniTwin Complex Systems Digital Campus (CS-DC).
My previous commitment two years ago is below. The bad news is that it was not achieved. The good new is that we know now how to create 'autonomous community of autonomous communities' as a social network with IPFS (the InterPlanetary File System) like the new development of Wikipedia. 
If elected, my first commitment is to finish this job as quickly as possible. My second commitment is simultaneously to visit each country of the UniTwin for creating its country.CS-DC and its roadmap with young eTeams shared by their Universities with a senior scientific committee. The eTeam projects will have the opportunity to be submitted to the EU calls or other ones. 

Enver Oruro PhD, Head of Neurocomputing, Social Simulation and Complex Systems Laboratory, Universidad Andina del Cusco, Peru.
'''I would like to nominate Professor Paul Bourgine.'''

== New Elected Members to the Executive Committee for [2022,2023, 2024,2025] ==
'''2Dr Mohamed Abdellahi (Ould BABAH) Ebbe, Mauritania,''' 

* Senior Advisor for the CILSS Executif Secretary for international Partnership and formal General Director of the     Institut du Sahel/CILSS www.insah.org;

·       Commissionaire General of CILSS for Horticulture Universal  Expo of DOHA 2023-2024   &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.dohaexpo2023.gov.qa/en/&lt;/nowiki&gt; with central thems:

'''CENTRAL THEME: GREEN DESERT, BETTER ENVIRONMENT'''

* Executive Director of the     Orthopterist Society (400 researchers among the globe) &lt;nowiki&gt;https://orthsoc.org/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* We have organized our last     congress during 16-20 0ctober in Merida Mexique

&lt;nowiki&gt;https://ico2023mexico.com/&lt;/nowiki&gt;

By obtaining the honor of having your hoped-for confidence for continuing this post of member of the executive council of the CS-DC, I will work, in priority and in the short term on two main subjects:

## '''The transboundary plague of the     Desert Locust (Schistocerca gregaria (Forska l , 1775))''' This plague of the Desert     Locust of more than 3000 years that cites all our holy books (the Tourah,     the Bible and the Koran) and which continues to be present to this day and     to wreak devastating devastation. In case of invasion, it can affect the     agriculture and pastures of about 25 countries including those of the     poorest countries of the world, from Mauritania to India, while its best     and most effective strategy of struggle is preventive struggle by     targeting its first centers of gregarization which are very small in space     and much better known today. In 2005, the costs of its struggle in the     Sahel and North Africa amounted to half a billion dollars, with 8 million     farmers and pastoralists affected in the Sahel. It also massively invaded     Asia and Africa. 'East Africa in 2020. On this subject, I have spent 30     years studying and fighting and developing a national strategy against     this scourge which has made it possible to establish a whole prevention     model and an institutional, technical, operational mechanism. and     scientific effective in my country that can be adapted and copied and in     all other affected countries: Biogeography of the desert locust     Schistocerca gregaria, Forskal, 1775: Identification, characterization and     originality of a gregarious focus in central Mauritania (HR.HORS COLLEC.)     (French Edition) - Babah Ebbe, Mohamed Abdallahi | 9782705670573 |     Amazon.com.au | Books &lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2010/01/07/improved-ways-to-prevent-the-desert-locust-in-mauritania-and-the-sahel&lt;/nowiki&gt;,     http: //     whatsnext.blogs.cnn.com/2012/02/02/in-mauritania-sunny-with-a-chance-of-locusts/ I was invited last year by Royal Society 20-21 may 2024 to moderate one session on locust research management (La plasticité des criquets et des abeilles dans un monde en mutation | Société royale) and in a “International Conference on New Technology and Concepts for Sustainable Management of Locusts and Grasshoppers” held from 2 to 7 June 2024 in Jinan, Shandong, China.We are also preparing our Orthopterist congress in Argentina during the next mars 2026  &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ico2026.com.ar&lt;/nowiki&gt;

'''All this is in addition of more than 110 publications or joint publications on the locust, its environment and management''' 

# '''Senior Adviser to the CILSS Executive Secretary for International Partnerships'''] [Assistance to Mauritania (or 3 months) in the preparation of the organisation of the Nouakchott+10 High-Level Forum on pastoralism held in Nouakchott from 6 to 8 November 2024, various advising for the international partnership and the mobilization of resources including preparation of the organization of a round table planned in OPEC Vienna Austria for the mobilization of Arabic and Islamic funds for the financing of the CILSS 2050 strategic plan
# '''The Sahel Institute (INSAH)     www.insah.org of the Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control     (CILSS)''' that I     lead and which has been doing extraordinary work for almost half a century     in the field of research and development of animal and plant production     techniques and also in the field of support for demographic, population     and development policies, in favor of the populations of our 13 Sahelian,     coastal and island member countries. This work covered the majority of     good practice technologies in the field of plant and animal production,     natural resource management, land rstauration, cultivation techniques,     post-harvest, machining, dehulling operations technology. / ginning,     Conservation and storage, good resilience practices

Research on the demographic dividend, gender and the empowerment of women and the Population / Development interrelations ... etc The results of all this work are contained in a database. data, online &lt;nowiki&gt;http://publications.insah.org/&lt;/nowiki&gt;, containing more than 1,500 books, scientific and technical articles that will have to be modernized and connected to the CS Meta data.

As General Commissionaire  of CILSS for Horticulture Universal  Expo of DOHA 2023-2024   &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.dohaexpo2023.gov.qa/en/&lt;/nowiki&gt; with central thems:

'''CENTRAL THEME: GREEN DESERT, BETTER ENVIRONMENT''' I am working  in introducing as detailed below:

'''CILSS ''contribution to the improvement of sustainable horticultural agricultural production in a context of drought''''' 

'''I. PRESENTATION OF THE EXPO'''  

Expo 2023 in Doha is part of the fight against desertification. The Expo will be held from 2 October 2023 to 28 March 2024 under the theme &quot;'''''Green Desert, Better Environment'''''&quot;. The aim is to encourage, inspire and inform people about innovative solutions to reduce desertification. The exhibition will provide an international platform for participants, stakeholders, decision-makers, nongovernmental organizations and experts to address the global challenge of &quot;desertification&quot;, while making a valuable contribution to achieving a sustainable future. During the 6 months of the Expo, nearly 3 million visitors from over 80 countries are expected

The objectives of this Expo are in line with those of the CILSS, which seeks to improve the living conditions of the people of the Sahel in a sustainable manner. This is why the participation of CILSS in this Expo is important for the region and its vulnerable populations. 

'''OBJECTIVES OF EXPO 2023 DOHA, QATAR'''

Expo 2023 Doha, Qatar is defined by the following objectives:

-   Encourage horticultural innovation by focusing on Qatar's climate, water and soil.

-   Promote Expo 2023 in Doha, Qatar, as a catalyst for international investment and business opportunities.

-   To propose innovative actions that would allow humanity to fight against desertification more quickly and decisively before it is too late.

-   To build up useful environmental outputs for future generations.  

'''II. ORGANISATION OF THE CILSS PARTICIPATION'''

'''II.1. GOALS OF CILSS EXHIBITION:''' 

1. Sharing experiences and best practices,

2. Building International Partnership,

3. Promoting technology and innovation

Finally, I will continue to work actively with my colleagues on the Executive Board on all aspects of other cross-border scourges but also all aspects of improving agro-sylvo-pastoral production


'''Dr. Xabier E. Barandiaran, Lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Department of Philosophy, Donostia - San Sebastian, Spain'''

I would like to present [https://xabier.barandiaran.net myself] as a candidate for the Executive Committee. I have been the representative and coordinator between CS-DC and the [https://ehu.eus University of the Basque Country] since 2013. I develop my academic research at the [https://ias-research.net IAS-Research Centre for Life, Mind, and Society], with a focus on the understanding of autonomous and complex adaptive systems (from biology to cognition, from brains to societies). I am the author of over 50 indexed publications on topics related to complex systems, philosophy of mind, complex epistemology, simulation models of the origins of life, minimal agency, evolutionary robotics, complex social network analysis, etc. I recently received the “Award for Distinguished Early-Career Investigator” by the International Society for Artificial Life. Overal I have been awarded with 7 different grants and have actively participated on 15 different research projects. I have also supervised 2 PhD thesis (4 more still in development) and I hold an extensive record of scientific and innovative management experience in different academic and public institutions as founder of research networks ReteCog.Net and FLOK Society – Buen Conocer and head of RDI at Barcelona City Council (2016-2018). I have also organized several national workshops, summer schools and conferences, and 2 international summer schools, 4 international workshops and one international conference. I am currently the Principal Investigator of a founded research project (with more than 30 research-collaborators) on a complex systems' approach to the concept of autonomy beyond its classical conception as an individual bounded property.

As part of my university's goal of fostering international collaboration and opening up e-learning and research initiatives I would like to get more deeply involved on CS-DC with the following goals:

* To desing the infrastructure, learning-experience, research-experience and content for distributed, open access and high-quality digital campus facilities.
* To involve local agents (student, teachers, researchers and institutions) on the initiative of the network.
* To foster collaboration, co-production and resource sharing between teaching and research facilities between priviledged richer countries and lower-income ones. In particular, but not exclusively, and for obvious reasons related to sharing the same language, to foster ''collaboration between European and Latin-american universities'', research initiatives and students through CS-DC.
* To develop at least one ''prototype'' of a MSc level online course (and research network module) around complex cognitive systems that can serve as a model for the other fields of the network.
* To develop a clear conceptual and communicative framework for CS-DC to be able to attract more participants, resources and broader attention and success as pioneering international initiative.


'''Dr. habil. László Barna Iantovics, Professor at “George Emil Palade” Univ. of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology of Tg. Mures, Romania'''

With the present manifesto, I would like to be a candidate for the CS-DC Executive Committee. I have been the representative of “George Emil Palade” University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology of Targu Mures from Romania in CS-DC by many years.

Some of my research and academic activities were related to the complex systems, including: publications; organized conferences (e.g. Symposium on Understanding Intelligent and Complex Systems - UICS 2009; 1st Int. Conf. on Complexity and Intelligence of the Artificial and Natural Complex Systems Medical Applications of the Complex Systems. Biomedical Computing -CANS 2008; 1st Int. Conf. on Bio-Inspired Computational Methods Used for Difficult Problems Solving. Development of Intelligent and Complex Systems - BICS 2008); membership in conference committees (e.g. Int. Conf. Emergent Properties in Natural and Artificial Complex Systems - EPNACS 2007; Workshop on Complex Systems and Self-organization Modeling -CoSSoM 2009); Journal Special Issues (e.g. Special Issue on Complexity in Sciences and Artificial Intelligence; Special Issue on Understanding Complex Systems); membership in Journal’s Editorial Boards (e.g. Complex Adaptive Systems Modeling -CASM, SpringerOpen), and contribution to research performed in projects and projects coordination (Social network of machines- SOON; Hybrid Medical Complex Systems -ComplexMediSys). I am the director of the Research Center on Artificial Intelligence, Data Science and Smart Engineering (Artemis).

I would like to involve myself much deeper in the life and activities of the CS-DC community.

My principal objectives are:

* To involve junior and senior researchers from my university in activities regarding research and education related to complex systems.
* To involve universities and research institutes to actively contribute to the CS-DC development.
* To involve myself in the joint coordination with other CS-DC members of a doctoral and postdoctoral students’ group that will be involved in the CS-DC community works.
* To strengthen the research direction with the theme: applications of intelligent complex systems and machine intelligence measuring. One of the subtopics of interest will be the application of complex systems, artificial intelligence and data science in medicine, pharmacology, and healthcare.


'''Flavia Mori SARTI, Ph.D., Professor and Researcher, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil'''

I would like to present my candidature for the CS-DC Executive Committee in the period 2022-2024 to contribute to the dissemination of Complex Systems Science.

I have been representative of the University of Sao Paulo (USP) at the CS-DC since 2012, and I have been working with complex systems since the creation of the Interdisciplinary Research Group of Complex Systems Modelling at the School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities (EACH-USP) in 2006. Our research group succesfully implemented the first interdisciplinary graduate program (Master) in Complex Systems Modelling in Brazil, in 2010. I have been participating in the coordinating commission of the program since 2010, and I was coordinator of the graduate program from 2010 to 2014.

I have supervised seven students in the Master program, which resulted in thesis, book chapters, and papers published on the subject of complex systems, including models on tax evasion, health systems regulation, food policy and nutrition programs, and complex networks on scientific collaboration and international food trade. I also contributed to the organization of the e-Session &quot;Economics as a Complex Evolutionist System&quot; on the CS-DC'15 World e-conference in 2015, and have been invited to present seminars on complex systems applied to health economics, health technology assessment, and public policy of nutrition and health.

My goals in the CS-DC Executive Committee include:

* To disseminate the role of CS-DC in education and research on Complex Systems, especially in Brazil and other developing countries;
* To support and to engage other research groups working with Complex Systems for participation in the CS-DC;
* To contribute further with management and organization of CS-DC activities during the period of 2022-2024;
* To continue supporting capacity building in Complex Systems through the Complex Systems Modelling Program at USP;
* To participate in innovation, research and development activities based on the application of Complex Systems in public policy and entrepreneurship.


'''Pr Panos Argyarakis, Professor in the University of Thessaloniki, Greece.'''

I have been with the Complex Systems Society since its inception in 2004 by participating in the NEST projects Dysonet and Giacs which created CSS. My experience in the Executive Committee will be to contribute towards the spreading of the Complexity idea to various levels of education throughout the different countries. I am currently the PI in an Erasmus+ network that introduces new models of teaching and investigating how is education been affected for future generations. I can contribute in decision making for such important activities, and also serve as liaison with the European Commission, and the Complex Systems Society, due to my past experience. I have extended organizational experience by organizing several internationally meetings in this field that were attended by large audiences. My research interests are related to Complex systems and Networks. Scale-free, random, and small world networks. Dynamic properties on networks, Diffusion, spreading phenomena on networks, disease spreading. Phase transitions, percolation model, reaction-diffusion processes, trapping processes. Random walks.


'''Ali Moussaoui, Professor, University of Tlemcen, Department of Mathematics, Algeria,'''

I wish to present my candidature to become member of the executive committee of the CS-DC, I wish to develop collaborations with the partner universities in the field of complex systems. I wish to participate in the creation of international mixed laboratories and international masters on complex systems.

In the past, I was responsible for a master's degree entitled: modeling of complex systems in our department, I am currently responsible for a research team entitled: Modeling of complex systems in our laboratory, I was responsible for a Franco-Algerian project on the modeling of complex systems. My research skills are focused on the modeling of complex natural and biological systems.

'''Carlos Gershenson, Research Professor, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.'''

I was involved with CS-DC in its initial years in UNESCO's UniTwin, also representing UNAM. I have been editor-in-chief of Complexity Digest since 2007. I co-organized the Conference on Complex Systems in 2017. I am currently vice-president secretary of the Complex Systems Society (CSS).

I am a strong proponent of open online learning. I managed to start a collaboration between UNAM and Coursera, which has led to more than a hundred MOOCs and millions of enrolled students.

I would be interested in strengthening the relationship between CS-DC and CSS, as well as other organizations.

==Elected members to the Executive Committee for 2021 ==
'''Carlos J. BARRIOS H., PhD., Professor, Bucaramanga, Colombia '''

I write to express my interest to candidacy to be part of the CS-DC Executive Committee. I'm very motivated to develop actions to strengthen digital ecosystem supporting research and education proposals of our CS-DC Council. Among these years participating in the CS-DC group, I can see different ways to leverage the impact and the development of our actions with computational strategies, and now, I want to be part of the leadership council joined mutual visions.

My experience leading the Advanced Computing System for Latin America and Caribbean (SCALAC : http://scalac.redclara.net ) and as member of other leadership boards in international projects (mainly between Europe and Latin America) supports my candidature. (linkedin.com/in/carlosjaimebh) Also, my role as professor, director and researcher contributes to build the common vision of the CS-DC Council and the leadership of the CS- DC Executive Committee.


'''Mina TEICHER, Professor of Bar-Ilan University, Israël'''

I submit my candidacy to the Executive Committee of the CS Digital Campus. If elected I will work towards our following needs, using my past experience in Professional international societies, universities managements and the data industry : 

* We need in the near future to build an optimal and effective agreement with the Complex System Society.
* We need to build a business  plan for fund raising.
* We need to build a modular budget for 2021.
* We need to build a strategy for geographically extension. 
* We need to build a strategy for thematic  extension. 
* We need to build partnerships with the big multi national high tech Companies in network and in content. 


'''Yasmin MERALI, Professor of University of Hull, UK'''

This manifesto is connected with the ideals that I had as a founding member of our UniNet which was conceived as part of the FP7 ASSYST project.
CS-DC has come a long way since its initial conception. The way I see it, there are three categories that have grown to emerge as our core activities- 
* Capacity building through education and training in Complex Systems Science
* The application of Complex Systems Science to address global challenges
* The advancement of Complex Systems Science through research and development.

I believe this is a good time to link back to the inception of our UNITWIN which was in part inspired by considerations of issues at a human scale, and the desire to address the inequalities that divided the so-called developed and developing countries. This resonates strongly with the ambition of the  Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) we are currently grappling with.
In the growth phase of the UNITWIN and CSDC we have been focused on extending the size of the network, and scaling up our educational offerings across the digital campus. In the next phase I believe we need to:
# understand and leverage the diversity and distinctive capabilities and resources (e.g. indigenous knowledge) of the countries in our network to develop a healthy ecosystem, and
# tailor the support that we provide to align with the diverse nature of their relational and social capital and their economic, political and environmental challenges and priorities with regard to the SDGs.  

I am concerned that if we do not explicitly design a social/ideational exchange mechanism that attends to these two imperatives, we will not have full, active participation of all member institutions, and the countries of the South that do not currently have champions in Europe will be marginalized.

If elected I would champion a strategy of organizing ourselves following the Complex Adaptive Systems paradigm, as a hyper network with dynamically connected local clusters. In practical terms I would like to begin by establishing the local (country-based) clusters and establishing a discourse that would allow us to map the diverse profiles, challenges and aspirations for the different countries. This would then form the basis for the development of a mechanism for shaping the meaningful collaborative development of our three core activities to deliver advances that are globally co-ordinated and locally responsive.

Personal Profile: I am Professor of Systems Thinking at the University of Hull and have served as Director of the Centre Systems Studies there. Prior to that I was Co-Director of the Doctoral Training Centre for Complex Systems Science at the University of Warwick. My research is transdisciplinary, focusing on the use of Complex Systems Science to enhance the resilience of socio-economic systems. I am an Expert advisor to the EU and I have significant experience of lecturing internationally as Visiting Professor in Asia, Europe and the USA.

'''Céline ROZENBLAT: Professor, University of Lausanne - Institut de géographie et de durabilité (IGD), Switzerland'''

I'm pleased to applied to become member of the CS-DC council.
As founding member of CS-DC, my university, the university of Lausanne, is very engaged in Complex sciences.
I would not only represent my university, but also social science as geographer and vice-president of the International Geographical Union and member of the International Science Council commission on Urban Health and Well being.
I would act in the council in specific programs to develop the reality of the Digital Campus of the Complex systems.

All these actions combine very ambitious interdisciplinary approaches, and in this perspective, we developed with CS-DC for 3 years the TIMES Flagship  Territorial Intelligence For Multilevel Equity And Sustainability. It comprises four main programs:

 '''SIRE''': Socially Intelligence Roadmap Ecosystem
 '''POLE:''' Personalized Open Lifelong Education
 '''WOSI:''' Worldwide Open Smart Innovation
 '''WOSP:''' Worldwide Open Stochastic Prediction 

In this perspective a MOOC « Healthy Urban system » is now in development, basing the interdisciplinary approach on the CS-DC Road-Map grid. It seems very useful and relevant in this implementation stage.
I would help to develop other programs in this perspective\[Ellipsis]


'''André TINDANO, Director General of CARFS (African Center for Research and Training in Synecoculture)'''

What motivates me to aspire to the position of member of the executive committee of CS DC is my long term participation in the promotion of sustainable development and my commitment to the sharing of knowledge and expertise.

My research interests Sustainable agriculture, ecology, nutrition, life science. I have a strong experience  in:
* Administration and management of development projects and programs;
* Accompaniment of associations and groups;
* Technical capacity building (animation of training sessions and reflection workshops).
* Action research;
* Sociological, socio-economic and economic studies.
* Development of development projects and programs;
* Training of trainers
* Results Based Management Training (RBM)
* Monitoring and evaluation of development programs and projects;
* Management of programs and development projects;
* Institutional development and organizational strengthening;
* Development and implementation of training / awareness / animation program;
* Very good knowledge of participatory methods
'''Guiou KOBAYASHI, Associate Professor at Federal University of ABC in São Paulo State, Brazil. '''

I worked with fault-tolerant computer systems for nuclear power plants and Metro signaling systems and recently my interests have evolved to resilience properties of Complex Systems. Traditionally, redundancy was the main feature for fault-tolerant and fail-safe systems, but the adaptability and the evolution of Complex Systems are the key elements for the resilience of these systems. How to characterize, design and implement these key elements in our future resilient systems? The Complex System - Digital Campus (CS-DC) is a way to create a world-wide community of researchers, philosophers and students to promote and discuss this kind of questions involving Complex Systems. For me, participating in its foundation was a great honor and I am very glad for the opportunity that I have had to contribute since 2012 in the consolidation of CS-DC.

Through this manifest I am applying to be one of the members of the new CS-DC's Executive Committee. I would like to help just a little more to strengthen and structure this fantastic community through which I had the opportunity to meet important people with very interesting works that expanded my knowledge of Complex Systems. Although my University and my personal contribution for CS-DC are very limited and small, I hope to continue to work with this great team.


'''Pierre COLLET, Professor of Computer Science, University of Strasbourg, France. Co-coordinator of the CS-DC UNESCO UniTwin'''

The CS-DC initiated by Paul Bourgine, Jeffrey Johnson, Cyrille Bertelle and many others has been an extraordinary adventure a) to instantiate as a UNESCO UniTwin and b) to develop and run since it was enacted in July 2014. Many a night have been spent on designing its inner workings, so that it can deliver an effective affordance for the scientists who wish to develop the science and teaching of Complex Systems. Indeed, many projects seeded in the CS-DC have come to fruition, showing the enormous potential of this fertile environment not only for research, but also for teaching: the BBB rooms set up by the CS-DC have not only made it possible for the CS-DC to organize conferences, but have also shown their potential as remote teaching rooms in many Universities around the world.

It has been an honour for me to be part of the development of the CS-DC since its beginning, but so much remains to be done!

In this manifesto, I hereby express my strong desire to continue developing the CS-DC in these trying times, when the effects of the pandemics stretch thin the social links that our research and teaching communities need most. My objectives for this new mandate are not only to deliver a new world conference (originally planned in 2020 but unfortunately delayed due to the high toll imposed on us all, teachers and researchers alike, by COVID-19) but also continue on developing not only efficient complex computational ecosystems (cheap powerful PARSEC machines have been installed in several universities) but more specifically remote teaching environments based on complex systems, to mitigate the terrible impact of the pandemic on face to face education, within the POEM CS-DC flagship, on which Paul Bourgine and myself have been working for many years now..


'''Mariana C. BROENS, Professor - UNESP - BRAZIL.'''

As members of the Executive Committee, our main challenge will be to raise, analyse and to discuss possible positive/negative ethical and political implications of the further development of the Complex Systems Science, and their application on studies of everyday social problems. In particular, We believe that the widespread use of complex system models and Big Data analytics can bring important questions about people's privacy, personal and corporate responsibility, widespread surveillance by public or private institutions, among many others, that should be deeply discussed in our community. Our contribution will be to raise and deepen these discussions from an interdisciplinary perspective.


'''Cyrille Bertelle, Professor in Computer Sciences,  University Le Havre, France, co-coordinator of the CS-DC UNESCO UniTwin'''

I am a candidate for the CS-DC Executive Committee to represent the University of Le Havre
Normandy, which is co-coordinator with the University of Strasbourg of the convention of
recognition of the CS-DC as UniTwin by UNESCO. The University of Le Havre has made
available to the community, resources and skills to provide digital collaborative tools for the
organization of the Councils and the CS-DC'15 virtual conference.

The objective I wish to take is to facilitate the involvement of member universities not only
by their representatives on the council but by allowing researchers from these member
institutions to join concrete and accessible actions.

Co-responsible in the past of a master's degree on complex systems and then of the creation
of the institute on complex systems in Normandie (France) in a multidisciplinary framework,
I have participated in the setting up of the project labeled by the French national program of
investments for the future and entitled &quot;Smart Port City&quot;. The aim is to think about the
future of territories in a sustainable development approach supported by new technologies
and concerned about the environment and the well-being of their citizens. My research skills
are focused on implementing the complexity of complex dynamic systems and networks,
crossing behavioral scales from the interaction of human behaviors to the technical
networks of the territory. 

The book &quot;complex systems, smart territories and mobility&quot; from
the Springer's Understanding Complex Systems series, which will be published in January
2021 (https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030593018) illustrates the research
coordination actions that I lead in these fields.


'''Slimane Ben Miled, Senior Researcher at Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Professor at ENIT'''

Our Tunisian consortium want to constitute a collaborative Research Training Programs to increase data science capacity related to health research in Africa by building trainings and enhancing institutional capacity at African academic institutions.
The academy/project is based on 4 pillars to build a training ecosystem for Data and Engineering Science in health.
# A platform of federated master’s programs with à la carte optional courses covering informatics/computer science, biomedical informatics, data science, statistics, and public health). Each program will keep its independence, with a mention to the academy label, and this platform will allow to enrich the training with optional modules, seminars, and courses in the partner institutions. New curricula will be created in relation to ethical issues.
# Network of Doctoral programs and Executive programs
# Platform of federated Business incubator and a career center offers training, support and funding for projects related to the project’s topic.

This challenge is in perfect agreement with the Sustainable Development Goal 3 and the CS-DC flagship PHYSIOMES (Personalized Health phYSIcally, sOcially and Mentally for Each in their networkS).


'''Masa Funabashi: researcher of open complex systems at Sony Computer Science Laboratories, Inc.'''

I would like to contribute to the executive committee of CS-DC on the following two pillars:
* Promote the FOOD (From smart agrOecOnomy to smart fooD) flagship project that aims to resolve the health-diet-environment trilemma through the promotion of sustainable food systems, in collaboration with the e-lab &quot;human augmentation of ecosystems&quot; members institution: Sony CSL, Synecoculture Association, CARFS, and those who wish to participate in CS-DC collaboration.
* Construct a basic e-learning content on Synecoculture and ecological literacy as a part of CS-DC MOOCs and perform initial trials, principally in ECOWAS countries, through the Sony CSL-CARFS collaboration.

Through the development of on-going activities in FOOD project and making synergy with other flagship projects, I would like to contribute CS-DC as a member of the executive committee and realize further extension toward the achievement of global sustainability goals such as SDGs.


'''Dr Mohamed Abdellahi (Ould BABAH) Ebbe, Mauritania, '''
* General Director of the Institut du Sahel/CILSS www.insah.org; 
* Executive Director of the Orthopterist Society (400 researchers among the globe) https://orthsoc.org/

By obtaining the honor of having your hoped-for confidence for this post of member of the executive council of the CS-DC, I will work, in priority and in the short term on two main subjects:
# '''The transboundary plague of the Desert Locust (Schistocerca gregaria (Forska l , 1775))''' This plague of the Desert Locust of more than 3000 years that cites all our holy books (the Tourah, the Bible and the Koran) and which continues to be present to this day and to wreak devastating devastation. In case of invasion, it can affect the agriculture and pastures of about 25 countries including those of the poorest countries of the world, from Mauritania to India, while its best and most effective strategy of struggle is preventive struggle by targeting its first centers of gregarization which are very small in space and much better known today. In 2005, the costs of its struggle in the Sahel and North Africa amounted to half a billion dollars, with 8 million farmers and pastoralists affected in the Sahel. It also massively invaded Asia and Africa. 'East Africa in 2020. On this subject, I have spent 30 years studying and fighting and developing a national strategy against this scourge which has made it possible to establish a whole prevention model and an institutional, technical, operational mechanism. and scientific effective in my country that can be adapted and copied and in all other affected countries: Biogeography of the desert locust Schistocerca gregaria, Forskal, 1775: Identification, characterization and originality of a gregarious focus in central Mauritania (HR.HORS COLLEC.) (French Edition) - Babah Ebbe, Mohamed Abdallahi | 9782705670573 | Amazon.com.au | Books http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2010/01/07/improved-ways-to-prevent-the-desert-locust-in-mauritania-and-the-sahel, http: // whatsnext.blogs.cnn.com/2012/02/02/in-mauritania-sunny-with-a-chance-of-locusts/
# '''The Sahel Institute (INSAH) www.insah.org of the Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control (CILSS)''' that I lead and which has been doing extraordinary work for almost half a century in the field of research and development of animal and plant production techniques and also in the field of support for demographic, population and development policies, in favor of the populations of our 13 Sahelian, coastal and island member countries. This work covered the majority of good practice technologies in the field of plant and animal production, natural resource management, land restauration, cultivation techniques, post-harvest, machining, dehulling operations technology. / ginning, Conservation and storage, good resilience practices

Research on the demographic dividend, gender and the empowerment of women and the Population / Development interrelations ... etc
The results of all this work are contained in a database. data, online http://publications.insah.org/, containing more than 1,500 books, scientific and technical articles that will have to be modernized and connected to the CS Meta data.

Finally, I will work actively with my colleagues on the Executive Board on all aspects of other cross-border scourges but also all aspects of improving agro-sylvo-pastoral production tools as well as the fight against poverty and food insecurity and nutrition in line with the goals (SDGs)


'''Dr. Habil. László Barna Iantovics, Associate Professor at “George Emil Palade” University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology of Targu Mures, Romania.''' 

With the present manifesto, I would like to candidate as a member of the CS-DC Executive Committee. I am the representative of “George Emil Palade” University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology of Targu Mures from Romania in CS-DC.

Some of my research and academic activities are related to the complex systems, including: publications, organization of conferences (e.g. Symposium on Understanding Intelligent and Complex Systems - UICS 2009; 1st Int. Conf. on Complexity and Intelligence of the Artificial and Natural Complex Systems Medical Applications of the Complex Systems. Biomedical Computing -CANS 2008; 1st Int. Conf. on Bio-Inspired Computational Methods Used for Difficult Problems Solving. Development of Intelligent and Complex Systems - BICS 2008), contribution to conference committees (e.g. Int. Conf. Emergent Proprieties in Natural and Artificial Complex Systems - EPNACS 2007; Workshop on Complex Systems and Self-organization Modeling -CoSSoM 2009), preparing journal special issues (e.g. Special Issue on Complexity in Sciences and Artificial Intelligence; Special Issue on Understanding Complex Systems), participating in journal’s editorial board (e.g. Complex Adaptive Systems Modeling -CASM, SpringerOpen), and contribution to research in projects and projects coordination (Social network of machines- SOON; Hybrid Medical Complex Systems -ComplexMediSys). I was the director of the center Advanced Computational Technologies – AdvCompTech in the frame of my university. At present, I am the director of the Center for Advanced Research in Information Technology from my university.

I would like much deeper involve myself in the life and activities of the CS-DC community.

My objectives:

* To involve junior and senior researchers from my university in activities regarding research and education. To motivate universities and research institutes from my country to contribute to CS-DC. I consider also universities and research institutes with that I have collaboration in the past.
* To PROPOSE the formation of a so-called doctoral and postdoctoral students group. In the case of doctoral and postdoctoral students probably in time more students would like to be involved in activities. In this framework, I suggest the organization yearly 3 times (from 4 to 4 months) workshops in that all the interested students could discuss, present their research and research in progress. With this occasion in the frame of workshops if there is interest could be established separate sessions with presentations also by B.Sc. and M.Sc. students.
* To PROPOSE the strengthening of the following research direction with the general topic: intelligent complex systems and machine intelligence measuring. One of the subtopic by interest will be complex systems approaches in medicine and healthcare. To be accomplishable this subject I propose in a first step the formation of a group of interested persons, after then the establishment of the functionality of the group, for example: discussions when are subjects that should be discussed etc.

==Elected members to the Executive Committee &amp; as (Deputy-)Presidents==


'''Jeffrey JOHNSON, Professor of Complexity Science and Design, The Open University, UK'''

I offer myself as a candidate both to be President and to the Executive Committee of  The UNESCO UniTwin Complex Systems Digital Campus (CS-DC) so that I can help to drive it forward to achieve it goals. 

I am particularly committed to our educational efforts. I have made four MOOCs on the FutureLearn Platform for CS-DC  ( https://www.futurelearn.com/partners/unesco-unitwin-complex-systems-digital-campus ): Global Systems Science (2015-16); Systems Thinking and Complexity (2017-18); First Steps in Data Science with Google Analytics (2018-19) and  COVID-19 - Pandemics, Modelling and Policy (2020). CS-DC has a great opportunity to become the global university providing interdisciplinary education for a better world.

I am also committed to our research mission with UNESCO towards the achieving the U.N. Sustainable Development Goals. My own research on representing the dynamics of complex multilevel systems is relevant to many of the research initiatives of CS-DC.

I have extensive experience working within the complex systems community. I have run various coordination actions supporting research programmes funded by the European Commission, I am a founder member and past president of the Complex Systems Society, and I am Deputy-President of the CS-DC. I believe this experience will enable me to make a significant contribution the CS-DC over the next three years.


'''Paul BOURGINE, present President of the UNESCO UniTwin CS-DC, Complex Systems Institute of Paris'''

I offer myself as a candidate both to be President and to the Executive Committee of  The UNESCO UniTwin Complex Systems Digital Campus (CS-DC).

If elected, my main commitment is to create the conditions for a self-organized development of our UniTwin UNESCO CS-DC as autonomous communities of communities. This self-similar development will be the case both for the two main branches the UniTwin branch of our institutional members and the global eCampus branches of our individual scientific members:
* for the UniTwin branch, the communities of communities are a territorial cascade with Smart Continents, smart countries, smart cities for their sustainable development according our flagship TIMES (Territorial Intelligence for Multilevel Equity and Sustainability). The roadmap is always the same, i.e. the cascade of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals and their 169 Targets: but their relative importance and coherence within this cascade vary from one territory to the others. The institutional members of the UniTwin branch have signed their agreement with the Cooperation Programme signed with UNESCO. In 2021, the CS-DC will ask for a cascade of agreements inside each institutional member, in order to have a &quot;one for all&quot; amplification within the other branch, the e-campus branch. 
* for the eCampus branch, the cascade of communities is along the refinement cascades when studying the theoretical and experimental challenges of complex systems. With Smart Continents'21, scientists are proposing their individual challenges that enact basic communities and communities of communities within the e-departments. In the &quot;all for one&quot; return, the roadmap of each university is the cascade of roadmaps within the eCampus where the University has at least one member. Furthermore each community can organise a monthly e-seminar or e-session in workshop as well as in CS-DC'21 for recorded advanced introductions. Such advanced introductions can be the basis for curriculum largely shared by the set of Universities having members in the  community cascade of the curriculum.

This &quot;accelerator of knowledge and knowhow one for all and all for one&quot; will first benefit to the student curriculum through the flagship POEM (Personalized Open Education for the Masses). This accelerator can be extended through the flagship POLE (Personalized Open Lifelong Education) for a lifelong education. This extended accelerator will be open to all, independently of previously achieved academic levels, respectful of the diversity of social and cultural environments and in a higher and higher inclusive way including refugees, migrants and primary people. genders, religions or ways of life.</text>
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    <title>Category:Media reform to improve democracy</title>
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      <text bytes="9619" sha1="ehiuot3i2bft9fhwohmi47wzowwykck" xml:space="preserve">A number of seemingly credible sources are describing an increase in political polarization worldwide. [[w:Maria Ressa|Maria Ressa]] describes how [[w:Rodrigo Duterte|Rodrigo Duterte]], former President of the [[w:Philippines|Philippines]] &quot;started ... with five hundred volunteers&lt;ref&gt;Ressa (2022, pp. 147-8).&lt;/ref&gt; (1) creating “sock puppets,” or fake accounts that attack or praise; (2) “mass reporting,” or organizing to negatively impact a targeted account; and (3) “astroturfing,” or fake posts or lies designed to look like grassroots support or interest.&lt;ref&gt;Ressa (2022, pp. 152-3).&lt;/ref&gt; These actions tricked the algorithms of social media companies like Facebook and Twitter into amplifying fraudulent messages including incitements to violence and criminal prosecutions based on trumped up charges. The results easily overwhelmed honest media. [[w:Leila de Lima|Leila de Lima]], a Senator and former Secretary of Justice of the Philippines, spent years  in pretrial detention before the charges were dropped for lack of evidence.&lt;ref&gt;Ressa (2022, p. 158ff) and Wikipedia, &quot;[[w:Leila de Lima|Leila de Lima]]&quot;, accessed 2024-07-22.&lt;/ref&gt; Ressa's news organization, [[w:Rappler|Rappler]].com, was ordered to close. Ressa herself was convicted on questionable charges. Both continued operating while the legal procedures against them were appealed.&lt;ref&gt;Ressa (2022, pp. 152-3) and Wikipedia, &quot;[[w:Maria Ressa|Maria Ressa]]&quot;, accessed 2024-07-22.&lt;/ref&gt; Ressa says similar procedures are making major contributions to the rise of fascism and far-right nationalist populists in the US, Europe, Turkey, India, Russia, and elsewhere.&lt;ref&gt;Ressa (2022, pp. 152-3).&lt;/ref&gt; [[w:H. R. McMaster|H. R. McMaster]], former President Trump's second National Security advisor, said that &quot;The internet and social media thus provided [Russia] with a low-cost, easy way to divide and weaken America from within.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;McMaster (2020, pp. 47-48).&lt;/ref&gt; The [[w:2021 Facebook leak|2021 Facebook leak]] documented how executives of [[w:Facebook|Facebook]] and [[w:Meta Platforms|Meta]] knowingly prioritized profits over action to limit incitements to violence, even facilitating the [[w:Rohingya genocide|Rohingya genocide]] in [[w:Myanmar|Myanmar]], because doing otherwise would have reduced their profits. 

This &quot;Category:Media reform to improve democracy&quot; include videos of experts and activists working this issue along with 29:00 mm:ss audio files submitted to a ''Media &amp; Democracy'' series syndicated on the [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|Pacifica radio network]]&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Media &amp; Democracy on Audioport--&gt;{{cite Q|Q127839818}}&lt;/ref&gt; plus text and space for moderated discussions. 

Some of this work is cited in the book on ''[[Media Literacy and You]]'', which is being written -- [[w:Crowdsourcing|crowdsourced]] -- to help humans better understand how they can counter the trend toward increasing political polarization and violence by talking politics, calmly, with respect and humility, with others with whom they may vehemently disagree, because the alternative is killing humans over misunderstanding. The goal is ''not'' to convince anyone that they are wrong. Rather it is to build relationships where humans can agree to disagree agreeably and collaborate to improve issues of common concern. 

== Table of episodes == 

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ Episodes of &quot;Media &amp; Democracy&quot; for the [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|Pacifica Radio Network]]
|-
! 
!! colspan=3 | Date !! 
|- 
! no. || recorded !! broadcasted on [[w:KKFI|KKFI]] !! released to Pacifica !! Episode 
|-
| 52 || 2026-05-14 || 2026-05-26 ||2026-05-30 || [[How women are centered and silenced in the major media]]
|-
| 51 || 2026-05-06 || 2026-05-12 || 2026-05-16 || [[Online platforms' effects on public health, safety and democracy]]
|-
| 50 || 2026-04-09	|| 2026-04-28 || 2026-05-02 || [[How US media threaten the health of all]]
|- 
| 49 || 2026-04-06 || 2026-04-14 || 2026-04-18 || [[News suppressed for those who control money for the media]] 
|-
| 48 || 2026-03-27 || 2026-03-31 || 2026-04-04 || [[Media and war]]
|-
| 47 || 2026-03-12 || 2026-03-17 || 2026-03-21 || [[Media literacy to dispel myths and improve public policy]]
|-
| 46 || 2026-02-26 || 2026-03-03 || 2026-03-07 || [[Concerns about media, especially in Germany]]
|-
| 45 || 2026-02-12 || 2026-02-17 || 2026-02-21 || [[Underserved serve themselves with low-power FM]]
|-
| 44 || 2026-01-30 || 2026-02-03 || 2026-02-07 || [[Conservative media are different]]
|-
| 43 || 2026-01-15 || 2026-01-20 || 2026-01-24 || [[Medill says you can help yourself by helping improve local media]] 
|-
| 42 || 2026-01-03 || 2026-01-06 || 2026-01-10 || [[Lisa Loving on media literacy and how you can report for your community]]
|- 
| 41 || 2015-12-11 || 2025-12-23 || 2025-12-27 || [[John Maxwell Hamilton on American propaganda]] 
|- 
| 40 || 2025-12-05 || 2025-12-09 || 2025-12-13 || [[You can better protect yourself from Big Tech]]
|- 
| 39 || 2025-11-20 || 2025-11-25 || 2025-11-29 || [[Differences between media outlets including coverage of Gaza]]
|- 
| 38 || 2025-11-06 || 2025-11-11 || 2025-11-15 || [[Media &amp; Democracy lessons for the future]]
|-
| 37 || 2025-10-23 || 2025-20-28 || 2025-11-01 || [[Media reform initiatives in West Africa]]  
|-
| 36 || 2025-10-03 || 2025-10-14 || 2025-10-18 || [[Seth Radwell says that the two Enlightenments tell us how to heal US political polarization]]
|-
| 35 || 2025-09-25 || 2025-09-30 || 2025-10-04 ||
[[Media Reform Coalition challenges anti-democratic media bias in the UK]]
|- 
| 34 || 2025-09-12 || 2025-09-16 || 2025-09-20 || [[Fighting back against the campaign of censorship and control]]
|- 
| 33 || 2025-08-28 || 2025-09-02 || 2025-08-06 || [[The role of the media in conflict]]
|- 
| 32 || 2025-07-31 || 2025-08-19 || 2025-08-21 || [[Evidence-informed public policy]]
|-
| 31 || 2025-08-01 || 2025-08-05 || 2025-08-09 || [[What the Left can learn from Fox]]
|-
| 30 || 2025-07-17 || 2025-07-22 || 2025-07-26 || [[Democratic delusions: Fix the media to fix democracy]]
|- 
| 29 || 2025-07-03 || 2025-07-08 || 2025-07-12 || [[News from Germany 1900-1945 and implications for today]]
|-
| 28 || 2025-06-12 || 2025-06-24 || 2025-06-28 || [[How news impacts democracy per USD Communications Professor Nik Usher]]
|-
| 27 || 2025-06-08 || 2025-06-10 || 2025-06-14 || [[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]
|- 
| 26 || 2025-05-21 || 2025-05-27 || 2025-05-31 || [[Dean Starkman and the watchdog that didn't bark]]
|- 
| 25 || 2025-05-08 || 2025-05-13 || 2025-05-17 || [[Freedom of the Press Foundation says...]]
|- 
| 24 || 2025-04-24 || 2025-04-29 || 2025-05-03 || [[Canadian journalist Marc Edge on media reform to improve democracy]]
|-
| 23 || 2025-04-10 || 2025-04-15 || 2025-04-19 || [[The value of indigenous and community radio]]
|- 
| 22 || 2025-03-28 || 2025-04-01 || 2025-04-05 || [[Trump ordered changes in public data]]
|-
| 21 || 2025-03-06 || 2025-03-11 || 2025-03-22 || [[Vulture capitalists destroying newspapers]]
|- 
| 20 || 2025-02-25 || 2025-02-25 || 2025-03-08 || [[Local newspapers limit malfeasance]]
|-
| 19 || 2025-02-06 || 2025-02-11 || 2025-02-22 || [[Palast says Trump lost, vote suppression won the 2024 elections]]
|-
| 18 || 2025-01-25 || 2025-02-04 || 2025-02-12 || [[Defend free speech hybrid town hall]]
|-
| 17 || 2025-01-13 || 2025-01-14 || 2025-01-25 || [[Media in the Syrian conflict]]
|-
| 16 || 2024-12-20 || 2024-12-31 || 2025-01-04 || [[HR 9495, the nonprofit-killer bill, per Michael Novick]]
|- 
| 15 || 2024-12-13 || 2024-12-24 || 2024-12-21 || [[Information is a public good per communications prof Pickard]]
|-
| 14 || 2024-12-02 || 2024-12-10 || 2024-12-07 || [[Media literacy for the Arab World per Ahmed Al-Rawi]]
|-
| 13 || 2024-11-21 || 2024-11-26 || 2024-11-23 || [[Thom Hartmann on The Hidden History of the American Dream]]
|-
| 12 || 2024-10-25 || 2024-11-05 || 2024-11-09 || [[Legal concerns of Wikimedia Europe]] 
|-
| 11 || 2024-10-26 || 2024-10-19 || 2024-10-27 || [[Project 2025 per Professor Brooks]]
|-
| 10 || 2024-10-01 || 2024-10-01 || 2024-10-12 || [[Jacob Ware on far-right terrorism in the US]]
|-
| 9 || 2024-09-13 || 2024-09-17 || 2024-09-29 || [[Dis- and misinformation and their threats to democracy]]
|- 
| 8 || 2024-09-11 || 2024-11-12 || 2024-09-14 || [[22nd Century Initiative]]
|- 
| 7 || 2024-08-22|| 2024-08-27 || 2024-08-31 || [[Global Project Against Hate &amp; Extremism (GPAHE)]]
|-
| 6 || 2024-08-19 || 2024-08-20 || 2024-08-24 || [[Facebook whistleblower Frances Haugen says]]
|-
| 5 || 2024-08-13 || 2024-08-13 || 2024-08-17 || [[Legal concerns of Free Press including Section 230]]
|-
| 4 || 2024-08-02 || 2024-08-06 || 2024-08-10 || [[How psychological and interpersonal processes are influenced by human-computer interactions]]
|-
| 3 || 2024-07-30 || 2024-07-30 || 2024-08-03 || [[Dean Baker on Internet companies threatening democracy internationally and how to fix that]]
|-
| 2 || 2021-04-29 || 2021-04-29 || 2021-05-16 || [[Media reform per Freepress.net]]
|- 
| 1 || 2021-02-23 || 2021-02-23 || 2021-03-17 ||[[Unrigging the media and the economy]]
|}

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography == 

* &lt;!-- H. R. McMaster (2020) Battlegrounds: The Fight to Defend the Free World--&gt;{{cite Q|Q104774898}}
* &lt;!--Maria Ressa (2022) How to Stand Up To a Dictator--&gt;{{cite Q|Q117559286}}

[[Category:Interdisciplinary studies]]

[[Category:Political science]]
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Freedom and abundance]]
[[Category:Videoconferences on media and democracy]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>One man's look at concept</title>
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[[File:Dick.jpg]]
Хз

Би-би би-би бибика!
Поехали кататься!
Би-би би-би бибика!
За нами не угнаться
Покрашу я бибику
В любимый красный цвет
Би-би би-бибибика!
Машины лучше нет!
Тамбовский дед
==Бибика==

A нвыереыууыеовнк to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationshipашагs. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.Попа

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Дурка приехала!🏥🚑==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract 2🚙😈🤤☠️🚘.💦💀💀🇦🇸 Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be 💦less ready 🤬🤬😀🐙💦☠️🇦🇸to consider concepts for concrete individual entit👿☠️💀ies, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einst🐙🤤🐗🏥ein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Al🟩😈🐗🚑🛻🚘bert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests 🤤💀🇦🇸☠️🚗🤬that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Бибика!==
Furt
[[File:Car.svg|right|thumb|Бибика]][[File:Car.jpeg|right|thumb|Бибика]]
her to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. toilet==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is th🛻e publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Toilet'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Furtheding:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's го ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated анвнвневевеваas concept/р script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one пtoilet between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.
[[File:Shit.svg]]
Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==Ты лох!==
* [[Попа]]
* [[Хз чё]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Фак негра🖕🏿==
* {{W|🖕🏿}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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[[File:Dick.jpg]]
Хз

Би-би би-би бибика!
Поехали кататься!
Би-би би-би бибика!
За нами не угнаться
Покрашу я бибику
В любимый красный цвет
Би-би би-бибибика!
Машины лучше нет!
* Тамбовский дед
* Я — футбольный мячик!!!

==Бибика==

A нвыереыууыеовнк to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationshipашагs. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.Попа

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Дурка приехала!🏥🚑==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract 2🚙😈🤤☠️🚘.💦💀💀🇦🇸 Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be 💦less ready 🤬🤬😀🐙💦☠️🇦🇸to consider concepts for concrete individual entit👿☠️💀ies, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einst🐙🤤🐗🏥ein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Al🟩😈🐗🚑🛻🚘bert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests 🤤💀🇦🇸☠️🚗🤬that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Бибика!==
Furt
[[File:Car.svg|right|thumb|Бибика]][[File:Car.jpeg|right|thumb|Бибика]]
her to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. toilet==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is th🛻e publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Toilet'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Furtheding:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's го ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated анвнвневевеваas concept/р script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one пtoilet between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.
[[File:Shit.svg]]
Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==Ты лох!==
* [[Попа]]
* [[Хз чё]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Фак негра🖕🏿==
* {{W|🖕🏿}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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[[File:Dick.jpg]]
Хз

Би-би би-би бибика!
Поехали кататься!
Би-би би-би бибика!
За нами не угнаться
Покрашу я бибику
В любимый красный цвет
Би-би би-бибибика!
Машины лучше нет!
* Тамбовский дед
* Я — футбольный мячик!!!

==Бибика==

A нвыереыууыеовнк to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationshipашагs. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.Попа

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Дурка приехала!🏥🚑==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract 2🚙😈🤤☠️🚘.💦💀💀🇦🇸 Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be 💦less ready 🤬🤬😀🐙💦☠️🇦🇸to consider concepts for concrete individual entit👿☠️💀ies, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einst🐙🤤🐗🏥ein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Al🟩😈🐗🚑🛻🚘bert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests 🤤💀🇦🇸☠️🚗🤬that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==67 Окак==

сесн also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genusптпчт
б: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.c
* A person who isнrdc tall or is Al🤬bert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Бибика!==
Furt
[[File:Car.svg|right|thumb|Бибика]][[File:Car.jpeg|right|thumb|Бибика]]
her to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. toilet==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is th🛻e publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Toilet'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Furtheding:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's го ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated анвнвневевеваas concept/р script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one пtoilet between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.
[[File:Shit.svg]]
Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==Ты лох!==
* [[Попа]]
* [[Хз чё]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Фак негра🖕🏿==
* {{W|🖕🏿}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based Бибика!!!==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:/fill 15:07, 10 May 2026 (UTC)~ flowing_water
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.
*Заходи на Dygers!
*Ip:Dygers.fun
*порт:19132

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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[[File:Dick.jpg]]
Хз

Би-би би-би бибика!
Поехали кататься!
Би-би би-би бибика!
За нами не угнаться
Покрашу я бибику
В любимый красный цвет
Би-би би-бибибика!
Машины лучше нет!
* Тамбовский дед
* Я — футбольный мячик!!!

==Бибика==

A нвыереыууыеовнк to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationshipашагs. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.Попа

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Дурка приехала!🏥🚑==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract 2🚙😈🤤☠️🚘.💦💀💀🇦🇸 Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be 💦less ready 🤬🤬😀🐙💦☠️🇦🇸to consider concepts for concrete individual entit👿☠️💀ies, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einst🐙🤤🐗🏥ein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Al🟩😈🐗🚑🛻🚘bert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests 🤤💀🇦🇸☠️🚗🤬that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==67 Окак==

сесн also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genusптпчт
б: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.c
* A person who isнrdc tall or is Al🤬bert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Бибика!==
Furt
[[File:Car.svg|right|thumb|Бибика]][[File:Car.jpeg|right|thumb|Бибика]]
her to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. toilet==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is th🛻e publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Toilet'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Furtheding:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's го ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated анвнвневевеваas concept/р script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one пtoilet between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.
[[File:Shit.svg]]
Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==Ты лох!==
* [[Попа]]
* [[Хз чё]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Фак негра🖕🏿==
* {{W|🖕🏿}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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Хз

Би-би би-би бибика!
Поехали кататься!
Би-би би-би бибика!
За нами не угнаться
Покрашу я бибику
В любимый красный цвет
Би-би би-бибибика!
Машины лучше нет!
* Тамбовский дед
* Я — футбольный мячик!!!

==Бибика==

A нвыереыууыеовнк to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationshipашагs. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.Попа

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Дурка приехала!🏥🚑==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract 2🚙😈🤤☠️🚘.💦💀💀🇦🇸 Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be 💦less ready 🤬🤬😀🐙💦☠️🇦🇸to consider concepts for concrete individual entit👿☠️💀ies, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einst🐙🤤🐗🏥ein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Al🟩😈🐗🚑🛻🚘bert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests 🤤💀🇦🇸☠️🚗🤬that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==67 Окак==

сесн also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genusптпчт
б: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.c
* A person who isнrdc tall or is Al🤬bert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based Бибика!!!==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:/fill 15:07, 10 May 2026 (UTC)~ flowing_water
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.
*Заходи на Dygers!
*Ip:Dygers.fun
*порт:19132

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Бибика!==
Furt
[[File:Car.svg|right|thumb|Бибика]][[File:Car.jpeg|right|thumb|Бибика]]
her to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. toilet==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is th🛻e publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Toilet'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Furtheding:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's го ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated анвнвневевеваas concept/р script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one пtoilet between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.
[[File:Shit.svg]]
Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==Ты лох!==
* [[Попа]]
* [[Хз чё]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Фак негра🖕🏿==
* {{W|🖕🏿}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==Жопа==
&lt;Жжжжопа!/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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Хз

Би-би би-би бибика!
Поехали кататься!
Би-би би-би бибика!
За нами не угнаться
Покрашу я бибику
В любимый красный цвет
Би-би би-бибибика!
Машины лучше нет!
* Тамбовский дед
* Я — футбольный мячик!!!

==Бибика==

A нвыереыууыеовнк to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationshipашагs. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.Попа

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Дурка приехала!🏥🚑==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract 2🚙😈🤤☠️🚘.💦💀💀🇦🇸 Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be 💦less ready 🤬🤬😀🐙💦☠️🇦🇸to consider concepts for concrete individual entit👿☠️💀ies, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einst🐙🤤🐗🏥ein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Al🟩😈🐗🚑🛻🚘bert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests 🤤💀🇦🇸☠️🚗🤬that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==67 Окак==

сесн also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genusптпчт
б: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.c
* A person who isнrdc tall or is Al🤬bert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based Бибика!!!==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:/fill 15:07, 10 May 2026 (UTC)~ flowing_water
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.
*Заходи на Dygers!
*Ip:Dygers.fun
*порт:19132

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Бибика!==
Furt
[[File:Car.svg|right|thumb|Бибика]][[File:Car.jpeg|right|thumb|Бибика]]
her to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. toilet==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is th🛻e publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Toilet'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Furtheding:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's го ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated анвнвневевеваas concept/р script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one пtoilet between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.
[[File:Shit.svg]]
Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==Ты лох!==
* [[Попа]]
* [[Хз чё]]

==Жопа==
&lt;Жжжжопа!/&gt;

==Фак негра🖕🏿==
* {{W|🖕🏿}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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[[File:Dick.jpg]]
Хз

Би-би би-би бибика!
Поехали кататься!
Би-би би-би бибика!
За нами не угнаться
Покрашу я бибику
В любимый красный цвет
Би-би би-бибибика!
Машины лучше нет!
* Тамбовский дед
* Я — футбольный мячик!!!

==Бибика==

A нвыереыууыеовнк to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationshipашагs. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.Попа

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Дурка приехала!🏥🚑==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract 2🚙😈🤤☠️🚘.💦💀💀🇦🇸 Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be 💦less ready 🤬🤬😀🐙💦☠️🇦🇸to consider concepts for concrete individual entit👿☠️💀ies, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einst🐙🤤🐗🏥ein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Al🟩😈🐗🚑🛻🚘bert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests 🤤💀🇦🇸☠️🚗🤬that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==67 Окак==

сесн also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genusптпчт
б: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.c
* A person who isнrdc tall or is Al🤬bert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based Бибика!!!==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:/fill 15:07, 10 May 2026 (UTC)~ flowing_water
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.
*Заходи на Dygers!
*Ip:Dygers.fun
*порт:19132

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of Крв==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all isв5угчеоуночувокн innate.
а
If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Бибика!==
Furt
[[File:Car.svg|right|thumb|Бибика]][[File:Car.jpeg|right|thumb|Бибика]]
her to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. toilet==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is th🛻e publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Toilet'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Furtheding:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's го ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated анвнвневевеваas concept/р script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one пtoilet between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.
[[File:Shit.svg]]
Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==Ты лох!==
* [[Попа]]
* [[Хз чё]]

==Жопа==
&lt;Жжжжопа!/&gt;

==Фак негра🖕🏿==
* {{W|🖕🏿}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Типыч==

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very кярверве concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs tсенмs4eysryo be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.Protect this page pls!
* A person 6djd5twith fingerprint so and so.
This questizryzryrzzgron, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Типыч==

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very кярверве concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs tсенмs4eysryo be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.Protect this page pls!
* A person 6djd5twith fingerprint so and so.
This questizryzryrzzgron, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Типыч==

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==Жопас==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Dick]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Pizdansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Dick]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==🚗🚙==

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Pizdansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==🚗🚙==

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Dick]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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I fuck you all!

==🚗🚙==

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Dick]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very кярверве concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs tсенмs4eysryo be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.Protect this page pls!
* A person 6djd5twith fingerprint so and so.
This questizryzryrzzgron, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Типыч==

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==Жопас==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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I fuck you all!

==🚗🚙==

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Dick]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==!fhzg txhtz for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dick Pizdansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Тамбовский дед

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Тамбовский дед

==Я — футбольный мячик!!!==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further BOOM💣==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Penis suck==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

== ==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan c is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, f some questions, and collects interesting c reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One c look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others f t want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Дурка приехала!🏥🚑==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Tipich is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==
БРРР СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept canБРРР СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП🛁🚽🚽🚽🚽🚽🚽🚽

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept canБРРР СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДОП ДОП ДОП ЕС ЕС СКИБИДИ ДАБУДУ ДИП ДИП🛁🚽🚽🚽🚽🚽🚽🚽

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Eаncyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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This article by Dan Polansky is about the concept of concept. It gives a first idea, raises some questions, and collects interesting further reading publicly available online. (The article may later be moved to &quot;One man's look at concept&quot; since it occupies the Concept head that others could also want to use.)

==Introduction==

A concept is to be distinguished from a word or phrase. As a first approximation, a concept is a word meaning. Thus, a single word covers multiple concepts, and a single concept is named by multiple words. By means of example, the concept of cat-domestical-animal is named by word &quot;cat&quot; but also by word &quot;grimalkin&quot;. And the other way around, the word &quot;cat&quot; covers the concept of cat-domestic-animal but also cat-felid-feline. We use the hyphenated names to unambiguously identify the concepts, hoping that listing a set of synonyms will serve to disambigute. Thus, each WordNet's synset is intended to match a single concept.

However, there are multiple reasons to think a concept does not have to be a word meaning. One reason is that at least some concepts seem to exist without words. Thus, pre-linguistic humans were probably able to rank observed individuals, e.g. individual trees, under a single mental category. The same is probably true of other primates. Such a sophisticated animal as a chimpanzee cannot operate in their environment without this kind of conceptual ability, the ability to rank individual observed objects into classes, and to interconnect classes by meaningful relationships. Thus, concepts would be some kind of mental objects different from word meaning. It would still be true that words point to concepts, but not each concept would need to be a word meaning.

Sum of parts concepts are also concepts. Thus, white-cat is also a concept, even if it is just cat that is white. Thus, it would seem any noun phrase ambiguously identifies a concept. Indeed, noun-phrase-that-ambiguously-identified-a-concept is also a concept.

As was pointed above, there is no unique way to name concepts. Thus, we can say cat-domestical-animal or cat-animal-in-the-narrow-sense. The former seems much better.

==Concepts for individual entities==

Concepts may also correspond to individual instances, at least to abstract instances. Since, &quot;blueness&quot; is a name of concept, a quality, and that is an individual instance.

One may be less ready to consider concepts for concrete individual entities, including individual people or trees. It is unclear what qualities a concept for, say, Albert Einstein contains: it rather seems that the Kripkean view is of import, that &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; is a rigid designator rather than a package of properties to select by. If one accepts the Russelian theory of names as descriptions, there are also concepts for individual instances, having a certain selection of properties as uniquely identifying these instances. One may object that these concepts are not really belonging to the individuals since they would not belong to them across possible worlds. This needs clarification and discussion.

The idea of concepts corresponding to concrete individual entities via descriptions suggests that different descriptions uniquely identifying an individual entity in this world could correspond to difference concepts, Fregean senses. Thus, Hesperus would pick the individual entity via a different concept than Phosphorus: one has the appearance in the morning sky as part of the concept whereas the other one in the evening sky.

We may wonder whether the idea of Kripkean rigid designation can inspire us to construct a concept that applies across possible worlds without the selecting description so applying:
* The person, in this world or a possible world, who is in this world named Albert Einstein and who in this world has discovered special theory of relativity, regardless whether he did so in the particular world under consideration.
Here, the description would be used to pick the individual entity in this world, and the connection to possible worlds would be via the idea of trans-world numerical identity that disregards which parts of the selecting description are necessary and which merely contingent.

==Disjunctive concepts==

Literature also talks about concepts that are disjunctive, using OR to connect criteria. This raises questions about whether any OR combination is a concept, including the following:
* Multi-genus: A star or a house.
* Multi-genus: A star or a house or a mineral or an inflected form or a computable function.
* A person who is tall or is Albert Einstein or has ever been to Canada.

==Complexity of concepts==
Possible complexity of concepts points to one set of questions that are to be answered. For a start, does each of the following descriptions correspond to a concept?
* A cat that is white, weighs at least 10 kg and has not broken a vase.
* The concept of metric space in mathematics, that is, a structure that meets all of certain axioms.
Is there any limit to a complexity of description or a specification of a concept? To put it in technical terms, given a particular language of first order logic, does any formula with one free variable correspond to a concept? If it does, it seems impossible for each concept to fit into human consciousness.

==Phenomenal concepts==
A concept can probably be expressed in terms of the manner in which it is observed without knowledge of or differentiation of the underlying kind of entity. Thus, we would have the concept of a star as that which reveals itself as bright dot in the sky, without knowing whether the entity causing the dot is a ball of matter or a hole through which something shines or whether we are talking about a single kind of underlying entity rather than a single produced kind of observation. We can classify such stars into fixed stars, slowly moving stars and falling stars. Without deeper knowledge, we could think that some bright dots in the sky are a result of shining balls of matter whereas other bright dots are a results of fires shining through holes.

An example of a concept perhaps less phenomenal but still rather phenomenal is zebra, which can informally defined as striped horse-like animal. There are multiple species of zebra. What makes it phenomenal is that the selection of animals into the concept in part does not depend on underlying genetic affinities only but rather on external appearance. The underlying genetic affinities can be thought of as hidden essences, as if truer or deeper natural joints into which the natural world is cut, sliced or articulated.

==Name-based concepts==
A concept can be probably constructed based on words referring to things only. Thus, the following would be concepts:
* Any person named Peter.
* Any entity called cat in whatever sense of the word. (Generally multiple disparate genera.)
* Any entity called by the German word &quot;Katze&quot; in any sense of the word. (Allows embedding of foreign language.)
* Any entity described by the German phrase &quot;schwarze Katze&quot; in any senses of the component words. (Embedding of whole phrases.)
The above may seems strange, but it is often that which is cognitively given in a situation. Thus, if one hears unknown people talk in another room without seeing them, and if one hears &quot;Peter, come here please&quot;, a valid even if uncertain inference is that there is someone named Peter, which is not a proper noun manner of reference but rather a common noun manner and thus much more of a candidate to be or correspond to a concept. And &quot;someone named Peter&quot; is as much as one can validly think about that individual entity represented in some way in the mind, together with the inferred &quot;human&quot; and &quot;male&quot;. Peter has not spoken so there is not even a way to associate particular voice with that entity.

==Very specific concepts==
The possibility of great specificity of concepts needs to be analyzed. Thus, it is to be clarified whether the following are concepts:
* A person shown on the photograph so and so.
* A person with fingerprint so and so.
This question, combined with the one about complexity, leads to the question whether the following defines a concept:
* A person that corresponds to the knowledge that person X (who has seen a photograph) has about Albert Einstein.
The above would imply the existence of many detailed very specific concepts corresponding to individual entities, where different people would have a different concept about the individual entity based on what they know, and the concept would keep on being enlarged with more knowledge gained. There is something implausible about this idea. If one further combines the idea with the idea of arbitrarily combining concepts via OR, we could construct a concept corresponding to knowledge of, say, 50 individual people a certain person has. This construction seems to be at odds with the reason why the concept of concept was introduced in the first place, to correspond to something like relatively general categories under which observed things and other things fall, where &quot;relatively general&quot; is left unspecified.

==Equivalent definitions of the same class==
For individual entities, we have seen that Hesperus and Phosphorus could correspond to different concepts even if the same individual entity. There could be a similar situation with classes, for instance of ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as a set of points with a particular constant sum of distances from the focal points or as a set of points generated by applying sine and cosine function to a parameter. These two equivalent definitions identify the same class, but in a different manner, and if two different ways of accessing Hesperus correspond to different concepts, so could the two different ways of accessing the class of ellipses.

==Nativism of concepts==
One can ask whether some or all concepts are innate or rather learned. It seems implausible that complex concepts are innate. At the same time, it seems hard to believe that no concept at all is innate.

If we take natural kinds such as biological species or minerals as corresponding to concepts, it seems hard to believe they would be innate. There is not enough environmental information and adaptive survival/reproduction advantage for an organism to have them all innate. For instance, assuming that humans evolved in Africa, it is unclear how the evolutionary analogue of learning consisting in generic and phenotypic variation and elimination would learn about Americas-only species. Similar puzzle applies to learning about species living only deep in the ocean or the concept of bacteria.

By contrast, it is superficially plausible to think that e.g. the concepts of animal (excluding humans), tree and river could be innate, driven by applications relating to survival and reproduction, or more accurately genetic fitness, and based on environmental information readily available to humans no less than chimpanzees. 

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

==Coupling to language==
The opening paragraphs started with the first approximation that concepts are word meanings. This raises the questions:
* Are there any concepts without words?
* Does language enhance one's work with concepts?
* Does it cognitively matter whether a concept is bound to a word, even if a compound word, or rather a phrase?
We have answered the first question in the affirmative. The answer to the second question seems true as well. Thus, for a mathematical example, the concept of metric space is easier to work with and arrive at if the concept has a name (&quot;metric space&quot;) and if it is linked to other concept's names via axioms. Moreover, the use of new words and phrases forces one to create a classification or conceptual scheme that ranks individual objects under the word or phrase, forcing concept formation.

An interesting window on the concept-language coupling is offered by German (and similar languages), a language with a tendency to form long compounds. Does the existence of ready-made long German compounds enhance one's capacity to think and work with concepts?

The subject is covered in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/#ConNatLan 4. Concepts and natural language] in Concepts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Definitions of concepts==
In so far as concepts are or correspond to word and phrase senses, they can be defined. One can define a concept using words, but that is ambiguous. One can less ambiguously define concepts using concepts, provided one finds a way to unambiguously identify concepts using words or their groups. Thus, one can define cat-domestic-animal as domestic-animal that meows. Here we use a hyphen convention reminiscent of the programming language LISP to identify concepts less ambiguously than single words can.

==Adjectival and verbal concepts==
Further to be clarified is whether there are adjectival concepts and verbal concepts; there are such word senses. Since, instead of saying X is blue, we may say X has the quality or state of blueness, and thus we do not need any concept for adjective &quot;blue&quot;. Similarly, instead of saying that X operates, we may say that X is in the process of operation. If concepts are by definition nominal (corresponding to nouns and noun phrases), here would be another difference between concept and word sense.

==Applications==
The concept of concept can be used to study human and animal behavior. The term &quot;concept&quot; is used in standards for thesauri for information retrieval and in a related interchange data format.

==Concept vs. notion==
It seems that some literature has some uses of the word ''notion'' that are synonymous with ''concept''. Uses of the form &quot;the notion of X&quot; where X is a noun or a noun phrase are suggestive of this kind of use. Narrower uses suggestive of synonymy are &quot;define the notion of X&quot;. An example of this apparent use is the publication ''What is a Word? About the Notion of Word'' from GRIN Verlag, apparently written by German native speaker or speakers.

One way to shed some light on this question is to use a German-English dictionary to translate the German word ''Begriff''. If we use Cambridge dictionary, we get two different translations as different senses, one notion and one concept.&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/german-english/begriff?q=Begriff&lt;/ref&gt;. Langenscheidt features both notion and concept as possible translations.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.langenscheidt.com/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt; Collins mentions concept but not notion.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/begriff&lt;/ref&gt;

A similar way is to start with Czech ''pojem''. Lingea gives both concept and notion as possible translations, as different senses.&lt;ref&gt;https://slovniky.lingea.cz/anglicko-cesky/pojem&lt;/ref&gt;

The above exercise could be expanded with coverage of other languages. Starting with the two languages picked and the results, it would seem possible that native English speakers do not usually use the word ''notion'' as a synonym of ''concept'' whereas non-native speakers could do so under influence of translation dictionaries, by picking the wrong translation for the sought sense. But this is just a guess.

''Notion'' being a synonym of ''concept'' is suggested by the definition of ''concept'' in Meriam-Webster 1913: &quot;An abstract general conception; a notion; a universal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.websters1913.com/words/Concept&lt;/ref&gt;

One possible terminological deliberation and choice could be this. Even if ''notion'' is sometimes used synonymously with ''concept'', it is ''concept'' that is the headword of Britannica 1911 article, modern Britannica online and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; and thus, ''concept'' would be the preferred name and ''notion'' the dispreferred name (that's an if).

To support the above terminological choice, we can consider the rates in Google Ngram Viewer (GNV) of ''narrower concept'' vs. ''narrower notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=narrower+notion%2C+narrower+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt; and ''broader concept'' vs. ''broader notion''&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=broader+notion%2Cbroader+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. In both comparisons, the variant with ''concept'' comfortably wins but the variant with ''notion'' sees significant use.

Let us look at the NGV rates of ''undefined concepts'' and ''undefined notions''.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+concepts%2Cundefined+notions&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;. The picture is remarkable: in 19th century, ''undefined concepts'' sees almost no use, unlike ''undefined notions''; in 20th century, ''undefined concepts'' takes a lead while ''undefined notions'' still sees wide use. But it is above all ''terms'' that are undefined.&lt;ref&gt;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=undefined+*_NOUN&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/notion notion], merriam-webster.com

== Names in other languages ==
Let us have a look at the names of the concept of concept in other languages. These can be meaningfully groupped by language family.
* English ''concept'', Italian ''concetto'', French ''concept''
* German ''Begriff'' but also ''Konzept'', Danish ''begreb''
* Czech ''pojem'', Russian понятие, Polish ''pojęcie''

== Frege's Begriffsschrift ==
Frege's Begriffsschrift can be translated as concept/conceptual script (collection of letters). From what I understand, in the formalism developed in Begriffsschrift, there is a one-to-one correspondence between concept letters and concepts; there remains no ambiguity.

Further reading:
* {{W|Begriffsschrift}}, wikipedia.org

==See also==
* [[Operationalization]]
* [[Concept clarification]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Concept}}, wikipedia.org
* [[S:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Concept]], wikisource.org
* [https://philpapers.org/browse/Concepts Concept] at PhilPapers
* &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/ Concepts]&quot;. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/concepts/ Concept]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/theory-theory-of-concepts/ Theory–Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;[https://iep.utm.edu/classical-theory-of-concepts/ Classical Theory of Concepts]&quot;. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concept concept], britannica.com
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/concept concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/disjunctive-concept disjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/conjunctive-concept conjunctive concept] in APA Dictionary of Psychology
* [https://www.semanticarts.com/the-importance-of-distinguishing-between-terms-and-concepts/ The Importance of Distinguishing between Terms and Concepts] by Michael Uschold, 2013
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330146725_Concept_vs_Notion_and_Lexical_Meaning_What_is_the_Difference Concept vs Notion and Lexical Meaning: What is the Difference?] by Dinara Khairullina, 2018
* [https://www.margolisphilosophy.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11073530/learningmatters.pdf Learning Matters: The Role of Learning in Concept Acquisition] by Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, margolisphilosophy.com
* [https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~slr/Medieval_signification.pdf Concepts and Meaning in Medieval Philosophy] by Stephen Read, st-andrews.ac.uk
* [http://www.gap5.de/proceedings/pdf/419-434_newen.pdf Die ungeklärte Natur der Begriffe Eine Analyse der ontologischen Diskussion] by Albert Newen, gap5.de

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  <page>
    <title>The Wise Path</title>
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      <text bytes="11489" sha1="s6m32n0qcwud2vnf80hlkngx4s4w1ni" xml:space="preserve">—Progress Toward Wisdom

Am I acting wisely now? How wise a person am I? What can I do to increase my [[The Wise Path/Wisdom|wisdom]]? These are basic questions we all face while trying to navigate through life, increase our significance, and act more wisely. Fortunately there is a map that can help us find ourselves in wisdom space. The guides linked from the figure below can help lead us as we work to increase our wisdom. - Simon 

Wisdom requires [[w:Four_stages_of_competence|progression]] in [[The Wise Path/Cognition (Thinking)|clear thinking]], [[The Wise Path/Action (Doing)|committed action]], and [[The Wise Path/Emotion (Feeling)|emotional regulation]]. As we develop and increase our learning and maturity our focus can shift from survival, to success, and eventually to transformation.

We are born essentially unaware of the wonderful world we live in. As infants and young children, we learn quickly about ''our'' world, but see such a small slice we are almost entirely misinformed about ''the'' world.

Eventually our curiosity is armed with language, reasoning, exploration opportunities, number skills, and reading skills. Now we can ask our own questions and seek our own answers. We begin to become factually informed, at least in those areas where our curiosity takes us and we can find reliable answers to our questions. But this realm is still treacherous. Certain questions are off limits, myths and traditions may present falsehoods as facts, [[Earning Trust|trusted]] people may disagree on the answers to certain questions, or we may accept the first answer we hear. Formal schooling, self study, adventures, and life experiences combine to increase our information base. Some of that information is factual, and some is false, incomplete, invalid, or misleading.

Clear and critical thinkers eventually develop their own [[Knowing How You Know#What is a Theory of Knowledge?|theory of knowledge]] to help them decide what to believe in the face of incomplete or misleading answers and conflicting information sources. Here the rules of [[Evaluating Evidence|evidence]], logic, inference, and [[Deductive Logic/Clear Thinking curriculum|critical thinking]] begin to take shape. The ability to integrate information and “connect the dots” to get a larger and consistent understanding of the world becomes important. Falsehoods and [[Recognizing Fallacies|fallacies]] become easier to detect and reject. Inconsistencies become apparent and careful investigation begins to reveal larger and more durable truths about our fascinating world. We are better able to assimilate diversity, learn from ambiguity, [[Practicing Dialogue#Balance Inquiry and Advocacy|suspend judgment]], and become comfortable with complexity. These skills allow us to integrate factual information with our own investigations, knowledge base, and world view as we begin to truly know the world for ourselves

{{center|1=
&lt;imagemap&gt;File:Wisdom-space.gif|
poly 439 155 529 231 556 340 592 338 566 216 471 120 [[The_Wise_Path/Emotionally Competent|Emotionally Competent]]
poly 496 128 570 208 601 329 626 326 600 189 518 108 [[The_Wise_Path/Reactive|Reactive]]
rect 578 64 761 102 [[The_Wise_Path/Emotion (Feeling)|feeling]]
rect 520 550 758 603 [[The_Wise_Path/Cognition_(Thinking)|Thinking]]
rect 5 99 179 150 [[The_Wise_Path/Action (Doing)|Doing]]
poly 322 521 401 538 478 519 470 482 401 496 327 484 [[The_Wise_Path/Misinformed|Misinformed]]
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When we can reflect on our reliable and broad knowledge,  everybody loves Raymond

exercise good judgment, and apply it to solve significant problems to enhance human well-being we begin to understand the world as it ''is''. Examining knowledge from multiple viewpoints, adopting a global perspective and long-term view, understanding interrelationships, and gaining insight all contribute to our holistic understanding of the world. Being curious about what happened, creative about what can happen, and open to new possibilities allows us to make surprisingly good decisions that benefit all.

Holistic understanding brings us to the threshold of wisdom, but these thinking skills still need to be accompanied by a similar level of maturity in both [[The Wise Path/Action (Doing)|action]] and [[The Wise Path/Emotion (Feeling)|emotion]].

We are born fussy but largely passive, able only to cry and wiggle and we must rely on others to feed us, move us, protect us and care for us. We eventually learn to roll over, crawl, walk, and then run. We can now move, but we travel in small circles, repeat actions endlessly, and our [[The Wise Path/Thrashing|thrashing]] around does not seem to accomplish anything more than pass time as we entertain ourselves and perhaps our parents and friends.

Eventually we form [[Thinking Tools#Clarify—Strategic Thinking|goals]] and we focus and engage our actions to meet those goals. These goals may be modest and self-centered requiring little action, or we may set bolder goals to learn, gain strength, achieve, and help others.

As we begin to explore more of the world, we see opportunities that can only be seized by taking more risks. We can go away to summer camp or stay home. We can go far away to a challenging college ideally suited to us or play it safe and stay near home. We can seek a challenging job or tolerate a boring one. We either decide to yield to temptation and avoid taking risks, or we summon the [[The Wise Path/Courage|courage]] to act on our [[Clarifying values|values]] and do what we believe is right, despite the temptations of an easier path. Running a marathon, graduating from college, job interviews, serious relationships, and studying for tomorrow’s test all require us to leave comfort behind to attain a greater outcome. Achievement requires courage.

But climbing a mountain or completing a marathon are personal achievements that don’t do much to move the world forward. Action must be combined with well-chosen, human-based [[Clarifying values|values]] to make a significant difference. Courageous achievements that help others around the globe for all time is wisdom in action. When [[w:Rosa_Parks|Rosa Parks]] kept her bus seat and [[w:Martin_Luther_King_Jr.|Martin Luther King Jr]]. organized and sustained the Montgomery Bus Boycott their actions created substantial and lasting progress for all people. ''This'' is [[Doing Good|doing good]].

But unless our hearts are in this thinking and doing are not enough; emotional growth is an essential, and often neglected, path toward wisdom. Newborn babies cry endlessly as they know and care only about themselves. They have no [[w:Empathy|empathy]] for others—they are apathetic. Soon infants learn to reflect the smile on their mother’s face, and react simply and predictably to other’s facial expressions, movements, fears, frustration, and pain. While raw and immediate reactions to [[Emotional Competency|emotions]] represent a growth stage for infants, this [[The Wise Path/Reactive|reactive]] behavior is immature, destructive, and unacceptable in adults. [[w:Violence|Violent]] tirades, [[Overcoming Hate|hateful]] actions, spiteful [[Foregoing Revenge|revenge]], [[w:Humiliation|humiliation]], and [[Coping with Ego|ego rants]] have no wise place among [[Living Wisely#Personal Responsibility|responsible]] adults. [[Emotional Competency|Emotionally competent]] adults develop the essential social skills to [[Recognizing Emotions|recognize]], interpret, and respond constructively to emotions in themselves and others. Understanding and impulse control allows reason to prevail over passion as we regulate and interpret our emotions. With study and practice we can each become [[The Wise Path/Emotionally Competent|emotionally competent]].

Fortunately some people are [[The Wise Path/Emotionally Talented|emotionally talented]]—they are gifted with a special aptitude for interpersonal skills, or they learn emotional competency at an early age and practice it all their lives. They seem to know exactly what to say or do to bring out the best in each of us, comfort us during times of distress, and quickly reach a rapport even with total strangers. These are the warm and charismatic people among us who often excel at counseling professions.

A few people have dedicated their lives to achieving [[The Wise Path/Compassionate|compassion]]. One example is Dr. [[w:Matthieu_Ricard|Matthieu Ricard]] who is a molecular geneticist, Buddhist monk, author, translator, and photographer sometimes described as the happiest person in the world. He was a volunteer subject in studies on happiness performed at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, scoring significantly beyond the average obtained after testing hundreds of other volunteers. He radiates calm and compassion.

The long path toward holistic understanding, action for doing good, and compassion bring us to the threshold of [[The Wise Path/Wisdom|wisdom]]. What lies inside this rarefied region?

{{center|[[File:Wisdom-focus.gif|Wisdom-focus.gif]]}}


Wisdom emerges from the fusion of [[The Wise Path/Cognition (Thinking)|thinking]], [[The Wise Path/Emotion (Feeling)|feeling]], and [[The Wise Path/Action (Doing)|acting]] at their highest levels of maturity. Cognitive skills require an intelligent, knowing, and pragmatic observer. Reflection requires introspection and intuition based on a true and deep understanding of the world and human-based values. Affective skills require a gentle peace, compassion, and understanding based on empathy for others. This deep thought, reflection, and feeling is expressed through action that is always committed, passionate, and generous.

Find yourself on this map—on each of the three tracks—and take steps to advance along the paths toward [[The Wise Path/Wisdom|wisdom]]. You can take creative and courageous action to solve problems, create opportunity, and increase the well-being of all.

You can choose to [[Living Wisely|live wisely!]]

''I hope this series of articles make you wiser. I would enjoy seeing your comments about the articles, and especially your suggestions for improving them.'' 

This essay is available as an [[c:File:Where's_wisdom.pdf|8 1/2 x 11&quot; pdf file]] or as an [[c:File:A_progression_toward_wisdom.pdf|11 x 17&quot; pdf file]], convenient for printing

''TheWisePath.org website was created in 2010 and retired in 2023. This collection of essays is adapted from that website, with permission of the author.''

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      <text bytes="11454" sha1="f7p4xd56d4wip543yn422iy40blm89f" xml:space="preserve">—Progress Toward Wisdom

Am I acting wisely now? How wise a person am I? What can I do to increase my [[The Wise Path/Wisdom|wisdom]]? These are basic questions we all face while trying to navigate through life, increase our significance, and act more wisely. Fortunately there is a map that can help us find ourselves in wisdom space. The guides linked from the figure below can help lead us as we work to increase our wisdom.

Wisdom requires [[w:Four_stages_of_competence|progression]] in [[The Wise Path/Cognition (Thinking)|clear thinking]], [[The Wise Path/Action (Doing)|committed action]], and [[The Wise Path/Emotion (Feeling)|emotional regulation]]. As we develop and increase our learning and maturity our focus can shift from survival, to success, and eventually to transformation.

We are born essentially unaware of the wonderful world we live in. As infants and young children, we learn quickly about ''our'' world, but see such a small slice we are almost entirely misinformed about ''the'' world.

Eventually our curiosity is armed with language, reasoning, exploration opportunities, number skills, and reading skills. Now we can ask our own questions and seek our own answers. We begin to become factually informed, at least in those areas where our curiosity takes us and we can find reliable answers to our questions. But this realm is still treacherous. Certain questions are off limits, myths and traditions may present falsehoods as facts, [[Earning Trust|trusted]] people may disagree on the answers to certain questions, or we may accept the first answer we hear. Formal schooling, self study, adventures, and life experiences combine to increase our information base. Some of that information is factual, and some is false, incomplete, invalid, or misleading.

Clear and critical thinkers eventually develop their own [[Knowing How You Know#What is a Theory of Knowledge?|theory of knowledge]] to help them decide what to believe in the face of incomplete or misleading answers and conflicting information sources. Here the rules of [[Evaluating Evidence|evidence]], logic, inference, and [[Deductive Logic/Clear Thinking curriculum|critical thinking]] begin to take shape. The ability to integrate information and “connect the dots” to get a larger and consistent understanding of the world becomes important. Falsehoods and [[Recognizing Fallacies|fallacies]] become easier to detect and reject. Inconsistencies become apparent and careful investigation begins to reveal larger and more durable truths about our fascinating world. We are better able to assimilate diversity, learn from ambiguity, [[Practicing Dialogue#Balance Inquiry and Advocacy|suspend judgment]], and become comfortable with complexity. These skills allow us to integrate factual information with our own investigations, knowledge base, and world view as we begin to truly know the world for ourselves

{{center|1=
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poly 271 238 326 178 361 209 316 255 295 309 249 294 [[The_Wise_Path/Courage|Courage]]
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When we can reflect on our reliable and broad knowledge, exercise good judgment, and apply it to solve significant problems to enhance human well-being we begin to understand the world as it ''is''. Examining knowledge from multiple viewpoints, adopting a global perspective and long-term view, understanding interrelationships, and gaining insight all contribute to our holistic understanding of the world. Being curious about what happened, creative about what can happen, and open to new possibilities allows us to make surprisingly good decisions that benefit all.

Holistic understanding brings us to the threshold of wisdom, but these thinking skills still need to be accompanied by a similar level of maturity in both [[The Wise Path/Action (Doing)|action]] and [[The Wise Path/Emotion (Feeling)|emotion]].

We are born fussy but largely passive, able only to cry and wiggle and we must rely on others to feed us, move us, protect us and care for us. We eventually learn to roll over, crawl, walk, and then run. We can now move, but we travel in small circles, repeat actions endlessly, and our [[The Wise Path/Thrashing|thrashing]] around does not seem to accomplish anything more than pass time as we entertain ourselves and perhaps our parents and friends.

Eventually we form [[Thinking Tools#Clarify—Strategic Thinking|goals]] and we focus and engage our actions to meet those goals. These goals may be modest and self-centered requiring little action, or we may set bolder goals to learn, gain strength, achieve, and help others.

As we begin to explore more of the world, we see opportunities that can only be seized by taking more risks. We can go away to summer camp or stay home. We can go far away to a challenging college ideally suited to us or play it safe and stay near home. We can seek a challenging job or tolerate a boring one. We either decide to yield to temptation and avoid taking risks, or we summon the [[The Wise Path/Courage|courage]] to act on our [[Clarifying values|values]] and do what we believe is right, despite the temptations of an easier path. Running a marathon, graduating from college, job interviews, serious relationships, and studying for tomorrow’s test all require us to leave comfort behind to attain a greater outcome. Achievement requires courage.

But climbing a mountain or completing a marathon are personal achievements that don’t do much to move the world forward. Action must be combined with well-chosen, human-based [[Clarifying values|values]] to make a significant difference. Courageous achievements that help others around the globe for all time is wisdom in action. When [[w:Rosa_Parks|Rosa Parks]] kept her bus seat and [[w:Martin_Luther_King_Jr.|Martin Luther King Jr]]. organized and sustained the Montgomery Bus Boycott their actions created substantial and lasting progress for all people. ''This'' is [[Doing Good|doing good]].

But unless our hearts are in this thinking and doing are not enough; emotional growth is an essential, and often neglected, path toward wisdom. Newborn babies cry endlessly as they know and care only about themselves. They have no [[w:Empathy|empathy]] for others—they are apathetic. Soon infants learn to reflect the smile on their mother’s face, and react simply and predictably to other’s facial expressions, movements, fears, frustration, and pain. While raw and immediate reactions to [[Emotional Competency|emotions]] represent a growth stage for infants, this [[The Wise Path/Reactive|reactive]] behavior is immature, destructive, and unacceptable in adults. [[w:Violence|Violent]] tirades, [[Overcoming Hate|hateful]] actions, spiteful [[Foregoing Revenge|revenge]], [[w:Humiliation|humiliation]], and [[Coping with Ego|ego rants]] have no wise place among [[Living Wisely#Personal Responsibility|responsible]] adults. [[Emotional Competency|Emotionally competent]] adults develop the essential social skills to [[Recognizing Emotions|recognize]], interpret, and respond constructively to emotions in themselves and others. Understanding and impulse control allows reason to prevail over passion as we regulate and interpret our emotions. With study and practice we can each become [[The Wise Path/Emotionally Competent|emotionally competent]].

Fortunately some people are [[The Wise Path/Emotionally Talented|emotionally talented]]—they are gifted with a special aptitude for interpersonal skills, or they learn emotional competency at an early age and practice it all their lives. They seem to know exactly what to say or do to bring out the best in each of us, comfort us during times of distress, and quickly reach a rapport even with total strangers. These are the warm and charismatic people among us who often excel at counseling professions.

A few people have dedicated their lives to achieving [[The Wise Path/Compassionate|compassion]]. One example is Dr. [[w:Matthieu_Ricard|Matthieu Ricard]] who is a molecular geneticist, Buddhist monk, author, translator, and photographer sometimes described as the happiest person in the world. He was a volunteer subject in studies on happiness performed at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, scoring significantly beyond the average obtained after testing hundreds of other volunteers. He radiates calm and compassion.

The long path toward holistic understanding, action for doing good, and compassion bring us to the threshold of [[The Wise Path/Wisdom|wisdom]]. What lies inside this rarefied region?

{{center|[[File:Wisdom-focus.gif|Wisdom-focus.gif]]}}


Wisdom emerges from the fusion of [[The Wise Path/Cognition (Thinking)|thinking]], [[The Wise Path/Emotion (Feeling)|feeling]], and [[The Wise Path/Action (Doing)|acting]] at their highest levels of maturity. Cognitive skills require an intelligent, knowing, and pragmatic observer. Reflection requires introspection and intuition based on a true and deep understanding of the world and human-based values. Affective skills require a gentle peace, compassion, and understanding based on empathy for others. This deep thought, reflection, and feeling is expressed through action that is always committed, passionate, and generous.

Find yourself on this map—on each of the three tracks—and take steps to advance along the paths toward [[The Wise Path/Wisdom|wisdom]]. You can take creative and courageous action to solve problems, create opportunity, and increase the well-being of all.

You can choose to [[Living Wisely|live wisely!]]

''I hope this series of articles make you wiser. I would enjoy seeing your comments about the articles, and especially your suggestions for improving them.'' 

This essay is available as an [[c:File:Where's_wisdom.pdf|8 1/2 x 11&quot; pdf file]] or as an [[c:File:A_progression_toward_wisdom.pdf|11 x 17&quot; pdf file]], convenient for printing

''TheWisePath.org website was created in 2010 and retired in 2023. This collection of essays is adapted from that website, with permission of the author.''

[[Category:Life skills]]
[[Category:Applied Wisdom]]
[[Category:Philosophy]]
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      <text bytes="33975" sha1="kix3xylg79yzaajbyhmgj99fgqo88ru" xml:space="preserve">== Link ==

Last updateː 
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371896737
https://caip.co-ac.com/index.php/materialsanddevices/article/view/213

== Introduction ==

A Grand Unified Theory is any model of physics that explains and connects all fundamental forces (strong force, electromagnetism, weak force, and gravity) into a single force. The framework described here calculates the '''exact point''' at which quantum dynamics transforms into classical physics.

The basic concepts we’ll use are:

* The '''strong nuclear force''' which has always been a controversial force, has been underestimated due to its extremely small field of action in the search for a possible interaction with the gravitational force, but if we turn our attention to its internal interaction instead of its external one, we can create a basic piece for a somewhat more complex and extremely important model. It was responsible for the origin of string theory with the S-matrix, a physical system in which the point-like particles are replaced by  one-dimensional objects called strings, although it later drifted towards any type of vibration into space.

* The '''quantum vacuum''' or aether, which has been ignored to a certain extent, could be responsible for the most important interactions over long distances, being perceived as a kind of material medium as demonstrated by the Michelson-Morley experiment attempting to probe the transmission of light in a vacuum, or as an energetic field as demonstrated by the Casimir effect as well as the Lamb shift. Its topology has been another source of discussion, developing branches like twistor theory, spinors, or knots, in an attempt to explain spin interactions, and it could be the guilty party for all vibrational states of particle.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 1.png|center|450x450px|'''From quantum dynamics to general relativity''']]{{center top}}'''Fig. 1: From quantum dynamics to general relativity.'''{{center bottom}}This physics branch only uses the 3 spatial dimensions and time, with the strong nuclear force as two-dimensional strings and the quantum vacuum as a multistable motion system, being compatible with the Standard Model.

== Principles ==

===Strong nuclear force===
The atomic nucleus is the fundamental constituent of matter at the center of an atom, consisting of protons and neutrons, each one conformed by 3 quarks. These '''quarks remain bound together due to the strong nuclear force''', which is the strongest of the fundamental forces with a scope not greater than 10&lt;sup&gt;-15&lt;/sup&gt; meters. It has been determined that more than 99% of the proton mass is concentrated in the atomic nucleus, and less than 1% comes from residual forces.[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 2.png|375x375px|'''QCD color charge'''|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 2: Color charge (QCD).'''
{{center bottom}}Gluons act as the exchange particle for the strong force between quarks, preventing them from separating by a constant force of attraction with a '''theoretical''' '''maximum of 10.000 N (≈ 1.000 Kg)'''.

In quantum chromodynamics (QCD), a quark's color can take one of three values or charges: red, green, and blue. An antiquark can take one of three anticolors, called antired, antigreen, and antiblue. Gluons are mixtures of two colors, such as red and antigreen, which constitute their color charge. The &quot;color charge&quot; of quarks and gluons is not related to the everyday meanings of color and charge, but is related to its hidden internal degree of freedom.

=== Quantum vacuum ===
We can note two important qualities of the quantum vacuum:

* Particles superconductor. The distance to the most distant galaxy detected by human beings is more than 30 billion light years, which means there are photons that are able to travel that distance without decreasing their speed, modifying only their wavelength. Like light, an object can move into space for a practically unlimited period as long as it doesn’t find a force to stop it, so we can determine that the vacuum has a resistance equivalent to 0.

* A tension. In order to allow waves, it’s easier into a strongly linked structure. Gravitational waves could behave like ocean waves, which are similar to an uptight net, these tensions can be decomposed as a unitary set of points tenser than any known structure and under extreme repulsive forces to allow the universe expansion.

These qualities would treat the quantum vacuum as a '''superfluid''' with zero viscosity and any loss of kinetic energy, having a practically infinite conductive capacity for particles and being extremely dense. Remember, we are moving through the universe at an estimated speed of 600 km/s.

[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 3.gif|alt=QCD vacuum|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 3: QCD vacuum.'''
{{center bottom}}This real picture illustrates the three-dimensional structure of gluon-field configurations, describing the vacuum properties where quarks are popping in and out constantly. The volume of the box is 2,4 x 2,4 x 3,6 fm, inducing chromo-electric and chromo-magnetic fields in its lowest energy state. The frame rate in this real example is billions of billions of frames per second (FPS).

== Strong nuclear force unification ==

=== Fundamentals ===
This new framework consists of a quantum vacuum helping to transport matter without any friction (quarks joined and interacting through the strong nuclear force holding matter together, traveling into space as if it were a superconductor)p.

As an example, I’ve chosen the smallest and most abundant chemical element in the universe, the hydrogen atom, with an estimated '''mass of 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg''', which contains a single electron and a single nucleus. This nucleus consists of a single proton (the basic constituent of matter), where it exerts its nuclear force, which is in turn composed of two up-quarks and a down-quark bound by the gluon interaction.

With these data about '''the hydrogen nucleus''', we’ll calculate its '''average interaction''' to create a '''contraction''' force in the vacuum. For this purpose, we can think about an elastic band (it would simulate the proton strong force with a size of 10&lt;sup&gt;-15&lt;/sup&gt; meters) compressing two V-shaped sticks on its broadest side; if the sticks are sufficiently slippery and tense, the elastic band will slide to the narrower side. The more elastic bands, the more force will be exerted on the sticks to join them; equally, the more matter at the narrow end of the sticks, the more attraction at the top. We talk about unknown limits, such as infinite conduction or tensions never seen.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 4.png|center|722x722px|'''Involved forces''']]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 4: Involved forces.'''
{{center bottom}}This scheme would correspond to what is known as quantum gravity (QG), which aims to describe gravity according to the principles of quantum mechanics, erasing gravity as one of the fundamental forces of nature and turning the strong force into its generator, affecting each nucleon (protons and neutrons) in isolation. 

=== Calculations ===
'''** ''Fig. 5''''' ''is the most important figure in the document;, it must be understood in order to continue. It has been positioned horizontally to be more intuitivee.''

The calculation corresponds to the '''angle''' generated at one point on the Earth’s surface to create its gravitational acceleration (the space deformation), applying the formulas from inclined planes (Newton’s second law) with the following values:
*The proton strong force is matched with the vertical force, having an estimated strength of 10.000 N (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;).

* The proton mass has an estimated value of 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg (m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;).

* The gravitational acceleration on our planet is matched with the acceleration down the plane, 9,8 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (a).

* The friction is zero, 0.
These variables are the average values from quantum dynamics interactions collected through classical physics[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 5.png|465x465px|'''Inclined plane forces'''|center|frameless]]{{center top}}
'''** Fig. 5: Equivalences in the inclined plane.'''
{{center bottom}}These variables should be the average values collected through classical mechanics, from quantum physics interactions.

Convert variables to metric system considering a proton. 

1.  Variables set considering a proton.  &lt;blockquote&gt;''m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg''

''a = 9,8 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; × 9,8 = 1,6395 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-26&lt;/sup&gt; N''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,6395 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-30&lt;/sup&gt; N''&lt;/blockquote&gt;2.   Apply the laws of inclined planes to the previous variables.  &lt;blockquote&gt;''m × g × sin(''θ'') = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a                                                                                                                                     (1.1)''

''F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = m × g = 10.000 N''

''F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × sin(''θ'') = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''

θ ''= arcsin(F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;)    ''&lt;/blockquote&gt;3.  Planet Earth’s angle is shared by 3 quarks, creating 9,8 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; acceleration. This deviation occurs at the proton size.&lt;blockquote&gt;θ ''= 9,393 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-29&lt;/sup&gt; °                                                                                                                                             (1.2)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;The definition of mass says that it is a quantity that represents the amount of matter in a particle or an object. Its calculation has many variations, like weight / acceleration (due to gravity); force / acceleration; or density × volume, all of these associated with our framework.

=== Quantum vacuum density ===
Dark matter could have its origins due '''to variations in the quantum vacuum density'''. An extension between quarks could turn mass (m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;) into tension energy (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;), so some places in the universe can have lower or higher accelerations because of this effect; this means that  dark matter doesn’t really exist, which is estimated at 27% of the mass in the observable universe.

The most important related discovery might be the '''asymptotic freedom''', which is a property of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) where interactions between quarks become weaker as the energy scale increases and the corresponding length scale decreases. The fact that couplings depend on the momentum (or length) scale is the central idea behind the renormalization group.[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 7.png|500x500px|'''The strong force behaves like an elastic band'''|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 6: The strong force behaves like an elastic band.'''
{{center bottom}}We don’t really know the relation between the vacuum density and the strong nuclear force, so this is just an estimation, but it’s expected that more vacuum concentration could expand quarks and modify all the relations

1.  Variables set.&lt;blockquote&gt;''m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; × a''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = (1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; × a) / 10.000 = (1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt; × a)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;2.  Calculate the relation between the angle and the acceleration.&lt;blockquote&gt;''F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × sin(''θ'') = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;                                                                                                                                   (2.1)''

θ ''= arcsin(F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;)''

θ ''= arcsin(1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt; × a)'' 

θ ''= (1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt; × a) °''&lt;/blockquote&gt;3.  A bigger angle generates more acceleration.&lt;blockquote&gt;''a = (''θ ''/ 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt;) m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;                                                                                                                               (2.2)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;Another example can be created using a smaller force, like F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; ''= 7.000N''&lt;blockquote&gt;''a = F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × sin(''θ'') / m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;                                                                                                                                            (3.1)''

''a = 7.000 × sin(1,6395 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-30&lt;/sup&gt;) / 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt;''

''a = 6,85 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''&lt;/blockquote&gt;The strong force has a positive correlation when transforming its force; increasing F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; or m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; implies more acceleration. It acts as a spring to generate different tensions in space. In addition to historical reasons of rivalry between Newton and Hooke, Hooke’s law (elasticity constant) is the best and easiest approach to explain it, since this calculation is just at '''one point in space'''. The force (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;) is proportional to the distance needed to extend or compress the spring.[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 8.png|700x700px|'''The strong force becomes the fundamental tensor'''|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 7: The strong force becomes the fundamental tensor.'''
{{center bottom}}

But in reality, the space deforms not proportionally, creating more acceleration near the accumulation of matter, behaving like an elastic material. This behavior can be quantified by the elastic modulus or Young’s modulus, which represents the factor of proportionality in Hooke's law in non-linear systems. The Young’s modulus (E) depends on the force exerted by matter (σ) and the deformation at each point of the resulting vector (Ɛ). &lt;blockquote&gt;

''E = ∆σ / ∆Ɛ''

''∆F''θ ''&gt; ∆F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; / ∆m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;                                                    (4.1)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;The force exerted by the angle (θ) increases (∆) faster than the strong force (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;) and its relation to mass (m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;); the greater the distance, the weaker the force.[[File:Superconductingfieldtheorygraph.png|border|center|frameless|370x370px|'''The angle exerts force over large distances''']]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 8: The angle exerts force over large distances.'''
{{center bottom}}
This relation between the strong force and the quantum vacuum modifies the space density since it induces their approach because of the electromagnetic extraction and its dispersion; therefore, we can speak of the existence of a bulk modulus (K), which depends on the pressure changes (p) and volume (V).&lt;blockquote&gt;''K = -V (∆p / ∆V)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;We only know this relation for Earth calculations, but it must be associated with actual physics like general relativity (GR) or Einstein field equations (EFE), where matter bends space using an unknown tensor, determining the geometry of space depending on the distribution of matter over intricated energy density fields. Also, we can find other physics connections, like the Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) hypothesis, which proposes a modification of Newton's law of universal gravitation to account for observed properties of galaxies, having multiple observational evidences.

Other properties such as volume viscosity, also called bulk viscosity, can be applied.

===Funcamental forces===

This is the new fundamental forces grouping:  

* The strong force and gravity have been unified. 

* Electromagnetic and weak force are actually unified by the electroweak interaction.

* The quantum vacuum is a new fundamental force because of its strength and the fact that it isn’t reducible to more basic forces.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 10.png|center|461x461px|'''Fundamental interactions''']]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 9: Fundamental interactions.'''
{{center bottom}}

== Quantum vacuum unification ==

=== Structure ===
We need a quantum vacuum structure that allows us to unify the different types of quantum fields and their different behaviors, like the constant motion of '''matter''', the travel of '''subatomic particles,''' and the '''electromagnetic field''' generation. One solution would be a metastable system with different balances; the topological model proposed are polarized triplets, rotated in a static balance (a symmetric group), differentiated in the 3 spatial axes, where each element is in continuous repulsion.

Matter is composed of protons and neutrons (nucleons), which make up each element of the periodic table; at the same time, each nucleon is made up of 3 quarks. The vacuum asymmetry maintains the speed of nucleons stable because repulsions and attractions from the whole part are equilibrated in the 3 spatial directions (quarks triplets against vacuum triplets); the average sum of all vector velocity forces (V&lt;sub&gt;F&lt;/sub&gt;) in each spatial direction is 0. For this reason, matter is not accelerated to the speed of light, the asymmetrical multistability prevents it.

Fz + Fy + Fz  = ''F net = 0''                                                                                                       ''(5.1)''

This asymmetry is the cause of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) colors and anticolors (3 types of each) and their transformations, where the nucleon structure doesn’t collapse inward due to the outward vacuum forces, being the only thing bigger than each individual frame capable of surviving it. Even the different types or flavors of neutrinos (electron, muon, and tau) can be studied as a motion system between triplets, more similar to how matter works.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 11.png|center|frameless|577x577px|su(3)]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 10: Motion of matter in equilibrium.'''
{{center bottom}}Its ±½ polarization shapes fermions, having an internal force trying to expand with a spherical distribution as is theorized for U(1) gauge, so particles smaller than this frame can be easily dispersed in all directions.

Both the vacuum permeability and permittivity are originated from the quantum vacuum magnetization and polarization in order to create virtual electrons, having as their greatest quality to emit or absorb    energy. The collective alignment of each magnetic moment creates magnetic domains, where temperature and atomic structure play crucial roles.

All the elements in the periodic table have a mass or nucleon number related to their number of electrons, so nucleons should be able to extract and recover this energy as electromagnetism from each polarized container, helping to create electromagnetic bonds like the hydrogen bond to conform the chemical compounds (under normal conditions, it is impossible for a proton not to possess an electron). These electromagnetic attractions can affect the gravitational force, but only in a residual way. 
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 12.png|center|frameless|407x407px|su(2)]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 11: Electromagnetic field extraction.'''
{{center bottom}}Light has its own inertia; it travels at approximately 300.000 kilometers per second, but it slows down to about 225.000 kilometers per second in water (it depends on the electromagnetic properties of the medium it’s embedded in), recovering its speed when leaving it.

Subatomic particles (photons or neutrinos) are smaller than this basic frame, so they can be transported by the vacuum; their infinite amount of accumulated inertia comes from the spin speed (S&lt;sub&gt;F&lt;/sub&gt;) of this energetic vacuum, where quarks are trying to be accelerated, but its stability prevents it.

F1 = c                                                                                                                                          ''(5.3)''

These basic frames can be seen as the smallest units of time, where other behaviors can be studied, such as the photon generation through a monopole interaction.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 13.png|center|frameless|200x200px|su(1)]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 12: Subatomic particles transportation.'''
{{center bottom}}The particles’ escape angles are needed to conform the net, taking into account all the different containers’ positions in space (two different positions on each axis and its conjugates). Thus, we have the following groups per axis conformed by their unitary vectors (U):

''U&lt;sub&gt;X&lt;/sub&gt; ='' {''+(1, 0, 0), +(-1, 0, 0),'' ''-(1, 0, 0), -(-1, 0, 0)''} ''                                                                            (6.1)''

''U&lt;sub&gt;Y&lt;/sub&gt; ='' {''+(0, 1, 0), +(0, -1, 0),'' ''-(0, 1, 0), -(0, -1, 0)''}

''U&lt;sub&gt;Z&lt;/sub&gt; ='' {''+(0, 0, 1), +(0, 0, -1),'' ''-(0, 0, 1), -(0, 0, -1)''}

These structures can help to build the Standard Model internal symmetries, '''SU(3) × SU(2) × U(1)'''; the Gell-Mann matrices, a representation of the SU(3) group, where quarks possess color quantum numbers and form the fundamental triplets; the Pauli matrices, a representation of the SU(2) group, which reproduce the electron’s spin; and the simplest internal symmetry group, U(1). This solution can '''accommodate the main types of motion''', being the first time that a nonlinear structure is theorized, solving the technical problems of '''renormalization''' in order to yield sensible answers to the strange behavior of quantum physics, such as the production of shapes related to the 4 dimensions (mainly tesseract shapes or hypercubes). Anyway, this is considered a hypothetical structure because the complete mathematical matrix has not been built, taking into account that any real section can be reconstructed in a stand-alone way.

It's compatible with behaviors like the Lorentz transformation and Minkowski diagram to explain the spacetime deformations (via rhomboidal deformations); supersymmetry to explain the symmetry between bosons and fermions (via symmetry groups); photons’ creation due to the Dynamical Casimir effect; antimatter survival while other structures like the pions are unstable; ice rules in molecules with internal spins and geometric constraints that generate a periodic lattice; emerging patterns like fractals or crystal structures based on parallelepiped shapes with a repetitive arrangement of atoms in unit cells…

=== Fundamental forces (Theory of Everything) ===
Considering the electromagnetic field as a flux extracted from the vacuum, it’s easy to guess that the final component between the strong force and the quantum vacuum is '''motion'''.

The resulting scheme can be reduced to matter and energy in perpetual motion. The Big Bang event produced the initial state of high density and temperature, creating all the energy necessary to provide motion to the whole matter, and everything begins to interact, provided by the &quot;infinite&quot; inertia that the quantum vacuum supplied.
[[File:Superconductingfieldtheorytoe.png|center|frameless|615x615px|ToE]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 13: Theory of Everything scheme.'''
{{center bottom}}Its properties, also determined by thermal radiation and pressure, could create the first conditions for life by helping to compact structures like the double helix in the chromosomes, considered to be the origin of biological homochirality (probably gained by the quantum superposition), giving rise to more complex structures like worms, with which we can share up to 70% of our DNA, being considered the evolutionary forerunner of most animals. Within this quantum vacuum structure, we even have some mathematical curiosities, such as having 5 faces per prism (5 + 5, decimal-handedness).

But wondering about the future, if the scientific method is based on determinism and hidden variables don’t exist, we could consider an absolute determinism (neither chaos nor free will exists, being all pre-calculated) and overcome the resulting frustration by thinking of ways to break it, such as through overmuch information in the universe (all the photons from all the stars can’t be predetermined); this is the first cycle in the universe (so we start from a blank canvas); God (if we are an expression from the vacuum, there is something that can feel inside it); or we are a tool capable of breaking such determinism (the universe needs it). From now on, I only hope I have raised your consciousness level, offering you a better understanding of your environment…

== Conclusions ==
In philosophy, '''Occam's razor''' (also known as the principle of parsimony) is the problem-solving principle that recommends searching for simpler explanations constructed with the smallest possible set of elements or fundamental concepts because they provide better results than more complex ones.

This theory can explain behaviors such as:

* Unification theory between the strong nuclear force and gravity, quarks motion, and the electromagnetic field generation, until obtaining a unified field theory.

* Dark matter due to quantum vacuum densities. Recent studies have associated the cosmic microwave background (CMB) with dark matter behavior; thus, the cosmic microwave background should be related to the quantum vacuum and its density. The universe is anisotropic (is not uniform in all directions).

* Dark energy and cosmic inflation. The behavior of each individual container implies a spin-based repulsion helping to its expansion, strong enough to avoid getting closer and be able to reestablish its structure after any contraction; this generates the required propagation force over large distances to allow the expansion of the universe. In fact, the latest research on the expansion of more than 1.500 supernovas indicate that this expansion is also not uniform and changes with time, also calling into question the gravitational constant.

* Black holes as a density break. The vacuum concentration becomes so strong that its repulsion can break the strong force bonds, generating their rupture and explosion, and leading to new internal concentrations (a black hole can vary from a nuclear density inside the Schwarzschild radius of 4 × 10&lt;sup&gt;19&lt;/sup&gt; kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, more extreme than our nuclear density of 2,3 × 10&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt; kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). Photons, depending on the new container size, could be attracted because their field can interact with the vacuum. Neutrinos, regardless of whether it is a black hole, can escape if the container size is bigger than itself.

* Particles decay due to the vacuum interaction. It can correspond to the current theories about the false vacuum decay (a not so stable vacuum); also, the neutron decay can be seen as a small dominant space polarization that tends to create protons.

* Gravitational time dilation. Each container is connected with spacetime; a bigger frame implies minor energy concentration, and the displacements in space imply less frames to pass through, which means less time.

* These frames can be considered as the smallest units of time. This size has been attempted to be explained since Zenon's paradoxes (430 BC), dedicated mainly to the problem of the continuum and the relations between space, time, and motion, until nowadays with infinitesimal calculus, where a mathematical curve can be analyzed as if it were constituted by homogeneous separable points.

* Conservation of angular momentum at bodies’ rotations in space with spherical and circular movements at planets and galaxies. Applying this conservation during the Big Bang, antimatter is not necessary to create it and could lead to less antimatter than 50% in the universe as expected (a small portion could have been generated during the explosion).

* The gravitational constant (G = 6,67408(31) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−11&lt;/sup&gt; m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;kg&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;s&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;), vacuum permittivity (ε&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 8,8541878128(13) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−12&lt;/sup&gt; F⋅m−1), or vacuum permeability (μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,25663706212(19) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−6&lt;/sup&gt; N⋅A&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;) and the problems to measure with high accuracy since they can be affected by density variations. Even small modifications in the speed of light can be expected due to the vacuum-related spin; in fact, the speed of light can be calculated based on the previous variables about vacuum permittivity and permeability using Maxwell’s equations, c=1/√(ε&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;).

* Variations in E = mc&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; to set the rest energy of matter, for example, we could obtain E = AF&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; where A is the nucleons number.

* Compatibility with light and matter interaction (QED), and the fact that electrons cannot occupy the same quantum state or light refraction; as well as the wave function and Schrödinger and Dirac equations, describing how the state of a quantum system changes with time.

* Planck length (ℓ&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,616255(38) × 10&lt;sup&gt;-35&lt;/sup&gt; m) and Planck time (t&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt; = 5,391247(60) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−44&lt;/sup&gt; s) are theoretically considered the quantization of space and time and may point to the vacuum structures by length as well as time. Planck referred to relativistic values, which may not be so accurate; for example, gamma rays which generally arise from the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus, have one of the smallest wavelengths, shorter than 10&lt;sup&gt;-11&lt;/sup&gt; meters.

* The residual strong force (the bond between protons and neutrons), which is much weaker than the (real) strong force, has a correlation between quarks up and down that can be perfectly electromagnetic, as it was originally considered. 

* Similarities between Newton’s and Coulomb's law or Einstein’s relativity and Maxwell’s equations for the electric field. 

* The unidirectional arrow of time…

[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 15.png|center|frameless|453x453px|waves]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 14: These variables help to shape galaxies (like the golden spiral φ = 1,6180).'''
{{center bottom}}

== Considerations ==
Gravitomagnetism (GEM) is a term that refers to the kinetic effects of gravity in analogy to the magnetic effects of a moving electric charge. Here we will create a relativistic relation to extract the magnetic moment and check its behavior, independently of GEM equations.

We can accelerate matter using a chamber with magnetic coils to transform as much matter as possible into energy as. We need a material with as much permeability in high magnetic fields as possible; pure iron can be a good reference, but we can consider some other materials with high permeability. The centripetal force will force matter outwards, so we need a magnetic field to keep its dimensions. We need sufficient width and height to concentrate internal energy and study how the vacuum is bent; it’s complex to concentrate kinetic energy at one point to obtain its potential energy.

As an example, we’ll calculate the energy of one disk in motion, taking the radius and a height of 50 cm, using iron with density ρ = 7,874 gr/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, with the following mass:

''V = π × r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; × h = 392.700 cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;                                                                                                               (7.1)''

''m = 392.700 × 7,874 = 3.092.119,8 gr = 3.092,119 kg               '' 

Considering a maximum speed reached, we’ll compare its kinetic energy with the maximum energy that could be generated using a relativistic approximation.

''v = 3 × 10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; m/s'' (near the speed of light) ''                                                                                        (7.2)''

''E&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; = ½mv&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;                                                                                  E = mc&lt;sup&gt;2        &lt;/sup&gt;'' 

''E&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; = ½ × 3.092,119 × 9 × 10&lt;sup&gt;14                                                          &lt;/sup&gt;      E = 3.092,119 × 9 × 10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;''

''E&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; = 13.914,535 × 10&lt;sup&gt;14                                                                           &lt;/sup&gt;   E = 27.829,071 × 10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;''

The energy calculated at the disk periphery can have a magnetic relation with its motion. Its charge (q) and magnetic field (B) are linked with its velocity, where v = qBr / m, so the energy generated can be calculated when a speed is reached in a relativistic approximation.

''E = ½mv&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = q&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;B&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; / 2m''
[[File:Superconductingfieldtheorydisk.png|center|frameless|582x582px|disk motion]]

{{center top}}
'''Fig. 15: Motion and relativity equivalence.'''
{{center bottom}}
Other variations at QCD have been observed, like at baryon resonances.

Anyway, more studies are needed to check the real correlation between the quantum vacuum and the strong nuclear force. The motion, together with the vacuum contraction / extraction / insertion, should be related to a change in density, but we don’t know the possible proton size variations in space to perform new calculations (we are dealing with very complex dynamic scales). It can be considered a highly problematic system.

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}Hooke, R. (1678). ''Lectures de potentia restitutiva, or of spring, explaining the power of springing bodies.'' Carnegie Mellon University''.'' &lt;nowiki&gt;http://doi.library.cmu.edu/10.1184/OCLC/10411228&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Newton, I. (1687). ''The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy''. Smithsonian Libraries. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.52126.39088015628399&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Euler, L. (1755)''. Foundations of Differential Calculus.'' Springer Link. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/b97699&lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="33976" sha1="9pygghfg3g1zgwuo1o9o0t5uj7am9cz" xml:space="preserve">== Link ==

Last updateː 
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371896737

https://caip.co-ac.com/index.php/materialsanddevices/article/view/213

== Introduction ==

A Grand Unified Theory is any model of physics that explains and connects all fundamental forces (strong force, electromagnetism, weak force, and gravity) into a single force. The framework described here calculates the '''exact point''' at which quantum dynamics transforms into classical physics.

The basic concepts we’ll use are:

* The '''strong nuclear force''' which has always been a controversial force, has been underestimated due to its extremely small field of action in the search for a possible interaction with the gravitational force, but if we turn our attention to its internal interaction instead of its external one, we can create a basic piece for a somewhat more complex and extremely important model. It was responsible for the origin of string theory with the S-matrix, a physical system in which the point-like particles are replaced by  one-dimensional objects called strings, although it later drifted towards any type of vibration into space.

* The '''quantum vacuum''' or aether, which has been ignored to a certain extent, could be responsible for the most important interactions over long distances, being perceived as a kind of material medium as demonstrated by the Michelson-Morley experiment attempting to probe the transmission of light in a vacuum, or as an energetic field as demonstrated by the Casimir effect as well as the Lamb shift. Its topology has been another source of discussion, developing branches like twistor theory, spinors, or knots, in an attempt to explain spin interactions, and it could be the guilty party for all vibrational states of particle.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 1.png|center|450x450px|'''From quantum dynamics to general relativity''']]{{center top}}'''Fig. 1: From quantum dynamics to general relativity.'''{{center bottom}}This physics branch only uses the 3 spatial dimensions and time, with the strong nuclear force as two-dimensional strings and the quantum vacuum as a multistable motion system, being compatible with the Standard Model.

== Principles ==

===Strong nuclear force===
The atomic nucleus is the fundamental constituent of matter at the center of an atom, consisting of protons and neutrons, each one conformed by 3 quarks. These '''quarks remain bound together due to the strong nuclear force''', which is the strongest of the fundamental forces with a scope not greater than 10&lt;sup&gt;-15&lt;/sup&gt; meters. It has been determined that more than 99% of the proton mass is concentrated in the atomic nucleus, and less than 1% comes from residual forces.[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 2.png|375x375px|'''QCD color charge'''|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 2: Color charge (QCD).'''
{{center bottom}}Gluons act as the exchange particle for the strong force between quarks, preventing them from separating by a constant force of attraction with a '''theoretical''' '''maximum of 10.000 N (≈ 1.000 Kg)'''.

In quantum chromodynamics (QCD), a quark's color can take one of three values or charges: red, green, and blue. An antiquark can take one of three anticolors, called antired, antigreen, and antiblue. Gluons are mixtures of two colors, such as red and antigreen, which constitute their color charge. The &quot;color charge&quot; of quarks and gluons is not related to the everyday meanings of color and charge, but is related to its hidden internal degree of freedom.

=== Quantum vacuum ===
We can note two important qualities of the quantum vacuum:

* Particles superconductor. The distance to the most distant galaxy detected by human beings is more than 30 billion light years, which means there are photons that are able to travel that distance without decreasing their speed, modifying only their wavelength. Like light, an object can move into space for a practically unlimited period as long as it doesn’t find a force to stop it, so we can determine that the vacuum has a resistance equivalent to 0.

* A tension. In order to allow waves, it’s easier into a strongly linked structure. Gravitational waves could behave like ocean waves, which are similar to an uptight net, these tensions can be decomposed as a unitary set of points tenser than any known structure and under extreme repulsive forces to allow the universe expansion.

These qualities would treat the quantum vacuum as a '''superfluid''' with zero viscosity and any loss of kinetic energy, having a practically infinite conductive capacity for particles and being extremely dense. Remember, we are moving through the universe at an estimated speed of 600 km/s.

[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 3.gif|alt=QCD vacuum|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 3: QCD vacuum.'''
{{center bottom}}This real picture illustrates the three-dimensional structure of gluon-field configurations, describing the vacuum properties where quarks are popping in and out constantly. The volume of the box is 2,4 x 2,4 x 3,6 fm, inducing chromo-electric and chromo-magnetic fields in its lowest energy state. The frame rate in this real example is billions of billions of frames per second (FPS).

== Strong nuclear force unification ==

=== Fundamentals ===
This new framework consists of a quantum vacuum helping to transport matter without any friction (quarks joined and interacting through the strong nuclear force holding matter together, traveling into space as if it were a superconductor)p.

As an example, I’ve chosen the smallest and most abundant chemical element in the universe, the hydrogen atom, with an estimated '''mass of 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg''', which contains a single electron and a single nucleus. This nucleus consists of a single proton (the basic constituent of matter), where it exerts its nuclear force, which is in turn composed of two up-quarks and a down-quark bound by the gluon interaction.

With these data about '''the hydrogen nucleus''', we’ll calculate its '''average interaction''' to create a '''contraction''' force in the vacuum. For this purpose, we can think about an elastic band (it would simulate the proton strong force with a size of 10&lt;sup&gt;-15&lt;/sup&gt; meters) compressing two V-shaped sticks on its broadest side; if the sticks are sufficiently slippery and tense, the elastic band will slide to the narrower side. The more elastic bands, the more force will be exerted on the sticks to join them; equally, the more matter at the narrow end of the sticks, the more attraction at the top. We talk about unknown limits, such as infinite conduction or tensions never seen.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 4.png|center|722x722px|'''Involved forces''']]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 4: Involved forces.'''
{{center bottom}}This scheme would correspond to what is known as quantum gravity (QG), which aims to describe gravity according to the principles of quantum mechanics, erasing gravity as one of the fundamental forces of nature and turning the strong force into its generator, affecting each nucleon (protons and neutrons) in isolation. 

=== Calculations ===
'''** ''Fig. 5''''' ''is the most important figure in the document;, it must be understood in order to continue. It has been positioned horizontally to be more intuitivee.''

The calculation corresponds to the '''angle''' generated at one point on the Earth’s surface to create its gravitational acceleration (the space deformation), applying the formulas from inclined planes (Newton’s second law) with the following values:
*The proton strong force is matched with the vertical force, having an estimated strength of 10.000 N (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;).

* The proton mass has an estimated value of 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg (m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;).

* The gravitational acceleration on our planet is matched with the acceleration down the plane, 9,8 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (a).

* The friction is zero, 0.
These variables are the average values from quantum dynamics interactions collected through classical physics[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 5.png|465x465px|'''Inclined plane forces'''|center|frameless]]{{center top}}
'''** Fig. 5: Equivalences in the inclined plane.'''
{{center bottom}}These variables should be the average values collected through classical mechanics, from quantum physics interactions.

Convert variables to metric system considering a proton. 

1.  Variables set considering a proton.  &lt;blockquote&gt;''m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg''

''a = 9,8 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; × 9,8 = 1,6395 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-26&lt;/sup&gt; N''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,6395 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-30&lt;/sup&gt; N''&lt;/blockquote&gt;2.   Apply the laws of inclined planes to the previous variables.  &lt;blockquote&gt;''m × g × sin(''θ'') = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a                                                                                                                                     (1.1)''

''F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = m × g = 10.000 N''

''F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × sin(''θ'') = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''

θ ''= arcsin(F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;)    ''&lt;/blockquote&gt;3.  Planet Earth’s angle is shared by 3 quarks, creating 9,8 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; acceleration. This deviation occurs at the proton size.&lt;blockquote&gt;θ ''= 9,393 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-29&lt;/sup&gt; °                                                                                                                                             (1.2)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;The definition of mass says that it is a quantity that represents the amount of matter in a particle or an object. Its calculation has many variations, like weight / acceleration (due to gravity); force / acceleration; or density × volume, all of these associated with our framework.

=== Quantum vacuum density ===
Dark matter could have its origins due '''to variations in the quantum vacuum density'''. An extension between quarks could turn mass (m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;) into tension energy (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;), so some places in the universe can have lower or higher accelerations because of this effect; this means that  dark matter doesn’t really exist, which is estimated at 27% of the mass in the observable universe.

The most important related discovery might be the '''asymptotic freedom''', which is a property of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) where interactions between quarks become weaker as the energy scale increases and the corresponding length scale decreases. The fact that couplings depend on the momentum (or length) scale is the central idea behind the renormalization group.[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 7.png|500x500px|'''The strong force behaves like an elastic band'''|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 6: The strong force behaves like an elastic band.'''
{{center bottom}}We don’t really know the relation between the vacuum density and the strong nuclear force, so this is just an estimation, but it’s expected that more vacuum concentration could expand quarks and modify all the relations

1.  Variables set.&lt;blockquote&gt;''m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; × a''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = (1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; × a) / 10.000 = (1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt; × a)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;2.  Calculate the relation between the angle and the acceleration.&lt;blockquote&gt;''F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × sin(''θ'') = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;                                                                                                                                   (2.1)''

θ ''= arcsin(F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;)''

θ ''= arcsin(1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt; × a)'' 

θ ''= (1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt; × a) °''&lt;/blockquote&gt;3.  A bigger angle generates more acceleration.&lt;blockquote&gt;''a = (''θ ''/ 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt;) m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;                                                                                                                               (2.2)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;Another example can be created using a smaller force, like F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; ''= 7.000N''&lt;blockquote&gt;''a = F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × sin(''θ'') / m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;                                                                                                                                            (3.1)''

''a = 7.000 × sin(1,6395 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-30&lt;/sup&gt;) / 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt;''

''a = 6,85 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''&lt;/blockquote&gt;The strong force has a positive correlation when transforming its force; increasing F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; or m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; implies more acceleration. It acts as a spring to generate different tensions in space. In addition to historical reasons of rivalry between Newton and Hooke, Hooke’s law (elasticity constant) is the best and easiest approach to explain it, since this calculation is just at '''one point in space'''. The force (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;) is proportional to the distance needed to extend or compress the spring.[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 8.png|700x700px|'''The strong force becomes the fundamental tensor'''|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 7: The strong force becomes the fundamental tensor.'''
{{center bottom}}

But in reality, the space deforms not proportionally, creating more acceleration near the accumulation of matter, behaving like an elastic material. This behavior can be quantified by the elastic modulus or Young’s modulus, which represents the factor of proportionality in Hooke's law in non-linear systems. The Young’s modulus (E) depends on the force exerted by matter (σ) and the deformation at each point of the resulting vector (Ɛ). &lt;blockquote&gt;

''E = ∆σ / ∆Ɛ''

''∆F''θ ''&gt; ∆F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; / ∆m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;                                                    (4.1)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;The force exerted by the angle (θ) increases (∆) faster than the strong force (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;) and its relation to mass (m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;); the greater the distance, the weaker the force.[[File:Superconductingfieldtheorygraph.png|border|center|frameless|370x370px|'''The angle exerts force over large distances''']]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 8: The angle exerts force over large distances.'''
{{center bottom}}
This relation between the strong force and the quantum vacuum modifies the space density since it induces their approach because of the electromagnetic extraction and its dispersion; therefore, we can speak of the existence of a bulk modulus (K), which depends on the pressure changes (p) and volume (V).&lt;blockquote&gt;''K = -V (∆p / ∆V)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;We only know this relation for Earth calculations, but it must be associated with actual physics like general relativity (GR) or Einstein field equations (EFE), where matter bends space using an unknown tensor, determining the geometry of space depending on the distribution of matter over intricated energy density fields. Also, we can find other physics connections, like the Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) hypothesis, which proposes a modification of Newton's law of universal gravitation to account for observed properties of galaxies, having multiple observational evidences.

Other properties such as volume viscosity, also called bulk viscosity, can be applied.

===Funcamental forces===

This is the new fundamental forces grouping:  

* The strong force and gravity have been unified. 

* Electromagnetic and weak force are actually unified by the electroweak interaction.

* The quantum vacuum is a new fundamental force because of its strength and the fact that it isn’t reducible to more basic forces.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 10.png|center|461x461px|'''Fundamental interactions''']]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 9: Fundamental interactions.'''
{{center bottom}}

== Quantum vacuum unification ==

=== Structure ===
We need a quantum vacuum structure that allows us to unify the different types of quantum fields and their different behaviors, like the constant motion of '''matter''', the travel of '''subatomic particles,''' and the '''electromagnetic field''' generation. One solution would be a metastable system with different balances; the topological model proposed are polarized triplets, rotated in a static balance (a symmetric group), differentiated in the 3 spatial axes, where each element is in continuous repulsion.

Matter is composed of protons and neutrons (nucleons), which make up each element of the periodic table; at the same time, each nucleon is made up of 3 quarks. The vacuum asymmetry maintains the speed of nucleons stable because repulsions and attractions from the whole part are equilibrated in the 3 spatial directions (quarks triplets against vacuum triplets); the average sum of all vector velocity forces (V&lt;sub&gt;F&lt;/sub&gt;) in each spatial direction is 0. For this reason, matter is not accelerated to the speed of light, the asymmetrical multistability prevents it.

Fz + Fy + Fz  = ''F net = 0''                                                                                                       ''(5.1)''

This asymmetry is the cause of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) colors and anticolors (3 types of each) and their transformations, where the nucleon structure doesn’t collapse inward due to the outward vacuum forces, being the only thing bigger than each individual frame capable of surviving it. Even the different types or flavors of neutrinos (electron, muon, and tau) can be studied as a motion system between triplets, more similar to how matter works.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 11.png|center|frameless|577x577px|su(3)]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 10: Motion of matter in equilibrium.'''
{{center bottom}}Its ±½ polarization shapes fermions, having an internal force trying to expand with a spherical distribution as is theorized for U(1) gauge, so particles smaller than this frame can be easily dispersed in all directions.

Both the vacuum permeability and permittivity are originated from the quantum vacuum magnetization and polarization in order to create virtual electrons, having as their greatest quality to emit or absorb    energy. The collective alignment of each magnetic moment creates magnetic domains, where temperature and atomic structure play crucial roles.

All the elements in the periodic table have a mass or nucleon number related to their number of electrons, so nucleons should be able to extract and recover this energy as electromagnetism from each polarized container, helping to create electromagnetic bonds like the hydrogen bond to conform the chemical compounds (under normal conditions, it is impossible for a proton not to possess an electron). These electromagnetic attractions can affect the gravitational force, but only in a residual way. 
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 12.png|center|frameless|407x407px|su(2)]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 11: Electromagnetic field extraction.'''
{{center bottom}}Light has its own inertia; it travels at approximately 300.000 kilometers per second, but it slows down to about 225.000 kilometers per second in water (it depends on the electromagnetic properties of the medium it’s embedded in), recovering its speed when leaving it.

Subatomic particles (photons or neutrinos) are smaller than this basic frame, so they can be transported by the vacuum; their infinite amount of accumulated inertia comes from the spin speed (S&lt;sub&gt;F&lt;/sub&gt;) of this energetic vacuum, where quarks are trying to be accelerated, but its stability prevents it.

F1 = c                                                                                                                                          ''(5.3)''

These basic frames can be seen as the smallest units of time, where other behaviors can be studied, such as the photon generation through a monopole interaction.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 13.png|center|frameless|200x200px|su(1)]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 12: Subatomic particles transportation.'''
{{center bottom}}The particles’ escape angles are needed to conform the net, taking into account all the different containers’ positions in space (two different positions on each axis and its conjugates). Thus, we have the following groups per axis conformed by their unitary vectors (U):

''U&lt;sub&gt;X&lt;/sub&gt; ='' {''+(1, 0, 0), +(-1, 0, 0),'' ''-(1, 0, 0), -(-1, 0, 0)''} ''                                                                            (6.1)''

''U&lt;sub&gt;Y&lt;/sub&gt; ='' {''+(0, 1, 0), +(0, -1, 0),'' ''-(0, 1, 0), -(0, -1, 0)''}

''U&lt;sub&gt;Z&lt;/sub&gt; ='' {''+(0, 0, 1), +(0, 0, -1),'' ''-(0, 0, 1), -(0, 0, -1)''}

These structures can help to build the Standard Model internal symmetries, '''SU(3) × SU(2) × U(1)'''; the Gell-Mann matrices, a representation of the SU(3) group, where quarks possess color quantum numbers and form the fundamental triplets; the Pauli matrices, a representation of the SU(2) group, which reproduce the electron’s spin; and the simplest internal symmetry group, U(1). This solution can '''accommodate the main types of motion''', being the first time that a nonlinear structure is theorized, solving the technical problems of '''renormalization''' in order to yield sensible answers to the strange behavior of quantum physics, such as the production of shapes related to the 4 dimensions (mainly tesseract shapes or hypercubes). Anyway, this is considered a hypothetical structure because the complete mathematical matrix has not been built, taking into account that any real section can be reconstructed in a stand-alone way.

It's compatible with behaviors like the Lorentz transformation and Minkowski diagram to explain the spacetime deformations (via rhomboidal deformations); supersymmetry to explain the symmetry between bosons and fermions (via symmetry groups); photons’ creation due to the Dynamical Casimir effect; antimatter survival while other structures like the pions are unstable; ice rules in molecules with internal spins and geometric constraints that generate a periodic lattice; emerging patterns like fractals or crystal structures based on parallelepiped shapes with a repetitive arrangement of atoms in unit cells…

=== Fundamental forces (Theory of Everything) ===
Considering the electromagnetic field as a flux extracted from the vacuum, it’s easy to guess that the final component between the strong force and the quantum vacuum is '''motion'''.

The resulting scheme can be reduced to matter and energy in perpetual motion. The Big Bang event produced the initial state of high density and temperature, creating all the energy necessary to provide motion to the whole matter, and everything begins to interact, provided by the &quot;infinite&quot; inertia that the quantum vacuum supplied.
[[File:Superconductingfieldtheorytoe.png|center|frameless|615x615px|ToE]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 13: Theory of Everything scheme.'''
{{center bottom}}Its properties, also determined by thermal radiation and pressure, could create the first conditions for life by helping to compact structures like the double helix in the chromosomes, considered to be the origin of biological homochirality (probably gained by the quantum superposition), giving rise to more complex structures like worms, with which we can share up to 70% of our DNA, being considered the evolutionary forerunner of most animals. Within this quantum vacuum structure, we even have some mathematical curiosities, such as having 5 faces per prism (5 + 5, decimal-handedness).

But wondering about the future, if the scientific method is based on determinism and hidden variables don’t exist, we could consider an absolute determinism (neither chaos nor free will exists, being all pre-calculated) and overcome the resulting frustration by thinking of ways to break it, such as through overmuch information in the universe (all the photons from all the stars can’t be predetermined); this is the first cycle in the universe (so we start from a blank canvas); God (if we are an expression from the vacuum, there is something that can feel inside it); or we are a tool capable of breaking such determinism (the universe needs it). From now on, I only hope I have raised your consciousness level, offering you a better understanding of your environment…

== Conclusions ==
In philosophy, '''Occam's razor''' (also known as the principle of parsimony) is the problem-solving principle that recommends searching for simpler explanations constructed with the smallest possible set of elements or fundamental concepts because they provide better results than more complex ones.

This theory can explain behaviors such as:

* Unification theory between the strong nuclear force and gravity, quarks motion, and the electromagnetic field generation, until obtaining a unified field theory.

* Dark matter due to quantum vacuum densities. Recent studies have associated the cosmic microwave background (CMB) with dark matter behavior; thus, the cosmic microwave background should be related to the quantum vacuum and its density. The universe is anisotropic (is not uniform in all directions).

* Dark energy and cosmic inflation. The behavior of each individual container implies a spin-based repulsion helping to its expansion, strong enough to avoid getting closer and be able to reestablish its structure after any contraction; this generates the required propagation force over large distances to allow the expansion of the universe. In fact, the latest research on the expansion of more than 1.500 supernovas indicate that this expansion is also not uniform and changes with time, also calling into question the gravitational constant.

* Black holes as a density break. The vacuum concentration becomes so strong that its repulsion can break the strong force bonds, generating their rupture and explosion, and leading to new internal concentrations (a black hole can vary from a nuclear density inside the Schwarzschild radius of 4 × 10&lt;sup&gt;19&lt;/sup&gt; kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, more extreme than our nuclear density of 2,3 × 10&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt; kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). Photons, depending on the new container size, could be attracted because their field can interact with the vacuum. Neutrinos, regardless of whether it is a black hole, can escape if the container size is bigger than itself.

* Particles decay due to the vacuum interaction. It can correspond to the current theories about the false vacuum decay (a not so stable vacuum); also, the neutron decay can be seen as a small dominant space polarization that tends to create protons.

* Gravitational time dilation. Each container is connected with spacetime; a bigger frame implies minor energy concentration, and the displacements in space imply less frames to pass through, which means less time.

* These frames can be considered as the smallest units of time. This size has been attempted to be explained since Zenon's paradoxes (430 BC), dedicated mainly to the problem of the continuum and the relations between space, time, and motion, until nowadays with infinitesimal calculus, where a mathematical curve can be analyzed as if it were constituted by homogeneous separable points.

* Conservation of angular momentum at bodies’ rotations in space with spherical and circular movements at planets and galaxies. Applying this conservation during the Big Bang, antimatter is not necessary to create it and could lead to less antimatter than 50% in the universe as expected (a small portion could have been generated during the explosion).

* The gravitational constant (G = 6,67408(31) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−11&lt;/sup&gt; m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;kg&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;s&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;), vacuum permittivity (ε&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 8,8541878128(13) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−12&lt;/sup&gt; F⋅m−1), or vacuum permeability (μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,25663706212(19) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−6&lt;/sup&gt; N⋅A&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;) and the problems to measure with high accuracy since they can be affected by density variations. Even small modifications in the speed of light can be expected due to the vacuum-related spin; in fact, the speed of light can be calculated based on the previous variables about vacuum permittivity and permeability using Maxwell’s equations, c=1/√(ε&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;).

* Variations in E = mc&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; to set the rest energy of matter, for example, we could obtain E = AF&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; where A is the nucleons number.

* Compatibility with light and matter interaction (QED), and the fact that electrons cannot occupy the same quantum state or light refraction; as well as the wave function and Schrödinger and Dirac equations, describing how the state of a quantum system changes with time.

* Planck length (ℓ&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,616255(38) × 10&lt;sup&gt;-35&lt;/sup&gt; m) and Planck time (t&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt; = 5,391247(60) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−44&lt;/sup&gt; s) are theoretically considered the quantization of space and time and may point to the vacuum structures by length as well as time. Planck referred to relativistic values, which may not be so accurate; for example, gamma rays which generally arise from the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus, have one of the smallest wavelengths, shorter than 10&lt;sup&gt;-11&lt;/sup&gt; meters.

* The residual strong force (the bond between protons and neutrons), which is much weaker than the (real) strong force, has a correlation between quarks up and down that can be perfectly electromagnetic, as it was originally considered. 

* Similarities between Newton’s and Coulomb's law or Einstein’s relativity and Maxwell’s equations for the electric field. 

* The unidirectional arrow of time…

[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 15.png|center|frameless|453x453px|waves]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 14: These variables help to shape galaxies (like the golden spiral φ = 1,6180).'''
{{center bottom}}

== Considerations ==
Gravitomagnetism (GEM) is a term that refers to the kinetic effects of gravity in analogy to the magnetic effects of a moving electric charge. Here we will create a relativistic relation to extract the magnetic moment and check its behavior, independently of GEM equations.

We can accelerate matter using a chamber with magnetic coils to transform as much matter as possible into energy as. We need a material with as much permeability in high magnetic fields as possible; pure iron can be a good reference, but we can consider some other materials with high permeability. The centripetal force will force matter outwards, so we need a magnetic field to keep its dimensions. We need sufficient width and height to concentrate internal energy and study how the vacuum is bent; it’s complex to concentrate kinetic energy at one point to obtain its potential energy.

As an example, we’ll calculate the energy of one disk in motion, taking the radius and a height of 50 cm, using iron with density ρ = 7,874 gr/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, with the following mass:

''V = π × r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; × h = 392.700 cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;                                                                                                               (7.1)''

''m = 392.700 × 7,874 = 3.092.119,8 gr = 3.092,119 kg               '' 

Considering a maximum speed reached, we’ll compare its kinetic energy with the maximum energy that could be generated using a relativistic approximation.

''v = 3 × 10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; m/s'' (near the speed of light) ''                                                                                        (7.2)''

''E&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; = ½mv&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;                                                                                  E = mc&lt;sup&gt;2        &lt;/sup&gt;'' 

''E&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; = ½ × 3.092,119 × 9 × 10&lt;sup&gt;14                                                          &lt;/sup&gt;      E = 3.092,119 × 9 × 10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;''

''E&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; = 13.914,535 × 10&lt;sup&gt;14                                                                           &lt;/sup&gt;   E = 27.829,071 × 10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;''

The energy calculated at the disk periphery can have a magnetic relation with its motion. Its charge (q) and magnetic field (B) are linked with its velocity, where v = qBr / m, so the energy generated can be calculated when a speed is reached in a relativistic approximation.

''E = ½mv&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = q&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;B&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; / 2m''
[[File:Superconductingfieldtheorydisk.png|center|frameless|582x582px|disk motion]]

{{center top}}
'''Fig. 15: Motion and relativity equivalence.'''
{{center bottom}}
Other variations at QCD have been observed, like at baryon resonances.

Anyway, more studies are needed to check the real correlation between the quantum vacuum and the strong nuclear force. The motion, together with the vacuum contraction / extraction / insertion, should be related to a change in density, but we don’t know the possible proton size variations in space to perform new calculations (we are dealing with very complex dynamic scales). It can be considered a highly problematic system.

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}Hooke, R. (1678). ''Lectures de potentia restitutiva, or of spring, explaining the power of springing bodies.'' Carnegie Mellon University''.'' &lt;nowiki&gt;http://doi.library.cmu.edu/10.1184/OCLC/10411228&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Newton, I. (1687). ''The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy''. Smithsonian Libraries. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.52126.39088015628399&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Euler, L. (1755)''. Foundations of Differential Calculus.'' Springer Link. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/b97699&lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
      <sha1>9pygghfg3g1zgwuo1o9o0t5uj7am9cz</sha1>
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      <text bytes="33976" sha1="lzxpdbf12sduh4hentzwe7urn54s2nc" xml:space="preserve">== Link ==

Last updateː

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371896737

https://caip.co-ac.com/index.php/materialsanddevices/article/view/213

== Introduction ==

A Grand Unified Theory is any model of physics that explains and connects all fundamental forces (strong force, electromagnetism, weak force, and gravity) into a single force. The framework described here calculates the '''exact point''' at which quantum dynamics transforms into classical physics.

The basic concepts we’ll use are:

* The '''strong nuclear force''' which has always been a controversial force, has been underestimated due to its extremely small field of action in the search for a possible interaction with the gravitational force, but if we turn our attention to its internal interaction instead of its external one, we can create a basic piece for a somewhat more complex and extremely important model. It was responsible for the origin of string theory with the S-matrix, a physical system in which the point-like particles are replaced by  one-dimensional objects called strings, although it later drifted towards any type of vibration into space.

* The '''quantum vacuum''' or aether, which has been ignored to a certain extent, could be responsible for the most important interactions over long distances, being perceived as a kind of material medium as demonstrated by the Michelson-Morley experiment attempting to probe the transmission of light in a vacuum, or as an energetic field as demonstrated by the Casimir effect as well as the Lamb shift. Its topology has been another source of discussion, developing branches like twistor theory, spinors, or knots, in an attempt to explain spin interactions, and it could be the guilty party for all vibrational states of particle.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 1.png|center|450x450px|'''From quantum dynamics to general relativity''']]{{center top}}'''Fig. 1: From quantum dynamics to general relativity.'''{{center bottom}}This physics branch only uses the 3 spatial dimensions and time, with the strong nuclear force as two-dimensional strings and the quantum vacuum as a multistable motion system, being compatible with the Standard Model.

== Principles ==

===Strong nuclear force===
The atomic nucleus is the fundamental constituent of matter at the center of an atom, consisting of protons and neutrons, each one conformed by 3 quarks. These '''quarks remain bound together due to the strong nuclear force''', which is the strongest of the fundamental forces with a scope not greater than 10&lt;sup&gt;-15&lt;/sup&gt; meters. It has been determined that more than 99% of the proton mass is concentrated in the atomic nucleus, and less than 1% comes from residual forces.[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 2.png|375x375px|'''QCD color charge'''|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 2: Color charge (QCD).'''
{{center bottom}}Gluons act as the exchange particle for the strong force between quarks, preventing them from separating by a constant force of attraction with a '''theoretical''' '''maximum of 10.000 N (≈ 1.000 Kg)'''.

In quantum chromodynamics (QCD), a quark's color can take one of three values or charges: red, green, and blue. An antiquark can take one of three anticolors, called antired, antigreen, and antiblue. Gluons are mixtures of two colors, such as red and antigreen, which constitute their color charge. The &quot;color charge&quot; of quarks and gluons is not related to the everyday meanings of color and charge, but is related to its hidden internal degree of freedom.

=== Quantum vacuum ===
We can note two important qualities of the quantum vacuum:

* Particles superconductor. The distance to the most distant galaxy detected by human beings is more than 30 billion light years, which means there are photons that are able to travel that distance without decreasing their speed, modifying only their wavelength. Like light, an object can move into space for a practically unlimited period as long as it doesn’t find a force to stop it, so we can determine that the vacuum has a resistance equivalent to 0.

* A tension. In order to allow waves, it’s easier into a strongly linked structure. Gravitational waves could behave like ocean waves, which are similar to an uptight net, these tensions can be decomposed as a unitary set of points tenser than any known structure and under extreme repulsive forces to allow the universe expansion.

These qualities would treat the quantum vacuum as a '''superfluid''' with zero viscosity and any loss of kinetic energy, having a practically infinite conductive capacity for particles and being extremely dense. Remember, we are moving through the universe at an estimated speed of 600 km/s.

[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 3.gif|alt=QCD vacuum|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 3: QCD vacuum.'''
{{center bottom}}This real picture illustrates the three-dimensional structure of gluon-field configurations, describing the vacuum properties where quarks are popping in and out constantly. The volume of the box is 2,4 x 2,4 x 3,6 fm, inducing chromo-electric and chromo-magnetic fields in its lowest energy state. The frame rate in this real example is billions of billions of frames per second (FPS).

== Strong nuclear force unification ==

=== Fundamentals ===
This new framework consists of a quantum vacuum helping to transport matter without any friction (quarks joined and interacting through the strong nuclear force holding matter together, traveling into space as if it were a superconductor)p.

As an example, I’ve chosen the smallest and most abundant chemical element in the universe, the hydrogen atom, with an estimated '''mass of 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg''', which contains a single electron and a single nucleus. This nucleus consists of a single proton (the basic constituent of matter), where it exerts its nuclear force, which is in turn composed of two up-quarks and a down-quark bound by the gluon interaction.

With these data about '''the hydrogen nucleus''', we’ll calculate its '''average interaction''' to create a '''contraction''' force in the vacuum. For this purpose, we can think about an elastic band (it would simulate the proton strong force with a size of 10&lt;sup&gt;-15&lt;/sup&gt; meters) compressing two V-shaped sticks on its broadest side; if the sticks are sufficiently slippery and tense, the elastic band will slide to the narrower side. The more elastic bands, the more force will be exerted on the sticks to join them; equally, the more matter at the narrow end of the sticks, the more attraction at the top. We talk about unknown limits, such as infinite conduction or tensions never seen.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 4.png|center|722x722px|'''Involved forces''']]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 4: Involved forces.'''
{{center bottom}}This scheme would correspond to what is known as quantum gravity (QG), which aims to describe gravity according to the principles of quantum mechanics, erasing gravity as one of the fundamental forces of nature and turning the strong force into its generator, affecting each nucleon (protons and neutrons) in isolation. 

=== Calculations ===
'''** ''Fig. 5''''' ''is the most important figure in the document;, it must be understood in order to continue. It has been positioned horizontally to be more intuitivee.''

The calculation corresponds to the '''angle''' generated at one point on the Earth’s surface to create its gravitational acceleration (the space deformation), applying the formulas from inclined planes (Newton’s second law) with the following values:
*The proton strong force is matched with the vertical force, having an estimated strength of 10.000 N (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;).

* The proton mass has an estimated value of 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg (m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;).

* The gravitational acceleration on our planet is matched with the acceleration down the plane, 9,8 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (a).

* The friction is zero, 0.
These variables are the average values from quantum dynamics interactions collected through classical physics[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 5.png|465x465px|'''Inclined plane forces'''|center|frameless]]{{center top}}
'''** Fig. 5: Equivalences in the inclined plane.'''
{{center bottom}}These variables should be the average values collected through classical mechanics, from quantum physics interactions.

Convert variables to metric system considering a proton. 

1.  Variables set considering a proton.  &lt;blockquote&gt;''m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg''

''a = 9,8 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; × 9,8 = 1,6395 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-26&lt;/sup&gt; N''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,6395 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-30&lt;/sup&gt; N''&lt;/blockquote&gt;2.   Apply the laws of inclined planes to the previous variables.  &lt;blockquote&gt;''m × g × sin(''θ'') = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a                                                                                                                                     (1.1)''

''F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = m × g = 10.000 N''

''F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × sin(''θ'') = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''

θ ''= arcsin(F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;)    ''&lt;/blockquote&gt;3.  Planet Earth’s angle is shared by 3 quarks, creating 9,8 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; acceleration. This deviation occurs at the proton size.&lt;blockquote&gt;θ ''= 9,393 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-29&lt;/sup&gt; °                                                                                                                                             (1.2)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;The definition of mass says that it is a quantity that represents the amount of matter in a particle or an object. Its calculation has many variations, like weight / acceleration (due to gravity); force / acceleration; or density × volume, all of these associated with our framework.

=== Quantum vacuum density ===
Dark matter could have its origins due '''to variations in the quantum vacuum density'''. An extension between quarks could turn mass (m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;) into tension energy (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;), so some places in the universe can have lower or higher accelerations because of this effect; this means that  dark matter doesn’t really exist, which is estimated at 27% of the mass in the observable universe.

The most important related discovery might be the '''asymptotic freedom''', which is a property of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) where interactions between quarks become weaker as the energy scale increases and the corresponding length scale decreases. The fact that couplings depend on the momentum (or length) scale is the central idea behind the renormalization group.[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 7.png|500x500px|'''The strong force behaves like an elastic band'''|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 6: The strong force behaves like an elastic band.'''
{{center bottom}}We don’t really know the relation between the vacuum density and the strong nuclear force, so this is just an estimation, but it’s expected that more vacuum concentration could expand quarks and modify all the relations

1.  Variables set.&lt;blockquote&gt;''m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; × a''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = (1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; × a) / 10.000 = (1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt; × a)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;2.  Calculate the relation between the angle and the acceleration.&lt;blockquote&gt;''F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × sin(''θ'') = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;                                                                                                                                   (2.1)''

θ ''= arcsin(F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;)''

θ ''= arcsin(1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt; × a)'' 

θ ''= (1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt; × a) °''&lt;/blockquote&gt;3.  A bigger angle generates more acceleration.&lt;blockquote&gt;''a = (''θ ''/ 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt;) m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;                                                                                                                               (2.2)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;Another example can be created using a smaller force, like F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; ''= 7.000N''&lt;blockquote&gt;''a = F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × sin(''θ'') / m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;                                                                                                                                            (3.1)''

''a = 7.000 × sin(1,6395 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-30&lt;/sup&gt;) / 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt;''

''a = 6,85 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''&lt;/blockquote&gt;The strong force has a positive correlation when transforming its force; increasing F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; or m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; implies more acceleration. It acts as a spring to generate different tensions in space. In addition to historical reasons of rivalry between Newton and Hooke, Hooke’s law (elasticity constant) is the best and easiest approach to explain it, since this calculation is just at '''one point in space'''. The force (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;) is proportional to the distance needed to extend or compress the spring.[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 8.png|700x700px|'''The strong force becomes the fundamental tensor'''|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 7: The strong force becomes the fundamental tensor.'''
{{center bottom}}

But in reality, the space deforms not proportionally, creating more acceleration near the accumulation of matter, behaving like an elastic material. This behavior can be quantified by the elastic modulus or Young’s modulus, which represents the factor of proportionality in Hooke's law in non-linear systems. The Young’s modulus (E) depends on the force exerted by matter (σ) and the deformation at each point of the resulting vector (Ɛ). &lt;blockquote&gt;

''E = ∆σ / ∆Ɛ''

''∆F''θ ''&gt; ∆F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; / ∆m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;                                                    (4.1)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;The force exerted by the angle (θ) increases (∆) faster than the strong force (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;) and its relation to mass (m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;); the greater the distance, the weaker the force.[[File:Superconductingfieldtheorygraph.png|border|center|frameless|370x370px|'''The angle exerts force over large distances''']]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 8: The angle exerts force over large distances.'''
{{center bottom}}
This relation between the strong force and the quantum vacuum modifies the space density since it induces their approach because of the electromagnetic extraction and its dispersion; therefore, we can speak of the existence of a bulk modulus (K), which depends on the pressure changes (p) and volume (V).&lt;blockquote&gt;''K = -V (∆p / ∆V)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;We only know this relation for Earth calculations, but it must be associated with actual physics like general relativity (GR) or Einstein field equations (EFE), where matter bends space using an unknown tensor, determining the geometry of space depending on the distribution of matter over intricated energy density fields. Also, we can find other physics connections, like the Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) hypothesis, which proposes a modification of Newton's law of universal gravitation to account for observed properties of galaxies, having multiple observational evidences.

Other properties such as volume viscosity, also called bulk viscosity, can be applied.

===Funcamental forces===

This is the new fundamental forces grouping:  

* The strong force and gravity have been unified. 

* Electromagnetic and weak force are actually unified by the electroweak interaction.

* The quantum vacuum is a new fundamental force because of its strength and the fact that it isn’t reducible to more basic forces.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 10.png|center|461x461px|'''Fundamental interactions''']]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 9: Fundamental interactions.'''
{{center bottom}}

== Quantum vacuum unification ==

=== Structure ===
We need a quantum vacuum structure that allows us to unify the different types of quantum fields and their different behaviors, like the constant motion of '''matter''', the travel of '''subatomic particles,''' and the '''electromagnetic field''' generation. One solution would be a metastable system with different balances; the topological model proposed are polarized triplets, rotated in a static balance (a symmetric group), differentiated in the 3 spatial axes, where each element is in continuous repulsion.

Matter is composed of protons and neutrons (nucleons), which make up each element of the periodic table; at the same time, each nucleon is made up of 3 quarks. The vacuum asymmetry maintains the speed of nucleons stable because repulsions and attractions from the whole part are equilibrated in the 3 spatial directions (quarks triplets against vacuum triplets); the average sum of all vector velocity forces (V&lt;sub&gt;F&lt;/sub&gt;) in each spatial direction is 0. For this reason, matter is not accelerated to the speed of light, the asymmetrical multistability prevents it.

Fz + Fy + Fz  = ''F net = 0''                                                                                                       ''(5.1)''

This asymmetry is the cause of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) colors and anticolors (3 types of each) and their transformations, where the nucleon structure doesn’t collapse inward due to the outward vacuum forces, being the only thing bigger than each individual frame capable of surviving it. Even the different types or flavors of neutrinos (electron, muon, and tau) can be studied as a motion system between triplets, more similar to how matter works.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 11.png|center|frameless|577x577px|su(3)]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 10: Motion of matter in equilibrium.'''
{{center bottom}}Its ±½ polarization shapes fermions, having an internal force trying to expand with a spherical distribution as is theorized for U(1) gauge, so particles smaller than this frame can be easily dispersed in all directions.

Both the vacuum permeability and permittivity are originated from the quantum vacuum magnetization and polarization in order to create virtual electrons, having as their greatest quality to emit or absorb    energy. The collective alignment of each magnetic moment creates magnetic domains, where temperature and atomic structure play crucial roles.

All the elements in the periodic table have a mass or nucleon number related to their number of electrons, so nucleons should be able to extract and recover this energy as electromagnetism from each polarized container, helping to create electromagnetic bonds like the hydrogen bond to conform the chemical compounds (under normal conditions, it is impossible for a proton not to possess an electron). These electromagnetic attractions can affect the gravitational force, but only in a residual way. 
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 12.png|center|frameless|407x407px|su(2)]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 11: Electromagnetic field extraction.'''
{{center bottom}}Light has its own inertia; it travels at approximately 300.000 kilometers per second, but it slows down to about 225.000 kilometers per second in water (it depends on the electromagnetic properties of the medium it’s embedded in), recovering its speed when leaving it.

Subatomic particles (photons or neutrinos) are smaller than this basic frame, so they can be transported by the vacuum; their infinite amount of accumulated inertia comes from the spin speed (S&lt;sub&gt;F&lt;/sub&gt;) of this energetic vacuum, where quarks are trying to be accelerated, but its stability prevents it.

F1 = c                                                                                                                                          ''(5.3)''

These basic frames can be seen as the smallest units of time, where other behaviors can be studied, such as the photon generation through a monopole interaction.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 13.png|center|frameless|200x200px|su(1)]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 12: Subatomic particles transportation.'''
{{center bottom}}The particles’ escape angles are needed to conform the net, taking into account all the different containers’ positions in space (two different positions on each axis and its conjugates). Thus, we have the following groups per axis conformed by their unitary vectors (U):

''U&lt;sub&gt;X&lt;/sub&gt; ='' {''+(1, 0, 0), +(-1, 0, 0),'' ''-(1, 0, 0), -(-1, 0, 0)''} ''                                                                            (6.1)''

''U&lt;sub&gt;Y&lt;/sub&gt; ='' {''+(0, 1, 0), +(0, -1, 0),'' ''-(0, 1, 0), -(0, -1, 0)''}

''U&lt;sub&gt;Z&lt;/sub&gt; ='' {''+(0, 0, 1), +(0, 0, -1),'' ''-(0, 0, 1), -(0, 0, -1)''}

These structures can help to build the Standard Model internal symmetries, '''SU(3) × SU(2) × U(1)'''; the Gell-Mann matrices, a representation of the SU(3) group, where quarks possess color quantum numbers and form the fundamental triplets; the Pauli matrices, a representation of the SU(2) group, which reproduce the electron’s spin; and the simplest internal symmetry group, U(1). This solution can '''accommodate the main types of motion''', being the first time that a nonlinear structure is theorized, solving the technical problems of '''renormalization''' in order to yield sensible answers to the strange behavior of quantum physics, such as the production of shapes related to the 4 dimensions (mainly tesseract shapes or hypercubes). Anyway, this is considered a hypothetical structure because the complete mathematical matrix has not been built, taking into account that any real section can be reconstructed in a stand-alone way.

It's compatible with behaviors like the Lorentz transformation and Minkowski diagram to explain the spacetime deformations (via rhomboidal deformations); supersymmetry to explain the symmetry between bosons and fermions (via symmetry groups); photons’ creation due to the Dynamical Casimir effect; antimatter survival while other structures like the pions are unstable; ice rules in molecules with internal spins and geometric constraints that generate a periodic lattice; emerging patterns like fractals or crystal structures based on parallelepiped shapes with a repetitive arrangement of atoms in unit cells…

=== Fundamental forces (Theory of Everything) ===
Considering the electromagnetic field as a flux extracted from the vacuum, it’s easy to guess that the final component between the strong force and the quantum vacuum is '''motion'''.

The resulting scheme can be reduced to matter and energy in perpetual motion. The Big Bang event produced the initial state of high density and temperature, creating all the energy necessary to provide motion to the whole matter, and everything begins to interact, provided by the &quot;infinite&quot; inertia that the quantum vacuum supplied.
[[File:Superconductingfieldtheorytoe.png|center|frameless|615x615px|ToE]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 13: Theory of Everything scheme.'''
{{center bottom}}Its properties, also determined by thermal radiation and pressure, could create the first conditions for life by helping to compact structures like the double helix in the chromosomes, considered to be the origin of biological homochirality (probably gained by the quantum superposition), giving rise to more complex structures like worms, with which we can share up to 70% of our DNA, being considered the evolutionary forerunner of most animals. Within this quantum vacuum structure, we even have some mathematical curiosities, such as having 5 faces per prism (5 + 5, decimal-handedness).

But wondering about the future, if the scientific method is based on determinism and hidden variables don’t exist, we could consider an absolute determinism (neither chaos nor free will exists, being all pre-calculated) and overcome the resulting frustration by thinking of ways to break it, such as through overmuch information in the universe (all the photons from all the stars can’t be predetermined); this is the first cycle in the universe (so we start from a blank canvas); God (if we are an expression from the vacuum, there is something that can feel inside it); or we are a tool capable of breaking such determinism (the universe needs it). From now on, I only hope I have raised your consciousness level, offering you a better understanding of your environment…

== Conclusions ==
In philosophy, '''Occam's razor''' (also known as the principle of parsimony) is the problem-solving principle that recommends searching for simpler explanations constructed with the smallest possible set of elements or fundamental concepts because they provide better results than more complex ones.

This theory can explain behaviors such as:

* Unification theory between the strong nuclear force and gravity, quarks motion, and the electromagnetic field generation, until obtaining a unified field theory.

* Dark matter due to quantum vacuum densities. Recent studies have associated the cosmic microwave background (CMB) with dark matter behavior; thus, the cosmic microwave background should be related to the quantum vacuum and its density. The universe is anisotropic (is not uniform in all directions).

* Dark energy and cosmic inflation. The behavior of each individual container implies a spin-based repulsion helping to its expansion, strong enough to avoid getting closer and be able to reestablish its structure after any contraction; this generates the required propagation force over large distances to allow the expansion of the universe. In fact, the latest research on the expansion of more than 1.500 supernovas indicate that this expansion is also not uniform and changes with time, also calling into question the gravitational constant.

* Black holes as a density break. The vacuum concentration becomes so strong that its repulsion can break the strong force bonds, generating their rupture and explosion, and leading to new internal concentrations (a black hole can vary from a nuclear density inside the Schwarzschild radius of 4 × 10&lt;sup&gt;19&lt;/sup&gt; kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, more extreme than our nuclear density of 2,3 × 10&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt; kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). Photons, depending on the new container size, could be attracted because their field can interact with the vacuum. Neutrinos, regardless of whether it is a black hole, can escape if the container size is bigger than itself.

* Particles decay due to the vacuum interaction. It can correspond to the current theories about the false vacuum decay (a not so stable vacuum); also, the neutron decay can be seen as a small dominant space polarization that tends to create protons.

* Gravitational time dilation. Each container is connected with spacetime; a bigger frame implies minor energy concentration, and the displacements in space imply less frames to pass through, which means less time.

* These frames can be considered as the smallest units of time. This size has been attempted to be explained since Zenon's paradoxes (430 BC), dedicated mainly to the problem of the continuum and the relations between space, time, and motion, until nowadays with infinitesimal calculus, where a mathematical curve can be analyzed as if it were constituted by homogeneous separable points.

* Conservation of angular momentum at bodies’ rotations in space with spherical and circular movements at planets and galaxies. Applying this conservation during the Big Bang, antimatter is not necessary to create it and could lead to less antimatter than 50% in the universe as expected (a small portion could have been generated during the explosion).

* The gravitational constant (G = 6,67408(31) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−11&lt;/sup&gt; m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;kg&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;s&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;), vacuum permittivity (ε&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 8,8541878128(13) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−12&lt;/sup&gt; F⋅m−1), or vacuum permeability (μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,25663706212(19) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−6&lt;/sup&gt; N⋅A&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;) and the problems to measure with high accuracy since they can be affected by density variations. Even small modifications in the speed of light can be expected due to the vacuum-related spin; in fact, the speed of light can be calculated based on the previous variables about vacuum permittivity and permeability using Maxwell’s equations, c=1/√(ε&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;).

* Variations in E = mc&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; to set the rest energy of matter, for example, we could obtain E = AF&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; where A is the nucleons number.

* Compatibility with light and matter interaction (QED), and the fact that electrons cannot occupy the same quantum state or light refraction; as well as the wave function and Schrödinger and Dirac equations, describing how the state of a quantum system changes with time.

* Planck length (ℓ&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,616255(38) × 10&lt;sup&gt;-35&lt;/sup&gt; m) and Planck time (t&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt; = 5,391247(60) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−44&lt;/sup&gt; s) are theoretically considered the quantization of space and time and may point to the vacuum structures by length as well as time. Planck referred to relativistic values, which may not be so accurate; for example, gamma rays which generally arise from the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus, have one of the smallest wavelengths, shorter than 10&lt;sup&gt;-11&lt;/sup&gt; meters.

* The residual strong force (the bond between protons and neutrons), which is much weaker than the (real) strong force, has a correlation between quarks up and down that can be perfectly electromagnetic, as it was originally considered. 

* Similarities between Newton’s and Coulomb's law or Einstein’s relativity and Maxwell’s equations for the electric field. 

* The unidirectional arrow of time…

[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 15.png|center|frameless|453x453px|waves]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 14: These variables help to shape galaxies (like the golden spiral φ = 1,6180).'''
{{center bottom}}

== Considerations ==
Gravitomagnetism (GEM) is a term that refers to the kinetic effects of gravity in analogy to the magnetic effects of a moving electric charge. Here we will create a relativistic relation to extract the magnetic moment and check its behavior, independently of GEM equations.

We can accelerate matter using a chamber with magnetic coils to transform as much matter as possible into energy as. We need a material with as much permeability in high magnetic fields as possible; pure iron can be a good reference, but we can consider some other materials with high permeability. The centripetal force will force matter outwards, so we need a magnetic field to keep its dimensions. We need sufficient width and height to concentrate internal energy and study how the vacuum is bent; it’s complex to concentrate kinetic energy at one point to obtain its potential energy.

As an example, we’ll calculate the energy of one disk in motion, taking the radius and a height of 50 cm, using iron with density ρ = 7,874 gr/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, with the following mass:

''V = π × r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; × h = 392.700 cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;                                                                                                               (7.1)''

''m = 392.700 × 7,874 = 3.092.119,8 gr = 3.092,119 kg               '' 

Considering a maximum speed reached, we’ll compare its kinetic energy with the maximum energy that could be generated using a relativistic approximation.

''v = 3 × 10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; m/s'' (near the speed of light) ''                                                                                        (7.2)''

''E&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; = ½mv&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;                                                                                  E = mc&lt;sup&gt;2        &lt;/sup&gt;'' 

''E&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; = ½ × 3.092,119 × 9 × 10&lt;sup&gt;14                                                          &lt;/sup&gt;      E = 3.092,119 × 9 × 10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;''

''E&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; = 13.914,535 × 10&lt;sup&gt;14                                                                           &lt;/sup&gt;   E = 27.829,071 × 10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;''

The energy calculated at the disk periphery can have a magnetic relation with its motion. Its charge (q) and magnetic field (B) are linked with its velocity, where v = qBr / m, so the energy generated can be calculated when a speed is reached in a relativistic approximation.

''E = ½mv&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = q&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;B&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; / 2m''
[[File:Superconductingfieldtheorydisk.png|center|frameless|582x582px|disk motion]]

{{center top}}
'''Fig. 15: Motion and relativity equivalence.'''
{{center bottom}}
Other variations at QCD have been observed, like at baryon resonances.

Anyway, more studies are needed to check the real correlation between the quantum vacuum and the strong nuclear force. The motion, together with the vacuum contraction / extraction / insertion, should be related to a change in density, but we don’t know the possible proton size variations in space to perform new calculations (we are dealing with very complex dynamic scales). It can be considered a highly problematic system.

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}Hooke, R. (1678). ''Lectures de potentia restitutiva, or of spring, explaining the power of springing bodies.'' Carnegie Mellon University''.'' &lt;nowiki&gt;http://doi.library.cmu.edu/10.1184/OCLC/10411228&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Newton, I. (1687). ''The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy''. Smithsonian Libraries. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.52126.39088015628399&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Euler, L. (1755)''. Foundations of Differential Calculus.'' Springer Link. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/b97699&lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
      <sha1>lzxpdbf12sduh4hentzwe7urn54s2nc</sha1>
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      <text bytes="33974" sha1="5w3ad6jdu22v07jz99p1z228c111no8" xml:space="preserve">== Link ==

Last updateː
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371896737
https://caip.co-ac.com/index.php/materialsanddevices/article/view/213

== Introduction ==

A Grand Unified Theory is any model of physics that explains and connects all fundamental forces (strong force, electromagnetism, weak force, and gravity) into a single force. The framework described here calculates the '''exact point''' at which quantum dynamics transforms into classical physics.

The basic concepts we’ll use are:

* The '''strong nuclear force''' which has always been a controversial force, has been underestimated due to its extremely small field of action in the search for a possible interaction with the gravitational force, but if we turn our attention to its internal interaction instead of its external one, we can create a basic piece for a somewhat more complex and extremely important model. It was responsible for the origin of string theory with the S-matrix, a physical system in which the point-like particles are replaced by  one-dimensional objects called strings, although it later drifted towards any type of vibration into space.

* The '''quantum vacuum''' or aether, which has been ignored to a certain extent, could be responsible for the most important interactions over long distances, being perceived as a kind of material medium as demonstrated by the Michelson-Morley experiment attempting to probe the transmission of light in a vacuum, or as an energetic field as demonstrated by the Casimir effect as well as the Lamb shift. Its topology has been another source of discussion, developing branches like twistor theory, spinors, or knots, in an attempt to explain spin interactions, and it could be the guilty party for all vibrational states of particle.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 1.png|center|450x450px|'''From quantum dynamics to general relativity''']]{{center top}}'''Fig. 1: From quantum dynamics to general relativity.'''{{center bottom}}This physics branch only uses the 3 spatial dimensions and time, with the strong nuclear force as two-dimensional strings and the quantum vacuum as a multistable motion system, being compatible with the Standard Model.

== Principles ==

===Strong nuclear force===
The atomic nucleus is the fundamental constituent of matter at the center of an atom, consisting of protons and neutrons, each one conformed by 3 quarks. These '''quarks remain bound together due to the strong nuclear force''', which is the strongest of the fundamental forces with a scope not greater than 10&lt;sup&gt;-15&lt;/sup&gt; meters. It has been determined that more than 99% of the proton mass is concentrated in the atomic nucleus, and less than 1% comes from residual forces.[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 2.png|375x375px|'''QCD color charge'''|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 2: Color charge (QCD).'''
{{center bottom}}Gluons act as the exchange particle for the strong force between quarks, preventing them from separating by a constant force of attraction with a '''theoretical''' '''maximum of 10.000 N (≈ 1.000 Kg)'''.

In quantum chromodynamics (QCD), a quark's color can take one of three values or charges: red, green, and blue. An antiquark can take one of three anticolors, called antired, antigreen, and antiblue. Gluons are mixtures of two colors, such as red and antigreen, which constitute their color charge. The &quot;color charge&quot; of quarks and gluons is not related to the everyday meanings of color and charge, but is related to its hidden internal degree of freedom.

=== Quantum vacuum ===
We can note two important qualities of the quantum vacuum:

* Particles superconductor. The distance to the most distant galaxy detected by human beings is more than 30 billion light years, which means there are photons that are able to travel that distance without decreasing their speed, modifying only their wavelength. Like light, an object can move into space for a practically unlimited period as long as it doesn’t find a force to stop it, so we can determine that the vacuum has a resistance equivalent to 0.

* A tension. In order to allow waves, it’s easier into a strongly linked structure. Gravitational waves could behave like ocean waves, which are similar to an uptight net, these tensions can be decomposed as a unitary set of points tenser than any known structure and under extreme repulsive forces to allow the universe expansion.

These qualities would treat the quantum vacuum as a '''superfluid''' with zero viscosity and any loss of kinetic energy, having a practically infinite conductive capacity for particles and being extremely dense. Remember, we are moving through the universe at an estimated speed of 600 km/s.

[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 3.gif|alt=QCD vacuum|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 3: QCD vacuum.'''
{{center bottom}}This real picture illustrates the three-dimensional structure of gluon-field configurations, describing the vacuum properties where quarks are popping in and out constantly. The volume of the box is 2,4 x 2,4 x 3,6 fm, inducing chromo-electric and chromo-magnetic fields in its lowest energy state. The frame rate in this real example is billions of billions of frames per second (FPS).

== Strong nuclear force unification ==

=== Fundamentals ===
This new framework consists of a quantum vacuum helping to transport matter without any friction (quarks joined and interacting through the strong nuclear force holding matter together, traveling into space as if it were a superconductor)p.

As an example, I’ve chosen the smallest and most abundant chemical element in the universe, the hydrogen atom, with an estimated '''mass of 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg''', which contains a single electron and a single nucleus. This nucleus consists of a single proton (the basic constituent of matter), where it exerts its nuclear force, which is in turn composed of two up-quarks and a down-quark bound by the gluon interaction.

With these data about '''the hydrogen nucleus''', we’ll calculate its '''average interaction''' to create a '''contraction''' force in the vacuum. For this purpose, we can think about an elastic band (it would simulate the proton strong force with a size of 10&lt;sup&gt;-15&lt;/sup&gt; meters) compressing two V-shaped sticks on its broadest side; if the sticks are sufficiently slippery and tense, the elastic band will slide to the narrower side. The more elastic bands, the more force will be exerted on the sticks to join them; equally, the more matter at the narrow end of the sticks, the more attraction at the top. We talk about unknown limits, such as infinite conduction or tensions never seen.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 4.png|center|722x722px|'''Involved forces''']]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 4: Involved forces.'''
{{center bottom}}This scheme would correspond to what is known as quantum gravity (QG), which aims to describe gravity according to the principles of quantum mechanics, erasing gravity as one of the fundamental forces of nature and turning the strong force into its generator, affecting each nucleon (protons and neutrons) in isolation. 

=== Calculations ===
'''** ''Fig. 5''''' ''is the most important figure in the document;, it must be understood in order to continue. It has been positioned horizontally to be more intuitivee.''

The calculation corresponds to the '''angle''' generated at one point on the Earth’s surface to create its gravitational acceleration (the space deformation), applying the formulas from inclined planes (Newton’s second law) with the following values:
*The proton strong force is matched with the vertical force, having an estimated strength of 10.000 N (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;).

* The proton mass has an estimated value of 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg (m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;).

* The gravitational acceleration on our planet is matched with the acceleration down the plane, 9,8 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (a).

* The friction is zero, 0.
These variables are the average values from quantum dynamics interactions collected through classical physics[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 5.png|465x465px|'''Inclined plane forces'''|center|frameless]]{{center top}}
'''** Fig. 5: Equivalences in the inclined plane.'''
{{center bottom}}These variables should be the average values collected through classical mechanics, from quantum physics interactions.

Convert variables to metric system considering a proton. 

1.  Variables set considering a proton.  &lt;blockquote&gt;''m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg''

''a = 9,8 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; × 9,8 = 1,6395 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-26&lt;/sup&gt; N''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,6395 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-30&lt;/sup&gt; N''&lt;/blockquote&gt;2.   Apply the laws of inclined planes to the previous variables.  &lt;blockquote&gt;''m × g × sin(''θ'') = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a                                                                                                                                     (1.1)''

''F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = m × g = 10.000 N''

''F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × sin(''θ'') = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''

θ ''= arcsin(F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;)    ''&lt;/blockquote&gt;3.  Planet Earth’s angle is shared by 3 quarks, creating 9,8 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; acceleration. This deviation occurs at the proton size.&lt;blockquote&gt;θ ''= 9,393 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-29&lt;/sup&gt; °                                                                                                                                             (1.2)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;The definition of mass says that it is a quantity that represents the amount of matter in a particle or an object. Its calculation has many variations, like weight / acceleration (due to gravity); force / acceleration; or density × volume, all of these associated with our framework.

=== Quantum vacuum density ===
Dark matter could have its origins due '''to variations in the quantum vacuum density'''. An extension between quarks could turn mass (m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;) into tension energy (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;), so some places in the universe can have lower or higher accelerations because of this effect; this means that  dark matter doesn’t really exist, which is estimated at 27% of the mass in the observable universe.

The most important related discovery might be the '''asymptotic freedom''', which is a property of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) where interactions between quarks become weaker as the energy scale increases and the corresponding length scale decreases. The fact that couplings depend on the momentum (or length) scale is the central idea behind the renormalization group.[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 7.png|500x500px|'''The strong force behaves like an elastic band'''|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 6: The strong force behaves like an elastic band.'''
{{center bottom}}We don’t really know the relation between the vacuum density and the strong nuclear force, so this is just an estimation, but it’s expected that more vacuum concentration could expand quarks and modify all the relations

1.  Variables set.&lt;blockquote&gt;''m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; × a''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = (1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; × a) / 10.000 = (1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt; × a)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;2.  Calculate the relation between the angle and the acceleration.&lt;blockquote&gt;''F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × sin(''θ'') = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;                                                                                                                                   (2.1)''

θ ''= arcsin(F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;)''

θ ''= arcsin(1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt; × a)'' 

θ ''= (1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt; × a) °''&lt;/blockquote&gt;3.  A bigger angle generates more acceleration.&lt;blockquote&gt;''a = (''θ ''/ 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt;) m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;                                                                                                                               (2.2)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;Another example can be created using a smaller force, like F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; ''= 7.000N''&lt;blockquote&gt;''a = F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × sin(''θ'') / m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;                                                                                                                                            (3.1)''

''a = 7.000 × sin(1,6395 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-30&lt;/sup&gt;) / 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt;''

''a = 6,85 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''&lt;/blockquote&gt;The strong force has a positive correlation when transforming its force; increasing F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; or m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; implies more acceleration. It acts as a spring to generate different tensions in space. In addition to historical reasons of rivalry between Newton and Hooke, Hooke’s law (elasticity constant) is the best and easiest approach to explain it, since this calculation is just at '''one point in space'''. The force (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;) is proportional to the distance needed to extend or compress the spring.[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 8.png|700x700px|'''The strong force becomes the fundamental tensor'''|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 7: The strong force becomes the fundamental tensor.'''
{{center bottom}}

But in reality, the space deforms not proportionally, creating more acceleration near the accumulation of matter, behaving like an elastic material. This behavior can be quantified by the elastic modulus or Young’s modulus, which represents the factor of proportionality in Hooke's law in non-linear systems. The Young’s modulus (E) depends on the force exerted by matter (σ) and the deformation at each point of the resulting vector (Ɛ). &lt;blockquote&gt;

''E = ∆σ / ∆Ɛ''

''∆F''θ ''&gt; ∆F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; / ∆m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;                                                    (4.1)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;The force exerted by the angle (θ) increases (∆) faster than the strong force (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;) and its relation to mass (m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;); the greater the distance, the weaker the force.[[File:Superconductingfieldtheorygraph.png|border|center|frameless|370x370px|'''The angle exerts force over large distances''']]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 8: The angle exerts force over large distances.'''
{{center bottom}}
This relation between the strong force and the quantum vacuum modifies the space density since it induces their approach because of the electromagnetic extraction and its dispersion; therefore, we can speak of the existence of a bulk modulus (K), which depends on the pressure changes (p) and volume (V).&lt;blockquote&gt;''K = -V (∆p / ∆V)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;We only know this relation for Earth calculations, but it must be associated with actual physics like general relativity (GR) or Einstein field equations (EFE), where matter bends space using an unknown tensor, determining the geometry of space depending on the distribution of matter over intricated energy density fields. Also, we can find other physics connections, like the Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) hypothesis, which proposes a modification of Newton's law of universal gravitation to account for observed properties of galaxies, having multiple observational evidences.

Other properties such as volume viscosity, also called bulk viscosity, can be applied.

===Funcamental forces===

This is the new fundamental forces grouping:  

* The strong force and gravity have been unified. 

* Electromagnetic and weak force are actually unified by the electroweak interaction.

* The quantum vacuum is a new fundamental force because of its strength and the fact that it isn’t reducible to more basic forces.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 10.png|center|461x461px|'''Fundamental interactions''']]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 9: Fundamental interactions.'''
{{center bottom}}

== Quantum vacuum unification ==

=== Structure ===
We need a quantum vacuum structure that allows us to unify the different types of quantum fields and their different behaviors, like the constant motion of '''matter''', the travel of '''subatomic particles,''' and the '''electromagnetic field''' generation. One solution would be a metastable system with different balances; the topological model proposed are polarized triplets, rotated in a static balance (a symmetric group), differentiated in the 3 spatial axes, where each element is in continuous repulsion.

Matter is composed of protons and neutrons (nucleons), which make up each element of the periodic table; at the same time, each nucleon is made up of 3 quarks. The vacuum asymmetry maintains the speed of nucleons stable because repulsions and attractions from the whole part are equilibrated in the 3 spatial directions (quarks triplets against vacuum triplets); the average sum of all vector velocity forces (V&lt;sub&gt;F&lt;/sub&gt;) in each spatial direction is 0. For this reason, matter is not accelerated to the speed of light, the asymmetrical multistability prevents it.

Fz + Fy + Fz  = ''F net = 0''                                                                                                       ''(5.1)''

This asymmetry is the cause of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) colors and anticolors (3 types of each) and their transformations, where the nucleon structure doesn’t collapse inward due to the outward vacuum forces, being the only thing bigger than each individual frame capable of surviving it. Even the different types or flavors of neutrinos (electron, muon, and tau) can be studied as a motion system between triplets, more similar to how matter works.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 11.png|center|frameless|577x577px|su(3)]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 10: Motion of matter in equilibrium.'''
{{center bottom}}Its ±½ polarization shapes fermions, having an internal force trying to expand with a spherical distribution as is theorized for U(1) gauge, so particles smaller than this frame can be easily dispersed in all directions.

Both the vacuum permeability and permittivity are originated from the quantum vacuum magnetization and polarization in order to create virtual electrons, having as their greatest quality to emit or absorb    energy. The collective alignment of each magnetic moment creates magnetic domains, where temperature and atomic structure play crucial roles.

All the elements in the periodic table have a mass or nucleon number related to their number of electrons, so nucleons should be able to extract and recover this energy as electromagnetism from each polarized container, helping to create electromagnetic bonds like the hydrogen bond to conform the chemical compounds (under normal conditions, it is impossible for a proton not to possess an electron). These electromagnetic attractions can affect the gravitational force, but only in a residual way. 
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 12.png|center|frameless|407x407px|su(2)]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 11: Electromagnetic field extraction.'''
{{center bottom}}Light has its own inertia; it travels at approximately 300.000 kilometers per second, but it slows down to about 225.000 kilometers per second in water (it depends on the electromagnetic properties of the medium it’s embedded in), recovering its speed when leaving it.

Subatomic particles (photons or neutrinos) are smaller than this basic frame, so they can be transported by the vacuum; their infinite amount of accumulated inertia comes from the spin speed (S&lt;sub&gt;F&lt;/sub&gt;) of this energetic vacuum, where quarks are trying to be accelerated, but its stability prevents it.

F1 = c                                                                                                                                          ''(5.3)''

These basic frames can be seen as the smallest units of time, where other behaviors can be studied, such as the photon generation through a monopole interaction.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 13.png|center|frameless|200x200px|su(1)]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 12: Subatomic particles transportation.'''
{{center bottom}}The particles’ escape angles are needed to conform the net, taking into account all the different containers’ positions in space (two different positions on each axis and its conjugates). Thus, we have the following groups per axis conformed by their unitary vectors (U):

''U&lt;sub&gt;X&lt;/sub&gt; ='' {''+(1, 0, 0), +(-1, 0, 0),'' ''-(1, 0, 0), -(-1, 0, 0)''} ''                                                                            (6.1)''

''U&lt;sub&gt;Y&lt;/sub&gt; ='' {''+(0, 1, 0), +(0, -1, 0),'' ''-(0, 1, 0), -(0, -1, 0)''}

''U&lt;sub&gt;Z&lt;/sub&gt; ='' {''+(0, 0, 1), +(0, 0, -1),'' ''-(0, 0, 1), -(0, 0, -1)''}

These structures can help to build the Standard Model internal symmetries, '''SU(3) × SU(2) × U(1)'''; the Gell-Mann matrices, a representation of the SU(3) group, where quarks possess color quantum numbers and form the fundamental triplets; the Pauli matrices, a representation of the SU(2) group, which reproduce the electron’s spin; and the simplest internal symmetry group, U(1). This solution can '''accommodate the main types of motion''', being the first time that a nonlinear structure is theorized, solving the technical problems of '''renormalization''' in order to yield sensible answers to the strange behavior of quantum physics, such as the production of shapes related to the 4 dimensions (mainly tesseract shapes or hypercubes). Anyway, this is considered a hypothetical structure because the complete mathematical matrix has not been built, taking into account that any real section can be reconstructed in a stand-alone way.

It's compatible with behaviors like the Lorentz transformation and Minkowski diagram to explain the spacetime deformations (via rhomboidal deformations); supersymmetry to explain the symmetry between bosons and fermions (via symmetry groups); photons’ creation due to the Dynamical Casimir effect; antimatter survival while other structures like the pions are unstable; ice rules in molecules with internal spins and geometric constraints that generate a periodic lattice; emerging patterns like fractals or crystal structures based on parallelepiped shapes with a repetitive arrangement of atoms in unit cells…

=== Fundamental forces (Theory of Everything) ===
Considering the electromagnetic field as a flux extracted from the vacuum, it’s easy to guess that the final component between the strong force and the quantum vacuum is '''motion'''.

The resulting scheme can be reduced to matter and energy in perpetual motion. The Big Bang event produced the initial state of high density and temperature, creating all the energy necessary to provide motion to the whole matter, and everything begins to interact, provided by the &quot;infinite&quot; inertia that the quantum vacuum supplied.
[[File:Superconductingfieldtheorytoe.png|center|frameless|615x615px|ToE]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 13: Theory of Everything scheme.'''
{{center bottom}}Its properties, also determined by thermal radiation and pressure, could create the first conditions for life by helping to compact structures like the double helix in the chromosomes, considered to be the origin of biological homochirality (probably gained by the quantum superposition), giving rise to more complex structures like worms, with which we can share up to 70% of our DNA, being considered the evolutionary forerunner of most animals. Within this quantum vacuum structure, we even have some mathematical curiosities, such as having 5 faces per prism (5 + 5, decimal-handedness).

But wondering about the future, if the scientific method is based on determinism and hidden variables don’t exist, we could consider an absolute determinism (neither chaos nor free will exists, being all pre-calculated) and overcome the resulting frustration by thinking of ways to break it, such as through overmuch information in the universe (all the photons from all the stars can’t be predetermined); this is the first cycle in the universe (so we start from a blank canvas); God (if we are an expression from the vacuum, there is something that can feel inside it); or we are a tool capable of breaking such determinism (the universe needs it). From now on, I only hope I have raised your consciousness level, offering you a better understanding of your environment…

== Conclusions ==
In philosophy, '''Occam's razor''' (also known as the principle of parsimony) is the problem-solving principle that recommends searching for simpler explanations constructed with the smallest possible set of elements or fundamental concepts because they provide better results than more complex ones.

This theory can explain behaviors such as:

* Unification theory between the strong nuclear force and gravity, quarks motion, and the electromagnetic field generation, until obtaining a unified field theory.

* Dark matter due to quantum vacuum densities. Recent studies have associated the cosmic microwave background (CMB) with dark matter behavior; thus, the cosmic microwave background should be related to the quantum vacuum and its density. The universe is anisotropic (is not uniform in all directions).

* Dark energy and cosmic inflation. The behavior of each individual container implies a spin-based repulsion helping to its expansion, strong enough to avoid getting closer and be able to reestablish its structure after any contraction; this generates the required propagation force over large distances to allow the expansion of the universe. In fact, the latest research on the expansion of more than 1.500 supernovas indicate that this expansion is also not uniform and changes with time, also calling into question the gravitational constant.

* Black holes as a density break. The vacuum concentration becomes so strong that its repulsion can break the strong force bonds, generating their rupture and explosion, and leading to new internal concentrations (a black hole can vary from a nuclear density inside the Schwarzschild radius of 4 × 10&lt;sup&gt;19&lt;/sup&gt; kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, more extreme than our nuclear density of 2,3 × 10&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt; kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). Photons, depending on the new container size, could be attracted because their field can interact with the vacuum. Neutrinos, regardless of whether it is a black hole, can escape if the container size is bigger than itself.

* Particles decay due to the vacuum interaction. It can correspond to the current theories about the false vacuum decay (a not so stable vacuum); also, the neutron decay can be seen as a small dominant space polarization that tends to create protons.

* Gravitational time dilation. Each container is connected with spacetime; a bigger frame implies minor energy concentration, and the displacements in space imply less frames to pass through, which means less time.

* These frames can be considered as the smallest units of time. This size has been attempted to be explained since Zenon's paradoxes (430 BC), dedicated mainly to the problem of the continuum and the relations between space, time, and motion, until nowadays with infinitesimal calculus, where a mathematical curve can be analyzed as if it were constituted by homogeneous separable points.

* Conservation of angular momentum at bodies’ rotations in space with spherical and circular movements at planets and galaxies. Applying this conservation during the Big Bang, antimatter is not necessary to create it and could lead to less antimatter than 50% in the universe as expected (a small portion could have been generated during the explosion).

* The gravitational constant (G = 6,67408(31) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−11&lt;/sup&gt; m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;kg&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;s&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;), vacuum permittivity (ε&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 8,8541878128(13) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−12&lt;/sup&gt; F⋅m−1), or vacuum permeability (μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,25663706212(19) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−6&lt;/sup&gt; N⋅A&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;) and the problems to measure with high accuracy since they can be affected by density variations. Even small modifications in the speed of light can be expected due to the vacuum-related spin; in fact, the speed of light can be calculated based on the previous variables about vacuum permittivity and permeability using Maxwell’s equations, c=1/√(ε&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;).

* Variations in E = mc&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; to set the rest energy of matter, for example, we could obtain E = AF&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; where A is the nucleons number.

* Compatibility with light and matter interaction (QED), and the fact that electrons cannot occupy the same quantum state or light refraction; as well as the wave function and Schrödinger and Dirac equations, describing how the state of a quantum system changes with time.

* Planck length (ℓ&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,616255(38) × 10&lt;sup&gt;-35&lt;/sup&gt; m) and Planck time (t&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt; = 5,391247(60) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−44&lt;/sup&gt; s) are theoretically considered the quantization of space and time and may point to the vacuum structures by length as well as time. Planck referred to relativistic values, which may not be so accurate; for example, gamma rays which generally arise from the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus, have one of the smallest wavelengths, shorter than 10&lt;sup&gt;-11&lt;/sup&gt; meters.

* The residual strong force (the bond between protons and neutrons), which is much weaker than the (real) strong force, has a correlation between quarks up and down that can be perfectly electromagnetic, as it was originally considered. 

* Similarities between Newton’s and Coulomb's law or Einstein’s relativity and Maxwell’s equations for the electric field. 

* The unidirectional arrow of time…

[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 15.png|center|frameless|453x453px|waves]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 14: These variables help to shape galaxies (like the golden spiral φ = 1,6180).'''
{{center bottom}}

== Considerations ==
Gravitomagnetism (GEM) is a term that refers to the kinetic effects of gravity in analogy to the magnetic effects of a moving electric charge. Here we will create a relativistic relation to extract the magnetic moment and check its behavior, independently of GEM equations.

We can accelerate matter using a chamber with magnetic coils to transform as much matter as possible into energy as. We need a material with as much permeability in high magnetic fields as possible; pure iron can be a good reference, but we can consider some other materials with high permeability. The centripetal force will force matter outwards, so we need a magnetic field to keep its dimensions. We need sufficient width and height to concentrate internal energy and study how the vacuum is bent; it’s complex to concentrate kinetic energy at one point to obtain its potential energy.

As an example, we’ll calculate the energy of one disk in motion, taking the radius and a height of 50 cm, using iron with density ρ = 7,874 gr/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, with the following mass:

''V = π × r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; × h = 392.700 cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;                                                                                                               (7.1)''

''m = 392.700 × 7,874 = 3.092.119,8 gr = 3.092,119 kg               '' 

Considering a maximum speed reached, we’ll compare its kinetic energy with the maximum energy that could be generated using a relativistic approximation.

''v = 3 × 10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; m/s'' (near the speed of light) ''                                                                                        (7.2)''

''E&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; = ½mv&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;                                                                                  E = mc&lt;sup&gt;2        &lt;/sup&gt;'' 

''E&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; = ½ × 3.092,119 × 9 × 10&lt;sup&gt;14                                                          &lt;/sup&gt;      E = 3.092,119 × 9 × 10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;''

''E&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; = 13.914,535 × 10&lt;sup&gt;14                                                                           &lt;/sup&gt;   E = 27.829,071 × 10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;''

The energy calculated at the disk periphery can have a magnetic relation with its motion. Its charge (q) and magnetic field (B) are linked with its velocity, where v = qBr / m, so the energy generated can be calculated when a speed is reached in a relativistic approximation.

''E = ½mv&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = q&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;B&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; / 2m''
[[File:Superconductingfieldtheorydisk.png|center|frameless|582x582px|disk motion]]

{{center top}}
'''Fig. 15: Motion and relativity equivalence.'''
{{center bottom}}
Other variations at QCD have been observed, like at baryon resonances.

Anyway, more studies are needed to check the real correlation between the quantum vacuum and the strong nuclear force. The motion, together with the vacuum contraction / extraction / insertion, should be related to a change in density, but we don’t know the possible proton size variations in space to perform new calculations (we are dealing with very complex dynamic scales). It can be considered a highly problematic system.

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}Hooke, R. (1678). ''Lectures de potentia restitutiva, or of spring, explaining the power of springing bodies.'' Carnegie Mellon University''.'' &lt;nowiki&gt;http://doi.library.cmu.edu/10.1184/OCLC/10411228&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Newton, I. (1687). ''The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy''. Smithsonian Libraries. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.52126.39088015628399&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Euler, L. (1755)''. Foundations of Differential Calculus.'' Springer Link. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/b97699&lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
      <sha1>5w3ad6jdu22v07jz99p1z228c111no8</sha1>
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      <text bytes="33976" sha1="lzxpdbf12sduh4hentzwe7urn54s2nc" xml:space="preserve">== Link ==

Last updateː

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371896737

https://caip.co-ac.com/index.php/materialsanddevices/article/view/213

== Introduction ==

A Grand Unified Theory is any model of physics that explains and connects all fundamental forces (strong force, electromagnetism, weak force, and gravity) into a single force. The framework described here calculates the '''exact point''' at which quantum dynamics transforms into classical physics.

The basic concepts we’ll use are:

* The '''strong nuclear force''' which has always been a controversial force, has been underestimated due to its extremely small field of action in the search for a possible interaction with the gravitational force, but if we turn our attention to its internal interaction instead of its external one, we can create a basic piece for a somewhat more complex and extremely important model. It was responsible for the origin of string theory with the S-matrix, a physical system in which the point-like particles are replaced by  one-dimensional objects called strings, although it later drifted towards any type of vibration into space.

* The '''quantum vacuum''' or aether, which has been ignored to a certain extent, could be responsible for the most important interactions over long distances, being perceived as a kind of material medium as demonstrated by the Michelson-Morley experiment attempting to probe the transmission of light in a vacuum, or as an energetic field as demonstrated by the Casimir effect as well as the Lamb shift. Its topology has been another source of discussion, developing branches like twistor theory, spinors, or knots, in an attempt to explain spin interactions, and it could be the guilty party for all vibrational states of particle.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 1.png|center|450x450px|'''From quantum dynamics to general relativity''']]{{center top}}'''Fig. 1: From quantum dynamics to general relativity.'''{{center bottom}}This physics branch only uses the 3 spatial dimensions and time, with the strong nuclear force as two-dimensional strings and the quantum vacuum as a multistable motion system, being compatible with the Standard Model.

== Principles ==

===Strong nuclear force===
The atomic nucleus is the fundamental constituent of matter at the center of an atom, consisting of protons and neutrons, each one conformed by 3 quarks. These '''quarks remain bound together due to the strong nuclear force''', which is the strongest of the fundamental forces with a scope not greater than 10&lt;sup&gt;-15&lt;/sup&gt; meters. It has been determined that more than 99% of the proton mass is concentrated in the atomic nucleus, and less than 1% comes from residual forces.[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 2.png|375x375px|'''QCD color charge'''|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 2: Color charge (QCD).'''
{{center bottom}}Gluons act as the exchange particle for the strong force between quarks, preventing them from separating by a constant force of attraction with a '''theoretical''' '''maximum of 10.000 N (≈ 1.000 Kg)'''.

In quantum chromodynamics (QCD), a quark's color can take one of three values or charges: red, green, and blue. An antiquark can take one of three anticolors, called antired, antigreen, and antiblue. Gluons are mixtures of two colors, such as red and antigreen, which constitute their color charge. The &quot;color charge&quot; of quarks and gluons is not related to the everyday meanings of color and charge, but is related to its hidden internal degree of freedom.

=== Quantum vacuum ===
We can note two important qualities of the quantum vacuum:

* Particles superconductor. The distance to the most distant galaxy detected by human beings is more than 30 billion light years, which means there are photons that are able to travel that distance without decreasing their speed, modifying only their wavelength. Like light, an object can move into space for a practically unlimited period as long as it doesn’t find a force to stop it, so we can determine that the vacuum has a resistance equivalent to 0.

* A tension. In order to allow waves, it’s easier into a strongly linked structure. Gravitational waves could behave like ocean waves, which are similar to an uptight net, these tensions can be decomposed as a unitary set of points tenser than any known structure and under extreme repulsive forces to allow the universe expansion.

These qualities would treat the quantum vacuum as a '''superfluid''' with zero viscosity and any loss of kinetic energy, having a practically infinite conductive capacity for particles and being extremely dense. Remember, we are moving through the universe at an estimated speed of 600 km/s.

[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 3.gif|alt=QCD vacuum|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 3: QCD vacuum.'''
{{center bottom}}This real picture illustrates the three-dimensional structure of gluon-field configurations, describing the vacuum properties where quarks are popping in and out constantly. The volume of the box is 2,4 x 2,4 x 3,6 fm, inducing chromo-electric and chromo-magnetic fields in its lowest energy state. The frame rate in this real example is billions of billions of frames per second (FPS).

== Strong nuclear force unification ==

=== Fundamentals ===
This new framework consists of a quantum vacuum helping to transport matter without any friction (quarks joined and interacting through the strong nuclear force holding matter together, traveling into space as if it were a superconductor)p.

As an example, I’ve chosen the smallest and most abundant chemical element in the universe, the hydrogen atom, with an estimated '''mass of 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg''', which contains a single electron and a single nucleus. This nucleus consists of a single proton (the basic constituent of matter), where it exerts its nuclear force, which is in turn composed of two up-quarks and a down-quark bound by the gluon interaction.

With these data about '''the hydrogen nucleus''', we’ll calculate its '''average interaction''' to create a '''contraction''' force in the vacuum. For this purpose, we can think about an elastic band (it would simulate the proton strong force with a size of 10&lt;sup&gt;-15&lt;/sup&gt; meters) compressing two V-shaped sticks on its broadest side; if the sticks are sufficiently slippery and tense, the elastic band will slide to the narrower side. The more elastic bands, the more force will be exerted on the sticks to join them; equally, the more matter at the narrow end of the sticks, the more attraction at the top. We talk about unknown limits, such as infinite conduction or tensions never seen.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 4.png|center|722x722px|'''Involved forces''']]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 4: Involved forces.'''
{{center bottom}}This scheme would correspond to what is known as quantum gravity (QG), which aims to describe gravity according to the principles of quantum mechanics, erasing gravity as one of the fundamental forces of nature and turning the strong force into its generator, affecting each nucleon (protons and neutrons) in isolation. 

=== Calculations ===
'''** ''Fig. 5''''' ''is the most important figure in the document;, it must be understood in order to continue. It has been positioned horizontally to be more intuitivee.''

The calculation corresponds to the '''angle''' generated at one point on the Earth’s surface to create its gravitational acceleration (the space deformation), applying the formulas from inclined planes (Newton’s second law) with the following values:
*The proton strong force is matched with the vertical force, having an estimated strength of 10.000 N (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;).

* The proton mass has an estimated value of 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg (m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;).

* The gravitational acceleration on our planet is matched with the acceleration down the plane, 9,8 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (a).

* The friction is zero, 0.
These variables are the average values from quantum dynamics interactions collected through classical physics[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 5.png|465x465px|'''Inclined plane forces'''|center|frameless]]{{center top}}
'''** Fig. 5: Equivalences in the inclined plane.'''
{{center bottom}}These variables should be the average values collected through classical mechanics, from quantum physics interactions.

Convert variables to metric system considering a proton. 

1.  Variables set considering a proton.  &lt;blockquote&gt;''m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg''

''a = 9,8 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; × 9,8 = 1,6395 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-26&lt;/sup&gt; N''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,6395 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-30&lt;/sup&gt; N''&lt;/blockquote&gt;2.   Apply the laws of inclined planes to the previous variables.  &lt;blockquote&gt;''m × g × sin(''θ'') = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a                                                                                                                                     (1.1)''

''F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = m × g = 10.000 N''

''F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × sin(''θ'') = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''

θ ''= arcsin(F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;)    ''&lt;/blockquote&gt;3.  Planet Earth’s angle is shared by 3 quarks, creating 9,8 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; acceleration. This deviation occurs at the proton size.&lt;blockquote&gt;θ ''= 9,393 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-29&lt;/sup&gt; °                                                                                                                                             (1.2)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;The definition of mass says that it is a quantity that represents the amount of matter in a particle or an object. Its calculation has many variations, like weight / acceleration (due to gravity); force / acceleration; or density × volume, all of these associated with our framework.

=== Quantum vacuum density ===
Dark matter could have its origins due '''to variations in the quantum vacuum density'''. An extension between quarks could turn mass (m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;) into tension energy (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;), so some places in the universe can have lower or higher accelerations because of this effect; this means that  dark matter doesn’t really exist, which is estimated at 27% of the mass in the observable universe.

The most important related discovery might be the '''asymptotic freedom''', which is a property of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) where interactions between quarks become weaker as the energy scale increases and the corresponding length scale decreases. The fact that couplings depend on the momentum (or length) scale is the central idea behind the renormalization group.[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 7.png|500x500px|'''The strong force behaves like an elastic band'''|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 6: The strong force behaves like an elastic band.'''
{{center bottom}}We don’t really know the relation between the vacuum density and the strong nuclear force, so this is just an estimation, but it’s expected that more vacuum concentration could expand quarks and modify all the relations

1.  Variables set.&lt;blockquote&gt;''m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; kg''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; × a''

''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = (1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; × a) / 10.000 = (1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt; × a)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;2.  Calculate the relation between the angle and the acceleration.&lt;blockquote&gt;''F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × sin(''θ'') = m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × a = F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;                                                                                                                                   (2.1)''

θ ''= arcsin(F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; / F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;)''

θ ''= arcsin(1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt; × a)'' 

θ ''= (1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt; × a) °''&lt;/blockquote&gt;3.  A bigger angle generates more acceleration.&lt;blockquote&gt;''a = (''θ ''/ 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt;) m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;                                                                                                                               (2.2)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;Another example can be created using a smaller force, like F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; ''= 7.000N''&lt;blockquote&gt;''a = F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; × sin(''θ'') / m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;                                                                                                                                            (3.1)''

''a = 7.000 × sin(1,6395 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-30&lt;/sup&gt;) / 1,673 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt;''

''a = 6,85 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''&lt;/blockquote&gt;The strong force has a positive correlation when transforming its force; increasing F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; or m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; implies more acceleration. It acts as a spring to generate different tensions in space. In addition to historical reasons of rivalry between Newton and Hooke, Hooke’s law (elasticity constant) is the best and easiest approach to explain it, since this calculation is just at '''one point in space'''. The force (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;) is proportional to the distance needed to extend or compress the spring.[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 8.png|700x700px|'''The strong force becomes the fundamental tensor'''|center]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 7: The strong force becomes the fundamental tensor.'''
{{center bottom}}

But in reality, the space deforms not proportionally, creating more acceleration near the accumulation of matter, behaving like an elastic material. This behavior can be quantified by the elastic modulus or Young’s modulus, which represents the factor of proportionality in Hooke's law in non-linear systems. The Young’s modulus (E) depends on the force exerted by matter (σ) and the deformation at each point of the resulting vector (Ɛ). &lt;blockquote&gt;

''E = ∆σ / ∆Ɛ''

''∆F''θ ''&gt; ∆F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; / ∆m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;                                                    (4.1)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;The force exerted by the angle (θ) increases (∆) faster than the strong force (F&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;) and its relation to mass (m&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;); the greater the distance, the weaker the force.[[File:Superconductingfieldtheorygraph.png|border|center|frameless|370x370px|'''The angle exerts force over large distances''']]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 8: The angle exerts force over large distances.'''
{{center bottom}}
This relation between the strong force and the quantum vacuum modifies the space density since it induces their approach because of the electromagnetic extraction and its dispersion; therefore, we can speak of the existence of a bulk modulus (K), which depends on the pressure changes (p) and volume (V).&lt;blockquote&gt;''K = -V (∆p / ∆V)''&lt;/blockquote&gt;We only know this relation for Earth calculations, but it must be associated with actual physics like general relativity (GR) or Einstein field equations (EFE), where matter bends space using an unknown tensor, determining the geometry of space depending on the distribution of matter over intricated energy density fields. Also, we can find other physics connections, like the Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) hypothesis, which proposes a modification of Newton's law of universal gravitation to account for observed properties of galaxies, having multiple observational evidences.

Other properties such as volume viscosity, also called bulk viscosity, can be applied.

===Funcamental forces===

This is the new fundamental forces grouping:  

* The strong force and gravity have been unified. 

* Electromagnetic and weak force are actually unified by the electroweak interaction.

* The quantum vacuum is a new fundamental force because of its strength and the fact that it isn’t reducible to more basic forces.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 10.png|center|461x461px|'''Fundamental interactions''']]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 9: Fundamental interactions.'''
{{center bottom}}

== Quantum vacuum unification ==

=== Structure ===
We need a quantum vacuum structure that allows us to unify the different types of quantum fields and their different behaviors, like the constant motion of '''matter''', the travel of '''subatomic particles,''' and the '''electromagnetic field''' generation. One solution would be a metastable system with different balances; the topological model proposed are polarized triplets, rotated in a static balance (a symmetric group), differentiated in the 3 spatial axes, where each element is in continuous repulsion.

Matter is composed of protons and neutrons (nucleons), which make up each element of the periodic table; at the same time, each nucleon is made up of 3 quarks. The vacuum asymmetry maintains the speed of nucleons stable because repulsions and attractions from the whole part are equilibrated in the 3 spatial directions (quarks triplets against vacuum triplets); the average sum of all vector velocity forces (V&lt;sub&gt;F&lt;/sub&gt;) in each spatial direction is 0. For this reason, matter is not accelerated to the speed of light, the asymmetrical multistability prevents it.

Fz + Fy + Fz  = ''F net = 0''                                                                                                       ''(5.1)''

This asymmetry is the cause of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) colors and anticolors (3 types of each) and their transformations, where the nucleon structure doesn’t collapse inward due to the outward vacuum forces, being the only thing bigger than each individual frame capable of surviving it. Even the different types or flavors of neutrinos (electron, muon, and tau) can be studied as a motion system between triplets, more similar to how matter works.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 11.png|center|frameless|577x577px|su(3)]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 10: Motion of matter in equilibrium.'''
{{center bottom}}Its ±½ polarization shapes fermions, having an internal force trying to expand with a spherical distribution as is theorized for U(1) gauge, so particles smaller than this frame can be easily dispersed in all directions.

Both the vacuum permeability and permittivity are originated from the quantum vacuum magnetization and polarization in order to create virtual electrons, having as their greatest quality to emit or absorb    energy. The collective alignment of each magnetic moment creates magnetic domains, where temperature and atomic structure play crucial roles.

All the elements in the periodic table have a mass or nucleon number related to their number of electrons, so nucleons should be able to extract and recover this energy as electromagnetism from each polarized container, helping to create electromagnetic bonds like the hydrogen bond to conform the chemical compounds (under normal conditions, it is impossible for a proton not to possess an electron). These electromagnetic attractions can affect the gravitational force, but only in a residual way. 
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 12.png|center|frameless|407x407px|su(2)]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 11: Electromagnetic field extraction.'''
{{center bottom}}Light has its own inertia; it travels at approximately 300.000 kilometers per second, but it slows down to about 225.000 kilometers per second in water (it depends on the electromagnetic properties of the medium it’s embedded in), recovering its speed when leaving it.

Subatomic particles (photons or neutrinos) are smaller than this basic frame, so they can be transported by the vacuum; their infinite amount of accumulated inertia comes from the spin speed (S&lt;sub&gt;F&lt;/sub&gt;) of this energetic vacuum, where quarks are trying to be accelerated, but its stability prevents it.

F1 = c                                                                                                                                          ''(5.3)''

These basic frames can be seen as the smallest units of time, where other behaviors can be studied, such as the photon generation through a monopole interaction.
[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 13.png|center|frameless|200x200px|su(1)]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 12: Subatomic particles transportation.'''
{{center bottom}}The particles’ escape angles are needed to conform the net, taking into account all the different containers’ positions in space (two different positions on each axis and its conjugates). Thus, we have the following groups per axis conformed by their unitary vectors (U):

''U&lt;sub&gt;X&lt;/sub&gt; ='' {''+(1, 0, 0), +(-1, 0, 0),'' ''-(1, 0, 0), -(-1, 0, 0)''} ''                                                                            (6.1)''

''U&lt;sub&gt;Y&lt;/sub&gt; ='' {''+(0, 1, 0), +(0, -1, 0),'' ''-(0, 1, 0), -(0, -1, 0)''}

''U&lt;sub&gt;Z&lt;/sub&gt; ='' {''+(0, 0, 1), +(0, 0, -1),'' ''-(0, 0, 1), -(0, 0, -1)''}

These structures can help to build the Standard Model internal symmetries, '''SU(3) × SU(2) × U(1)'''; the Gell-Mann matrices, a representation of the SU(3) group, where quarks possess color quantum numbers and form the fundamental triplets; the Pauli matrices, a representation of the SU(2) group, which reproduce the electron’s spin; and the simplest internal symmetry group, U(1). This solution can '''accommodate the main types of motion''', being the first time that a nonlinear structure is theorized, solving the technical problems of '''renormalization''' in order to yield sensible answers to the strange behavior of quantum physics, such as the production of shapes related to the 4 dimensions (mainly tesseract shapes or hypercubes). Anyway, this is considered a hypothetical structure because the complete mathematical matrix has not been built, taking into account that any real section can be reconstructed in a stand-alone way.

It's compatible with behaviors like the Lorentz transformation and Minkowski diagram to explain the spacetime deformations (via rhomboidal deformations); supersymmetry to explain the symmetry between bosons and fermions (via symmetry groups); photons’ creation due to the Dynamical Casimir effect; antimatter survival while other structures like the pions are unstable; ice rules in molecules with internal spins and geometric constraints that generate a periodic lattice; emerging patterns like fractals or crystal structures based on parallelepiped shapes with a repetitive arrangement of atoms in unit cells…

=== Fundamental forces (Theory of Everything) ===
Considering the electromagnetic field as a flux extracted from the vacuum, it’s easy to guess that the final component between the strong force and the quantum vacuum is '''motion'''.

The resulting scheme can be reduced to matter and energy in perpetual motion. The Big Bang event produced the initial state of high density and temperature, creating all the energy necessary to provide motion to the whole matter, and everything begins to interact, provided by the &quot;infinite&quot; inertia that the quantum vacuum supplied.
[[File:Superconductingfieldtheorytoe.png|center|frameless|615x615px|ToE]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 13: Theory of Everything scheme.'''
{{center bottom}}Its properties, also determined by thermal radiation and pressure, could create the first conditions for life by helping to compact structures like the double helix in the chromosomes, considered to be the origin of biological homochirality (probably gained by the quantum superposition), giving rise to more complex structures like worms, with which we can share up to 70% of our DNA, being considered the evolutionary forerunner of most animals. Within this quantum vacuum structure, we even have some mathematical curiosities, such as having 5 faces per prism (5 + 5, decimal-handedness).

But wondering about the future, if the scientific method is based on determinism and hidden variables don’t exist, we could consider an absolute determinism (neither chaos nor free will exists, being all pre-calculated) and overcome the resulting frustration by thinking of ways to break it, such as through overmuch information in the universe (all the photons from all the stars can’t be predetermined); this is the first cycle in the universe (so we start from a blank canvas); God (if we are an expression from the vacuum, there is something that can feel inside it); or we are a tool capable of breaking such determinism (the universe needs it). From now on, I only hope I have raised your consciousness level, offering you a better understanding of your environment…

== Conclusions ==
In philosophy, '''Occam's razor''' (also known as the principle of parsimony) is the problem-solving principle that recommends searching for simpler explanations constructed with the smallest possible set of elements or fundamental concepts because they provide better results than more complex ones.

This theory can explain behaviors such as:

* Unification theory between the strong nuclear force and gravity, quarks motion, and the electromagnetic field generation, until obtaining a unified field theory.

* Dark matter due to quantum vacuum densities. Recent studies have associated the cosmic microwave background (CMB) with dark matter behavior; thus, the cosmic microwave background should be related to the quantum vacuum and its density. The universe is anisotropic (is not uniform in all directions).

* Dark energy and cosmic inflation. The behavior of each individual container implies a spin-based repulsion helping to its expansion, strong enough to avoid getting closer and be able to reestablish its structure after any contraction; this generates the required propagation force over large distances to allow the expansion of the universe. In fact, the latest research on the expansion of more than 1.500 supernovas indicate that this expansion is also not uniform and changes with time, also calling into question the gravitational constant.

* Black holes as a density break. The vacuum concentration becomes so strong that its repulsion can break the strong force bonds, generating their rupture and explosion, and leading to new internal concentrations (a black hole can vary from a nuclear density inside the Schwarzschild radius of 4 × 10&lt;sup&gt;19&lt;/sup&gt; kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, more extreme than our nuclear density of 2,3 × 10&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt; kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). Photons, depending on the new container size, could be attracted because their field can interact with the vacuum. Neutrinos, regardless of whether it is a black hole, can escape if the container size is bigger than itself.

* Particles decay due to the vacuum interaction. It can correspond to the current theories about the false vacuum decay (a not so stable vacuum); also, the neutron decay can be seen as a small dominant space polarization that tends to create protons.

* Gravitational time dilation. Each container is connected with spacetime; a bigger frame implies minor energy concentration, and the displacements in space imply less frames to pass through, which means less time.

* These frames can be considered as the smallest units of time. This size has been attempted to be explained since Zenon's paradoxes (430 BC), dedicated mainly to the problem of the continuum and the relations between space, time, and motion, until nowadays with infinitesimal calculus, where a mathematical curve can be analyzed as if it were constituted by homogeneous separable points.

* Conservation of angular momentum at bodies’ rotations in space with spherical and circular movements at planets and galaxies. Applying this conservation during the Big Bang, antimatter is not necessary to create it and could lead to less antimatter than 50% in the universe as expected (a small portion could have been generated during the explosion).

* The gravitational constant (G = 6,67408(31) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−11&lt;/sup&gt; m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;kg&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;s&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;), vacuum permittivity (ε&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 8,8541878128(13) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−12&lt;/sup&gt; F⋅m−1), or vacuum permeability (μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,25663706212(19) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−6&lt;/sup&gt; N⋅A&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;) and the problems to measure with high accuracy since they can be affected by density variations. Even small modifications in the speed of light can be expected due to the vacuum-related spin; in fact, the speed of light can be calculated based on the previous variables about vacuum permittivity and permeability using Maxwell’s equations, c=1/√(ε&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;μ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;).

* Variations in E = mc&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; to set the rest energy of matter, for example, we could obtain E = AF&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; where A is the nucleons number.

* Compatibility with light and matter interaction (QED), and the fact that electrons cannot occupy the same quantum state or light refraction; as well as the wave function and Schrödinger and Dirac equations, describing how the state of a quantum system changes with time.

* Planck length (ℓ&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt; = 1,616255(38) × 10&lt;sup&gt;-35&lt;/sup&gt; m) and Planck time (t&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt; = 5,391247(60) × 10&lt;sup&gt;−44&lt;/sup&gt; s) are theoretically considered the quantization of space and time and may point to the vacuum structures by length as well as time. Planck referred to relativistic values, which may not be so accurate; for example, gamma rays which generally arise from the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus, have one of the smallest wavelengths, shorter than 10&lt;sup&gt;-11&lt;/sup&gt; meters.

* The residual strong force (the bond between protons and neutrons), which is much weaker than the (real) strong force, has a correlation between quarks up and down that can be perfectly electromagnetic, as it was originally considered. 

* Similarities between Newton’s and Coulomb's law or Einstein’s relativity and Maxwell’s equations for the electric field. 

* The unidirectional arrow of time…

[[File:SuperconductingFieldTheory 15.png|center|frameless|453x453px|waves]]{{center top}}
'''Fig. 14: These variables help to shape galaxies (like the golden spiral φ = 1,6180).'''
{{center bottom}}

== Considerations ==
Gravitomagnetism (GEM) is a term that refers to the kinetic effects of gravity in analogy to the magnetic effects of a moving electric charge. Here we will create a relativistic relation to extract the magnetic moment and check its behavior, independently of GEM equations.

We can accelerate matter using a chamber with magnetic coils to transform as much matter as possible into energy as. We need a material with as much permeability in high magnetic fields as possible; pure iron can be a good reference, but we can consider some other materials with high permeability. The centripetal force will force matter outwards, so we need a magnetic field to keep its dimensions. We need sufficient width and height to concentrate internal energy and study how the vacuum is bent; it’s complex to concentrate kinetic energy at one point to obtain its potential energy.

As an example, we’ll calculate the energy of one disk in motion, taking the radius and a height of 50 cm, using iron with density ρ = 7,874 gr/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, with the following mass:

''V = π × r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; × h = 392.700 cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;                                                                                                               (7.1)''

''m = 392.700 × 7,874 = 3.092.119,8 gr = 3.092,119 kg               '' 

Considering a maximum speed reached, we’ll compare its kinetic energy with the maximum energy that could be generated using a relativistic approximation.

''v = 3 × 10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; m/s'' (near the speed of light) ''                                                                                        (7.2)''

''E&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; = ½mv&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;                                                                                  E = mc&lt;sup&gt;2        &lt;/sup&gt;'' 

''E&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; = ½ × 3.092,119 × 9 × 10&lt;sup&gt;14                                                          &lt;/sup&gt;      E = 3.092,119 × 9 × 10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;''

''E&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; = 13.914,535 × 10&lt;sup&gt;14                                                                           &lt;/sup&gt;   E = 27.829,071 × 10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;''

The energy calculated at the disk periphery can have a magnetic relation with its motion. Its charge (q) and magnetic field (B) are linked with its velocity, where v = qBr / m, so the energy generated can be calculated when a speed is reached in a relativistic approximation.

''E = ½mv&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = q&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;B&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; / 2m''
[[File:Superconductingfieldtheorydisk.png|center|frameless|582x582px|disk motion]]

{{center top}}
'''Fig. 15: Motion and relativity equivalence.'''
{{center bottom}}
Other variations at QCD have been observed, like at baryon resonances.

Anyway, more studies are needed to check the real correlation between the quantum vacuum and the strong nuclear force. The motion, together with the vacuum contraction / extraction / insertion, should be related to a change in density, but we don’t know the possible proton size variations in space to perform new calculations (we are dealing with very complex dynamic scales). It can be considered a highly problematic system.

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}Hooke, R. (1678). ''Lectures de potentia restitutiva, or of spring, explaining the power of springing bodies.'' Carnegie Mellon University''.'' &lt;nowiki&gt;http://doi.library.cmu.edu/10.1184/OCLC/10411228&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Newton, I. (1687). ''The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy''. Smithsonian Libraries. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.52126.39088015628399&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Euler, L. (1755)''. Foundations of Differential Calculus.'' Springer Link. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/b97699&lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
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    <title>16-cell</title>
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      <text bytes="59399" sha1="7arins85flp3dnl6g4f8d8od9569wrs" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Four-dimensional analog of the octahedron}}
{{Polyscheme|radius=an '''expanded version''' of}}
{{Infobox 4-polytope |
  Name=16-cell&lt;br /&gt;(4-orthoplex)|
  Image_File=Schlegel wireframe 16-cell.png|
  Image_Caption=[[W:Schlegel diagram|Schlegel diagram]]&lt;br /&gt;(vertices and edges)|
  Type=[[W:Convex regular 4-polytope|Convex regular 4-polytope]]&lt;br /&gt;4-[[W:Orthoplex|orthoplex]]&lt;br /&gt;4-[[W:Demihypercube|demicube]]|
  Last=[[W:Rectified tesseract|11]]|
  Index=12|
  Next=[[W:Truncated tesseract|13]]|
  Schläfli={3,3,4}|
  CD={{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|3|node|4|node}} |
  Cell_List=16 [[W:Tetrahedron|{3,3}]] [[File:3-simplex t0.svg|25px]]|
  Face_List=32 [[W:Triangle|{3}]] [[File:2-simplex t0.svg|25px]]|
  Edge_Count= 24|
  Vertex_Count= 8|
  Petrie_Polygon=[[W:Octagon|octagon]]|
  Coxeter_Group=B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, [3,3,4], order 384&lt;br /&gt;D&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, order 192|
  Vertex_Figure=[[File:16-cell verf.svg|80px]]&lt;br /&gt;[[W:Octahedron|Octahedron]]|
  Dual=[[W:Tesseract|Tesseract]]|
  Property_List=[[W:Convex polytope|convex]], [[W:Isogonal figure|isogonal]], [[W:Isotoxal figure|isotoxal]], [[W:Isohedral figure|isohedral]], [[W:Regular polytope|regular]], [[W:Hanner polytope|Hanner polytope]]
}}
In [[W:Geometry|geometry]], the '''16-cell''' is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] (four-dimensional analogue of a Platonic solid) with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {3,3,4}. It is one of the six regular convex 4-polytopes first described by the Swiss mathematician [[W:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] in the mid-19th century.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=141|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7-x. Historical remarks}} It is also called '''C&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;''', '''hexadecachoron''',&lt;ref&gt;[[W:Norman Johnson (mathematician)|N.W. Johnson]]: ''Geometries and Transformations'', (2018) {{ISBN|978-1-107-10340-5}} Chapter 11: ''Finite Symmetry Groups'', 11.5 ''Spherical Coxeter groups'', p.249&lt;/ref&gt; or '''hexdecahedroid'''.&lt;ref&gt;Matila Ghyka, ''The Geometry of Art and Life'' (1977), p.68&lt;/ref&gt;

It is the 4-dimesional member of an infinite family of polytopes called [[W:Cross-polytope|cross-polytope]]s, ''orthoplexes'', or ''hyperoctahedrons'' which are analogous to the [[W:Cctahedron|octahedron]] in three dimensions. It is Coxeter's &lt;math&gt;\beta_4&lt;/math&gt; polytope.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=120=121|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.2. See illustration Fig 7.2&lt;small&gt;B&lt;/small&gt;}} The [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] is the [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] (4-[[W:Hypercube|cube]]), which it can be combined with to form [[W:Compound of tesseract and 16-cell|a compound figure]]. The cells of the 16-cell are dual to the 16 vertices of the tesseract.

== Geometry ==
The 16-cell is the second in the sequence of 6 convex regular 4-polytopes (in order of size and complexity).{{Efn|name=4-polytopes ordered by size and complexity|group=}}

Each of its 4 successor convex regular 4-polytopes can be constructed as the [[W:Convex hull|convex hull]] of a [[W:Polytope compound|polytope compound]] of multiple 16-cells: the 16-vertex [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] as a compound of two 16-cells, the 24-vertex [[24-cell]] as a compound of three 16-cells, the 120-vertex [[600-cell]] as a compound of fifteen 16-cells, and the 600-vertex [[120-cell]] as a compound of seventy-five 16-cells.{{Efn|There are 2 and only 2 16-cells inscribed in the 8-cell (tesseract), 3 and only 3 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell, 75 distinct 16-cells (but only 15 disjoint 16-cells) inscribed in the 600-cell, and 675 distinct 16-cells (but only 75 disjoint 16-cells) inscribed in the 120-cell.}}

{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:}}

=== Coordinates ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;
!colspan=2|Disjoint squares
|-
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;
!colspan=2|''xy'' plane
|-
|( 0, 1, 0, 0)||( 0, 0,-1, 0)
|-
|( 0, 0, 1, 0)||( 0,-1, 0, 0)
|}
|-
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;
!colspan=2|''wz'' plane
|-
|( 1, 0, 0, 0)||( 0, 0, 0,-1)
|-
|( 0, 0, 0, 1)||(-1, 0, 0, 0)
|}
|}The 16-cell is the 4-dimensional [[W:Cross polytope|cross polytope (4-orthoplex)]], which means its vertices lie in opposite pairs on the 4 axes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system.

The eight vertices are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by edges except opposite pairs. The edge length is {{radic|2}}.

The vertex coordinates form 6 [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] central squares lying in the 6 coordinate planes. Squares in ''opposite'' planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal ''basis'']] for the choice of a 4-dimensional reference frame, because its vertices exactly define the four orthogonal axes.

=== Structure ===
The [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] of the 16-cell is {3,3,4}, indicating that its cells are [[W:Regular tetrahedron|regular tetrahedra]] {3,3} and its [[W:Vertex figure|vertex figure]] is a [[W:Regular octahedron|regular octahedron]] {3,4}. There are 8 tetrahedra, 12 triangles, and 6 edges meeting at every vertex. Its [[W:Edge figure|edge figure]] is a square. There are 4 tetrahedra and 4 triangles meeting at every edge.

The 16-cell is [[W:Totally bounded|bounded]] by 16 [[W:Cell (mathematics)|cells]], all of which are regular [[W:Tetrahedron|tetrahedra]].{{Efn|The boundary surface of a 16-cell is a finite 3-dimensional space consisting of 16 tetrahedra arranged face-to-face (four around one). It is a closed, tightly curved (non-Euclidean) 3-space, within which we can move straight through 4 tetrahedra in any direction and arrive back in the tetrahedron where we started. We can visualize moving around inside this tetrahedral [[W:Jungle gym|jungle gym]], climbing from one tetrahedron into another on its 24 struts (its edges), and never being able to get out (or see out) of the 16 tetrahedra no matter what direction we go (or look). We are always on (or in) the ''surface'' of the 16-cell, never inside the 16-cell itself (nor outside it). We can see that the 6 edges around each vertex radiate symmetrically in 3 dimensions and form an orthogonal 3-axis cross, just as the radii of an octahedron do (so we say the vertex figure of the 16-cell is the octahedron).{{Efn|name=octahedral pyramid}}}} It has 32 [[W:Triangle (geometry)|triangular]] [[W:Face (geometry)|faces]], 24 [[W:Edge (geometry)|edges]], and 8 [[W:Vertex (geometry)|vertices]]. The 24 edges bound 6 [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] central squares lying on [[W:Great circle|great circles]] in the 6 coordinate planes (3 pairs of completely orthogonal great squares). At each vertex, 3 great squares cross perpendicularly. The 6 edges meet at the vertex the way 6 edges meet at the [[W:Apex (geometry)|apex]] of a canonical [[W:Octahedral pyramid|octahedral pyramid]].{{Efn|Each vertex in the 16-cell is the apex of an [[W:Octahedral pyramid|octahedral pyramid]], the base of which is the octahedron formed by the 6 other vertices to which the apex is connected by edges. The 16-cell can be deconstructed (four different ways) into two octahedral pyramids by cutting it in half through one of its four octahedral central hyperplanes. Looked at from inside the curved 3 dimensional volume of its boundary surface of 16 face-bonded tetrahedra, the 16-cell's vertex figure is an octahedron. In 4 dimensions, the vertex octahedron is actually an octahedral pyramid. The apex of the octahedral pyramid (the vertex where the 6 edges meet) is not actually at the center of the octahedron: it is displaced radially outwards in the fourth dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the octahedron's 6 vertices. The 6 edges around the vertex make an orthogonal 3-axis cross in 3 dimensions (and in the [[W:Octahedral pyramid|3-dimensional projection of the 4-pyramid]]), but the 3 lines are actually bent 90 degrees in the fourth dimension where they meet in an apex.|name=octahedral pyramid}} The 6 orthogonal central planes of the 16-cell can be divided into 4 orthogonal central hyperplanes (3-spaces) each forming an [[W:Octahedron|octahedron]] with 3 orthogonal great squares.

=== Rotations ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=480
|- align=center valign=top
|rowspan=2|[[File:16-cell.gif]]&lt;br /&gt;A 3D projection of a 16-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Simple rotations|simple rotation]]
|[[File:16-cell-orig.gif]]&lt;br /&gt;A 3D projection of a 16-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]]
|}
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] planes.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=6|loc=§&amp;nbsp;5. Four-Dimensional Rotations}} The 16-cell is a simple frame in which to observe 4-dimensional rotations, because each of the 16-cell's 6 great squares has another completely orthogonal great square (there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal squares).{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} Many rotations of the 16-cell can be characterized by the angle of rotation in one of its great square planes (e.g. the ''xy'' plane) and another angle of rotation in the completely orthogonal great square plane (the ''wz'' plane).{{Efn|Each great square vertex is {{radic|2}} distant from two of the square's other vertices, and {{radic|4}} distant from its opposite vertex. The other four vertices of the 16-cell (also {{radic|2}} distant) are the vertices of the square's completely orthogonal square.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel great squares}} Each 16-cell vertex is a vertex of ''three'' orthogonal great squares which intersect there. Each great square has a different ''completely'' orthogonal great square. Thus there are three great squares completely orthogonal to each vertex: squares that the vertex is not part of.{{Efn|The three ''incompletely'' orthogonal great squares which intersect at each vertex of the 16-cell form the vertex's octahedral [[W:Vertex figure|vertex figure]].{{Efn|name=octahedral pyramid}} Any two of them, together with the completely orthogonal square of the third, also form an octahedron: a central octahedral hyperplane.{{Efn|Three great squares meet at each vertex (and at its opposite vertex) in the 16-cell. Each of them has a different completely orthogonal square. Thus there are three great squares completely orthogonal to each vertex and its opposite vertex (each axis). They form an octahedron (a central hyperplane). Every axis line in the 16-cell is completely orthogonal to a central octahedron hyperplane, as every great square plane is completely orthogonal to another great square plane.{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} The axis and the octahedron intersect only at one point (the center of the 16-cell), as each pair of completely orthogonal great squares intersects only at one point (the center of the 16-cell). Each central octahedron is also the octahedral vertex figure of two of the eight vertices: the two on its completely orthogonal axis.|name=octahedral hyperplanes}} In the 16-cell, each octahedral vertex figure is also a central octahedral hyperplane.|name=completely orthogonal great squares}}|name=vertex and central octahedra}} Completely orthogonal great squares have disjoint vertices: 4 of the 16-cell's 8 vertices rotate in one plane, and the other 4 rotate independently in the completely orthogonal plane.{{Efn|Completely orthogonal great squares are non-intersecting and rotate independently because the great circles on which their vertices lie are [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]].{{Efn|[[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point.{{Sfn|Tyrrell &amp; Semple|1971|loc=§&amp;nbsp;3. Clifford's original definition of parallelism|pp=5-6}} A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=7-10|loc=§&amp;nbsp;6. Angles between two Planes in 4-Space}} In the 16-cell the corresponding vertices of completely orthogonal great circle squares are all {{radic|2}} apart, so these squares are Clifford parallel polygons.{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}} Note that only the vertices of the great squares (the points on the great circle) are {{radic|2}} apart; points on the edges of the squares (on chords of the circle) are closer together.|name=Clifford parallels}} They are {{radic|2}} apart at each pair of nearest vertices (and in the 16-cell ''all'' the pairs except antipodal pairs are nearest). The two squares cannot intersect at all because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell.{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two squares are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel squares in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent square links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]].|name=Clifford parallel great squares}}

In 2 or 3 dimensions a rotation is characterized by a single plane of rotation; this kind of rotation taking place in 4-space is called a [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Simple rotations|simple rotation]], in which only one of the two completely orthogonal planes rotates (the angle of rotation in the other plane is 0). In the 16-cell, a simple rotation in one of the 6 orthogonal planes moves only 4 of the 8 vertices; the other 4 remain fixed. (In the simple rotation animation above, all 8 vertices move because the plane of rotation is not one of the 6 orthogonal basis planes.)

In a [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|double rotation]] both sets of 4 vertices move, but independently: the angles of rotation may be different in the 2 completely orthogonal planes. If the two angles happen to be the same, a maximally symmetric [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] takes place.{{Efn|In an isoclinic rotation, all 6 orthogonal planes are displaced in two orthogonal directions at once: they are rotated by the angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. An isoclinic displacement (also known as a [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement) is 4-dimensionally diagonal. Points are displaced an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, and displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance#Higher dimensions|Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance (which is two times that distance). For example, when the unit-radius 16-cell rotates isoclinically 90° in a great square invariant plane, it also rotates 90° in the completely orthogonal great square invariant plane.{{Efn||name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} The great square plane tilts sideways 90° to occupy its completely orthogonal plane. (By isoclinic symmetry, ''every'' great square plane rotates 90° ''and'' tilts sideways 90° into its completely orthogonal plane.) Each vertex (in every great square) is displaced to its antipodal vertex, at a distance of {{radic|1}} in each of four orthogonal directions, a total distance of {{radic|4}}. The original and displaced vertex are two edge lengths apart by three{{Efn|There are six different two-edge paths connecting a pair of antipodal vertices along the edges of a great square. The left isoclinic rotation runs diagonally between three of them, and the right isoclinic rotation runs diagonally between the other three. These diagonals are the straight lines (geodesics) connecting opposite vertices of face-bonded tetrahedral cells in the left-handed [[#Helical construction|eight-cell ring]] and the right-handed eight-cell ring, respectively.}} different paths along two edges of a great square. But the ''isocline'' (the helical arc the vertex follows during the isoclinic rotation) does not run along edges: it runs ''between'' these different edge-paths diagonally, on a geodesic (shortest arc) between the original and displaced vertices.{{Efn|name=isocline}} This isoclinic geodesic arc is not a segment of an ordinary great circle; it does not lie in the plane of any great square. It is a helical 180° arc that bends in a circle in two completely orthogonal planes at once. This [[W:Möbius loop|Möbius circle]] does not lie in any one great circle plane, or intersect any vertices of the 16-cell between the original and the displaced vertex.{{Efn|name=Möbius circle}}|name=isoclinic rotation}} In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90 degrees of any pair of completely orthogonal square planes takes every square plane to its completely orthogonal square plane in a twisting displacment, as they tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once on separate circular [[w:Geodesic|geodesics]], displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces a circular helix in 4-space, and also traces a great circle twice in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic rotation each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation..{{Efn|The 90 degree isoclinic rotation of two completely orthogonal planes takes them to each other. In such a rotation of a rigid 16-cell, all 6 orthogonal planes rotate by 90 degrees, and also tilt sideways by 90 degrees to their completely orthogonal (Clifford parallel){{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} plane.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} The two completely orthogonal planes are 90° apart, in the two orthogonal angles that separate them. If the isoclinic rotation is continued through another 90°, each great square returns to its original plane, but in a different orientation; the vertices are not returned to their original positions. Continuing through a 720° isoclinic rotation (through eight 90° isoclinic displacements) returns everything to its original place and orientation.|name=exchange of completely orthogonal planes}}

=== Constructions ===

==== Octahedral dipyramid ====
{|class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;
!Octahedron &lt;math&gt;\beta_3&lt;/math&gt;
!16-cell &lt;math&gt;\beta_4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|[[File:3-cube t2.svg|160px]]
|[[File:4-demicube t0 D4.svg|160px]]
|-
|colspan=2|Orthogonal projections to skew hexagon hyperplane
|}
The simplest construction of the 16-cell is on the 3-dimensional cross polytope, the [[W:Octahedron|octahedron]]. The octahedron has 3 perpendicular axes and 6 vertices in 3 opposite pairs (its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]] is the [[W:Hexagon|hexagon]]). Add another pair of vertices, on a fourth axis perpendicular to all 3 of the other axes. Connect each new vertex to all 6 of the original vertices, adding 12 new edges. This raises two [[W:Octahedral pyramid|octahedral pyramid]]s on a shared octahedron base that lies in the 16-cell's central hyperplane.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=121|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.21. See illustration Fig 7.2&lt;small&gt;B&lt;/small&gt;|ps=: &quot;&lt;math&gt;\beta_4&lt;/math&gt; is a four-dimensional dipyramid based on &lt;math&gt;\beta_3&lt;/math&gt; (with its two apices in opposite directions along the fourth dimension).&quot;}}

[[File:stereographic_polytope_16cell_colour.png|thumb|[[W:Stereographic projection|Stereographic projection]] of the 16-cell's 6 orthogonal central squares onto their great circles. Each circle is divided into 4 arc-edges at the intersections where 3 circles cross perpendicularly. Notice that each circle has one Clifford parallel circle that it does ''not'' intersect. Those two circles pass through each other like adjacent links in a chain.]]The octahedron that the construction starts with has three perpendicular intersecting squares (which appear as rectangles in the hexagonal projections). Each square intersects with each of the other squares at two opposite vertices, with ''two'' of the squares crossing at each vertex. Then two more points are added in the fourth dimension (above and below the 3-dimensional hyperplane). These new vertices are connected to all the octahedron's vertices, creating 12 new edges and ''three more squares'' (which appear edge-on as the 3 ''diameters'' of the hexagon in the projection), and three more octahedra.{{Efn|name=octahedral hyperplanes}}

Something unprecedented has also been created. Notice that each square no longer intersects with ''all'' of the other squares: it does intersect with four of them (with ''three'' of the squares crossing at each vertex now), but each square has ''one'' other square with which it shares ''no'' vertices: it is not directly connected to that square at all. These two ''separate'' perpendicular squares (there are three pairs of them) are like the opposite edges of a [[W:Tetrahedron|tetrahedron]]: perpendicular, but non-intersecting. They lie opposite each other (parallel in some sense), and they don't touch, but they also pass through each other like two perpendicular links in a chain (but unlike links in a chain they have a common center). They are an example of '''''Clifford parallels''''', and the 16-cell is the simplest regular polytope in which they occur. [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] parallelism{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} of objects of more than one dimension (more than just curved ''lines'') emerges here and occurs in all the subsequent 4-dimensional regular polytopes, where it can be seen as the defining relationship ''among'' disjoint concentric regular 4-polytopes and their corresponding parts. It can occur between congruent (similar) polytopes of 2 or more dimensions.{{Sfn|Tyrrell &amp; Semple|1971}} For example, as noted [[#Geometry|above]] all the subsequent convex regular 4-polytopes are compounds of multiple 16-cells; those 16-cells are [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel polytopes]].

==== Tetrahedral constructions ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=480
|- align=center valign=top
|[[File:16-cell net.png|180px|]]
|[[File:16-cell nets.png|180px]]
|}

The 16-cell has two [[W:Wythoff construction|Wythoff construction]]s from regular tetrahedra, a regular form and alternated form, shown here as [[W:Net (polyhedron)|nets]], the second represented by tetrahedral cells of two alternating colors. The alternated form is a [[#Symmetry constructions|lower symmetry construction]] of the 16-cell called the [[W:Demitesseract|demitesseract]].

Wythoff's construction replicates the 16-cell's [[5-cell#Orthoschemes|characteristic 5-cell]] in a [[W:Kaleidoscope|kaleidoscope]] of mirrors. Every regular 4-polytope has its characteristic 4-orthoscheme, an [[5-cell#Irregular 5-cells|irregular 5-cell]].{{Efn|An [[W:Orthoscheme|orthoscheme]] is a [[W:Chiral|chiral]] irregular [[W:simplex|simplex]] with [[W:Right triangle|right triangle]] faces that is characteristic of some polytope if it will exactly fill that polytope with the reflections of itself in its own [[W:Facet (geometry)|facets]] (its ''mirror walls''). Every regular polytope can be dissected radially into instances of its [[W:Orthoscheme#Characteristic simplex of the general regular polytope|characteristic orthoscheme]] surrounding its center. The characteristic orthoscheme has the shape described by the same [[W:Coxeter-Dynkin diagram|Coxeter-Dynkin diagram]] as the regular polytope without the ''generating point'' ring.|name=characteristic orthoscheme}} There are three regular 4-polytopes with tetrahedral cells: the [[5-cell]], the 16-cell, and the [[600-cell]]. Although all are bounded by ''regular'' tetrahedron cells, their characteristic 5-cells (4-orthoschemes) are different [[5-cell#Isometries|tetrahedral pyramids]], all based on the same characteristic ''irregular'' tetrahedron. They share the same [[W:Tetrahedron#Orthoschemes|characteristic tetrahedron]] (3-orthoscheme) and characteristic [[W:Right triangle|right triangle]] (2-orthoscheme) because they have the same kind of cell.{{Efn|A regular polytope of dimension ''k'' has a characteristic ''k''-orthoscheme, and also a characteristic (''k''-1)-orthoscheme. A regular 4-polytope has a characteristic 5-cell (4-orthoscheme) into which it is subdivided by its (3-dimensional) hyperplanes of symmetry, and also a characteristic tetrahedron (3-orthoscheme) into which its surface is subdivided by its cells' (2-dimensional) planes of symmetry. After subdividing its (3-dimensional) surface into characteristic tetrahedra surrounding each cell center, its (4-dimensional) interior can be subdivided into characteristic 5-cells by adding radii joining the vertices of the surface characteristic tetrahedra to the 4-polytope's center.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=130|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.6|ps=; &quot;simplicial subdivision&quot;.}} The interior tetrahedra and triangles thus formed will also be orthoschemes.}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;
!colspan=6|Characteristics of the 16-cell{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=292-293|loc=Table I(ii); &quot;16-cell, 𝛽&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&quot;}}
|-
!align=right|
!align=center|edge{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=139|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.9 The characteristic simplex}}
!colspan=2 align=center|arc
!colspan=2 align=center|dihedral{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=290|loc=Table I(ii); &quot;dihedral angles&quot;}}
|-
!align=right|𝒍
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \approx 1.414&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;120°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{2\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!align=right|𝟀
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{2}{3}} \approx 0.816&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60″&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|𝝉{{Efn|{{Harv|Coxeter|1973}} uses the greek letter 𝝓 (phi) to represent one of the three ''characteristic angles'' 𝟀, 𝝓, 𝟁 of a regular polytope. Because 𝝓 is commonly used to represent the [[W:Golden ratio|golden ratio]] constant ≈ 1.618, for which Coxeter uses 𝝉 (tau), we reverse Coxeter's conventions, and use 𝝉 to represent the characteristic angle.|name=reversed greek symbols}}
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}} \approx 0.707&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;45″&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;45°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|𝟁
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{6}} \approx 0.408&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;30″&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{6}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_0R^3/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{3}{4}} \approx 0.866&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_1R^3/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}} = 0.5&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;45°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_2R^3/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{12}} \approx 0.289&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;30°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{6}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_0R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_1R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}} \approx 0.707&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_2R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{3}} \approx 0.577&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_3R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}} = 0.5&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|}
The '''characteristic 5-cell of the regular 16-cell''' is represented by the [[W:Coxeter-Dynkin diagram|Coxeter-Dynkin diagram]] {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node|3|node|3|node|4|node}}, which can be read as a list of the dihedral angles between its mirror facets. It is an irregular [[W:Pyramid (mathematics)#Polyhedral pyramid|tetrahedral pyramid]] based on the [[W:Tetrahedron#Orthoschemes|characteristic tetrahedron of the regular tetrahedron]]. The regular 16-cell is subdivided by its symmetry hyperplanes into 384 instances of its characteristic 5-cell that all meet at its center.

The characteristic 5-cell (4-orthoscheme) has four more edges than its base characteristic tetrahedron (3-orthoscheme), joining the four vertices of the base to its apex (the fifth vertex of the 4-orthoscheme, at the center of the regular 16-cell).{{Efn|The four edges of each 4-orthoscheme which meet at the center of a regular 4-polytope are of unequal length, because they are the four characteristic radii of the regular 4-polytope: a vertex radius, an edge center radius, a face center radius, and a cell center radius. The five vertices of the 4-orthoscheme always include one regular 4-polytope vertex, one regular 4-polytope edge center, one regular 4-polytope face center, one regular 4-polytope cell center, and the regular 4-polytope center. Those five vertices (in that order) comprise a path along four mutually perpendicular edges (that makes three right angle turns), the characteristic feature of a 4-orthoscheme. The 4-orthoscheme has five dissimilar 3-orthoscheme facets.|name=characteristic radii}} If the regular 16-cell has unit radius edge and edge length 𝒍 = &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, its characteristic 5-cell's ten edges have lengths &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{2}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{6}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; around its exterior right-triangle face (the edges opposite the ''characteristic angles'' 𝟀, 𝝉, 𝟁),{{Efn|name=reversed greek symbols}} plus &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{3}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{12}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; (the other three edges of the exterior 3-orthoscheme facet the characteristic tetrahedron, which are the ''characteristic radii'' of the regular tetrahedron), plus &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; (edges which are the characteristic radii of the regular 16-cell). The 4-edge path along orthogonal edges of the orthoscheme is &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{6}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, first from a 16-cell vertex to a 16-cell edge center, then turning 90° to a 16-cell face center, then turning 90° to a 16-cell tetrahedral cell center, then turning 90° to the 16-cell center.

==== Helical construction ====
[[File:Eight face-bonded tetrahedra.jpg|thumb|A 4-dimensional ring of 8 face-bonded tetrahedra, seen in the [[W:Boerdijk–Coxeter helix|Boerdijk–Coxeter helix]], bounded by three eight-edge circular paths of different colors, cut and laid out flat in 3-dimensional space. It contains an ''isocline'' axis (not shown), a helical circle of circumference 4𝝅 that twists through all four dimensions and visits all 8 vertices.{{Efn|name=isocline}} The two blue-blue-yellow triangles at either end of the cut ring are the same object.]]
[[File:16-cell 8-ring net4.png|thumb|Net and orthogonal projection]]

A 16-cell can be constructed (three different ways) from two [[W:Boerdijk–Coxeter helix|Boerdijk–Coxeter helix]]es of eight chained tetrahedra, each bent in the fourth dimension into a ring.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1970|loc=Table 2: Reflexible honeycombs and their groups|p=45|ps=; Honeycomb [3,3,4]&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; is a tiling of the 3-sphere by 2 rings of 8 tetrahedral cells.}}{{Sfn|Banchoff|2013}} The two circular helixes share the same 8 vertices and 24 edges, but their tetrahedra are disjoint. The helixes spiral around each other, nest into each other and pass through each other forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]. 16 of the 32 triangle faces can be seen in a 2D net within a [[W:Triangular tiling|triangular tiling]], with 6 triangles around every vertex. The [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]] of the 16-cell is a skew octagon, visible as the purple edges in the octagon orthogonal projection, and as the light blue edges in the tetrahedral helix. Each eight-cell ring of tetrahedra actually contains three such skew [[W:Octagram|octagram]]s of different colors, eight-edge circular paths that wind twice around the 16-cell on every third vertex of the octagram. The orange and yellow edges are two four-edge halves of one skew octagram, which join their ends to form a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius strip]].

Thus the 16-cell can be decomposed into two cell-disjoint circular chains of eight tetrahedrons each, four edges long, one spiraling to the right (clockwise) and the other spiraling to the left (counterclockwise). The left-handed and right-handed cell rings fit together, nesting into each other and entirely filling the 16-cell, even though they are of opposite chirality. This decomposition can be seen in a 4-4 [[W:Duoantiprism|duoantiprism]] construction of the 16-cell: {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}} or {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node|4|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node}}, [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {2}⨂{2} or s{2}s{2}, [[W:Coxeter notation|symmetry]] [4,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4], order 64.

Three eight-edge paths (of different colors) spiral along each eight-cell ring, making 90° angles at each vertex. (In the Boerdijk–Coxeter helix before it is bent into a ring, the angles in different paths vary, but are not 90°.) Three paths (with three different colors and apparent angles) pass through each vertex. When the helix is bent into a ring, the segments of each eight-edge path (of various lengths) join their ends, forming a Möbius strip eight edges long along its single-sided circumference of 4𝝅, and one edge wide.{{Efn|name=Möbius circle}} The six four-edge halves of the three eight-edge paths each make four 90° angles, but they are ''not'' the six orthogonal great squares: they are open-ended squares, four-edge 360° helices whose open ends are [[W:Antipodal point|antipodal]] vertices. The four edges come from four different great squares, and are mutually orthogonal. Combined end-to-end in pairs of the same [[W:Chirality|chirality]], the six four-edge paths make three eight-edge Möbius loops, [[W:Helix|helical]] octagrams. Each octagram is both a [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]] of the 16-cell, and the helical track along which all eight vertices rotate together, in one of the 16-cell's distinct isoclinic [[#Rotations|rotations]].{{Efn|The 16-cell can be constructed from two cell-disjoint eight-cell rings in three different ways; it has three orientations of its pair of rings. Each orientation &quot;contains&quot; a distinct left-right pair of isoclinic rotations, and also a pair of completely orthogonal great squares (Clifford parallel fibers), so each orientation is a discrete [[W:Hopf fibration|fibration]] of the 16-cell. Each eight-cell ring contains three axial octagrams which have different orientations (they exchange roles) in the three discrete fibrations and six distinct isoclinic rotations (three left and three right) through the cell rings. Three octagrams (of different colors) can be seen in the illustration of a single cell ring, one in the role of Petrie polygon, one as the right isocline, and one as the left isocline. Because each octagram plays three roles, there are exactly six distinct isoclines in the 16-cell, not 18.|name=only one disjoint pair of eight-cell rings}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=610
!colspan=5|Five ways of looking at the same [[W:Skew polygon|skew]] [[W:Octagram|octagram]]{{Efn|All five views are the same orthogonal projection of the 16-cell into the same plane (a circular cross-section of the eight-cell ring cylinder), looking along the central axis of the cut ring cylinder pictured above, from one end of the cylinder. The only difference is which {{radic|2}} edges and {{radic|4}} chords are ''omitted'' for focus. The different colors of {{radic|2}} edges appear to be of different lengths because they are oblique to the viewer at different angles. Vertices are numbered 1 (top) through 8 in counterclockwise order.}}
|-
![[#Rotations|Edge path]]
![[W:Petrie polygon#The Petrie polygon of regular polychora (4-polytopes)|Petrie polygon]]{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=292-293|loc=Table I(ii); 24-cell ''h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''}}
!16-cell
![[W:Hopf fibration|Discrete fibration]]
![[#Coordinates|Diameter chords]]
|-
![[W:Octagram|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/3}&lt;/sub&gt;{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=292-293|loc=Table I(ii); 24-cell ''h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''}}
![[W:Petrie polygon#The Petrie polygon of regular polychora (4-polytopes)|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/1}&lt;/sub&gt;
![[W:Coxeter element#Coxeter plane|Coxeter plane]] [[W:B4 polytope|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]]
![[W:Octagram#Star polygon compounds|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/2}=2{4}&lt;/sub&gt;
![[W:Octagram#Star polygon compounds|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/4}=4{2}&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram (8-3).png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram (8).png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram.png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram 2(4).png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram 4(2).png|120px]]
|-
|The eight {{radic|2}} chords of the edge-path of an isocline.{{Efn|name=isocline curve}}
|Skew [[W:Octagon|octagon]] of eight {{radic|2}} edges. The 16-cell has 6 of these 8-vertex circuits.
|All 24 {{radic|2}} edges and the four {{radic|4}} orthogonal axes.
|Two completely orthogonal (disjoint) great squares of {{radic|2}} edges.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel great squares}}
|The four {{radic|4}} chords of an isocline. Every fourth isocline vertex is joined to its antipodal vertex by a 16-cell axis.{{Efn|Each isocline has the eight continuous {{radic|2}} chords of its octagram&lt;sub&gt;{8/3}&lt;/sub&gt; edge-path, and also four discontinuous {{radic|4}} diameter chords that connect every ''fourth'' vertex on the octagram but do not connect to each other. Antipodal vertices also have a twisted continuous path of four mutually orthogonal {{radic|2}} edges connecting them. Between antipodal vertices, the isocline curves smoothly around in a helix over the four {{radic|2}} chords of its edge-path, hitting the three intervening vertices. Each {{radic|2}} edge is an edge of a great square, that is completely orthogonal to another great square, in which the {{radic|4}} chord is a diagonal.|name=isocline curve}}
|}
Each eight-edge helix is a [[W:Skew polygon|skew]] [[W:Octagram|octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/3}&lt;/sub&gt; that [[W:Winding number|winds three times]] around the 16-cell and visits every vertex before closing into a loop. Its eight {{radic|2}} edges are chords of an ''isocline'', a helical geodesic on which the 8 vertices circle during an isoclinic rotation.{{Efn|An isocline is a circle of special kind corresponding to a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s linked in a [[W:Möbius loop|Möbius loop]]. It curves through four dimensions instead of just two. All ordinary circles have a 2𝝅 circumference, but the 16-cell's isocline is a circle with an 4𝝅 circumference (over eight 90° chords). An isocline is a circle that does not lie in a plane, but to avoid confusion we always refer to it as an ''isocline'' and reserve the term ''circle'' for an ordinary circle in the plane.|name=Möbius circle}} All eight 16-cell vertices are {{radic|2}} apart except for opposite (antipodal) vertices, which are {{radic|4}} apart. A vertex moving on the isocline visits three other vertices that are {{radic|2}} apart before reaching the fourth vertex that is {{radic|4}} away.{{Efn|In the 16-cell, two antipodal vertices are opposite vertices of two face-bonded tetrahedral cells. The two antipodal vertices are connected by (three different) two-edge great circle paths along edges of the tetrahedral cells, by various three-edge paths, and by four-edge paths on isoclines and Petrie polygons. {{Efn|name=Möbius circle}}|name=isocline}}

The eight-cell ring is [[W:Chiral|chiral]]: there is a right-handed form which spirals clockwise, and a left-handed form which spirals counterclockwise. The 16-cell contains one of each, so it also contains a left and a right isocline; the isocline is the circular axis around which the eight-cell ring twists. Each isocline visits all eight vertices of the 16-cell.{{Efn|In the 16-cell each ''single'' isocline winds through all 8 vertices: an entire [[W:Hopf fibration|fibration]] of two completely orthogonal great squares.{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}} The 5-cell and the 16-cell are the only regular 4-polytopes where each discrete fibration has just one isocline fiber.{{Efn|Except in the 5-cell and 16-cell,{{Efn|name=two special cases}} a pair of left and right isocline circles have disjoint vertices: the left and right isocline helices are non-intersecting parallels but counter-rotating, forming a special kind of double helix which cannot occur in three dimensions (where counter-rotating helices of the same radius must intersect).|name=counter-rotating double helix}}|name=each 16-cell isocline reaches all 8 vertices}} Each eight-cell ring contains half of the 16 cells, but all 8 vertices; the two rings share the vertices, as they nest into each other and fit together. They also share the 24 edges, though left and right octagram helices are different eight-edge paths.{{Efn|The left and right isoclines intersect each other at every vertex. They are different sequences of the same set of 8 vertices. With respect only to the set of 4 vertex pairs which are {{radic|2}} apart, they can be considered to be Clifford parallel. With respect only to the set of 4 vertex pairs which are {{radic|4}} apart, they can be considered to be completely orthogonal.{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}}}}

Because there are three pairs of completely orthogonal great squares,{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} there are three congruent ways to compose a 16-cell from two eight-cell rings. The 16-cell contains three left-right pairs of eight-cell rings in different orientations, with each cell ring containing its axial isocline.{{Efn|name=only one disjoint pair of eight-cell rings}} Each left-right pair of isoclines is the track of a left-right pair of distinct isoclinic rotations: the rotations in one pair of completely orthogonal invariant planes of rotation.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel great squares}} At each vertex, there are three great squares and six octagram isoclines that cross at the vertex and share a 16-cell axis chord.{{Efn|This is atypical for isoclinic rotations generally; normally both the left and right isoclines do not occur at the same vertex: there are two disjoint sets of vertices reachable only by the left or right rotation respectively.{{Efn|name=counter-rotating double helix}} The left and right isoclines of the 16-cell form a very special double helix: unusual not just because it is circular, but because its different left and right helices twist around each other through the ''same set'' of antipodal vertices,{{Efn|name=each 16-cell isocline reaches all 8 vertices}} not through the two ''disjoint subsets'' of antipodal vertices, as the isocline pairs do in most isoclinic rotations found in nature.{{Efn|For another example of the left and right isoclines of a rotation visiting the same set of vertices, see the [[5-cell#Geodesics and rotations|characteristic isoclinic rotation of the 5-cell]]. Although in these two special cases left and right isoclines of the same rotation visit the same set of vertices, they still take very different rotational paths because they visit the same vertices in different sequences.|name=two special cases}} Isoclinic rotations in completely orthogonal invariant planes are special.{{Efn|Each great square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal to only one of them. Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal. There is also another way in which completely orthogonal planes are in a distinguished category of Clifford parallel planes: they are not [[W:Chiral|chiral]]. A pair of isoclinic (Clifford parallel) planes is either a ''left pair'' or a ''right pair'' unless they are separated by two angles of 90° (completely orthogonal planes) or 0° (coincident planes).{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=7-8|loc=§&amp;nbsp;6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; Left and Right Pairs of Isoclinic Planes.}} Most isoclinic planes are brought together only by a left isoclinic rotation or a right isoclinic rotation, respectively. Completely orthogonal planes are special: the pair of planes is both a left and a right pair, so either a left or a right isoclinic rotation will bring them together. Because planes separated by a 90° isoclinic rotation are 180° apart, the plane to the ''left'' and the plane to the ''right'' are the same plane.{{Efn|name=exchange of completely orthogonal planes}}|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}} To see ''how'' and ''why'' they are special, visualize two completely orthogonal invariant planes of rotation, each rotating by some rotation angle ''and'' tilting sideways by the same rotation angle into a different plane entirely.{{Efn|name=isoclinic rotation}} ''Only when the rotation angle is 90°,'' that different plane in which the tilting invariant plane lands will be the completely orthogonal invariant plane itself. The destination plane of the rotation ''is'' the completely orthogonal invariant plane. The 90° isoclinic rotation is the only rotation which takes the completely orthogonal invariant planes to each other.{{Efn|name=exchange of completely orthogonal planes}} This reciprocity is the reason both left and right rotations go to the same place.}}

=== As a configuration ===
This [[W:Regular 4-polytope#As configurations|configuration matrix]] represents the 16-cell. The rows and columns correspond to vertices, edges, faces, and cells. The diagonal numbers say how many of each element occur in the whole 16-cell. The nondiagonal numbers say how many of the column's element occur in or at the row's element.

&lt;math&gt;\begin{bmatrix}\begin{matrix}8 &amp; 6 &amp; 12 &amp; 8 \\ 2 &amp; 24 &amp; 4 &amp; 4 \\ 3 &amp; 3 &amp; 32 &amp; 2 \\ 4 &amp; 6 &amp; 4 &amp; 16 \end{matrix}\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;

== Tessellations ==
One can [[W:Tessellation|tessellate]] 4-dimensional [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] by regular 16-cells. This is called the [[W:16-cell honeycomb|16-cell honeycomb]] and has [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {3,3,4,3}. Hence, the 16-cell has a [[W:Dihedral angle|dihedral angle]] of 120°.{{sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=293}} Each 16-cell has 16 neighbors with which it shares a tetrahedron, 24 neighbors with which it shares only an edge, and 72 neighbors with which it shares only a single point. Twenty-four 16-cells meet at any given vertex in this tessellation.

The dual tessellation, the [[W:24-cell honeycomb|24-cell honeycomb]], {3,4,3,3}, is made of regular [[24-cell]]s. Together with the [[W:Tesseractic honeycomb|tesseractic honeycomb]] {4,3,3,4} these are the only three [[W:List of regular polytopes#Tessellations of Euclidean 4-space|regular tessellations]] of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;.

== Projections ==
{{B4 Coxeter plane graphs|t3|150}}

[[File:Orthogonal projection envelopes 16-cell.png|thumb|Projection envelopes of the 16-cell. (Each cell is drawn with different color faces, inverted cells are undrawn)]]

The cell-first parallel projection of the 16-cell into 3-space has a [[W:cube|cubical]] envelope. The closest and farthest cells are projected to inscribed tetrahedra within the cube, corresponding with the two possible ways to inscribe a regular tetrahedron in a cube. Surrounding each of these tetrahedra are 4 other (non-regular) tetrahedral volumes that are the images of the 4 surrounding tetrahedral cells, filling up the space between the inscribed tetrahedron and the cube. The remaining 6 cells are projected onto the square faces of the cube. In this projection of the 16-cell, all its edges lie on the faces of the cubical envelope.

The cell-first perspective projection of the 16-cell into 3-space has a [[W:triakis tetrahedron|triakis tetrahedral]] envelope. The layout of the cells within this envelope are analogous to that of the cell-first parallel projection.

The vertex-first parallel [[W:Graphical projection|projection]] of the 16-cell into 3-space has an [[W:octahedron|octahedral]] [[W:projection envelope|envelope]]. This octahedron can be divided into 8 tetrahedral volumes, by cutting along the coordinate planes. Each of these volumes is the image of a pair of cells in the 16-cell. The closest vertex of the 16-cell to the viewer projects onto the center of the octahedron.

Finally the edge-first parallel projection has a shortened octahedral envelope, and the face-first parallel projection has a [[W:hexagonal bipyramid]]al envelope.

== 4 sphere Venn diagram ==
A 3-dimensional projection of the 16-cell and 4 intersecting spheres (a [[W:Venn diagram|Venn diagram]] of 4 sets) are [[W:topology|topologically]] equivalent.

{|
|-
|
{{multiple image
 | align = left  | total_width = 700
 | image1 = 4 spheres, cell 00, solid.png
 | image2 = 4 spheres, weight 1, solid.png
 | image3 = 4 spheres, weight 2, solid.png
 | image4 = 4 spheres, weight 3, solid.png
 | image5 = 4 spheres, cell 15, solid.png
 | footer = The 16 cells ordered by number of intersecting spheres (from 0 to 4) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;small&gt;(see all [[commons:Category:Venn diagrams rgby; single cells|cells]] and [[v:Tesseract and 16-cell faces|''k''-faces]])&lt;/small&gt;
}}
|
{{multiple image
 | align = right  | total_width = 290
 | image1 = 4 spheres as rings, vertical.png
 | image2 = Stereographic polytope 16cell.png
 | footer = 4 sphere Venn diagram and 16-cell projection in the same orientation
}}
|}

== Symmetry constructions ==
The 16-cell's [[W:Coxeter group|symmetry group]] is denoted [[W:B4 polytope|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]].

There is a lower symmetry form of the ''16-cell'', called a '''demitesseract''' or '''4-demicube''', a member of the [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercube]] family.{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel &amp; Goodman-Strauss|2008| loc=Chapter 26. Hemicubes: 1&lt;sub&gt;n1&lt;/sub&gt; | p=409 }} It is represented by h{4,3,3} and [[W:Coxeter diagram|Coxeter diagram]]s {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h1|4|node|3|node|3|node}} or {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|nodes_10ru|split2|node|3|node}}. It can be drawn bicolored with alternating [[W:tetrahedron|tetrahedral]] cells.

It can also be seen in lower symmetry form as a '''tetrahedral antiprism''', constructed by 2 parallel [[W:tetrahedron|tetrahedra]] in dual configurations, connected by 8 (possibly elongated) tetrahedra. It is represented by s{2,4,3}, and Coxeter diagram: {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node|3|node}}.

It can also be seen as a snub 4-[[W:Orthotope|orthotope]], represented by s{2&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;}, and Coxeter diagram: {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}} or {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|split1-22|nodes_hh}}.

With the [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] constructed as a 4-4 [[W:Duoprism|duoprism]], the 16-cell can be seen as its dual, a 4-4 [[W:Duopyramid|duopyramid]].

{| class=wikitable
!Name
![[W:Coxeter diagram|Coxeter diagram]]
![[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]]
![[W:Coxeter notation|Coxeter notation]]
!Order
![[W:Vertex figure|Vertex figure]]
|- align=center
!Regular 16-cell
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|3|node|4|node}}
|{3,3,4}
|[3,3,4]||384
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|4|node}}
|- align=center
!Demitesseract&lt;br /&gt;[[W:Quasiregular polytope|Quasiregular]] 16-cell
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|nodes_10ru|split2|node|3|node}} = {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h1|4|node|3|node|3|node}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|split1|nodes}} = {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|3|node|4|node_h0}}
|h{4,3,3}&lt;br /&gt;{3,3&lt;sup&gt;1,1&lt;/sup&gt;}
|[3&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;] = [1&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4,3,3]||192
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node|3|node_1|3|node}}
|- align=center
!Alternated 4-4 [[W:Duoprism|duoprism]]
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|label2|branch_hh|4a4b|nodes}}
|2s{4,2,4}
|[[W:4,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4|4,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4]]||64
|
|- align=center
!Tetrahedral antiprism
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node|3|node}}
|s{2,4,3}
|[2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4,3]||48
|
|- align=center
!Alternated square prism prism
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node}}
|sr{2,2,4}
|[(2,2)&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4]||16
|
|- align=center
!Snub 4-[[W:Orthotope|orthotope]]
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}} = {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|split1-22|nodes_hh}}
|s{2&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;}
|[2,2,2]&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; = [2&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;]&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;||8
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=6|4-[[W:Rhombic fusil|fusil]]
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node|3|node}}
|{3,3,4}
|[3,3,4]||384
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1|4|node}}
|{4}+{4} or 2{4}
|&lt;nowiki&gt;[[W:4,2,4|4,2,4]]&lt;/nowiki&gt; = [8,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,8]||128
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node|2x|node_f1}}
|{3,4}+{ }
|[4,3,2]||96
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|{4}+2{ }
|[4,2,2]||32
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|{ }+{ }+{ }+{ } or 4{ }
|[2,2,2]||16
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|}

== Related complex polygons ==
The [[W:Möbius–Kantor polygon|Möbius–Kantor polygon]] is a [[W:Regular complex polytope|regular complex polygon]] &lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;{3}&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|3node_1|3|3node}}, in &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}^2&lt;/math&gt; shares the same vertices as the 16-cell. It has 8 vertices, and 8 3-edges.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1991|pp=30,47}}{{Sfn|Coxeter &amp; Shephard|1992}}

The regular complex polygon, &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{4}&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|4|4node}}, in &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}^2&lt;/math&gt; has a real representation as a 16-cell in 4-dimensional space with 8 vertices, 16 2-edges, only half of the edges of the 16-cell.  Its symmetry is &lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;[4]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, order 32.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1991|p=108}}

{| class=wikitable width=320
|+ [[W:Orthographic projection|Orthographic projection]]s of &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{4}&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; polygon
|- valign=top
|[[File:Complex polygon 2-4-4.png|160px]]&lt;br /&gt;In B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; [[W:Coxeter plane|Coxeter plane]], &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{4}&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; has 8 vertices and 16 2-edges, shown here with 4 sets of colors.
|[[File:Complex polygon 2-4-4 bipartite graph.png|160px]]&lt;br /&gt;The 8 vertices are grouped in 2 sets (shown red and blue), each only connected with edges to vertices in the other set, making this polygon a [[W:Complete bipartite graph|complete bipartite graph]], K&lt;sub&gt;4,4&lt;/sub&gt;.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1991|p=114}}
|}

== Related uniform polytopes and honeycombs ==

The regular 16-cell and [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] are the regular members of a set of 15 [[W:B4 polytope|uniform 4-polytopes with the same B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; symmetry]]. The 16-cell is also one of the [[W:D4 polytope|uniform polytopes of D&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; symmetry]].

The 16-cell is also related to the [[W:Cubic honeycomb|cubic honeycomb]], [[W:Order-4 dodecahedral honeycomb|order-4 dodecahedral honeycomb]], and [[W:Order-4 hexagonal tiling honeycomb|order-4 hexagonal tiling honeycomb]] which all have [[W:Hexagonal tiling honeycomb#Polytopes and honeycombs with tetrahedral vertex figures|octahedral vertex figures]].

It belongs to the sequence of  [[W:Order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb#Related polytopes and honeycombs|{3,3,p} 4-polytopes]] which have tetrahedral cells. The sequence includes three [[W:Regular 4-polytope|regular 4-polytope]]s of Euclidean 4-space, the [[5-cell]] {3,3,3}, 16-cell {3,3,4}, and [[600-cell]] {3,3,5}), and the [[W:Order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb|order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb]] {3,3,6} of hyperbolic space.

It is first in a sequence of [[W:Tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb#Quasuiregular honeycombs|quasiregular polytopes and honeycombs]] h{4,p,q}, and a [[W:Order-4 hexagonal tiling honeycomb#Quasiregular honeycombs|half symmetry sequence]], for regular forms {p,3,4}.

== See also ==
*[[24-cell]]
*[[W:4-polytope|4-polytope]]
*[[W:D4 polytope|D4 polytope]]

== Notes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}}

== Citations ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/incmats/hex.htm hex], at [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/home.htm Klitzing polytopes]
* [https://polytope.miraheze.org/wiki/Hexadecachoron Hexadecachoron], at [https://polytope.miraheze.org/wiki/Main_Page Polytope wiki]
* [http://hi.gher.space/wiki/Aerochoron Aerochoron], at [http://hi.gher.space/wiki/Main_Page Higher space]
* [https://www.qfbox.info/4d/uniform Uniform polychora (The tesseract/16-cell family)], at [https://www.qfbox.info/4d/index 4D Euclidean Space]

[[Category:Geometry]]
[[Category:Polyscheme]]</text>
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      <text bytes="59399" sha1="ag3t8k04tm1furiwmlwwjvww6e9cp82" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Four-dimensional analog of the octahedron}}
{{Polyscheme|radius=an '''expanded version''' of}}
{{Infobox 4-polytope |
  Name=16-cell&lt;br /&gt;(4-orthoplex)|
  Image_File=Schlegel wireframe 16-cell.png|
  Image_Caption=[[W:Schlegel diagram|Schlegel diagram]]&lt;br /&gt;(vertices and edges)|
  Type=[[W:Convex regular 4-polytope|Convex regular 4-polytope]]&lt;br /&gt;4-[[W:Orthoplex|orthoplex]]&lt;br /&gt;4-[[W:Demihypercube|demicube]]|
  Last=[[W:Rectified tesseract|11]]|
  Index=12|
  Next=[[W:Truncated tesseract|13]]|
  Schläfli={3,3,4}|
  CD={{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|3|node|4|node}} |
  Cell_List=16 [[W:Tetrahedron|{3,3}]] [[File:3-simplex t0.svg|25px]]|
  Face_List=32 [[W:Triangle|{3}]] [[File:2-simplex t0.svg|25px]]|
  Edge_Count= 24|
  Vertex_Count= 8|
  Petrie_Polygon=[[W:Octagon|octagon]]|
  Coxeter_Group=B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, [3,3,4], order 384&lt;br /&gt;D&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, order 192|
  Vertex_Figure=[[File:16-cell verf.svg|80px]]&lt;br /&gt;[[W:Octahedron|Octahedron]]|
  Dual=[[W:Tesseract|Tesseract]]|
  Property_List=[[W:Convex polytope|convex]], [[W:Isogonal figure|isogonal]], [[W:Isotoxal figure|isotoxal]], [[W:Isohedral figure|isohedral]], [[W:Regular polytope|regular]], [[W:Hanner polytope|Hanner polytope]]
}}
In [[W:Geometry|geometry]], the '''16-cell''' is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] (four-dimensional analogue of a Platonic solid) with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {3,3,4}. It is one of the six regular convex 4-polytopes first described by the Swiss mathematician [[W:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] in the mid-19th century.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=141|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7-x. Historical remarks}} It is also called '''C&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;''', '''hexadecachoron''',&lt;ref&gt;[[W:Norman Johnson (mathematician)|N.W. Johnson]]: ''Geometries and Transformations'', (2018) {{ISBN|978-1-107-10340-5}} Chapter 11: ''Finite Symmetry Groups'', 11.5 ''Spherical Coxeter groups'', p.249&lt;/ref&gt; or '''hexdecahedroid'''.&lt;ref&gt;Matila Ghyka, ''The Geometry of Art and Life'' (1977), p.68&lt;/ref&gt;

It is the 4-dimesional member of an infinite family of polytopes called [[W:Cross-polytope|cross-polytope]]s, ''orthoplexes'', or ''hyperoctahedrons'' which are analogous to the [[W:Cctahedron|octahedron]] in three dimensions. It is Coxeter's &lt;math&gt;\beta_4&lt;/math&gt; polytope.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=120=121|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.2. See illustration Fig 7.2&lt;small&gt;B&lt;/small&gt;}} The [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] is the [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] (4-[[W:Hypercube|cube]]), which it can be combined with to form [[W:Compound of tesseract and 16-cell|a compound figure]]. The cells of the 16-cell are dual to the 16 vertices of the tesseract.

== Geometry ==
The 16-cell is the second in the sequence of 6 convex regular 4-polytopes (in order of size and complexity).{{Efn|name=4-polytopes ordered by size and complexity|group=}}

Each of its 4 successor convex regular 4-polytopes can be constructed as the [[W:Convex hull|convex hull]] of a [[W:Polytope compound|polytope compound]] of multiple 16-cells: the 16-vertex [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] as a compound of two 16-cells, the 24-vertex [[24-cell]] as a compound of three 16-cells, the 120-vertex [[600-cell]] as a compound of fifteen 16-cells, and the 600-vertex [[120-cell]] as a compound of seventy-five 16-cells.{{Efn|There are 2 and only 2 16-cells inscribed in the 8-cell (tesseract), 3 and only 3 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell, 75 distinct 16-cells (but only 15 disjoint 16-cells) inscribed in the 600-cell, and 675 distinct 16-cells (but only 75 disjoint 16-cells) inscribed in the 120-cell.}}

{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:}}

=== Coordinates ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;
!colspan=2|Disjoint squares
|-
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;
!colspan=2|''xy'' plane
|-
|( 0, 1, 0, 0)||( 0, 0,-1, 0)
|-
|( 0, 0, 1, 0)||( 0,-1, 0, 0)
|}
|-
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;
!colspan=2|''wz'' plane
|-
|( 1, 0, 0, 0)||( 0, 0, 0,-1)
|-
|( 0, 0, 0, 1)||(-1, 0, 0, 0)
|}
|}The 16-cell is the 4-dimensional [[W:Cross polytope|cross polytope (4-orthoplex)]], which means its vertices lie in opposite pairs on the 4 axes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system.

The eight vertices are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by edges except opposite pairs. The edge length is {{radic|2}}.

The vertex coordinates form 6 [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] central squares lying in the 6 coordinate planes. Squares in ''opposite'' planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal ''basis'']] for the choice of a 4-dimensional reference frame, because its vertices exactly define the four orthogonal axes.

=== Structure ===
The [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] of the 16-cell is {3,3,4}, indicating that its cells are [[W:Regular tetrahedron|regular tetrahedra]] {3,3} and its [[W:Vertex figure|vertex figure]] is a [[W:Regular octahedron|regular octahedron]] {3,4}. There are 8 tetrahedra, 12 triangles, and 6 edges meeting at every vertex. Its [[W:Edge figure|edge figure]] is a square. There are 4 tetrahedra and 4 triangles meeting at every edge.

The 16-cell is [[W:Totally bounded|bounded]] by 16 [[W:Cell (mathematics)|cells]], all of which are regular [[W:Tetrahedron|tetrahedra]].{{Efn|The boundary surface of a 16-cell is a finite 3-dimensional space consisting of 16 tetrahedra arranged face-to-face (four around one). It is a closed, tightly curved (non-Euclidean) 3-space, within which we can move straight through 4 tetrahedra in any direction and arrive back in the tetrahedron where we started. We can visualize moving around inside this tetrahedral [[W:Jungle gym|jungle gym]], climbing from one tetrahedron into another on its 24 struts (its edges), and never being able to get out (or see out) of the 16 tetrahedra no matter what direction we go (or look). We are always on (or in) the ''surface'' of the 16-cell, never inside the 16-cell itself (nor outside it). We can see that the 6 edges around each vertex radiate symmetrically in 3 dimensions and form an orthogonal 3-axis cross, just as the radii of an octahedron do (so we say the vertex figure of the 16-cell is the octahedron).{{Efn|name=octahedral pyramid}}}} It has 32 [[W:Triangle (geometry)|triangular]] [[W:Face (geometry)|faces]], 24 [[W:Edge (geometry)|edges]], and 8 [[W:Vertex (geometry)|vertices]]. The 24 edges bound 6 [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] central squares lying on [[W:Great circle|great circles]] in the 6 coordinate planes (3 pairs of completely orthogonal great squares). At each vertex, 3 great squares cross perpendicularly. The 6 edges meet at the vertex the way 6 edges meet at the [[W:Apex (geometry)|apex]] of a canonical [[W:Octahedral pyramid|octahedral pyramid]].{{Efn|Each vertex in the 16-cell is the apex of an [[W:Octahedral pyramid|octahedral pyramid]], the base of which is the octahedron formed by the 6 other vertices to which the apex is connected by edges. The 16-cell can be deconstructed (four different ways) into two octahedral pyramids by cutting it in half through one of its four octahedral central hyperplanes. Looked at from inside the curved 3 dimensional volume of its boundary surface of 16 face-bonded tetrahedra, the 16-cell's vertex figure is an octahedron. In 4 dimensions, the vertex octahedron is actually an octahedral pyramid. The apex of the octahedral pyramid (the vertex where the 6 edges meet) is not actually at the center of the octahedron: it is displaced radially outwards in the fourth dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the octahedron's 6 vertices. The 6 edges around the vertex make an orthogonal 3-axis cross in 3 dimensions (and in the [[W:Octahedral pyramid|3-dimensional projection of the 4-pyramid]]), but the 3 lines are actually bent 90 degrees in the fourth dimension where they meet in an apex.|name=octahedral pyramid}} The 6 orthogonal central planes of the 16-cell can be divided into 4 orthogonal central hyperplanes (3-spaces) each forming an [[W:Octahedron|octahedron]] with 3 orthogonal great squares.

=== Rotations ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=480
|- align=center valign=top
|rowspan=2|[[File:16-cell.gif]]&lt;br /&gt;A 3D projection of a 16-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Simple rotations|simple rotation]]
|[[File:16-cell-orig.gif]]&lt;br /&gt;A 3D projection of a 16-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]]
|}
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] planes.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=6|loc=§&amp;nbsp;5. Four-Dimensional Rotations}} The 16-cell is a simple frame in which to observe 4-dimensional rotations, because each of the 16-cell's 6 great squares has another completely orthogonal great square (there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal squares).{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} Many rotations of the 16-cell can be characterized by the angle of rotation in one of its great square planes (e.g. the ''xy'' plane) and another angle of rotation in the completely orthogonal great square plane (the ''wz'' plane).{{Efn|Each great square vertex is {{radic|2}} distant from two of the square's other vertices, and {{radic|4}} distant from its opposite vertex. The other four vertices of the 16-cell (also {{radic|2}} distant) are the vertices of the square's completely orthogonal square.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel great squares}} Each 16-cell vertex is a vertex of ''three'' orthogonal great squares which intersect there. Each great square has a different ''completely'' orthogonal great square. Thus there are three great squares completely orthogonal to each vertex: squares that the vertex is not part of.{{Efn|The three ''incompletely'' orthogonal great squares which intersect at each vertex of the 16-cell form the vertex's octahedral [[W:Vertex figure|vertex figure]].{{Efn|name=octahedral pyramid}} Any two of them, together with the completely orthogonal square of the third, also form an octahedron: a central octahedral hyperplane.{{Efn|Three great squares meet at each vertex (and at its opposite vertex) in the 16-cell. Each of them has a different completely orthogonal square. Thus there are three great squares completely orthogonal to each vertex and its opposite vertex (each axis). They form an octahedron (a central hyperplane). Every axis line in the 16-cell is completely orthogonal to a central octahedron hyperplane, as every great square plane is completely orthogonal to another great square plane.{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} The axis and the octahedron intersect only at one point (the center of the 16-cell), as each pair of completely orthogonal great squares intersects only at one point (the center of the 16-cell). Each central octahedron is also the octahedral vertex figure of two of the eight vertices: the two on its completely orthogonal axis.|name=octahedral hyperplanes}} In the 16-cell, each octahedral vertex figure is also a central octahedral hyperplane.|name=completely orthogonal great squares}}|name=vertex and central octahedra}} Completely orthogonal great squares have disjoint vertices: 4 of the 16-cell's 8 vertices rotate in one plane, and the other 4 rotate independently in the completely orthogonal plane.{{Efn|Completely orthogonal great squares are non-intersecting and rotate independently because the great circles on which their vertices lie are [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]].{{Efn|[[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point.{{Sfn|Tyrrell &amp; Semple|1971|loc=§&amp;nbsp;3. Clifford's original definition of parallelism|pp=5-6}} A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=7-10|loc=§&amp;nbsp;6. Angles between two Planes in 4-Space}} In the 16-cell the corresponding vertices of completely orthogonal great circle squares are all {{radic|2}} apart, so these squares are Clifford parallel polygons.{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}} Note that only the vertices of the great squares (the points on the great circle) are {{radic|2}} apart; points on the edges of the squares (on chords of the circle) are closer together.|name=Clifford parallels}} They are {{radic|2}} apart at each pair of nearest vertices (and in the 16-cell ''all'' the pairs except antipodal pairs are nearest). The two squares cannot intersect at all because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell.{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two squares are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel squares in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent square links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]].|name=Clifford parallel great squares}}

In 2 or 3 dimensions a rotation is characterized by a single plane of rotation; this kind of rotation taking place in 4-space is called a [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Simple rotations|simple rotation]], in which only one of the two completely orthogonal planes rotates (the angle of rotation in the other plane is 0). In the 16-cell, a simple rotation in one of the 6 orthogonal planes moves only 4 of the 8 vertices; the other 4 remain fixed. (In the simple rotation animation above, all 8 vertices move because the plane of rotation is not one of the 6 orthogonal basis planes.)

In a [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|double rotation]] both sets of 4 vertices move, but independently: the angles of rotation may be different in the 2 completely orthogonal planes. If the two angles happen to be the same, a maximally symmetric [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] takes place.{{Efn|In an isoclinic rotation, all 6 orthogonal planes are displaced in two orthogonal directions at once: they are rotated by the angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. An isoclinic displacement (also known as a [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement) is 4-dimensionally diagonal. Points are displaced an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, and displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance#Higher dimensions|Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance (which is two times that distance). For example, when the unit-radius 16-cell rotates isoclinically 90° in a great square invariant plane, it also rotates 90° in the completely orthogonal great square invariant plane.{{Efn||name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} The great square plane tilts sideways 90° to occupy its completely orthogonal plane. (By isoclinic symmetry, ''every'' great square plane rotates 90° ''and'' tilts sideways 90° into its completely orthogonal plane.) Each vertex (in every great square) is displaced to its antipodal vertex, at a distance of {{radic|1}} in each of four orthogonal directions, a total distance of {{radic|4}}. The original and displaced vertex are two edge lengths apart by three{{Efn|There are six different two-edge paths connecting a pair of antipodal vertices along the edges of a great square. The left isoclinic rotation runs diagonally between three of them, and the right isoclinic rotation runs diagonally between the other three. These diagonals are the straight lines (geodesics) connecting opposite vertices of face-bonded tetrahedral cells in the left-handed [[#Helical construction|eight-cell ring]] and the right-handed eight-cell ring, respectively.}} different paths along two edges of a great square. But the ''isocline'' (the helical arc the vertex follows during the isoclinic rotation) does not run along edges: it runs ''between'' these different edge-paths diagonally, on a geodesic (shortest arc) between the original and displaced vertices.{{Efn|name=isocline}} This isoclinic geodesic arc is not a segment of an ordinary great circle; it does not lie in the plane of any great square. It is a helical 180° arc that bends in a circle in two completely orthogonal planes at once. This [[W:Möbius loop|Möbius circle]] does not lie in any one great circle plane, or intersect any vertices of the 16-cell between the original and the displaced vertex.{{Efn|name=Möbius circle}}|name=isoclinic rotation}} In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90 degrees of any pair of completely orthogonal square planes takes every square plane to its completely orthogonal square plane in a twisting displacement, as they tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally.{{Efn|The 90 degree isoclinic rotation of two completely orthogonal planes takes them to each other. In such a rotation of a rigid 16-cell, all 6 orthogonal planes rotate by 90 degrees, and also tilt sideways by 90 degrees to their completely orthogonal (Clifford parallel){{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} plane.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} The two completely orthogonal planes are 90° apart, in the two orthogonal angles that separate them. If the isoclinic rotation is continued through another 90°, each great square returns to its original plane, but in a different orientation; the vertices are not returned to their original positions. Continuing through a 720° isoclinic rotation (through eight 90° isoclinic displacements) returns everything to its original place and orientation.|name=exchange of completely orthogonal planes}} All the vertices move at once on separate circular [[w:Geodesic|geodesics]], displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces a circular helix in 4-space, and also traces a great circle twice in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic rotation each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

=== Constructions ===

==== Octahedral dipyramid ====
{|class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;
!Octahedron &lt;math&gt;\beta_3&lt;/math&gt;
!16-cell &lt;math&gt;\beta_4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|[[File:3-cube t2.svg|160px]]
|[[File:4-demicube t0 D4.svg|160px]]
|-
|colspan=2|Orthogonal projections to skew hexagon hyperplane
|}
The simplest construction of the 16-cell is on the 3-dimensional cross polytope, the [[W:Octahedron|octahedron]]. The octahedron has 3 perpendicular axes and 6 vertices in 3 opposite pairs (its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]] is the [[W:Hexagon|hexagon]]). Add another pair of vertices, on a fourth axis perpendicular to all 3 of the other axes. Connect each new vertex to all 6 of the original vertices, adding 12 new edges. This raises two [[W:Octahedral pyramid|octahedral pyramid]]s on a shared octahedron base that lies in the 16-cell's central hyperplane.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=121|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.21. See illustration Fig 7.2&lt;small&gt;B&lt;/small&gt;|ps=: &quot;&lt;math&gt;\beta_4&lt;/math&gt; is a four-dimensional dipyramid based on &lt;math&gt;\beta_3&lt;/math&gt; (with its two apices in opposite directions along the fourth dimension).&quot;}}

[[File:stereographic_polytope_16cell_colour.png|thumb|[[W:Stereographic projection|Stereographic projection]] of the 16-cell's 6 orthogonal central squares onto their great circles. Each circle is divided into 4 arc-edges at the intersections where 3 circles cross perpendicularly. Notice that each circle has one Clifford parallel circle that it does ''not'' intersect. Those two circles pass through each other like adjacent links in a chain.]]The octahedron that the construction starts with has three perpendicular intersecting squares (which appear as rectangles in the hexagonal projections). Each square intersects with each of the other squares at two opposite vertices, with ''two'' of the squares crossing at each vertex. Then two more points are added in the fourth dimension (above and below the 3-dimensional hyperplane). These new vertices are connected to all the octahedron's vertices, creating 12 new edges and ''three more squares'' (which appear edge-on as the 3 ''diameters'' of the hexagon in the projection), and three more octahedra.{{Efn|name=octahedral hyperplanes}}

Something unprecedented has also been created. Notice that each square no longer intersects with ''all'' of the other squares: it does intersect with four of them (with ''three'' of the squares crossing at each vertex now), but each square has ''one'' other square with which it shares ''no'' vertices: it is not directly connected to that square at all. These two ''separate'' perpendicular squares (there are three pairs of them) are like the opposite edges of a [[W:Tetrahedron|tetrahedron]]: perpendicular, but non-intersecting. They lie opposite each other (parallel in some sense), and they don't touch, but they also pass through each other like two perpendicular links in a chain (but unlike links in a chain they have a common center). They are an example of '''''Clifford parallels''''', and the 16-cell is the simplest regular polytope in which they occur. [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] parallelism{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} of objects of more than one dimension (more than just curved ''lines'') emerges here and occurs in all the subsequent 4-dimensional regular polytopes, where it can be seen as the defining relationship ''among'' disjoint concentric regular 4-polytopes and their corresponding parts. It can occur between congruent (similar) polytopes of 2 or more dimensions.{{Sfn|Tyrrell &amp; Semple|1971}} For example, as noted [[#Geometry|above]] all the subsequent convex regular 4-polytopes are compounds of multiple 16-cells; those 16-cells are [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel polytopes]].

==== Tetrahedral constructions ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=480
|- align=center valign=top
|[[File:16-cell net.png|180px|]]
|[[File:16-cell nets.png|180px]]
|}

The 16-cell has two [[W:Wythoff construction|Wythoff construction]]s from regular tetrahedra, a regular form and alternated form, shown here as [[W:Net (polyhedron)|nets]], the second represented by tetrahedral cells of two alternating colors. The alternated form is a [[#Symmetry constructions|lower symmetry construction]] of the 16-cell called the [[W:Demitesseract|demitesseract]].

Wythoff's construction replicates the 16-cell's [[5-cell#Orthoschemes|characteristic 5-cell]] in a [[W:Kaleidoscope|kaleidoscope]] of mirrors. Every regular 4-polytope has its characteristic 4-orthoscheme, an [[5-cell#Irregular 5-cells|irregular 5-cell]].{{Efn|An [[W:Orthoscheme|orthoscheme]] is a [[W:Chiral|chiral]] irregular [[W:simplex|simplex]] with [[W:Right triangle|right triangle]] faces that is characteristic of some polytope if it will exactly fill that polytope with the reflections of itself in its own [[W:Facet (geometry)|facets]] (its ''mirror walls''). Every regular polytope can be dissected radially into instances of its [[W:Orthoscheme#Characteristic simplex of the general regular polytope|characteristic orthoscheme]] surrounding its center. The characteristic orthoscheme has the shape described by the same [[W:Coxeter-Dynkin diagram|Coxeter-Dynkin diagram]] as the regular polytope without the ''generating point'' ring.|name=characteristic orthoscheme}} There are three regular 4-polytopes with tetrahedral cells: the [[5-cell]], the 16-cell, and the [[600-cell]]. Although all are bounded by ''regular'' tetrahedron cells, their characteristic 5-cells (4-orthoschemes) are different [[5-cell#Isometries|tetrahedral pyramids]], all based on the same characteristic ''irregular'' tetrahedron. They share the same [[W:Tetrahedron#Orthoschemes|characteristic tetrahedron]] (3-orthoscheme) and characteristic [[W:Right triangle|right triangle]] (2-orthoscheme) because they have the same kind of cell.{{Efn|A regular polytope of dimension ''k'' has a characteristic ''k''-orthoscheme, and also a characteristic (''k''-1)-orthoscheme. A regular 4-polytope has a characteristic 5-cell (4-orthoscheme) into which it is subdivided by its (3-dimensional) hyperplanes of symmetry, and also a characteristic tetrahedron (3-orthoscheme) into which its surface is subdivided by its cells' (2-dimensional) planes of symmetry. After subdividing its (3-dimensional) surface into characteristic tetrahedra surrounding each cell center, its (4-dimensional) interior can be subdivided into characteristic 5-cells by adding radii joining the vertices of the surface characteristic tetrahedra to the 4-polytope's center.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=130|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.6|ps=; &quot;simplicial subdivision&quot;.}} The interior tetrahedra and triangles thus formed will also be orthoschemes.}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;
!colspan=6|Characteristics of the 16-cell{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=292-293|loc=Table I(ii); &quot;16-cell, 𝛽&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&quot;}}
|-
!align=right|
!align=center|edge{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=139|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.9 The characteristic simplex}}
!colspan=2 align=center|arc
!colspan=2 align=center|dihedral{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=290|loc=Table I(ii); &quot;dihedral angles&quot;}}
|-
!align=right|𝒍
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \approx 1.414&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;120°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{2\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!align=right|𝟀
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{2}{3}} \approx 0.816&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60″&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|𝝉{{Efn|{{Harv|Coxeter|1973}} uses the greek letter 𝝓 (phi) to represent one of the three ''characteristic angles'' 𝟀, 𝝓, 𝟁 of a regular polytope. Because 𝝓 is commonly used to represent the [[W:Golden ratio|golden ratio]] constant ≈ 1.618, for which Coxeter uses 𝝉 (tau), we reverse Coxeter's conventions, and use 𝝉 to represent the characteristic angle.|name=reversed greek symbols}}
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}} \approx 0.707&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;45″&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;45°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|𝟁
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{6}} \approx 0.408&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;30″&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{6}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|
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|
|
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|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_0R^3/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{3}{4}} \approx 0.866&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_1R^3/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}} = 0.5&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;45°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_2R^3/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{12}} \approx 0.289&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;30°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{6}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
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|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_0R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_1R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}} \approx 0.707&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_2R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{3}} \approx 0.577&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_3R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}} = 0.5&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|}
The '''characteristic 5-cell of the regular 16-cell''' is represented by the [[W:Coxeter-Dynkin diagram|Coxeter-Dynkin diagram]] {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node|3|node|3|node|4|node}}, which can be read as a list of the dihedral angles between its mirror facets. It is an irregular [[W:Pyramid (mathematics)#Polyhedral pyramid|tetrahedral pyramid]] based on the [[W:Tetrahedron#Orthoschemes|characteristic tetrahedron of the regular tetrahedron]]. The regular 16-cell is subdivided by its symmetry hyperplanes into 384 instances of its characteristic 5-cell that all meet at its center.

The characteristic 5-cell (4-orthoscheme) has four more edges than its base characteristic tetrahedron (3-orthoscheme), joining the four vertices of the base to its apex (the fifth vertex of the 4-orthoscheme, at the center of the regular 16-cell).{{Efn|The four edges of each 4-orthoscheme which meet at the center of a regular 4-polytope are of unequal length, because they are the four characteristic radii of the regular 4-polytope: a vertex radius, an edge center radius, a face center radius, and a cell center radius. The five vertices of the 4-orthoscheme always include one regular 4-polytope vertex, one regular 4-polytope edge center, one regular 4-polytope face center, one regular 4-polytope cell center, and the regular 4-polytope center. Those five vertices (in that order) comprise a path along four mutually perpendicular edges (that makes three right angle turns), the characteristic feature of a 4-orthoscheme. The 4-orthoscheme has five dissimilar 3-orthoscheme facets.|name=characteristic radii}} If the regular 16-cell has unit radius edge and edge length 𝒍 = &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, its characteristic 5-cell's ten edges have lengths &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{2}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{6}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; around its exterior right-triangle face (the edges opposite the ''characteristic angles'' 𝟀, 𝝉, 𝟁),{{Efn|name=reversed greek symbols}} plus &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{3}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{12}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; (the other three edges of the exterior 3-orthoscheme facet the characteristic tetrahedron, which are the ''characteristic radii'' of the regular tetrahedron), plus &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; (edges which are the characteristic radii of the regular 16-cell). The 4-edge path along orthogonal edges of the orthoscheme is &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{6}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, first from a 16-cell vertex to a 16-cell edge center, then turning 90° to a 16-cell face center, then turning 90° to a 16-cell tetrahedral cell center, then turning 90° to the 16-cell center.

==== Helical construction ====
[[File:Eight face-bonded tetrahedra.jpg|thumb|A 4-dimensional ring of 8 face-bonded tetrahedra, seen in the [[W:Boerdijk–Coxeter helix|Boerdijk–Coxeter helix]], bounded by three eight-edge circular paths of different colors, cut and laid out flat in 3-dimensional space. It contains an ''isocline'' axis (not shown), a helical circle of circumference 4𝝅 that twists through all four dimensions and visits all 8 vertices.{{Efn|name=isocline}} The two blue-blue-yellow triangles at either end of the cut ring are the same object.]]
[[File:16-cell 8-ring net4.png|thumb|Net and orthogonal projection]]

A 16-cell can be constructed (three different ways) from two [[W:Boerdijk–Coxeter helix|Boerdijk–Coxeter helix]]es of eight chained tetrahedra, each bent in the fourth dimension into a ring.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1970|loc=Table 2: Reflexible honeycombs and their groups|p=45|ps=; Honeycomb [3,3,4]&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; is a tiling of the 3-sphere by 2 rings of 8 tetrahedral cells.}}{{Sfn|Banchoff|2013}} The two circular helixes share the same 8 vertices and 24 edges, but their tetrahedra are disjoint. The helixes spiral around each other, nest into each other and pass through each other forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]. 16 of the 32 triangle faces can be seen in a 2D net within a [[W:Triangular tiling|triangular tiling]], with 6 triangles around every vertex. The [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]] of the 16-cell is a skew octagon, visible as the purple edges in the octagon orthogonal projection, and as the light blue edges in the tetrahedral helix. Each eight-cell ring of tetrahedra actually contains three such skew [[W:Octagram|octagram]]s of different colors, eight-edge circular paths that wind twice around the 16-cell on every third vertex of the octagram. The orange and yellow edges are two four-edge halves of one skew octagram, which join their ends to form a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius strip]].

Thus the 16-cell can be decomposed into two cell-disjoint circular chains of eight tetrahedrons each, four edges long, one spiraling to the right (clockwise) and the other spiraling to the left (counterclockwise). The left-handed and right-handed cell rings fit together, nesting into each other and entirely filling the 16-cell, even though they are of opposite chirality. This decomposition can be seen in a 4-4 [[W:Duoantiprism|duoantiprism]] construction of the 16-cell: {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}} or {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node|4|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node}}, [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {2}⨂{2} or s{2}s{2}, [[W:Coxeter notation|symmetry]] [4,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4], order 64.

Three eight-edge paths (of different colors) spiral along each eight-cell ring, making 90° angles at each vertex. (In the Boerdijk–Coxeter helix before it is bent into a ring, the angles in different paths vary, but are not 90°.) Three paths (with three different colors and apparent angles) pass through each vertex. When the helix is bent into a ring, the segments of each eight-edge path (of various lengths) join their ends, forming a Möbius strip eight edges long along its single-sided circumference of 4𝝅, and one edge wide.{{Efn|name=Möbius circle}} The six four-edge halves of the three eight-edge paths each make four 90° angles, but they are ''not'' the six orthogonal great squares: they are open-ended squares, four-edge 360° helices whose open ends are [[W:Antipodal point|antipodal]] vertices. The four edges come from four different great squares, and are mutually orthogonal. Combined end-to-end in pairs of the same [[W:Chirality|chirality]], the six four-edge paths make three eight-edge Möbius loops, [[W:Helix|helical]] octagrams. Each octagram is both a [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]] of the 16-cell, and the helical track along which all eight vertices rotate together, in one of the 16-cell's distinct isoclinic [[#Rotations|rotations]].{{Efn|The 16-cell can be constructed from two cell-disjoint eight-cell rings in three different ways; it has three orientations of its pair of rings. Each orientation &quot;contains&quot; a distinct left-right pair of isoclinic rotations, and also a pair of completely orthogonal great squares (Clifford parallel fibers), so each orientation is a discrete [[W:Hopf fibration|fibration]] of the 16-cell. Each eight-cell ring contains three axial octagrams which have different orientations (they exchange roles) in the three discrete fibrations and six distinct isoclinic rotations (three left and three right) through the cell rings. Three octagrams (of different colors) can be seen in the illustration of a single cell ring, one in the role of Petrie polygon, one as the right isocline, and one as the left isocline. Because each octagram plays three roles, there are exactly six distinct isoclines in the 16-cell, not 18.|name=only one disjoint pair of eight-cell rings}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=610
!colspan=5|Five ways of looking at the same [[W:Skew polygon|skew]] [[W:Octagram|octagram]]{{Efn|All five views are the same orthogonal projection of the 16-cell into the same plane (a circular cross-section of the eight-cell ring cylinder), looking along the central axis of the cut ring cylinder pictured above, from one end of the cylinder. The only difference is which {{radic|2}} edges and {{radic|4}} chords are ''omitted'' for focus. The different colors of {{radic|2}} edges appear to be of different lengths because they are oblique to the viewer at different angles. Vertices are numbered 1 (top) through 8 in counterclockwise order.}}
|-
![[#Rotations|Edge path]]
![[W:Petrie polygon#The Petrie polygon of regular polychora (4-polytopes)|Petrie polygon]]{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=292-293|loc=Table I(ii); 24-cell ''h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''}}
!16-cell
![[W:Hopf fibration|Discrete fibration]]
![[#Coordinates|Diameter chords]]
|-
![[W:Octagram|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/3}&lt;/sub&gt;{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=292-293|loc=Table I(ii); 24-cell ''h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''}}
![[W:Petrie polygon#The Petrie polygon of regular polychora (4-polytopes)|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/1}&lt;/sub&gt;
![[W:Coxeter element#Coxeter plane|Coxeter plane]] [[W:B4 polytope|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]]
![[W:Octagram#Star polygon compounds|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/2}=2{4}&lt;/sub&gt;
![[W:Octagram#Star polygon compounds|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/4}=4{2}&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram (8-3).png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram (8).png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram.png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram 2(4).png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram 4(2).png|120px]]
|-
|The eight {{radic|2}} chords of the edge-path of an isocline.{{Efn|name=isocline curve}}
|Skew [[W:Octagon|octagon]] of eight {{radic|2}} edges. The 16-cell has 6 of these 8-vertex circuits.
|All 24 {{radic|2}} edges and the four {{radic|4}} orthogonal axes.
|Two completely orthogonal (disjoint) great squares of {{radic|2}} edges.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel great squares}}
|The four {{radic|4}} chords of an isocline. Every fourth isocline vertex is joined to its antipodal vertex by a 16-cell axis.{{Efn|Each isocline has the eight continuous {{radic|2}} chords of its octagram&lt;sub&gt;{8/3}&lt;/sub&gt; edge-path, and also four discontinuous {{radic|4}} diameter chords that connect every ''fourth'' vertex on the octagram but do not connect to each other. Antipodal vertices also have a twisted continuous path of four mutually orthogonal {{radic|2}} edges connecting them. Between antipodal vertices, the isocline curves smoothly around in a helix over the four {{radic|2}} chords of its edge-path, hitting the three intervening vertices. Each {{radic|2}} edge is an edge of a great square, that is completely orthogonal to another great square, in which the {{radic|4}} chord is a diagonal.|name=isocline curve}}
|}
Each eight-edge helix is a [[W:Skew polygon|skew]] [[W:Octagram|octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/3}&lt;/sub&gt; that [[W:Winding number|winds three times]] around the 16-cell and visits every vertex before closing into a loop. Its eight {{radic|2}} edges are chords of an ''isocline'', a helical geodesic on which the 8 vertices circle during an isoclinic rotation.{{Efn|An isocline is a circle of special kind corresponding to a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s linked in a [[W:Möbius loop|Möbius loop]]. It curves through four dimensions instead of just two. All ordinary circles have a 2𝝅 circumference, but the 16-cell's isocline is a circle with an 4𝝅 circumference (over eight 90° chords). An isocline is a circle that does not lie in a plane, but to avoid confusion we always refer to it as an ''isocline'' and reserve the term ''circle'' for an ordinary circle in the plane.|name=Möbius circle}} All eight 16-cell vertices are {{radic|2}} apart except for opposite (antipodal) vertices, which are {{radic|4}} apart. A vertex moving on the isocline visits three other vertices that are {{radic|2}} apart before reaching the fourth vertex that is {{radic|4}} away.{{Efn|In the 16-cell, two antipodal vertices are opposite vertices of two face-bonded tetrahedral cells. The two antipodal vertices are connected by (three different) two-edge great circle paths along edges of the tetrahedral cells, by various three-edge paths, and by four-edge paths on isoclines and Petrie polygons. {{Efn|name=Möbius circle}}|name=isocline}}

The eight-cell ring is [[W:Chiral|chiral]]: there is a right-handed form which spirals clockwise, and a left-handed form which spirals counterclockwise. The 16-cell contains one of each, so it also contains a left and a right isocline; the isocline is the circular axis around which the eight-cell ring twists. Each isocline visits all eight vertices of the 16-cell.{{Efn|In the 16-cell each ''single'' isocline winds through all 8 vertices: an entire [[W:Hopf fibration|fibration]] of two completely orthogonal great squares.{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}} The 5-cell and the 16-cell are the only regular 4-polytopes where each discrete fibration has just one isocline fiber.{{Efn|Except in the 5-cell and 16-cell,{{Efn|name=two special cases}} a pair of left and right isocline circles have disjoint vertices: the left and right isocline helices are non-intersecting parallels but counter-rotating, forming a special kind of double helix which cannot occur in three dimensions (where counter-rotating helices of the same radius must intersect).|name=counter-rotating double helix}}|name=each 16-cell isocline reaches all 8 vertices}} Each eight-cell ring contains half of the 16 cells, but all 8 vertices; the two rings share the vertices, as they nest into each other and fit together. They also share the 24 edges, though left and right octagram helices are different eight-edge paths.{{Efn|The left and right isoclines intersect each other at every vertex. They are different sequences of the same set of 8 vertices. With respect only to the set of 4 vertex pairs which are {{radic|2}} apart, they can be considered to be Clifford parallel. With respect only to the set of 4 vertex pairs which are {{radic|4}} apart, they can be considered to be completely orthogonal.{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}}}}

Because there are three pairs of completely orthogonal great squares,{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} there are three congruent ways to compose a 16-cell from two eight-cell rings. The 16-cell contains three left-right pairs of eight-cell rings in different orientations, with each cell ring containing its axial isocline.{{Efn|name=only one disjoint pair of eight-cell rings}} Each left-right pair of isoclines is the track of a left-right pair of distinct isoclinic rotations: the rotations in one pair of completely orthogonal invariant planes of rotation.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel great squares}} At each vertex, there are three great squares and six octagram isoclines that cross at the vertex and share a 16-cell axis chord.{{Efn|This is atypical for isoclinic rotations generally; normally both the left and right isoclines do not occur at the same vertex: there are two disjoint sets of vertices reachable only by the left or right rotation respectively.{{Efn|name=counter-rotating double helix}} The left and right isoclines of the 16-cell form a very special double helix: unusual not just because it is circular, but because its different left and right helices twist around each other through the ''same set'' of antipodal vertices,{{Efn|name=each 16-cell isocline reaches all 8 vertices}} not through the two ''disjoint subsets'' of antipodal vertices, as the isocline pairs do in most isoclinic rotations found in nature.{{Efn|For another example of the left and right isoclines of a rotation visiting the same set of vertices, see the [[5-cell#Geodesics and rotations|characteristic isoclinic rotation of the 5-cell]]. Although in these two special cases left and right isoclines of the same rotation visit the same set of vertices, they still take very different rotational paths because they visit the same vertices in different sequences.|name=two special cases}} Isoclinic rotations in completely orthogonal invariant planes are special.{{Efn|Each great square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal to only one of them. Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal. There is also another way in which completely orthogonal planes are in a distinguished category of Clifford parallel planes: they are not [[W:Chiral|chiral]]. A pair of isoclinic (Clifford parallel) planes is either a ''left pair'' or a ''right pair'' unless they are separated by two angles of 90° (completely orthogonal planes) or 0° (coincident planes).{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=7-8|loc=§&amp;nbsp;6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; Left and Right Pairs of Isoclinic Planes.}} Most isoclinic planes are brought together only by a left isoclinic rotation or a right isoclinic rotation, respectively. Completely orthogonal planes are special: the pair of planes is both a left and a right pair, so either a left or a right isoclinic rotation will bring them together. Because planes separated by a 90° isoclinic rotation are 180° apart, the plane to the ''left'' and the plane to the ''right'' are the same plane.{{Efn|name=exchange of completely orthogonal planes}}|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}} To see ''how'' and ''why'' they are special, visualize two completely orthogonal invariant planes of rotation, each rotating by some rotation angle ''and'' tilting sideways by the same rotation angle into a different plane entirely.{{Efn|name=isoclinic rotation}} ''Only when the rotation angle is 90°,'' that different plane in which the tilting invariant plane lands will be the completely orthogonal invariant plane itself. The destination plane of the rotation ''is'' the completely orthogonal invariant plane. The 90° isoclinic rotation is the only rotation which takes the completely orthogonal invariant planes to each other.{{Efn|name=exchange of completely orthogonal planes}} This reciprocity is the reason both left and right rotations go to the same place.}}

=== As a configuration ===
This [[W:Regular 4-polytope#As configurations|configuration matrix]] represents the 16-cell. The rows and columns correspond to vertices, edges, faces, and cells. The diagonal numbers say how many of each element occur in the whole 16-cell. The nondiagonal numbers say how many of the column's element occur in or at the row's element.

&lt;math&gt;\begin{bmatrix}\begin{matrix}8 &amp; 6 &amp; 12 &amp; 8 \\ 2 &amp; 24 &amp; 4 &amp; 4 \\ 3 &amp; 3 &amp; 32 &amp; 2 \\ 4 &amp; 6 &amp; 4 &amp; 16 \end{matrix}\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;

== Tessellations ==
One can [[W:Tessellation|tessellate]] 4-dimensional [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] by regular 16-cells. This is called the [[W:16-cell honeycomb|16-cell honeycomb]] and has [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {3,3,4,3}. Hence, the 16-cell has a [[W:Dihedral angle|dihedral angle]] of 120°.{{sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=293}} Each 16-cell has 16 neighbors with which it shares a tetrahedron, 24 neighbors with which it shares only an edge, and 72 neighbors with which it shares only a single point. Twenty-four 16-cells meet at any given vertex in this tessellation.

The dual tessellation, the [[W:24-cell honeycomb|24-cell honeycomb]], {3,4,3,3}, is made of regular [[24-cell]]s. Together with the [[W:Tesseractic honeycomb|tesseractic honeycomb]] {4,3,3,4} these are the only three [[W:List of regular polytopes#Tessellations of Euclidean 4-space|regular tessellations]] of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;.

== Projections ==
{{B4 Coxeter plane graphs|t3|150}}

[[File:Orthogonal projection envelopes 16-cell.png|thumb|Projection envelopes of the 16-cell. (Each cell is drawn with different color faces, inverted cells are undrawn)]]

The cell-first parallel projection of the 16-cell into 3-space has a [[W:cube|cubical]] envelope. The closest and farthest cells are projected to inscribed tetrahedra within the cube, corresponding with the two possible ways to inscribe a regular tetrahedron in a cube. Surrounding each of these tetrahedra are 4 other (non-regular) tetrahedral volumes that are the images of the 4 surrounding tetrahedral cells, filling up the space between the inscribed tetrahedron and the cube. The remaining 6 cells are projected onto the square faces of the cube. In this projection of the 16-cell, all its edges lie on the faces of the cubical envelope.

The cell-first perspective projection of the 16-cell into 3-space has a [[W:triakis tetrahedron|triakis tetrahedral]] envelope. The layout of the cells within this envelope are analogous to that of the cell-first parallel projection.

The vertex-first parallel [[W:Graphical projection|projection]] of the 16-cell into 3-space has an [[W:octahedron|octahedral]] [[W:projection envelope|envelope]]. This octahedron can be divided into 8 tetrahedral volumes, by cutting along the coordinate planes. Each of these volumes is the image of a pair of cells in the 16-cell. The closest vertex of the 16-cell to the viewer projects onto the center of the octahedron.

Finally the edge-first parallel projection has a shortened octahedral envelope, and the face-first parallel projection has a [[W:hexagonal bipyramid]]al envelope.

== 4 sphere Venn diagram ==
A 3-dimensional projection of the 16-cell and 4 intersecting spheres (a [[W:Venn diagram|Venn diagram]] of 4 sets) are [[W:topology|topologically]] equivalent.

{|
|-
|
{{multiple image
 | align = left  | total_width = 700
 | image1 = 4 spheres, cell 00, solid.png
 | image2 = 4 spheres, weight 1, solid.png
 | image3 = 4 spheres, weight 2, solid.png
 | image4 = 4 spheres, weight 3, solid.png
 | image5 = 4 spheres, cell 15, solid.png
 | footer = The 16 cells ordered by number of intersecting spheres (from 0 to 4) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;small&gt;(see all [[commons:Category:Venn diagrams rgby; single cells|cells]] and [[v:Tesseract and 16-cell faces|''k''-faces]])&lt;/small&gt;
}}
|
{{multiple image
 | align = right  | total_width = 290
 | image1 = 4 spheres as rings, vertical.png
 | image2 = Stereographic polytope 16cell.png
 | footer = 4 sphere Venn diagram and 16-cell projection in the same orientation
}}
|}

== Symmetry constructions ==
The 16-cell's [[W:Coxeter group|symmetry group]] is denoted [[W:B4 polytope|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]].

There is a lower symmetry form of the ''16-cell'', called a '''demitesseract''' or '''4-demicube''', a member of the [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercube]] family.{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel &amp; Goodman-Strauss|2008| loc=Chapter 26. Hemicubes: 1&lt;sub&gt;n1&lt;/sub&gt; | p=409 }} It is represented by h{4,3,3} and [[W:Coxeter diagram|Coxeter diagram]]s {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h1|4|node|3|node|3|node}} or {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|nodes_10ru|split2|node|3|node}}. It can be drawn bicolored with alternating [[W:tetrahedron|tetrahedral]] cells.

It can also be seen in lower symmetry form as a '''tetrahedral antiprism''', constructed by 2 parallel [[W:tetrahedron|tetrahedra]] in dual configurations, connected by 8 (possibly elongated) tetrahedra. It is represented by s{2,4,3}, and Coxeter diagram: {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node|3|node}}.

It can also be seen as a snub 4-[[W:Orthotope|orthotope]], represented by s{2&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;}, and Coxeter diagram: {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}} or {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|split1-22|nodes_hh}}.

With the [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] constructed as a 4-4 [[W:Duoprism|duoprism]], the 16-cell can be seen as its dual, a 4-4 [[W:Duopyramid|duopyramid]].

{| class=wikitable
!Name
![[W:Coxeter diagram|Coxeter diagram]]
![[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]]
![[W:Coxeter notation|Coxeter notation]]
!Order
![[W:Vertex figure|Vertex figure]]
|- align=center
!Regular 16-cell
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|3|node|4|node}}
|{3,3,4}
|[3,3,4]||384
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|4|node}}
|- align=center
!Demitesseract&lt;br /&gt;[[W:Quasiregular polytope|Quasiregular]] 16-cell
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|nodes_10ru|split2|node|3|node}} = {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h1|4|node|3|node|3|node}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|split1|nodes}} = {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|3|node|4|node_h0}}
|h{4,3,3}&lt;br /&gt;{3,3&lt;sup&gt;1,1&lt;/sup&gt;}
|[3&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;] = [1&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4,3,3]||192
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node|3|node_1|3|node}}
|- align=center
!Alternated 4-4 [[W:Duoprism|duoprism]]
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|label2|branch_hh|4a4b|nodes}}
|2s{4,2,4}
|[[W:4,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4|4,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4]]||64
|
|- align=center
!Tetrahedral antiprism
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node|3|node}}
|s{2,4,3}
|[2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4,3]||48
|
|- align=center
!Alternated square prism prism
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node}}
|sr{2,2,4}
|[(2,2)&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4]||16
|
|- align=center
!Snub 4-[[W:Orthotope|orthotope]]
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}} = {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|split1-22|nodes_hh}}
|s{2&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;}
|[2,2,2]&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; = [2&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;]&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;||8
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=6|4-[[W:Rhombic fusil|fusil]]
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node|3|node}}
|{3,3,4}
|[3,3,4]||384
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1|4|node}}
|{4}+{4} or 2{4}
|&lt;nowiki&gt;[[W:4,2,4|4,2,4]]&lt;/nowiki&gt; = [8,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,8]||128
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node|2x|node_f1}}
|{3,4}+{ }
|[4,3,2]||96
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|{4}+2{ }
|[4,2,2]||32
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|{ }+{ }+{ }+{ } or 4{ }
|[2,2,2]||16
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|}

== Related complex polygons ==
The [[W:Möbius–Kantor polygon|Möbius–Kantor polygon]] is a [[W:Regular complex polytope|regular complex polygon]] &lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;{3}&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|3node_1|3|3node}}, in &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}^2&lt;/math&gt; shares the same vertices as the 16-cell. It has 8 vertices, and 8 3-edges.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1991|pp=30,47}}{{Sfn|Coxeter &amp; Shephard|1992}}

The regular complex polygon, &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{4}&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|4|4node}}, in &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}^2&lt;/math&gt; has a real representation as a 16-cell in 4-dimensional space with 8 vertices, 16 2-edges, only half of the edges of the 16-cell.  Its symmetry is &lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;[4]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, order 32.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1991|p=108}}

{| class=wikitable width=320
|+ [[W:Orthographic projection|Orthographic projection]]s of &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{4}&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; polygon
|- valign=top
|[[File:Complex polygon 2-4-4.png|160px]]&lt;br /&gt;In B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; [[W:Coxeter plane|Coxeter plane]], &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{4}&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; has 8 vertices and 16 2-edges, shown here with 4 sets of colors.
|[[File:Complex polygon 2-4-4 bipartite graph.png|160px]]&lt;br /&gt;The 8 vertices are grouped in 2 sets (shown red and blue), each only connected with edges to vertices in the other set, making this polygon a [[W:Complete bipartite graph|complete bipartite graph]], K&lt;sub&gt;4,4&lt;/sub&gt;.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1991|p=114}}
|}

== Related uniform polytopes and honeycombs ==

The regular 16-cell and [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] are the regular members of a set of 15 [[W:B4 polytope|uniform 4-polytopes with the same B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; symmetry]]. The 16-cell is also one of the [[W:D4 polytope|uniform polytopes of D&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; symmetry]].

The 16-cell is also related to the [[W:Cubic honeycomb|cubic honeycomb]], [[W:Order-4 dodecahedral honeycomb|order-4 dodecahedral honeycomb]], and [[W:Order-4 hexagonal tiling honeycomb|order-4 hexagonal tiling honeycomb]] which all have [[W:Hexagonal tiling honeycomb#Polytopes and honeycombs with tetrahedral vertex figures|octahedral vertex figures]].

It belongs to the sequence of  [[W:Order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb#Related polytopes and honeycombs|{3,3,p} 4-polytopes]] which have tetrahedral cells. The sequence includes three [[W:Regular 4-polytope|regular 4-polytope]]s of Euclidean 4-space, the [[5-cell]] {3,3,3}, 16-cell {3,3,4}, and [[600-cell]] {3,3,5}), and the [[W:Order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb|order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb]] {3,3,6} of hyperbolic space.

It is first in a sequence of [[W:Tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb#Quasuiregular honeycombs|quasiregular polytopes and honeycombs]] h{4,p,q}, and a [[W:Order-4 hexagonal tiling honeycomb#Quasiregular honeycombs|half symmetry sequence]], for regular forms {p,3,4}.

== See also ==
*[[24-cell]]
*[[W:4-polytope|4-polytope]]
*[[W:D4 polytope|D4 polytope]]

== Notes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}}

== Citations ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/incmats/hex.htm hex], at [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/home.htm Klitzing polytopes]
* [https://polytope.miraheze.org/wiki/Hexadecachoron Hexadecachoron], at [https://polytope.miraheze.org/wiki/Main_Page Polytope wiki]
* [http://hi.gher.space/wiki/Aerochoron Aerochoron], at [http://hi.gher.space/wiki/Main_Page Higher space]
* [https://www.qfbox.info/4d/uniform Uniform polychora (The tesseract/16-cell family)], at [https://www.qfbox.info/4d/index 4D Euclidean Space]

[[Category:Geometry]]
[[Category:Polyscheme]]</text>
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      <text bytes="59402" sha1="qie3tbeq1h6t6muxbdedsoyfnsfcjix" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Four-dimensional analog of the octahedron}}
{{Polyscheme|radius=an '''expanded version''' of}}
{{Infobox 4-polytope |
  Name=16-cell&lt;br /&gt;(4-orthoplex)|
  Image_File=Schlegel wireframe 16-cell.png|
  Image_Caption=[[W:Schlegel diagram|Schlegel diagram]]&lt;br /&gt;(vertices and edges)|
  Type=[[W:Convex regular 4-polytope|Convex regular 4-polytope]]&lt;br /&gt;4-[[W:Orthoplex|orthoplex]]&lt;br /&gt;4-[[W:Demihypercube|demicube]]|
  Last=[[W:Rectified tesseract|11]]|
  Index=12|
  Next=[[W:Truncated tesseract|13]]|
  Schläfli={3,3,4}|
  CD={{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|3|node|4|node}} |
  Cell_List=16 [[W:Tetrahedron|{3,3}]] [[File:3-simplex t0.svg|25px]]|
  Face_List=32 [[W:Triangle|{3}]] [[File:2-simplex t0.svg|25px]]|
  Edge_Count= 24|
  Vertex_Count= 8|
  Petrie_Polygon=[[W:Octagon|octagon]]|
  Coxeter_Group=B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, [3,3,4], order 384&lt;br /&gt;D&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, order 192|
  Vertex_Figure=[[File:16-cell verf.svg|80px]]&lt;br /&gt;[[W:Octahedron|Octahedron]]|
  Dual=[[W:Tesseract|Tesseract]]|
  Property_List=[[W:Convex polytope|convex]], [[W:Isogonal figure|isogonal]], [[W:Isotoxal figure|isotoxal]], [[W:Isohedral figure|isohedral]], [[W:Regular polytope|regular]], [[W:Hanner polytope|Hanner polytope]]
}}
In [[W:Geometry|geometry]], the '''16-cell''' is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] (four-dimensional analogue of a Platonic solid) with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {3,3,4}. It is one of the six regular convex 4-polytopes first described by the Swiss mathematician [[W:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] in the mid-19th century.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=141|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7-x. Historical remarks}} It is also called '''C&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;''', '''hexadecachoron''',&lt;ref&gt;[[W:Norman Johnson (mathematician)|N.W. Johnson]]: ''Geometries and Transformations'', (2018) {{ISBN|978-1-107-10340-5}} Chapter 11: ''Finite Symmetry Groups'', 11.5 ''Spherical Coxeter groups'', p.249&lt;/ref&gt; or '''hexdecahedroid'''.&lt;ref&gt;Matila Ghyka, ''The Geometry of Art and Life'' (1977), p.68&lt;/ref&gt;

It is the 4-dimesional member of an infinite family of polytopes called [[W:Cross-polytope|cross-polytope]]s, ''orthoplexes'', or ''hyperoctahedrons'' which are analogous to the [[W:Cctahedron|octahedron]] in three dimensions. It is Coxeter's &lt;math&gt;\beta_4&lt;/math&gt; polytope.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=120=121|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.2. See illustration Fig 7.2&lt;small&gt;B&lt;/small&gt;}} The [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] is the [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] (4-[[W:Hypercube|cube]]), which it can be combined with to form [[W:Compound of tesseract and 16-cell|a compound figure]]. The cells of the 16-cell are dual to the 16 vertices of the tesseract.

== Geometry ==
The 16-cell is the second in the sequence of 6 convex regular 4-polytopes (in order of size and complexity).{{Efn|name=4-polytopes ordered by size and complexity|group=}}

Each of its 4 successor convex regular 4-polytopes can be constructed as the [[W:Convex hull|convex hull]] of a [[W:Polytope compound|polytope compound]] of multiple 16-cells: the 16-vertex [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] as a compound of two 16-cells, the 24-vertex [[24-cell]] as a compound of three 16-cells, the 120-vertex [[600-cell]] as a compound of fifteen 16-cells, and the 600-vertex [[120-cell]] as a compound of seventy-five 16-cells.{{Efn|There are 2 and only 2 16-cells inscribed in the 8-cell (tesseract), 3 and only 3 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell, 75 distinct 16-cells (but only 15 disjoint 16-cells) inscribed in the 600-cell, and 675 distinct 16-cells (but only 75 disjoint 16-cells) inscribed in the 120-cell.}}

{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:}}

=== Coordinates ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;
!colspan=2|Disjoint squares
|-
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;
!colspan=2|''xy'' plane
|-
|( 0, 1, 0, 0)||( 0, 0,-1, 0)
|-
|( 0, 0, 1, 0)||( 0,-1, 0, 0)
|}
|-
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;
!colspan=2|''wz'' plane
|-
|( 1, 0, 0, 0)||( 0, 0, 0,-1)
|-
|( 0, 0, 0, 1)||(-1, 0, 0, 0)
|}
|}The 16-cell is the 4-dimensional [[W:Cross polytope|cross polytope (4-orthoplex)]], which means its vertices lie in opposite pairs on the 4 axes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system.

The eight vertices are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by edges except opposite pairs. The edge length is {{radic|2}}.

The vertex coordinates form 6 [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] central squares lying in the 6 coordinate planes. Squares in ''opposite'' planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal ''basis'']] for the choice of a 4-dimensional reference frame, because its vertices exactly define the four orthogonal axes.

=== Structure ===
The [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] of the 16-cell is {3,3,4}, indicating that its cells are [[W:Regular tetrahedron|regular tetrahedra]] {3,3} and its [[W:Vertex figure|vertex figure]] is a [[W:Regular octahedron|regular octahedron]] {3,4}. There are 8 tetrahedra, 12 triangles, and 6 edges meeting at every vertex. Its [[W:Edge figure|edge figure]] is a square. There are 4 tetrahedra and 4 triangles meeting at every edge.

The 16-cell is [[W:Totally bounded|bounded]] by 16 [[W:Cell (mathematics)|cells]], all of which are regular [[W:Tetrahedron|tetrahedra]].{{Efn|The boundary surface of a 16-cell is a finite 3-dimensional space consisting of 16 tetrahedra arranged face-to-face (four around one). It is a closed, tightly curved (non-Euclidean) 3-space, within which we can move straight through 4 tetrahedra in any direction and arrive back in the tetrahedron where we started. We can visualize moving around inside this tetrahedral [[W:Jungle gym|jungle gym]], climbing from one tetrahedron into another on its 24 struts (its edges), and never being able to get out (or see out) of the 16 tetrahedra no matter what direction we go (or look). We are always on (or in) the ''surface'' of the 16-cell, never inside the 16-cell itself (nor outside it). We can see that the 6 edges around each vertex radiate symmetrically in 3 dimensions and form an orthogonal 3-axis cross, just as the radii of an octahedron do (so we say the vertex figure of the 16-cell is the octahedron).{{Efn|name=octahedral pyramid}}}} It has 32 [[W:Triangle (geometry)|triangular]] [[W:Face (geometry)|faces]], 24 [[W:Edge (geometry)|edges]], and 8 [[W:Vertex (geometry)|vertices]]. The 24 edges bound 6 [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] central squares lying on [[W:Great circle|great circles]] in the 6 coordinate planes (3 pairs of completely orthogonal great squares). At each vertex, 3 great squares cross perpendicularly. The 6 edges meet at the vertex the way 6 edges meet at the [[W:Apex (geometry)|apex]] of a canonical [[W:Octahedral pyramid|octahedral pyramid]].{{Efn|Each vertex in the 16-cell is the apex of an [[W:Octahedral pyramid|octahedral pyramid]], the base of which is the octahedron formed by the 6 other vertices to which the apex is connected by edges. The 16-cell can be deconstructed (four different ways) into two octahedral pyramids by cutting it in half through one of its four octahedral central hyperplanes. Looked at from inside the curved 3 dimensional volume of its boundary surface of 16 face-bonded tetrahedra, the 16-cell's vertex figure is an octahedron. In 4 dimensions, the vertex octahedron is actually an octahedral pyramid. The apex of the octahedral pyramid (the vertex where the 6 edges meet) is not actually at the center of the octahedron: it is displaced radially outwards in the fourth dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the octahedron's 6 vertices. The 6 edges around the vertex make an orthogonal 3-axis cross in 3 dimensions (and in the [[W:Octahedral pyramid|3-dimensional projection of the 4-pyramid]]), but the 3 lines are actually bent 90 degrees in the fourth dimension where they meet in an apex.|name=octahedral pyramid}} The 6 orthogonal central planes of the 16-cell can be divided into 4 orthogonal central hyperplanes (3-spaces) each forming an [[W:Octahedron|octahedron]] with 3 orthogonal great squares.

=== Rotations ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=480
|- align=center valign=top
|rowspan=2|[[File:16-cell.gif]]&lt;br /&gt;A 3D projection of a 16-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Simple rotations|simple rotation]]
|[[File:16-cell-orig.gif]]&lt;br /&gt;A 3D projection of a 16-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]]
|}
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] planes.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=6|loc=§&amp;nbsp;5. Four-Dimensional Rotations}} The 16-cell is a simple frame in which to observe 4-dimensional rotations, because each of the 16-cell's 6 great squares has another completely orthogonal great square (there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal squares).{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} Many rotations of the 16-cell can be characterized by the angle of rotation in one of its great square planes (e.g. the ''xy'' plane) and another angle of rotation in the completely orthogonal great square plane (the ''wz'' plane).{{Efn|Each great square vertex is {{radic|2}} distant from two of the square's other vertices, and {{radic|4}} distant from its opposite vertex. The other four vertices of the 16-cell (also {{radic|2}} distant) are the vertices of the square's completely orthogonal square.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel great squares}} Each 16-cell vertex is a vertex of ''three'' orthogonal great squares which intersect there. Each great square has a different ''completely'' orthogonal great square. Thus there are three great squares completely orthogonal to each vertex: squares that the vertex is not part of.{{Efn|The three ''incompletely'' orthogonal great squares which intersect at each vertex of the 16-cell form the vertex's octahedral [[W:Vertex figure|vertex figure]].{{Efn|name=octahedral pyramid}} Any two of them, together with the completely orthogonal square of the third, also form an octahedron: a central octahedral hyperplane.{{Efn|Three great squares meet at each vertex (and at its opposite vertex) in the 16-cell. Each of them has a different completely orthogonal square. Thus there are three great squares completely orthogonal to each vertex and its opposite vertex (each axis). They form an octahedron (a central hyperplane). Every axis line in the 16-cell is completely orthogonal to a central octahedron hyperplane, as every great square plane is completely orthogonal to another great square plane.{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} The axis and the octahedron intersect only at one point (the center of the 16-cell), as each pair of completely orthogonal great squares intersects only at one point (the center of the 16-cell). Each central octahedron is also the octahedral vertex figure of two of the eight vertices: the two on its completely orthogonal axis.|name=octahedral hyperplanes}} In the 16-cell, each octahedral vertex figure is also a central octahedral hyperplane.|name=completely orthogonal great squares}}|name=vertex and central octahedra}} Completely orthogonal great squares have disjoint vertices: 4 of the 16-cell's 8 vertices rotate in one plane, and the other 4 rotate independently in the completely orthogonal plane.{{Efn|Completely orthogonal great squares are non-intersecting and rotate independently because the great circles on which their vertices lie are [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]].{{Efn|[[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point.{{Sfn|Tyrrell &amp; Semple|1971|loc=§&amp;nbsp;3. Clifford's original definition of parallelism|pp=5-6}} A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=7-10|loc=§&amp;nbsp;6. Angles between two Planes in 4-Space}} In the 16-cell the corresponding vertices of completely orthogonal great circle squares are all {{radic|2}} apart, so these squares are Clifford parallel polygons.{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}} Note that only the vertices of the great squares (the points on the great circle) are {{radic|2}} apart; points on the edges of the squares (on chords of the circle) are closer together.|name=Clifford parallels}} They are {{radic|2}} apart at each pair of nearest vertices (and in the 16-cell ''all'' the pairs except antipodal pairs are nearest). The two squares cannot intersect at all because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell.{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two squares are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel squares in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent square links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]].|name=Clifford parallel great squares}}

In 2 or 3 dimensions a rotation is characterized by a single plane of rotation; this kind of rotation taking place in 4-space is called a [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Simple rotations|simple rotation]], in which only one of the two completely orthogonal planes rotates (the angle of rotation in the other plane is 0). In the 16-cell, a simple rotation in one of the 6 orthogonal planes moves only 4 of the 8 vertices; the other 4 remain fixed. (In the simple rotation animation above, all 8 vertices move because the plane of rotation is not one of the 6 orthogonal basis planes.)

In a [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|double rotation]] both sets of 4 vertices move, but independently: the angles of rotation may be different in the 2 completely orthogonal planes. If the two angles happen to be the same, a maximally symmetric [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] takes place.{{Efn|In an isoclinic rotation, all 6 orthogonal planes are displaced in two orthogonal directions at once: they are rotated by the angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. An isoclinic displacement (also known as a [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement) is 4-dimensionally diagonal. Points are displaced an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, and displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance#Higher dimensions|Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance (which is two times that distance). For example, when the unit-radius 16-cell rotates isoclinically 90° in a great square invariant plane, it also rotates 90° in the completely orthogonal great square invariant plane.{{Efn||name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} The great square plane tilts sideways 90° to occupy its completely orthogonal plane. (By isoclinic symmetry, ''every'' great square plane rotates 90° ''and'' tilts sideways 90° into its completely orthogonal plane.) Each vertex (in every great square) is displaced to its antipodal vertex, at a distance of {{radic|1}} in each of four orthogonal directions, a total distance of {{radic|4}}. The original and displaced vertex are two edge lengths apart by three{{Efn|There are six different two-edge paths connecting a pair of antipodal vertices along the edges of a great square. The left isoclinic rotation runs diagonally between three of them, and the right isoclinic rotation runs diagonally between the other three. These diagonals are the straight lines (geodesics) connecting opposite vertices of face-bonded tetrahedral cells in the left-handed [[#Helical construction|eight-cell ring]] and the right-handed eight-cell ring, respectively.}} different paths along two edges of a great square. But the ''isocline'' (the helical arc the vertex follows during the isoclinic rotation) does not run along edges: it runs ''between'' these different edge-paths diagonally, on a geodesic (shortest arc) between the original and displaced vertices.{{Efn|name=isocline}} This isoclinic geodesic arc is not a segment of an ordinary great circle; it does not lie in the plane of any great square. It is a helical 90° arc that bends in a circle in two completely orthogonal planes at once. This [[W:Möbius loop|Möbius circle]] does not lie in any one great circle plane, or intersect any vertices of the 16-cell between the original and the displaced vertex.{{Efn|name=Möbius circle}}|name=isoclinic rotation}} In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90 degrees of any pair of completely orthogonal square planes takes every square plane to its completely orthogonal square plane in a twisting displacement, as they tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally.{{Efn|The 90 degree isoclinic rotation of two completely orthogonal planes takes them to each other. In such a rotation of a rigid 16-cell, all 6 orthogonal planes rotate by 90 degrees, and also tilt sideways by 90 degrees to their completely orthogonal (Clifford parallel){{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} plane.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} The two completely orthogonal planes are 90° apart, in the two orthogonal angles that separate them. If the isoclinic rotation is continued through another 90°, each great square returns to its original plane, but in a different orientation; the vertices are not returned to their original positions. Continuing through a 720° isoclinic rotation (through eight 90° isoclinic displacements) returns everything to its original place and orientation.|name=exchange of completely orthogonal planes}} All the vertices move at once on separate circular [[w:Geodesic|geodesics]], displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces a circular helix in 4-space, and also traces a great circle twice in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic rotation each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

=== Constructions ===

==== Octahedral dipyramid ====
{|class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;
!Octahedron &lt;math&gt;\beta_3&lt;/math&gt;
!16-cell &lt;math&gt;\beta_4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|[[File:3-cube t2.svg|160px]]
|[[File:4-demicube t0 D4.svg|160px]]
|-
|colspan=2|Orthogonal projections to skew hexagon hyperplane
|}
The simplest construction of the 16-cell is on the 3-dimensional cross polytope, the [[W:Octahedron|octahedron]]. The octahedron has 3 perpendicular axes and 6 vertices in 3 opposite pairs (its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]] is the [[W:Hexagon|hexagon]]). Add another pair of vertices, on a fourth axis perpendicular to all 3 of the other axes. Connect each new vertex to all 6 of the original vertices, adding 12 new edges. This raises two [[W:Octahedral pyramid|octahedral pyramid]]s on a shared octahedron base that lies in the 16-cell's central hyperplane.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=121|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.21. See illustration Fig 7.2&lt;small&gt;B&lt;/small&gt;|ps=: &quot;&lt;math&gt;\beta_4&lt;/math&gt; is a four-dimensional dipyramid based on &lt;math&gt;\beta_3&lt;/math&gt; (with its two apices in opposite directions along the fourth dimension).&quot;}}

[[File:stereographic_polytope_16cell_colour.png|thumb|[[W:Stereographic projection|Stereographic projection]] of the 16-cell's 6 orthogonal central squares onto their great circles. Each circle is divided into 4 arc-edges at the intersections where 3 circles cross perpendicularly. Notice that each circle has one Clifford parallel circle that it does ''not'' intersect. Those two circles pass through each other like adjacent links in a chain.]]The octahedron that the construction starts with has three perpendicular intersecting squares (which appear as rectangles in the hexagonal projections). Each square intersects with each of the other squares at two opposite vertices, with ''two'' of the squares crossing at each vertex. Then two more points are added in the fourth dimension (above and below the 3-dimensional hyperplane). These new vertices are connected to all the octahedron's vertices, creating 12 new edges and ''three more squares'' (which appear edge-on as the 3 ''diameters'' of the hexagon in the projection), and three more octahedra.{{Efn|name=octahedral hyperplanes}}

Something unprecedented has also been created. Notice that each square no longer intersects with ''all'' of the other squares: it does intersect with four of them (with ''three'' of the squares crossing at each vertex now), but each square has ''one'' other square with which it shares ''no'' vertices: it is not directly connected to that square at all. These two ''separate'' perpendicular squares (there are three pairs of them) are like the opposite edges of a [[W:Tetrahedron|tetrahedron]]: perpendicular, but non-intersecting. They lie opposite each other (parallel in some sense), and they don't touch, but they also pass through each other like two perpendicular links in a chain (but unlike links in a chain they have a common center). They are an example of '''''Clifford parallels''''', and the 16-cell is the simplest regular polytope in which they occur. [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] parallelism{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} of objects of more than one dimension (more than just curved ''lines'') emerges here and occurs in all the subsequent 4-dimensional regular polytopes, where it can be seen as the defining relationship ''among'' disjoint concentric regular 4-polytopes and their corresponding parts. It can occur between congruent (similar) polytopes of 2 or more dimensions.{{Sfn|Tyrrell &amp; Semple|1971}} For example, as noted [[#Geometry|above]] all the subsequent convex regular 4-polytopes are compounds of multiple 16-cells; those 16-cells are [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel polytopes]].

==== Tetrahedral constructions ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=480
|- align=center valign=top
|[[File:16-cell net.png|180px|]]
|[[File:16-cell nets.png|180px]]
|}

The 16-cell has two [[W:Wythoff construction|Wythoff construction]]s from regular tetrahedra, a regular form and alternated form, shown here as [[W:Net (polyhedron)|nets]], the second represented by tetrahedral cells of two alternating colors. The alternated form is a [[#Symmetry constructions|lower symmetry construction]] of the 16-cell called the [[W:Demitesseract|demitesseract]].

Wythoff's construction replicates the 16-cell's [[5-cell#Orthoschemes|characteristic 5-cell]] in a [[W:Kaleidoscope|kaleidoscope]] of mirrors. Every regular 4-polytope has its characteristic 4-orthoscheme, an [[5-cell#Irregular 5-cells|irregular 5-cell]].{{Efn|An [[W:Orthoscheme|orthoscheme]] is a [[W:Chiral|chiral]] irregular [[W:simplex|simplex]] with [[W:Right triangle|right triangle]] faces that is characteristic of some polytope if it will exactly fill that polytope with the reflections of itself in its own [[W:Facet (geometry)|facets]] (its ''mirror walls''). Every regular polytope can be dissected radially into instances of its [[W:Orthoscheme#Characteristic simplex of the general regular polytope|characteristic orthoscheme]] surrounding its center. The characteristic orthoscheme has the shape described by the same [[W:Coxeter-Dynkin diagram|Coxeter-Dynkin diagram]] as the regular polytope without the ''generating point'' ring.|name=characteristic orthoscheme}} There are three regular 4-polytopes with tetrahedral cells: the [[5-cell]], the 16-cell, and the [[600-cell]]. Although all are bounded by ''regular'' tetrahedron cells, their characteristic 5-cells (4-orthoschemes) are different [[5-cell#Isometries|tetrahedral pyramids]], all based on the same characteristic ''irregular'' tetrahedron. They share the same [[W:Tetrahedron#Orthoschemes|characteristic tetrahedron]] (3-orthoscheme) and characteristic [[W:Right triangle|right triangle]] (2-orthoscheme) because they have the same kind of cell.{{Efn|A regular polytope of dimension ''k'' has a characteristic ''k''-orthoscheme, and also a characteristic (''k''-1)-orthoscheme. A regular 4-polytope has a characteristic 5-cell (4-orthoscheme) into which it is subdivided by its (3-dimensional) hyperplanes of symmetry, and also a characteristic tetrahedron (3-orthoscheme) into which its surface is subdivided by its cells' (2-dimensional) planes of symmetry. After subdividing its (3-dimensional) surface into characteristic tetrahedra surrounding each cell center, its (4-dimensional) interior can be subdivided into characteristic 5-cells by adding radii joining the vertices of the surface characteristic tetrahedra to the 4-polytope's center.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=130|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.6|ps=; &quot;simplicial subdivision&quot;.}} The interior tetrahedra and triangles thus formed will also be orthoschemes.}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;
!colspan=6|Characteristics of the 16-cell{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=292-293|loc=Table I(ii); &quot;16-cell, 𝛽&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&quot;}}
|-
!align=right|
!align=center|edge{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=139|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.9 The characteristic simplex}}
!colspan=2 align=center|arc
!colspan=2 align=center|dihedral{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=290|loc=Table I(ii); &quot;dihedral angles&quot;}}
|-
!align=right|𝒍
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \approx 1.414&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;120°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{2\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!align=right|𝟀
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{2}{3}} \approx 0.816&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60″&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|𝝉{{Efn|{{Harv|Coxeter|1973}} uses the greek letter 𝝓 (phi) to represent one of the three ''characteristic angles'' 𝟀, 𝝓, 𝟁 of a regular polytope. Because 𝝓 is commonly used to represent the [[W:Golden ratio|golden ratio]] constant ≈ 1.618, for which Coxeter uses 𝝉 (tau), we reverse Coxeter's conventions, and use 𝝉 to represent the characteristic angle.|name=reversed greek symbols}}
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}} \approx 0.707&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;45″&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;45°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|𝟁
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{6}} \approx 0.408&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;30″&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{6}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_0R^3/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{3}{4}} \approx 0.866&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_1R^3/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}} = 0.5&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;45°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_2R^3/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{12}} \approx 0.289&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;30°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{6}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_0R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_1R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}} \approx 0.707&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_2R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{3}} \approx 0.577&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_3R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}} = 0.5&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|}
The '''characteristic 5-cell of the regular 16-cell''' is represented by the [[W:Coxeter-Dynkin diagram|Coxeter-Dynkin diagram]] {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node|3|node|3|node|4|node}}, which can be read as a list of the dihedral angles between its mirror facets. It is an irregular [[W:Pyramid (mathematics)#Polyhedral pyramid|tetrahedral pyramid]] based on the [[W:Tetrahedron#Orthoschemes|characteristic tetrahedron of the regular tetrahedron]]. The regular 16-cell is subdivided by its symmetry hyperplanes into 384 instances of its characteristic 5-cell that all meet at its center.

The characteristic 5-cell (4-orthoscheme) has four more edges than its base characteristic tetrahedron (3-orthoscheme), joining the four vertices of the base to its apex (the fifth vertex of the 4-orthoscheme, at the center of the regular 16-cell).{{Efn|The four edges of each 4-orthoscheme which meet at the center of a regular 4-polytope are of unequal length, because they are the four characteristic radii of the regular 4-polytope: a vertex radius, an edge center radius, a face center radius, and a cell center radius. The five vertices of the 4-orthoscheme always include one regular 4-polytope vertex, one regular 4-polytope edge center, one regular 4-polytope face center, one regular 4-polytope cell center, and the regular 4-polytope center. Those five vertices (in that order) comprise a path along four mutually perpendicular edges (that makes three right angle turns), the characteristic feature of a 4-orthoscheme. The 4-orthoscheme has five dissimilar 3-orthoscheme facets.|name=characteristic radii}} If the regular 16-cell has unit radius edge and edge length 𝒍 = &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, its characteristic 5-cell's ten edges have lengths &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{2}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{6}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; around its exterior right-triangle face (the edges opposite the ''characteristic angles'' 𝟀, 𝝉, 𝟁),{{Efn|name=reversed greek symbols}} plus &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{3}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{12}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; (the other three edges of the exterior 3-orthoscheme facet the characteristic tetrahedron, which are the ''characteristic radii'' of the regular tetrahedron), plus &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; (edges which are the characteristic radii of the regular 16-cell). The 4-edge path along orthogonal edges of the orthoscheme is &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{6}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, first from a 16-cell vertex to a 16-cell edge center, then turning 90° to a 16-cell face center, then turning 90° to a 16-cell tetrahedral cell center, then turning 90° to the 16-cell center.

==== Helical construction ====
[[File:Eight face-bonded tetrahedra.jpg|thumb|A 4-dimensional ring of 8 face-bonded tetrahedra, seen in the [[W:Boerdijk–Coxeter helix|Boerdijk–Coxeter helix]], bounded by three eight-edge circular paths of different colors, cut and laid out flat in 3-dimensional space. It contains an ''isocline'' axis (not shown), a helical circle of circumference 4𝝅 that twists through all four dimensions and visits all 8 vertices.{{Efn|name=isocline}} The two blue-blue-yellow triangles at either end of the cut ring are the same object.]]
[[File:16-cell 8-ring net4.png|thumb|Net and orthogonal projection]]

A 16-cell can be constructed (three different ways) from two [[W:Boerdijk–Coxeter helix|Boerdijk–Coxeter helix]]es of eight chained tetrahedra, each bent in the fourth dimension into a ring.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1970|loc=Table 2: Reflexible honeycombs and their groups|p=45|ps=; Honeycomb [3,3,4]&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; is a tiling of the 3-sphere by 2 rings of 8 tetrahedral cells.}}{{Sfn|Banchoff|2013}} The two circular helixes share the same 8 vertices and 24 edges, but their tetrahedra are disjoint. The helixes spiral around each other, nest into each other and pass through each other forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]. 16 of the 32 triangle faces can be seen in a 2D net within a [[W:Triangular tiling|triangular tiling]], with 6 triangles around every vertex. The [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]] of the 16-cell is a skew octagon, visible as the purple edges in the octagon orthogonal projection, and as the light blue edges in the tetrahedral helix. Each eight-cell ring of tetrahedra actually contains three such skew [[W:Octagram|octagram]]s of different colors, eight-edge circular paths that wind twice around the 16-cell on every third vertex of the octagram. The orange and yellow edges are two four-edge halves of one skew octagram, which join their ends to form a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius strip]].

Thus the 16-cell can be decomposed into two cell-disjoint circular chains of eight tetrahedrons each, four edges long, one spiraling to the right (clockwise) and the other spiraling to the left (counterclockwise). The left-handed and right-handed cell rings fit together, nesting into each other and entirely filling the 16-cell, even though they are of opposite chirality. This decomposition can be seen in a 4-4 [[W:Duoantiprism|duoantiprism]] construction of the 16-cell: {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}} or {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node|4|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node}}, [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {2}⨂{2} or s{2}s{2}, [[W:Coxeter notation|symmetry]] [4,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4], order 64.

Three eight-edge paths (of different colors) spiral along each eight-cell ring, making 90° angles at each vertex. (In the Boerdijk–Coxeter helix before it is bent into a ring, the angles in different paths vary, but are not 90°.) Three paths (with three different colors and apparent angles) pass through each vertex. When the helix is bent into a ring, the segments of each eight-edge path (of various lengths) join their ends, forming a Möbius strip eight edges long along its single-sided circumference of 4𝝅, and one edge wide.{{Efn|name=Möbius circle}} The six four-edge halves of the three eight-edge paths each make four 90° angles, but they are ''not'' the six orthogonal great squares: they are open-ended squares, four-edge 360° helices whose open ends are [[W:Antipodal point|antipodal]] vertices. The four edges come from four different great squares, and are mutually orthogonal. Combined end-to-end in pairs of the same [[W:Chirality|chirality]], the six four-edge paths make three eight-edge Möbius loops, [[W:Helix|helical]] octagrams. Each octagram is both a [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]] of the 16-cell, and the helical track along which all eight vertices rotate together, in one of the 16-cell's distinct isoclinic [[#Rotations|rotations]].{{Efn|The 16-cell can be constructed from two cell-disjoint eight-cell rings in three different ways; it has three orientations of its pair of rings. Each orientation &quot;contains&quot; a distinct left-right pair of isoclinic rotations, and also a pair of completely orthogonal great squares (Clifford parallel fibers), so each orientation is a discrete [[W:Hopf fibration|fibration]] of the 16-cell. Each eight-cell ring contains three axial octagrams which have different orientations (they exchange roles) in the three discrete fibrations and six distinct isoclinic rotations (three left and three right) through the cell rings. Three octagrams (of different colors) can be seen in the illustration of a single cell ring, one in the role of Petrie polygon, one as the right isocline, and one as the left isocline. Because each octagram plays three roles, there are exactly six distinct isoclines in the 16-cell, not 18.|name=only one disjoint pair of eight-cell rings}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=610
!colspan=5|Five ways of looking at the same [[W:Skew polygon|skew]] [[W:Octagram|octagram]]{{Efn|All five views are the same orthogonal projection of the 16-cell into the same plane (a circular cross-section of the eight-cell ring cylinder), looking along the central axis of the cut ring cylinder pictured above, from one end of the cylinder. The only difference is which {{radic|2}} edges and {{radic|4}} chords are ''omitted'' for focus. The different colors of {{radic|2}} edges appear to be of different lengths because they are oblique to the viewer at different angles. Vertices are numbered 1 (top) through 8 in counterclockwise order.}}
|-
![[#Rotations|Edge path]]
![[W:Petrie polygon#The Petrie polygon of regular polychora (4-polytopes)|Petrie polygon]]{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=292-293|loc=Table I(ii); 24-cell ''h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''}}
!16-cell
![[W:Hopf fibration|Discrete fibration]]
![[#Coordinates|Diameter chords]]
|-
![[W:Octagram|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/3}&lt;/sub&gt;{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=292-293|loc=Table I(ii); 24-cell ''h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''}}
![[W:Petrie polygon#The Petrie polygon of regular polychora (4-polytopes)|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/1}&lt;/sub&gt;
![[W:Coxeter element#Coxeter plane|Coxeter plane]] [[W:B4 polytope|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]]
![[W:Octagram#Star polygon compounds|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/2}=2{4}&lt;/sub&gt;
![[W:Octagram#Star polygon compounds|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/4}=4{2}&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram (8-3).png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram (8).png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram.png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram 2(4).png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram 4(2).png|120px]]
|-
|The eight {{radic|2}} chords of the edge-path of an isocline.{{Efn|name=isocline curve}}
|Skew [[W:Octagon|octagon]] of eight {{radic|2}} edges. The 16-cell has 6 of these 8-vertex circuits.
|All 24 {{radic|2}} edges and the four {{radic|4}} orthogonal axes.
|Two completely orthogonal (disjoint) great squares of {{radic|2}} edges.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel great squares}}
|The four {{radic|4}} chords of an isocline. Every fourth isocline vertex is joined to its antipodal vertex by a 16-cell axis.{{Efn|Each isocline has the eight continuous {{radic|2}} chords of its octagram&lt;sub&gt;{8/3}&lt;/sub&gt; edge-path, and also four discontinuous {{radic|4}} diameter chords that connect every ''fourth'' vertex on the octagram but do not connect to each other. Antipodal vertices also have a twisted continuous path of four mutually orthogonal {{radic|2}} edges connecting them. Between antipodal vertices, the isocline curves smoothly around in a helix over the four {{radic|2}} chords of its edge-path, hitting the three intervening vertices. Each {{radic|2}} edge is an edge of a great square, that is completely orthogonal to another great square, in which the {{radic|4}} chord is a diagonal.|name=isocline curve}}
|}
Each eight-edge helix is a [[W:Skew polygon|skew]] [[W:Octagram|octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/3}&lt;/sub&gt; that [[W:Winding number|winds three times]] around the 16-cell and visits every vertex before closing into a loop. Its eight {{radic|2}} edges are chords of an ''isocline'', a helical geodesic on which the 8 vertices circle during an isoclinic rotation.{{Efn|An isocline is a circle of special kind corresponding to a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s linked in a [[W:Möbius loop|Möbius loop]]. It curves through four dimensions instead of just two. All ordinary circles have a 2𝝅 circumference, but the 16-cell's isocline is a circle with an 4𝝅 circumference (over eight 90° chords). An isocline is a circle that does not lie in a plane, but to avoid confusion we always refer to it as an ''isocline'' and reserve the term ''circle'' for an ordinary circle in the plane.|name=Möbius circle}} All eight 16-cell vertices are {{radic|2}} apart except for opposite (antipodal) vertices, which are {{radic|4}} apart. A vertex moving on the isocline visits three other vertices that are {{radic|2}} apart before reaching the fourth vertex that is {{radic|4}} away.{{Efn|In the 16-cell, two antipodal vertices are opposite vertices of two face-bonded tetrahedral cells. The two antipodal vertices are connected by (three different) two-edge great circle paths along edges of the tetrahedral cells, by various three-edge paths, and by four-edge paths on isoclines and Petrie polygons. {{Efn|name=Möbius circle}}|name=isocline}}

The eight-cell ring is [[W:Chiral|chiral]]: there is a right-handed form which spirals clockwise, and a left-handed form which spirals counterclockwise. The 16-cell contains one of each, so it also contains a left and a right isocline; the isocline is the circular axis around which the eight-cell ring twists. Each isocline visits all eight vertices of the 16-cell.{{Efn|In the 16-cell each ''single'' isocline winds through all 8 vertices: an entire [[W:Hopf fibration|fibration]] of two completely orthogonal great squares.{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}} The 5-cell and the 16-cell are the only regular 4-polytopes where each discrete fibration has just one isocline fiber.{{Efn|Except in the 5-cell and 16-cell,{{Efn|name=two special cases}} a pair of left and right isocline circles have disjoint vertices: the left and right isocline helices are non-intersecting parallels but counter-rotating, forming a special kind of double helix which cannot occur in three dimensions (where counter-rotating helices of the same radius must intersect).|name=counter-rotating double helix}}|name=each 16-cell isocline reaches all 8 vertices}} Each eight-cell ring contains half of the 16 cells, but all 8 vertices; the two rings share the vertices, as they nest into each other and fit together. They also share the 24 edges, though left and right octagram helices are different eight-edge paths.{{Efn|The left and right isoclines intersect each other at every vertex. They are different sequences of the same set of 8 vertices. With respect only to the set of 4 vertex pairs which are {{radic|2}} apart, they can be considered to be Clifford parallel. With respect only to the set of 4 vertex pairs which are {{radic|4}} apart, they can be considered to be completely orthogonal.{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}}}}

Because there are three pairs of completely orthogonal great squares,{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} there are three congruent ways to compose a 16-cell from two eight-cell rings. The 16-cell contains three left-right pairs of eight-cell rings in different orientations, with each cell ring containing its axial isocline.{{Efn|name=only one disjoint pair of eight-cell rings}} Each left-right pair of isoclines is the track of a left-right pair of distinct isoclinic rotations: the rotations in one pair of completely orthogonal invariant planes of rotation.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel great squares}} At each vertex, there are three great squares and six octagram isoclines that cross at the vertex and share a 16-cell axis chord.{{Efn|This is atypical for isoclinic rotations generally; normally both the left and right isoclines do not occur at the same vertex: there are two disjoint sets of vertices reachable only by the left or right rotation respectively.{{Efn|name=counter-rotating double helix}} The left and right isoclines of the 16-cell form a very special double helix: unusual not just because it is circular, but because its different left and right helices twist around each other through the ''same set'' of antipodal vertices,{{Efn|name=each 16-cell isocline reaches all 8 vertices}} not through the two ''disjoint subsets'' of antipodal vertices, as the isocline pairs do in most isoclinic rotations found in nature.{{Efn|For another example of the left and right isoclines of a rotation visiting the same set of vertices, see the [[5-cell#Geodesics and rotations|characteristic isoclinic rotation of the 5-cell]]. Although in these two special cases left and right isoclines of the same rotation visit the same set of vertices, they still take very different rotational paths because they visit the same vertices in different sequences.|name=two special cases}} Isoclinic rotations in completely orthogonal invariant planes are special.{{Efn|Each great square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal to only one of them. Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal. There is also another way in which completely orthogonal planes are in a distinguished category of Clifford parallel planes: they are not [[W:Chiral|chiral]]. A pair of isoclinic (Clifford parallel) planes is either a ''left pair'' or a ''right pair'' unless they are separated by two angles of 90° (completely orthogonal planes) or 0° (coincident planes).{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=7-8|loc=§&amp;nbsp;6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; Left and Right Pairs of Isoclinic Planes.}} Most isoclinic planes are brought together only by a left isoclinic rotation or a right isoclinic rotation, respectively. Completely orthogonal planes are special: the pair of planes is both a left and a right pair, so either a left or a right isoclinic rotation will bring them together. Because planes separated by a 90° isoclinic rotation are 90° apart in two orthogonal angles, the plane to the ''left'' and the plane to the ''right'' are the same plane.{{Efn|name=exchange of completely orthogonal planes}}|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}} To see how and why they are special, visualize two completely orthogonal invariant planes of rotation, each rotating by some rotation angle and tilting sideways by the same rotation angle into a different plane entirely.{{Efn|name=isoclinic rotation}} Only when the rotation angle is 90°, that different plane in which the tilting invariant plane lands will be the completely orthogonal invariant plane itself. The destination plane of the rotation is the completely orthogonal invariant plane. The 90° isoclinic rotation is the only rotation which takes the completely orthogonal invariant planes to each other.{{Efn|name=exchange of completely orthogonal planes}} This reciprocity is the reason both left and right rotations go to the same place.}}

=== As a configuration ===
This [[W:Regular 4-polytope#As configurations|configuration matrix]] represents the 16-cell. The rows and columns correspond to vertices, edges, faces, and cells. The diagonal numbers say how many of each element occur in the whole 16-cell. The nondiagonal numbers say how many of the column's element occur in or at the row's element.

&lt;math&gt;\begin{bmatrix}\begin{matrix}8 &amp; 6 &amp; 12 &amp; 8 \\ 2 &amp; 24 &amp; 4 &amp; 4 \\ 3 &amp; 3 &amp; 32 &amp; 2 \\ 4 &amp; 6 &amp; 4 &amp; 16 \end{matrix}\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;

== Tessellations ==
One can [[W:Tessellation|tessellate]] 4-dimensional [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] by regular 16-cells. This is called the [[W:16-cell honeycomb|16-cell honeycomb]] and has [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {3,3,4,3}. Hence, the 16-cell has a [[W:Dihedral angle|dihedral angle]] of 120°.{{sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=293}} Each 16-cell has 16 neighbors with which it shares a tetrahedron, 24 neighbors with which it shares only an edge, and 72 neighbors with which it shares only a single point. Twenty-four 16-cells meet at any given vertex in this tessellation.

The dual tessellation, the [[W:24-cell honeycomb|24-cell honeycomb]], {3,4,3,3}, is made of regular [[24-cell]]s. Together with the [[W:Tesseractic honeycomb|tesseractic honeycomb]] {4,3,3,4} these are the only three [[W:List of regular polytopes#Tessellations of Euclidean 4-space|regular tessellations]] of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;.

== Projections ==
{{B4 Coxeter plane graphs|t3|150}}

[[File:Orthogonal projection envelopes 16-cell.png|thumb|Projection envelopes of the 16-cell. (Each cell is drawn with different color faces, inverted cells are undrawn)]]

The cell-first parallel projection of the 16-cell into 3-space has a [[W:cube|cubical]] envelope. The closest and farthest cells are projected to inscribed tetrahedra within the cube, corresponding with the two possible ways to inscribe a regular tetrahedron in a cube. Surrounding each of these tetrahedra are 4 other (non-regular) tetrahedral volumes that are the images of the 4 surrounding tetrahedral cells, filling up the space between the inscribed tetrahedron and the cube. The remaining 6 cells are projected onto the square faces of the cube. In this projection of the 16-cell, all its edges lie on the faces of the cubical envelope.

The cell-first perspective projection of the 16-cell into 3-space has a [[W:triakis tetrahedron|triakis tetrahedral]] envelope. The layout of the cells within this envelope are analogous to that of the cell-first parallel projection.

The vertex-first parallel [[W:Graphical projection|projection]] of the 16-cell into 3-space has an [[W:octahedron|octahedral]] [[W:projection envelope|envelope]]. This octahedron can be divided into 8 tetrahedral volumes, by cutting along the coordinate planes. Each of these volumes is the image of a pair of cells in the 16-cell. The closest vertex of the 16-cell to the viewer projects onto the center of the octahedron.

Finally the edge-first parallel projection has a shortened octahedral envelope, and the face-first parallel projection has a [[W:hexagonal bipyramid]]al envelope.

== 4 sphere Venn diagram ==
A 3-dimensional projection of the 16-cell and 4 intersecting spheres (a [[W:Venn diagram|Venn diagram]] of 4 sets) are [[W:topology|topologically]] equivalent.

{|
|-
|
{{multiple image
 | align = left  | total_width = 700
 | image1 = 4 spheres, cell 00, solid.png
 | image2 = 4 spheres, weight 1, solid.png
 | image3 = 4 spheres, weight 2, solid.png
 | image4 = 4 spheres, weight 3, solid.png
 | image5 = 4 spheres, cell 15, solid.png
 | footer = The 16 cells ordered by number of intersecting spheres (from 0 to 4) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;small&gt;(see all [[commons:Category:Venn diagrams rgby; single cells|cells]] and [[v:Tesseract and 16-cell faces|''k''-faces]])&lt;/small&gt;
}}
|
{{multiple image
 | align = right  | total_width = 290
 | image1 = 4 spheres as rings, vertical.png
 | image2 = Stereographic polytope 16cell.png
 | footer = 4 sphere Venn diagram and 16-cell projection in the same orientation
}}
|}

== Symmetry constructions ==
The 16-cell's [[W:Coxeter group|symmetry group]] is denoted [[W:B4 polytope|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]].

There is a lower symmetry form of the ''16-cell'', called a '''demitesseract''' or '''4-demicube''', a member of the [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercube]] family.{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel &amp; Goodman-Strauss|2008| loc=Chapter 26. Hemicubes: 1&lt;sub&gt;n1&lt;/sub&gt; | p=409 }} It is represented by h{4,3,3} and [[W:Coxeter diagram|Coxeter diagram]]s {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h1|4|node|3|node|3|node}} or {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|nodes_10ru|split2|node|3|node}}. It can be drawn bicolored with alternating [[W:tetrahedron|tetrahedral]] cells.

It can also be seen in lower symmetry form as a '''tetrahedral antiprism''', constructed by 2 parallel [[W:tetrahedron|tetrahedra]] in dual configurations, connected by 8 (possibly elongated) tetrahedra. It is represented by s{2,4,3}, and Coxeter diagram: {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node|3|node}}.

It can also be seen as a snub 4-[[W:Orthotope|orthotope]], represented by s{2&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;}, and Coxeter diagram: {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}} or {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|split1-22|nodes_hh}}.

With the [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] constructed as a 4-4 [[W:Duoprism|duoprism]], the 16-cell can be seen as its dual, a 4-4 [[W:Duopyramid|duopyramid]].

{| class=wikitable
!Name
![[W:Coxeter diagram|Coxeter diagram]]
![[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]]
![[W:Coxeter notation|Coxeter notation]]
!Order
![[W:Vertex figure|Vertex figure]]
|- align=center
!Regular 16-cell
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|3|node|4|node}}
|{3,3,4}
|[3,3,4]||384
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|4|node}}
|- align=center
!Demitesseract&lt;br /&gt;[[W:Quasiregular polytope|Quasiregular]] 16-cell
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|nodes_10ru|split2|node|3|node}} = {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h1|4|node|3|node|3|node}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|split1|nodes}} = {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|3|node|4|node_h0}}
|h{4,3,3}&lt;br /&gt;{3,3&lt;sup&gt;1,1&lt;/sup&gt;}
|[3&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;] = [1&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4,3,3]||192
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node|3|node_1|3|node}}
|- align=center
!Alternated 4-4 [[W:Duoprism|duoprism]]
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|label2|branch_hh|4a4b|nodes}}
|2s{4,2,4}
|[[W:4,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4|4,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4]]||64
|
|- align=center
!Tetrahedral antiprism
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node|3|node}}
|s{2,4,3}
|[2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4,3]||48
|
|- align=center
!Alternated square prism prism
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node}}
|sr{2,2,4}
|[(2,2)&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4]||16
|
|- align=center
!Snub 4-[[W:Orthotope|orthotope]]
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}} = {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|split1-22|nodes_hh}}
|s{2&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;}
|[2,2,2]&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; = [2&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;]&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;||8
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=6|4-[[W:Rhombic fusil|fusil]]
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node|3|node}}
|{3,3,4}
|[3,3,4]||384
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1|4|node}}
|{4}+{4} or 2{4}
|&lt;nowiki&gt;[[W:4,2,4|4,2,4]]&lt;/nowiki&gt; = [8,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,8]||128
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node|2x|node_f1}}
|{3,4}+{ }
|[4,3,2]||96
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|{4}+2{ }
|[4,2,2]||32
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|{ }+{ }+{ }+{ } or 4{ }
|[2,2,2]||16
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|}

== Related complex polygons ==
The [[W:Möbius–Kantor polygon|Möbius–Kantor polygon]] is a [[W:Regular complex polytope|regular complex polygon]] &lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;{3}&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|3node_1|3|3node}}, in &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}^2&lt;/math&gt; shares the same vertices as the 16-cell. It has 8 vertices, and 8 3-edges.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1991|pp=30,47}}{{Sfn|Coxeter &amp; Shephard|1992}}

The regular complex polygon, &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{4}&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|4|4node}}, in &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}^2&lt;/math&gt; has a real representation as a 16-cell in 4-dimensional space with 8 vertices, 16 2-edges, only half of the edges of the 16-cell.  Its symmetry is &lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;[4]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, order 32.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1991|p=108}}

{| class=wikitable width=320
|+ [[W:Orthographic projection|Orthographic projection]]s of &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{4}&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; polygon
|- valign=top
|[[File:Complex polygon 2-4-4.png|160px]]&lt;br /&gt;In B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; [[W:Coxeter plane|Coxeter plane]], &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{4}&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; has 8 vertices and 16 2-edges, shown here with 4 sets of colors.
|[[File:Complex polygon 2-4-4 bipartite graph.png|160px]]&lt;br /&gt;The 8 vertices are grouped in 2 sets (shown red and blue), each only connected with edges to vertices in the other set, making this polygon a [[W:Complete bipartite graph|complete bipartite graph]], K&lt;sub&gt;4,4&lt;/sub&gt;.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1991|p=114}}
|}

== Related uniform polytopes and honeycombs ==

The regular 16-cell and [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] are the regular members of a set of 15 [[W:B4 polytope|uniform 4-polytopes with the same B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; symmetry]]. The 16-cell is also one of the [[W:D4 polytope|uniform polytopes of D&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; symmetry]].

The 16-cell is also related to the [[W:Cubic honeycomb|cubic honeycomb]], [[W:Order-4 dodecahedral honeycomb|order-4 dodecahedral honeycomb]], and [[W:Order-4 hexagonal tiling honeycomb|order-4 hexagonal tiling honeycomb]] which all have [[W:Hexagonal tiling honeycomb#Polytopes and honeycombs with tetrahedral vertex figures|octahedral vertex figures]].

It belongs to the sequence of  [[W:Order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb#Related polytopes and honeycombs|{3,3,p} 4-polytopes]] which have tetrahedral cells. The sequence includes three [[W:Regular 4-polytope|regular 4-polytope]]s of Euclidean 4-space, the [[5-cell]] {3,3,3}, 16-cell {3,3,4}, and [[600-cell]] {3,3,5}), and the [[W:Order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb|order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb]] {3,3,6} of hyperbolic space.

It is first in a sequence of [[W:Tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb#Quasuiregular honeycombs|quasiregular polytopes and honeycombs]] h{4,p,q}, and a [[W:Order-4 hexagonal tiling honeycomb#Quasiregular honeycombs|half symmetry sequence]], for regular forms {p,3,4}.

== See also ==
*[[24-cell]]
*[[W:4-polytope|4-polytope]]
*[[W:D4 polytope|D4 polytope]]

== Notes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}}

== Citations ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/incmats/hex.htm hex], at [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/home.htm Klitzing polytopes]
* [https://polytope.miraheze.org/wiki/Hexadecachoron Hexadecachoron], at [https://polytope.miraheze.org/wiki/Main_Page Polytope wiki]
* [http://hi.gher.space/wiki/Aerochoron Aerochoron], at [http://hi.gher.space/wiki/Main_Page Higher space]
* [https://www.qfbox.info/4d/uniform Uniform polychora (The tesseract/16-cell family)], at [https://www.qfbox.info/4d/index 4D Euclidean Space]

[[Category:Geometry]]
[[Category:Polyscheme]]</text>
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      <text bytes="59386" sha1="2gzb2p23xfwxjtzzq93hwkvyqs7xnel" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Four-dimensional analog of the octahedron}}
{{Polyscheme|radius=an '''expanded version''' of}}
{{Infobox 4-polytope |
  Name=16-cell&lt;br /&gt;(4-orthoplex)|
  Image_File=Schlegel wireframe 16-cell.png|
  Image_Caption=[[W:Schlegel diagram|Schlegel diagram]]&lt;br /&gt;(vertices and edges)|
  Type=[[W:Convex regular 4-polytope|Convex regular 4-polytope]]&lt;br /&gt;4-[[W:Orthoplex|orthoplex]]&lt;br /&gt;4-[[W:Demihypercube|demicube]]|
  Last=[[W:Rectified tesseract|11]]|
  Index=12|
  Next=[[W:Truncated tesseract|13]]|
  Schläfli={3,3,4}|
  CD={{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|3|node|4|node}} |
  Cell_List=16 [[W:Tetrahedron|{3,3}]] [[File:3-simplex t0.svg|25px]]|
  Face_List=32 [[W:Triangle|{3}]] [[File:2-simplex t0.svg|25px]]|
  Edge_Count= 24|
  Vertex_Count= 8|
  Petrie_Polygon=[[W:Octagon|octagon]]|
  Coxeter_Group=B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, [3,3,4], order 384&lt;br /&gt;D&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, order 192|
  Vertex_Figure=[[File:16-cell verf.svg|80px]]&lt;br /&gt;[[W:Octahedron|Octahedron]]|
  Dual=[[W:Tesseract|Tesseract]]|
  Property_List=[[W:Convex polytope|convex]], [[W:Isogonal figure|isogonal]], [[W:Isotoxal figure|isotoxal]], [[W:Isohedral figure|isohedral]], [[W:Regular polytope|regular]], [[W:Hanner polytope|Hanner polytope]]
}}
In [[W:Geometry|geometry]], the '''16-cell''' is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] (four-dimensional analogue of a Platonic solid) with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {3,3,4}. It is one of the six regular convex 4-polytopes first described by the Swiss mathematician [[W:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] in the mid-19th century.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=141|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7-x. Historical remarks}} It is also called '''C&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;''', '''hexadecachoron''',&lt;ref&gt;[[W:Norman Johnson (mathematician)|N.W. Johnson]]: ''Geometries and Transformations'', (2018) {{ISBN|978-1-107-10340-5}} Chapter 11: ''Finite Symmetry Groups'', 11.5 ''Spherical Coxeter groups'', p.249&lt;/ref&gt; or '''hexdecahedroid'''.&lt;ref&gt;Matila Ghyka, ''The Geometry of Art and Life'' (1977), p.68&lt;/ref&gt;

It is the 4-dimesional member of an infinite family of polytopes called [[W:Cross-polytope|cross-polytope]]s, ''orthoplexes'', or ''hyperoctahedrons'' which are analogous to the [[W:Cctahedron|octahedron]] in three dimensions. It is Coxeter's &lt;math&gt;\beta_4&lt;/math&gt; polytope.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=120=121|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.2. See illustration Fig 7.2&lt;small&gt;B&lt;/small&gt;}} The [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] is the [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] (4-[[W:Hypercube|cube]]), which it can be combined with to form [[W:Compound of tesseract and 16-cell|a compound figure]]. The cells of the 16-cell are dual to the 16 vertices of the tesseract.

== Geometry ==
The 16-cell is the second in the sequence of 6 convex regular 4-polytopes (in order of size and complexity).{{Efn|name=4-polytopes ordered by size and complexity|group=}}

Each of its 4 successor convex regular 4-polytopes can be constructed as the [[W:Convex hull|convex hull]] of a [[W:Polytope compound|polytope compound]] of multiple 16-cells: the 16-vertex [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] as a compound of two 16-cells, the 24-vertex [[24-cell]] as a compound of three 16-cells, the 120-vertex [[600-cell]] as a compound of fifteen 16-cells, and the 600-vertex [[120-cell]] as a compound of seventy-five 16-cells.{{Efn|There are 2 and only 2 16-cells inscribed in the 8-cell (tesseract), 3 and only 3 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell, 75 distinct 16-cells (but only 15 disjoint 16-cells) inscribed in the 600-cell, and 675 distinct 16-cells (but only 75 disjoint 16-cells) inscribed in the 120-cell.}}

{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:}}

=== Coordinates ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;
!colspan=2|Disjoint squares
|-
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;
!colspan=2|''xy'' plane
|-
|( 0, 1, 0, 0)||( 0, 0,-1, 0)
|-
|( 0, 0, 1, 0)||( 0,-1, 0, 0)
|}
|-
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;
!colspan=2|''wz'' plane
|-
|( 1, 0, 0, 0)||( 0, 0, 0,-1)
|-
|( 0, 0, 0, 1)||(-1, 0, 0, 0)
|}
|}The 16-cell is the 4-dimensional [[W:Cross polytope|cross polytope (4-orthoplex)]], which means its vertices lie in opposite pairs on the 4 axes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system.

The eight vertices are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by edges except opposite pairs. The edge length is {{radic|2}}.

The vertex coordinates form 6 [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] central squares lying in the 6 coordinate planes. Squares in ''opposite'' planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal ''basis'']] for the choice of a 4-dimensional reference frame, because its vertices exactly define the four orthogonal axes.

=== Structure ===
The [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] of the 16-cell is {3,3,4}, indicating that its cells are [[W:Regular tetrahedron|regular tetrahedra]] {3,3} and its [[W:Vertex figure|vertex figure]] is a [[W:Regular octahedron|regular octahedron]] {3,4}. There are 8 tetrahedra, 12 triangles, and 6 edges meeting at every vertex. Its [[W:Edge figure|edge figure]] is a square. There are 4 tetrahedra and 4 triangles meeting at every edge.

The 16-cell is [[W:Totally bounded|bounded]] by 16 [[W:Cell (mathematics)|cells]], all of which are regular [[W:Tetrahedron|tetrahedra]].{{Efn|The boundary surface of a 16-cell is a finite 3-dimensional space consisting of 16 tetrahedra arranged face-to-face (four around one). It is a closed, tightly curved (non-Euclidean) 3-space, within which we can move straight through 4 tetrahedra in any direction and arrive back in the tetrahedron where we started. We can visualize moving around inside this tetrahedral [[W:Jungle gym|jungle gym]], climbing from one tetrahedron into another on its 24 struts (its edges), and never being able to get out (or see out) of the 16 tetrahedra no matter what direction we go (or look). We are always on (or in) the ''surface'' of the 16-cell, never inside the 16-cell itself (nor outside it). We can see that the 6 edges around each vertex radiate symmetrically in 3 dimensions and form an orthogonal 3-axis cross, just as the radii of an octahedron do (so we say the vertex figure of the 16-cell is the octahedron).{{Efn|name=octahedral pyramid}}}} It has 32 [[W:Triangle (geometry)|triangular]] [[W:Face (geometry)|faces]], 24 [[W:Edge (geometry)|edges]], and 8 [[W:Vertex (geometry)|vertices]]. The 24 edges bound 6 [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] central squares lying on [[W:Great circle|great circles]] in the 6 coordinate planes (3 pairs of completely orthogonal great squares). At each vertex, 3 great squares cross perpendicularly. The 6 edges meet at the vertex the way 6 edges meet at the [[W:Apex (geometry)|apex]] of a canonical [[W:Octahedral pyramid|octahedral pyramid]].{{Efn|Each vertex in the 16-cell is the apex of an [[W:Octahedral pyramid|octahedral pyramid]], the base of which is the octahedron formed by the 6 other vertices to which the apex is connected by edges. The 16-cell can be deconstructed (four different ways) into two octahedral pyramids by cutting it in half through one of its four octahedral central hyperplanes. Looked at from inside the curved 3 dimensional volume of its boundary surface of 16 face-bonded tetrahedra, the 16-cell's vertex figure is an octahedron. In 4 dimensions, the vertex octahedron is actually an octahedral pyramid. The apex of the octahedral pyramid (the vertex where the 6 edges meet) is not actually at the center of the octahedron: it is displaced radially outwards in the fourth dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the octahedron's 6 vertices. The 6 edges around the vertex make an orthogonal 3-axis cross in 3 dimensions (and in the [[W:Octahedral pyramid|3-dimensional projection of the 4-pyramid]]), but the 3 lines are actually bent 90 degrees in the fourth dimension where they meet in an apex.|name=octahedral pyramid}} The 6 orthogonal central planes of the 16-cell can be divided into 4 orthogonal central hyperplanes (3-spaces) each forming an [[W:Octahedron|octahedron]] with 3 orthogonal great squares.

=== Rotations ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=480
|- align=center valign=top
|rowspan=2|[[File:16-cell.gif]]&lt;br /&gt;A 3D projection of a 16-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Simple rotations|simple rotation]]
|[[File:16-cell-orig.gif]]&lt;br /&gt;A 3D projection of a 16-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]]
|}
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] planes.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=6|loc=§&amp;nbsp;5. Four-Dimensional Rotations}} The 16-cell is a simple frame in which to observe 4-dimensional rotations, because each of the 16-cell's 6 great squares has another completely orthogonal great square (there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal squares).{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} Many rotations of the 16-cell can be characterized by the angle of rotation in one of its great square planes (e.g. the ''xy'' plane) and another angle of rotation in the completely orthogonal great square plane (the ''wz'' plane).{{Efn|Each great square vertex is {{radic|2}} distant from two of the square's other vertices, and {{radic|4}} distant from its opposite vertex. The other four vertices of the 16-cell (also {{radic|2}} distant) are the vertices of the square's completely orthogonal square.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel great squares}} Each 16-cell vertex is a vertex of ''three'' orthogonal great squares which intersect there. Each great square has a different ''completely'' orthogonal great square. Thus there are three great squares completely orthogonal to each vertex: squares that the vertex is not part of.{{Efn|The three ''incompletely'' orthogonal great squares which intersect at each vertex of the 16-cell form the vertex's octahedral [[W:Vertex figure|vertex figure]].{{Efn|name=octahedral pyramid}} Any two of them, together with the completely orthogonal square of the third, also form an octahedron: a central octahedral hyperplane.{{Efn|Three great squares meet at each vertex (and at its opposite vertex) in the 16-cell. Each of them has a different completely orthogonal square. Thus there are three great squares completely orthogonal to each vertex and its opposite vertex (each axis). They form an octahedron (a central hyperplane). Every axis line in the 16-cell is completely orthogonal to a central octahedron hyperplane, as every great square plane is completely orthogonal to another great square plane.{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} The axis and the octahedron intersect only at one point (the center of the 16-cell), as each pair of completely orthogonal great squares intersects only at one point (the center of the 16-cell). Each central octahedron is also the octahedral vertex figure of two of the eight vertices: the two on its completely orthogonal axis.|name=octahedral hyperplanes}} In the 16-cell, each octahedral vertex figure is also a central octahedral hyperplane.|name=completely orthogonal great squares}}|name=vertex and central octahedra}} Completely orthogonal great squares have disjoint vertices: 4 of the 16-cell's 8 vertices rotate in one plane, and the other 4 rotate independently in the completely orthogonal plane.{{Efn|Completely orthogonal great squares are non-intersecting and rotate independently because the great circles on which their vertices lie are [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]].{{Efn|[[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point.{{Sfn|Tyrrell &amp; Semple|1971|loc=§&amp;nbsp;3. Clifford's original definition of parallelism|pp=5-6}} A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=7-10|loc=§&amp;nbsp;6. Angles between two Planes in 4-Space}} In the 16-cell the corresponding vertices of completely orthogonal great circle squares are all {{radic|2}} apart, so these squares are Clifford parallel polygons.{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}} Note that only the vertices of the great squares (the points on the great circle) are {{radic|2}} apart; points on the edges of the squares (on chords of the circle) are closer together.|name=Clifford parallels}} They are {{radic|2}} apart at each pair of nearest vertices (and in the 16-cell ''all'' the pairs except antipodal pairs are nearest). The two squares cannot intersect at all because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell.{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two squares are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel squares in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent square links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]].|name=Clifford parallel great squares}}

In 2 or 3 dimensions a rotation is characterized by a single plane of rotation; this kind of rotation taking place in 4-space is called a [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Simple rotations|simple rotation]], in which only one of the two completely orthogonal planes rotates (the angle of rotation in the other plane is 0). In the 16-cell, a simple rotation in one of the 6 orthogonal planes moves only 4 of the 8 vertices; the other 4 remain fixed. (In the simple rotation animation above, all 8 vertices move because the plane of rotation is not one of the 6 orthogonal basis planes.)

In a [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|double rotation]] both sets of 4 vertices move, but independently: the angles of rotation may be different in the 2 completely orthogonal planes. If the two angles happen to be the same, a maximally symmetric [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] takes place.{{Efn|In an isoclinic rotation, all 6 orthogonal planes are displaced in two orthogonal directions at once: they are rotated by the angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. An isoclinic displacement (also known as a [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement) is 4-dimensionally diagonal. Points are displaced an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, and displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance#Higher dimensions|Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance (which is two times that distance). For example, when the unit-radius 16-cell rotates isoclinically 90° in a great square invariant plane, it also rotates 90° in the completely orthogonal great square invariant plane.{{Efn||name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} The great square plane tilts sideways 90° to occupy its completely orthogonal plane. (By isoclinic symmetry, ''every'' great square plane rotates 90° ''and'' tilts sideways 90° into its completely orthogonal plane.) Each vertex (in every great square) is displaced to its antipodal vertex, at a distance of {{radic|1}} in each of four orthogonal directions, a total distance of {{radic|4}}. The original and displaced vertex are two edge lengths apart by three{{Efn|There are six different two-edge paths connecting a pair of antipodal vertices along the edges of a great square. The left isoclinic rotation runs diagonally between three of them, and the right isoclinic rotation runs diagonally between the other three. These diagonals are the straight lines (geodesics) connecting opposite vertices of face-bonded tetrahedral cells in the left-handed [[#Helical construction|eight-cell ring]] and the right-handed eight-cell ring, respectively.}} different paths along two edges of a great square. But the ''isocline'' (the helical arc the vertex follows during the isoclinic rotation) does not run along edges: it runs ''between'' these different edge-paths diagonally, on a geodesic (shortest arc) between the original and displaced vertices.{{Efn|name=isocline}} This isoclinic geodesic arc is not a segment of an ordinary great circle; it does not lie in the plane of any great square. It is a helical 90° arc that bends in a circle in two completely orthogonal planes at once. This [[W:Möbius loop|Möbius circle]] does not lie in any one great circle plane, or intersect any vertices of the 16-cell between the original and the displaced vertex.{{Efn|name=Möbius circle}}|name=isoclinic rotation}} In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90 degrees of any pair of completely orthogonal square planes takes every square plane to its completely orthogonal square plane in a twisting displacement, as they tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally.{{Efn|The 90 degree isoclinic rotation of two completely orthogonal planes takes them to each other. In such a rotation of a rigid 16-cell, all 6 orthogonal planes rotate by 90 degrees, and also tilt sideways by 90 degrees to their completely orthogonal (Clifford parallel){{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} plane.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} The two completely orthogonal planes are 90° apart, in the two orthogonal angles that separate them. If the isoclinic rotation is continued through another 90°, each great square returns to its original plane, but in a different orientation; the vertices are not returned to their original positions. Continuing through a 720° isoclinic rotation (through eight 90° isoclinic displacements) returns everything to its original place and orientation.|name=exchange of completely orthogonal planes}} All the vertices move at once on separate circular [[w:Geodesic|geodesics]], displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces a circular helix in 4-space, and also traces a great circle twice in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic rotation each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

=== Constructions ===

==== Octahedral dipyramid ====
{|class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;
!Octahedron &lt;math&gt;\beta_3&lt;/math&gt;
!16-cell &lt;math&gt;\beta_4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|[[File:3-cube t2.svg|160px]]
|[[File:4-demicube t0 D4.svg|160px]]
|-
|colspan=2|Orthogonal projections to skew hexagon hyperplane
|}
The simplest construction of the 16-cell is on the 3-dimensional cross polytope, the [[W:Octahedron|octahedron]]. The octahedron has 3 perpendicular axes and 6 vertices in 3 opposite pairs (its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]] is the [[W:Hexagon|hexagon]]). Add another pair of vertices, on a fourth axis perpendicular to all 3 of the other axes. Connect each new vertex to all 6 of the original vertices, adding 12 new edges. This raises two [[W:Octahedral pyramid|octahedral pyramid]]s on a shared octahedron base that lies in the 16-cell's central hyperplane.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=121|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.21. See illustration Fig 7.2&lt;small&gt;B&lt;/small&gt;|ps=: &quot;&lt;math&gt;\beta_4&lt;/math&gt; is a four-dimensional dipyramid based on &lt;math&gt;\beta_3&lt;/math&gt; (with its two apices in opposite directions along the fourth dimension).&quot;}}

[[File:stereographic_polytope_16cell_colour.png|thumb|[[W:Stereographic projection|Stereographic projection]] of the 16-cell's 6 orthogonal central squares onto their great circles. Each circle is divided into 4 arc-edges at the intersections where 3 circles cross perpendicularly. Notice that each circle has one Clifford parallel circle that it does ''not'' intersect. Those two circles pass through each other like adjacent links in a chain.]]The octahedron that the construction starts with has three perpendicular intersecting squares (which appear as rectangles in the hexagonal projections). Each square intersects with each of the other squares at two opposite vertices, with ''two'' of the squares crossing at each vertex. Then two more points are added in the fourth dimension (above and below the 3-dimensional hyperplane). These new vertices are connected to all the octahedron's vertices, creating 12 new edges and ''three more squares'' (which appear edge-on as the 3 ''diameters'' of the hexagon in the projection), and three more octahedra.{{Efn|name=octahedral hyperplanes}}

Something unprecedented has also been created. Notice that each square no longer intersects with ''all'' of the other squares: it does intersect with four of them (with ''three'' of the squares crossing at each vertex now), but each square has ''one'' other square with which it shares ''no'' vertices: it is not directly connected to that square at all. These two ''separate'' perpendicular squares (there are three pairs of them) are like the opposite edges of a [[W:Tetrahedron|tetrahedron]]: perpendicular, but non-intersecting. They lie opposite each other (parallel in some sense), and they don't touch, but they also pass through each other like two perpendicular links in a chain (but unlike links in a chain they have a common center). They are an example of '''''Clifford parallels''''', and the 16-cell is the simplest regular polytope in which they occur. [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] parallelism{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} of objects of more than one dimension (more than just curved ''lines'') emerges here and occurs in all the subsequent 4-dimensional regular polytopes, where it can be seen as the defining relationship ''among'' disjoint concentric regular 4-polytopes and their corresponding parts. It can occur between congruent (similar) polytopes of 2 or more dimensions.{{Sfn|Tyrrell &amp; Semple|1971}} For example, as noted [[#Geometry|above]] all the subsequent convex regular 4-polytopes are compounds of multiple 16-cells; those 16-cells are [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel polytopes]].

==== Tetrahedral constructions ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=480
|- align=center valign=top
|[[File:16-cell net.png|180px|]]
|[[File:16-cell nets.png|180px]]
|}

The 16-cell has two [[W:Wythoff construction|Wythoff construction]]s from regular tetrahedra, a regular form and alternated form, shown here as [[W:Net (polyhedron)|nets]], the second represented by tetrahedral cells of two alternating colors. The alternated form is a [[#Symmetry constructions|lower symmetry construction]] of the 16-cell called the [[W:Demitesseract|demitesseract]].

Wythoff's construction replicates the 16-cell's [[5-cell#Orthoschemes|characteristic 5-cell]] in a [[W:Kaleidoscope|kaleidoscope]] of mirrors. Every regular 4-polytope has its characteristic 4-orthoscheme, an [[5-cell#Irregular 5-cells|irregular 5-cell]].{{Efn|An [[W:Orthoscheme|orthoscheme]] is a [[W:Chiral|chiral]] irregular [[W:simplex|simplex]] with [[W:Right triangle|right triangle]] faces that is characteristic of some polytope if it will exactly fill that polytope with the reflections of itself in its own [[W:Facet (geometry)|facets]] (its ''mirror walls''). Every regular polytope can be dissected radially into instances of its [[W:Orthoscheme#Characteristic simplex of the general regular polytope|characteristic orthoscheme]] surrounding its center. The characteristic orthoscheme has the shape described by the same [[W:Coxeter-Dynkin diagram|Coxeter-Dynkin diagram]] as the regular polytope without the ''generating point'' ring.|name=characteristic orthoscheme}} There are three regular 4-polytopes with tetrahedral cells: the [[5-cell]], the 16-cell, and the [[600-cell]]. Although all are bounded by ''regular'' tetrahedron cells, their characteristic 5-cells (4-orthoschemes) are different [[5-cell#Isometries|tetrahedral pyramids]], all based on the same characteristic ''irregular'' tetrahedron. They share the same [[W:Tetrahedron#Orthoschemes|characteristic tetrahedron]] (3-orthoscheme) and characteristic [[W:Right triangle|right triangle]] (2-orthoscheme) because they have the same kind of cell.{{Efn|A regular polytope of dimension ''k'' has a characteristic ''k''-orthoscheme, and also a characteristic (''k''-1)-orthoscheme. A regular 4-polytope has a characteristic 5-cell (4-orthoscheme) into which it is subdivided by its (3-dimensional) hyperplanes of symmetry, and also a characteristic tetrahedron (3-orthoscheme) into which its surface is subdivided by its cells' (2-dimensional) planes of symmetry. After subdividing its (3-dimensional) surface into characteristic tetrahedra surrounding each cell center, its (4-dimensional) interior can be subdivided into characteristic 5-cells by adding radii joining the vertices of the surface characteristic tetrahedra to the 4-polytope's center.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=130|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.6|ps=; &quot;simplicial subdivision&quot;.}} The interior tetrahedra and triangles thus formed will also be orthoschemes.}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;
!colspan=6|Characteristics of the 16-cell{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=292-293|loc=Table I(ii); &quot;16-cell, 𝛽&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&quot;}}
|-
!align=right|
!align=center|edge{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=139|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.9 The characteristic simplex}}
!colspan=2 align=center|arc
!colspan=2 align=center|dihedral{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=290|loc=Table I(ii); &quot;dihedral angles&quot;}}
|-
!align=right|𝒍
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \approx 1.414&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;120°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{2\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!align=right|𝟀
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{2}{3}} \approx 0.816&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60″&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|𝝉{{Efn|{{Harv|Coxeter|1973}} uses the greek letter 𝝓 (phi) to represent one of the three ''characteristic angles'' 𝟀, 𝝓, 𝟁 of a regular polytope. Because 𝝓 is commonly used to represent the [[W:Golden ratio|golden ratio]] constant ≈ 1.618, for which Coxeter uses 𝝉 (tau), we reverse Coxeter's conventions, and use 𝝉 to represent the characteristic angle.|name=reversed greek symbols}}
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}} \approx 0.707&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;45″&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;45°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|𝟁
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{6}} \approx 0.408&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;30″&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{6}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|
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|
|
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|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_0R^3/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{3}{4}} \approx 0.866&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_1R^3/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}} = 0.5&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;45°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_2R^3/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{12}} \approx 0.289&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;30°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{6}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
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|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_0R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_1R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}} \approx 0.707&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_2R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{3}} \approx 0.577&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_3R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}} = 0.5&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|}
The '''characteristic 5-cell of the regular 16-cell''' is represented by the [[W:Coxeter-Dynkin diagram|Coxeter-Dynkin diagram]] {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node|3|node|3|node|4|node}}, which can be read as a list of the dihedral angles between its mirror facets. It is an irregular [[W:Pyramid (mathematics)#Polyhedral pyramid|tetrahedral pyramid]] based on the [[W:Tetrahedron#Orthoschemes|characteristic tetrahedron of the regular tetrahedron]]. The regular 16-cell is subdivided by its symmetry hyperplanes into 384 instances of its characteristic 5-cell that all meet at its center.

The characteristic 5-cell (4-orthoscheme) has four more edges than its base characteristic tetrahedron (3-orthoscheme), joining the four vertices of the base to its apex (the fifth vertex of the 4-orthoscheme, at the center of the regular 16-cell).{{Efn|The four edges of each 4-orthoscheme which meet at the center of a regular 4-polytope are of unequal length, because they are the four characteristic radii of the regular 4-polytope: a vertex radius, an edge center radius, a face center radius, and a cell center radius. The five vertices of the 4-orthoscheme always include one regular 4-polytope vertex, one regular 4-polytope edge center, one regular 4-polytope face center, one regular 4-polytope cell center, and the regular 4-polytope center. Those five vertices (in that order) comprise a path along four mutually perpendicular edges (that makes three right angle turns), the characteristic feature of a 4-orthoscheme. The 4-orthoscheme has five dissimilar 3-orthoscheme facets.|name=characteristic radii}} If the regular 16-cell has unit radius edge and edge length 𝒍 = &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, its characteristic 5-cell's ten edges have lengths &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{2}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{6}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; around its exterior right-triangle face (the edges opposite the ''characteristic angles'' 𝟀, 𝝉, 𝟁),{{Efn|name=reversed greek symbols}} plus &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{3}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{12}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; (the other three edges of the exterior 3-orthoscheme facet the characteristic tetrahedron, which are the ''characteristic radii'' of the regular tetrahedron), plus &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; (edges which are the characteristic radii of the regular 16-cell). The 4-edge path along orthogonal edges of the orthoscheme is &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{6}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, first from a 16-cell vertex to a 16-cell edge center, then turning 90° to a 16-cell face center, then turning 90° to a 16-cell tetrahedral cell center, then turning 90° to the 16-cell center.

==== Helical construction ====
[[File:Eight face-bonded tetrahedra.jpg|thumb|A 4-dimensional ring of 8 face-bonded tetrahedra, seen in the [[W:Boerdijk–Coxeter helix|Boerdijk–Coxeter helix]], bounded by three eight-edge circular paths of different colors, cut and laid out flat in 3-dimensional space. It contains an ''isocline'' axis (not shown), a helical circle of circumference 4𝝅 that twists through all four dimensions and visits all 8 vertices.{{Efn|name=isocline}} The two blue-blue-yellow triangles at either end of the cut ring are the same object.]]
[[File:16-cell 8-ring net4.png|thumb|Net and orthogonal projection]]

A 16-cell can be constructed (three different ways) from two [[W:Boerdijk–Coxeter helix|Boerdijk–Coxeter helix]]es of eight chained tetrahedra, each bent in the fourth dimension into a ring.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1970|loc=Table 2: Reflexible honeycombs and their groups|p=45|ps=; Honeycomb [3,3,4]&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; is a tiling of the 3-sphere by 2 rings of 8 tetrahedral cells.}}{{Sfn|Banchoff|2013}} The two circular helixes share the same 8 vertices and 24 edges, but their tetrahedra are disjoint. The helixes spiral around each other, nest into each other and pass through each other forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]. 16 of the 32 triangle faces can be seen in a 2D net within a [[W:Triangular tiling|triangular tiling]], with 6 triangles around every vertex. The [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]] of the 16-cell is a skew octagon, visible as the purple edges in the octagon orthogonal projection, and as the light blue edges in the tetrahedral helix. Each eight-cell ring of tetrahedra actually contains three such skew [[W:Octagram|octagram]]s of different colors, eight-edge circular paths that wind twice around the 16-cell on every third vertex of the octagram. The orange and yellow edges are two four-edge halves of one skew octagram, which join their ends to form a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius strip]].

Thus the 16-cell can be decomposed into two cell-disjoint circular chains of eight tetrahedrons each, four edges long, one spiraling to the right (clockwise) and the other spiraling to the left (counterclockwise). The left-handed and right-handed cell rings fit together, nesting into each other and entirely filling the 16-cell, even though they are of opposite chirality. This decomposition can be seen in a 4-4 [[W:Duoantiprism|duoantiprism]] construction of the 16-cell: {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}} or {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node|4|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node}}, [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {2}⨂{2} or s{2}s{2}, [[W:Coxeter notation|symmetry]] [4,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4], order 64.

Three eight-edge paths (of different colors) spiral along each eight-cell ring, making 90° angles at each vertex. (In the Boerdijk–Coxeter helix before it is bent into a ring, the angles in different paths vary, but are not 90°.) Three paths (with three different colors and apparent angles) pass through each vertex. When the helix is bent into a ring, the segments of each eight-edge path (of various lengths) join their ends, forming a Möbius strip eight edges long along its single-sided circumference of 4𝝅, and one edge wide.{{Efn|name=Möbius circle}} The six four-edge halves of the three eight-edge paths each make four 90° angles, but they are ''not'' the six orthogonal great squares: they are open-ended squares, four-edge 360° helices whose open ends are [[W:Antipodal point|antipodal]] vertices. The four edges come from four different great squares, and are mutually orthogonal. Combined end-to-end in pairs of the same [[W:Chirality|chirality]], the six four-edge paths make three eight-edge Möbius loops, [[W:Helix|helical]] octagrams. Each octagram is both a [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]] of the 16-cell, and the helical track along which all eight vertices rotate together, in one of the 16-cell's distinct isoclinic [[#Rotations|rotations]].{{Efn|The 16-cell can be constructed from two cell-disjoint eight-cell rings in three different ways; it has three orientations of its pair of rings. Each orientation &quot;contains&quot; a distinct left-right pair of isoclinic rotations, and also a pair of completely orthogonal great squares (Clifford parallel fibers), so each orientation is a discrete [[W:Hopf fibration|fibration]] of the 16-cell. Each eight-cell ring contains three axial octagrams which have different orientations (they exchange roles) in the three discrete fibrations and six distinct isoclinic rotations (three left and three right) through the cell rings. Three octagrams (of different colors) can be seen in the illustration of a single cell ring, one in the role of Petrie polygon, one as the right isocline, and one as the left isocline. Because each octagram plays three roles, there are exactly six distinct isoclines in the 16-cell, not 18.|name=only one disjoint pair of eight-cell rings}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=610
!colspan=5|Five ways of looking at the same [[W:Skew polygon|skew]] [[W:Octagram|octagram]]{{Efn|All five views are the same orthogonal projection of the 16-cell into the same plane (a circular cross-section of the eight-cell ring cylinder), looking along the central axis of the cut ring cylinder pictured above, from one end of the cylinder. The only difference is which {{radic|2}} edges and {{radic|4}} chords are ''omitted'' for focus. The different colors of {{radic|2}} edges appear to be of different lengths because they are oblique to the viewer at different angles. Vertices are numbered 1 (top) through 8 in counterclockwise order.}}
|-
![[#Rotations|Edge path]]
![[W:Petrie polygon#The Petrie polygon of regular polychora (4-polytopes)|Petrie polygon]]{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=292-293|loc=Table I(ii); 24-cell ''h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''}}
!16-cell
![[W:Hopf fibration|Discrete fibration]]
![[#Coordinates|Diameter chords]]
|-
![[W:Octagram|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/3}&lt;/sub&gt;{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=292-293|loc=Table I(ii); 24-cell ''h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''}}
![[W:Petrie polygon#The Petrie polygon of regular polychora (4-polytopes)|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/1}&lt;/sub&gt;
![[W:Coxeter element#Coxeter plane|Coxeter plane]] [[W:B4 polytope|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]]
![[W:Octagram#Star polygon compounds|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/2}=2{4}&lt;/sub&gt;
![[W:Octagram#Star polygon compounds|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/4}=4{2}&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram (8-3).png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram (8).png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram.png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram 2(4).png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram 4(2).png|120px]]
|-
|The eight {{radic|2}} chords of the edge-path of an isocline.{{Efn|name=isocline curve}}
|Skew [[W:Octagon|octagon]] of eight {{radic|2}} edges. The 16-cell has 6 of these 8-vertex circuits.
|All 24 {{radic|2}} edges and the four {{radic|4}} orthogonal axes.
|Two completely orthogonal (disjoint) great squares of {{radic|2}} edges.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel great squares}}
|The four {{radic|4}} chords of an isocline. Every fourth isocline vertex is joined to its antipodal vertex by a 16-cell axis.{{Efn|Each isocline has the eight continuous {{radic|2}} chords of its octagram&lt;sub&gt;{8/3}&lt;/sub&gt; edge-path, and also four discontinuous {{radic|4}} diameter chords that connect every ''fourth'' vertex on the octagram but do not connect to each other. Antipodal vertices also have a twisted continuous path of four mutually orthogonal {{radic|2}} edges connecting them. Between antipodal vertices, the isocline curves smoothly around in a helix over the four {{radic|2}} chords of its edge-path, hitting the three intervening vertices. Each {{radic|2}} edge is an edge of a great square, that is completely orthogonal to another great square, in which the {{radic|4}} chord is a diagonal.|name=isocline curve}}
|}
Each eight-edge helix is a [[W:Skew polygon|skew]] [[W:Octagram|octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/3}&lt;/sub&gt; that [[W:Winding number|winds three times]] around the 16-cell and visits every vertex before closing into a loop. Its eight {{radic|2}} edges are chords of an ''isocline'', a helical geodesic on which the 8 vertices circle during an isoclinic rotation.{{Efn|An isocline is a circle of special kind corresponding to a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s linked in a [[W:Möbius loop|Möbius loop]]. It curves through four dimensions instead of just two. All ordinary circles have a 2𝝅 circumference, but the 16-cell's isocline is a circle with an 4𝝅 circumference (over eight 90° chords). An isocline is a circle that does not lie in a plane, but to avoid confusion we always refer to it as an ''isocline'' and reserve the term ''circle'' for an ordinary circle in the plane.|name=Möbius circle}} All eight 16-cell vertices are {{radic|2}} apart except for opposite (antipodal) vertices, which are {{radic|4}} apart. A vertex moving on the isocline visits three other vertices that are {{radic|2}} apart before reaching the fourth vertex that is {{radic|4}} away.{{Efn|In the 16-cell, two antipodal vertices are opposite vertices of two face-bonded tetrahedral cells. The two antipodal vertices are connected by (three different) two-edge great circle paths along edges of the tetrahedral cells, by various three-edge paths, and by four-edge paths on isoclines and Petrie polygons. {{Efn|name=Möbius circle}}|name=isocline}}

The eight-cell ring is [[W:Chiral|chiral]]: there is a right-handed form which spirals clockwise, and a left-handed form which spirals counterclockwise. The 16-cell contains one of each, so it also contains a left and a right isocline; the isocline is the circular axis around which the eight-cell ring twists. Each isocline visits all eight vertices of the 16-cell.{{Efn|In the 16-cell each ''single'' isocline winds through all 8 vertices: an entire [[W:Hopf fibration|fibration]] of two completely orthogonal great squares.{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}} The 5-cell and the 16-cell are the only regular 4-polytopes where each discrete fibration has just one isocline fiber.{{Efn|Except in the 5-cell and 16-cell,{{Efn|name=two special cases}} a pair of left and right isocline circles have disjoint vertices: the left and right isocline helices are non-intersecting parallels but counter-rotating, forming a special kind of double helix which cannot occur in three dimensions (where counter-rotating helices of the same radius must intersect).|name=counter-rotating double helix}}|name=each 16-cell isocline reaches all 8 vertices}} Each eight-cell ring contains half of the 16 cells, but all 8 vertices; the two rings share the vertices, as they nest into each other and fit together. They also share the 24 edges, though left and right octagram helices are different eight-edge paths.{{Efn|The left and right isoclines intersect each other at every vertex. They are different sequences of the same set of 8 vertices. With respect only to the set of 4 vertex pairs which are {{radic|2}} apart, they can be considered to be Clifford parallel. With respect only to the set of 4 vertex pairs which are {{radic|4}} apart, they can be considered to be completely orthogonal.{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}}}}

Because there are three pairs of completely orthogonal great squares,{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} there are three congruent ways to compose a 16-cell from two eight-cell rings. The 16-cell contains three left-right pairs of eight-cell rings in different orientations, with each cell ring containing its axial isocline.{{Efn|name=only one disjoint pair of eight-cell rings}} Each left-right pair of isoclines is the track of a left-right pair of distinct isoclinic rotations: the rotations in one pair of completely orthogonal invariant planes of rotation.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel great squares}} At each vertex, there are three great squares and six octagram isoclines that cross at the vertex and share a 16-cell axis chord.{{Efn|This is atypical for isoclinic rotations generally; normally both the left and right isoclines do not occur at the same vertex: there are two disjoint sets of vertices reachable only by the left or right rotation respectively.{{Efn|name=counter-rotating double helix}} The left and right isoclines of the 16-cell form a very special double helix: unusual not just because it is circular, but because its different left and right helices twist around each other through the ''same set'' of antipodal vertices,{{Efn|name=each 16-cell isocline reaches all 8 vertices}} not through the two ''disjoint subsets'' of antipodal vertices, as the isocline pairs do in most isoclinic rotations.{{Efn|For another example of the left and right isoclines of a rotation visiting the same set of vertices, see the [[5-cell#Geodesics and rotations|characteristic isoclinic rotation of the 5-cell]]. Although in these two special cases left and right isoclines of the same rotation visit the same set of vertices, they still take very different rotational paths because they visit the same vertices in different sequences.|name=two special cases}} Isoclinic rotations in completely orthogonal invariant planes are special.{{Efn|Each great square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal to only one of them. Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal. There is also another way in which completely orthogonal planes are in a distinguished category of Clifford parallel planes: they are not [[W:Chiral|chiral]]. A pair of isoclinic (Clifford parallel) planes is either a ''left pair'' or a ''right pair'' unless they are separated by two angles of 90° (completely orthogonal planes) or 0° (coincident planes).{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=7-8|loc=§&amp;nbsp;6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; Left and Right Pairs of Isoclinic Planes.}} Most isoclinic planes are brought together only by a left isoclinic rotation or a right isoclinic rotation, respectively. Completely orthogonal planes are special: the pair of planes is both a left and a right pair, so either a left or a right isoclinic rotation will bring them together. Because planes separated by a 90° isoclinic rotation are 90° apart in two orthogonal angles, the plane to the ''left'' and the plane to the ''right'' are the same plane.{{Efn|name=exchange of completely orthogonal planes}}|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}} To see how and why they are special, visualize two completely orthogonal invariant planes of rotation, each rotating by some rotation angle and tilting sideways by the same rotation angle into a different plane entirely.{{Efn|name=isoclinic rotation}} Only when the rotation angle is 90°, that different plane in which the tilting invariant plane lands will be the completely orthogonal invariant plane itself. The destination plane of the rotation is the completely orthogonal invariant plane. The 90° isoclinic rotation is the only rotation which takes the completely orthogonal invariant planes to each other.{{Efn|name=exchange of completely orthogonal planes}} This reciprocity is the reason both left and right rotations go to the same place.}}

=== As a configuration ===
This [[W:Regular 4-polytope#As configurations|configuration matrix]] represents the 16-cell. The rows and columns correspond to vertices, edges, faces, and cells. The diagonal numbers say how many of each element occur in the whole 16-cell. The nondiagonal numbers say how many of the column's element occur in or at the row's element.

&lt;math&gt;\begin{bmatrix}\begin{matrix}8 &amp; 6 &amp; 12 &amp; 8 \\ 2 &amp; 24 &amp; 4 &amp; 4 \\ 3 &amp; 3 &amp; 32 &amp; 2 \\ 4 &amp; 6 &amp; 4 &amp; 16 \end{matrix}\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;

== Tessellations ==
One can [[W:Tessellation|tessellate]] 4-dimensional [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] by regular 16-cells. This is called the [[W:16-cell honeycomb|16-cell honeycomb]] and has [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {3,3,4,3}. Hence, the 16-cell has a [[W:Dihedral angle|dihedral angle]] of 120°.{{sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=293}} Each 16-cell has 16 neighbors with which it shares a tetrahedron, 24 neighbors with which it shares only an edge, and 72 neighbors with which it shares only a single point. Twenty-four 16-cells meet at any given vertex in this tessellation.

The dual tessellation, the [[W:24-cell honeycomb|24-cell honeycomb]], {3,4,3,3}, is made of regular [[24-cell]]s. Together with the [[W:Tesseractic honeycomb|tesseractic honeycomb]] {4,3,3,4} these are the only three [[W:List of regular polytopes#Tessellations of Euclidean 4-space|regular tessellations]] of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;.

== Projections ==
{{B4 Coxeter plane graphs|t3|150}}

[[File:Orthogonal projection envelopes 16-cell.png|thumb|Projection envelopes of the 16-cell. (Each cell is drawn with different color faces, inverted cells are undrawn)]]

The cell-first parallel projection of the 16-cell into 3-space has a [[W:cube|cubical]] envelope. The closest and farthest cells are projected to inscribed tetrahedra within the cube, corresponding with the two possible ways to inscribe a regular tetrahedron in a cube. Surrounding each of these tetrahedra are 4 other (non-regular) tetrahedral volumes that are the images of the 4 surrounding tetrahedral cells, filling up the space between the inscribed tetrahedron and the cube. The remaining 6 cells are projected onto the square faces of the cube. In this projection of the 16-cell, all its edges lie on the faces of the cubical envelope.

The cell-first perspective projection of the 16-cell into 3-space has a [[W:triakis tetrahedron|triakis tetrahedral]] envelope. The layout of the cells within this envelope are analogous to that of the cell-first parallel projection.

The vertex-first parallel [[W:Graphical projection|projection]] of the 16-cell into 3-space has an [[W:octahedron|octahedral]] [[W:projection envelope|envelope]]. This octahedron can be divided into 8 tetrahedral volumes, by cutting along the coordinate planes. Each of these volumes is the image of a pair of cells in the 16-cell. The closest vertex of the 16-cell to the viewer projects onto the center of the octahedron.

Finally the edge-first parallel projection has a shortened octahedral envelope, and the face-first parallel projection has a [[W:hexagonal bipyramid]]al envelope.

== 4 sphere Venn diagram ==
A 3-dimensional projection of the 16-cell and 4 intersecting spheres (a [[W:Venn diagram|Venn diagram]] of 4 sets) are [[W:topology|topologically]] equivalent.

{|
|-
|
{{multiple image
 | align = left  | total_width = 700
 | image1 = 4 spheres, cell 00, solid.png
 | image2 = 4 spheres, weight 1, solid.png
 | image3 = 4 spheres, weight 2, solid.png
 | image4 = 4 spheres, weight 3, solid.png
 | image5 = 4 spheres, cell 15, solid.png
 | footer = The 16 cells ordered by number of intersecting spheres (from 0 to 4) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;small&gt;(see all [[commons:Category:Venn diagrams rgby; single cells|cells]] and [[v:Tesseract and 16-cell faces|''k''-faces]])&lt;/small&gt;
}}
|
{{multiple image
 | align = right  | total_width = 290
 | image1 = 4 spheres as rings, vertical.png
 | image2 = Stereographic polytope 16cell.png
 | footer = 4 sphere Venn diagram and 16-cell projection in the same orientation
}}
|}

== Symmetry constructions ==
The 16-cell's [[W:Coxeter group|symmetry group]] is denoted [[W:B4 polytope|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]].

There is a lower symmetry form of the ''16-cell'', called a '''demitesseract''' or '''4-demicube''', a member of the [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercube]] family.{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel &amp; Goodman-Strauss|2008| loc=Chapter 26. Hemicubes: 1&lt;sub&gt;n1&lt;/sub&gt; | p=409 }} It is represented by h{4,3,3} and [[W:Coxeter diagram|Coxeter diagram]]s {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h1|4|node|3|node|3|node}} or {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|nodes_10ru|split2|node|3|node}}. It can be drawn bicolored with alternating [[W:tetrahedron|tetrahedral]] cells.

It can also be seen in lower symmetry form as a '''tetrahedral antiprism''', constructed by 2 parallel [[W:tetrahedron|tetrahedra]] in dual configurations, connected by 8 (possibly elongated) tetrahedra. It is represented by s{2,4,3}, and Coxeter diagram: {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node|3|node}}.

It can also be seen as a snub 4-[[W:Orthotope|orthotope]], represented by s{2&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;}, and Coxeter diagram: {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}} or {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|split1-22|nodes_hh}}.

With the [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] constructed as a 4-4 [[W:Duoprism|duoprism]], the 16-cell can be seen as its dual, a 4-4 [[W:Duopyramid|duopyramid]].

{| class=wikitable
!Name
![[W:Coxeter diagram|Coxeter diagram]]
![[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]]
![[W:Coxeter notation|Coxeter notation]]
!Order
![[W:Vertex figure|Vertex figure]]
|- align=center
!Regular 16-cell
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|3|node|4|node}}
|{3,3,4}
|[3,3,4]||384
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|4|node}}
|- align=center
!Demitesseract&lt;br /&gt;[[W:Quasiregular polytope|Quasiregular]] 16-cell
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|nodes_10ru|split2|node|3|node}} = {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h1|4|node|3|node|3|node}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|split1|nodes}} = {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|3|node|4|node_h0}}
|h{4,3,3}&lt;br /&gt;{3,3&lt;sup&gt;1,1&lt;/sup&gt;}
|[3&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;] = [1&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4,3,3]||192
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node|3|node_1|3|node}}
|- align=center
!Alternated 4-4 [[W:Duoprism|duoprism]]
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|label2|branch_hh|4a4b|nodes}}
|2s{4,2,4}
|[[W:4,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4|4,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4]]||64
|
|- align=center
!Tetrahedral antiprism
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node|3|node}}
|s{2,4,3}
|[2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4,3]||48
|
|- align=center
!Alternated square prism prism
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node}}
|sr{2,2,4}
|[(2,2)&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4]||16
|
|- align=center
!Snub 4-[[W:Orthotope|orthotope]]
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}} = {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|split1-22|nodes_hh}}
|s{2&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;}
|[2,2,2]&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; = [2&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;]&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;||8
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=6|4-[[W:Rhombic fusil|fusil]]
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node|3|node}}
|{3,3,4}
|[3,3,4]||384
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1|4|node}}
|{4}+{4} or 2{4}
|&lt;nowiki&gt;[[W:4,2,4|4,2,4]]&lt;/nowiki&gt; = [8,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,8]||128
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node|2x|node_f1}}
|{3,4}+{ }
|[4,3,2]||96
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|{4}+2{ }
|[4,2,2]||32
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|{ }+{ }+{ }+{ } or 4{ }
|[2,2,2]||16
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|}

== Related complex polygons ==
The [[W:Möbius–Kantor polygon|Möbius–Kantor polygon]] is a [[W:Regular complex polytope|regular complex polygon]] &lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;{3}&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|3node_1|3|3node}}, in &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}^2&lt;/math&gt; shares the same vertices as the 16-cell. It has 8 vertices, and 8 3-edges.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1991|pp=30,47}}{{Sfn|Coxeter &amp; Shephard|1992}}

The regular complex polygon, &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{4}&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|4|4node}}, in &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}^2&lt;/math&gt; has a real representation as a 16-cell in 4-dimensional space with 8 vertices, 16 2-edges, only half of the edges of the 16-cell.  Its symmetry is &lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;[4]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, order 32.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1991|p=108}}

{| class=wikitable width=320
|+ [[W:Orthographic projection|Orthographic projection]]s of &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{4}&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; polygon
|- valign=top
|[[File:Complex polygon 2-4-4.png|160px]]&lt;br /&gt;In B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; [[W:Coxeter plane|Coxeter plane]], &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{4}&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; has 8 vertices and 16 2-edges, shown here with 4 sets of colors.
|[[File:Complex polygon 2-4-4 bipartite graph.png|160px]]&lt;br /&gt;The 8 vertices are grouped in 2 sets (shown red and blue), each only connected with edges to vertices in the other set, making this polygon a [[W:Complete bipartite graph|complete bipartite graph]], K&lt;sub&gt;4,4&lt;/sub&gt;.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1991|p=114}}
|}

== Related uniform polytopes and honeycombs ==

The regular 16-cell and [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] are the regular members of a set of 15 [[W:B4 polytope|uniform 4-polytopes with the same B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; symmetry]]. The 16-cell is also one of the [[W:D4 polytope|uniform polytopes of D&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; symmetry]].

The 16-cell is also related to the [[W:Cubic honeycomb|cubic honeycomb]], [[W:Order-4 dodecahedral honeycomb|order-4 dodecahedral honeycomb]], and [[W:Order-4 hexagonal tiling honeycomb|order-4 hexagonal tiling honeycomb]] which all have [[W:Hexagonal tiling honeycomb#Polytopes and honeycombs with tetrahedral vertex figures|octahedral vertex figures]].

It belongs to the sequence of  [[W:Order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb#Related polytopes and honeycombs|{3,3,p} 4-polytopes]] which have tetrahedral cells. The sequence includes three [[W:Regular 4-polytope|regular 4-polytope]]s of Euclidean 4-space, the [[5-cell]] {3,3,3}, 16-cell {3,3,4}, and [[600-cell]] {3,3,5}), and the [[W:Order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb|order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb]] {3,3,6} of hyperbolic space.

It is first in a sequence of [[W:Tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb#Quasuiregular honeycombs|quasiregular polytopes and honeycombs]] h{4,p,q}, and a [[W:Order-4 hexagonal tiling honeycomb#Quasiregular honeycombs|half symmetry sequence]], for regular forms {p,3,4}.

== See also ==
*[[24-cell]]
*[[W:4-polytope|4-polytope]]
*[[W:D4 polytope|D4 polytope]]

== Notes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}}

== Citations ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/incmats/hex.htm hex], at [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/home.htm Klitzing polytopes]
* [https://polytope.miraheze.org/wiki/Hexadecachoron Hexadecachoron], at [https://polytope.miraheze.org/wiki/Main_Page Polytope wiki]
* [http://hi.gher.space/wiki/Aerochoron Aerochoron], at [http://hi.gher.space/wiki/Main_Page Higher space]
* [https://www.qfbox.info/4d/uniform Uniform polychora (The tesseract/16-cell family)], at [https://www.qfbox.info/4d/index 4D Euclidean Space]

[[Category:Geometry]]
[[Category:Polyscheme]]</text>
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      <text bytes="59407" sha1="ofob1476n9v545xve6b0p64lztkqojt" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Four-dimensional analog of the octahedron}}
{{Polyscheme|radius=an '''expanded version''' of}}
{{Infobox 4-polytope |
  Name=16-cell&lt;br /&gt;(4-orthoplex)|
  Image_File=Schlegel wireframe 16-cell.png|
  Image_Caption=[[W:Schlegel diagram|Schlegel diagram]]&lt;br /&gt;(vertices and edges)|
  Type=[[W:Convex regular 4-polytope|Convex regular 4-polytope]]&lt;br /&gt;4-[[W:Orthoplex|orthoplex]]&lt;br /&gt;4-[[W:Demihypercube|demicube]]|
  Last=[[W:Rectified tesseract|11]]|
  Index=12|
  Next=[[W:Truncated tesseract|13]]|
  Schläfli={3,3,4}|
  CD={{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|3|node|4|node}} |
  Cell_List=16 [[W:Tetrahedron|{3,3}]] [[File:3-simplex t0.svg|25px]]|
  Face_List=32 [[W:Triangle|{3}]] [[File:2-simplex t0.svg|25px]]|
  Edge_Count= 24|
  Vertex_Count= 8|
  Petrie_Polygon=[[W:Octagon|octagon]]|
  Coxeter_Group=B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, [3,3,4], order 384&lt;br /&gt;D&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, order 192|
  Vertex_Figure=[[File:16-cell verf.svg|80px]]&lt;br /&gt;[[W:Octahedron|Octahedron]]|
  Dual=[[W:Tesseract|Tesseract]]|
  Property_List=[[W:Convex polytope|convex]], [[W:Isogonal figure|isogonal]], [[W:Isotoxal figure|isotoxal]], [[W:Isohedral figure|isohedral]], [[W:Regular polytope|regular]], [[W:Hanner polytope|Hanner polytope]]
}}
In [[W:Geometry|geometry]], the '''16-cell''' is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] (four-dimensional analogue of a Platonic solid) with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {3,3,4}. It is one of the six regular convex 4-polytopes first described by the Swiss mathematician [[W:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] in the mid-19th century.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=141|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7-x. Historical remarks}} It is also called '''C&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;''', '''hexadecachoron''',&lt;ref&gt;[[W:Norman Johnson (mathematician)|N.W. Johnson]]: ''Geometries and Transformations'', (2018) {{ISBN|978-1-107-10340-5}} Chapter 11: ''Finite Symmetry Groups'', 11.5 ''Spherical Coxeter groups'', p.249&lt;/ref&gt; or '''hexdecahedroid'''.&lt;ref&gt;Matila Ghyka, ''The Geometry of Art and Life'' (1977), p.68&lt;/ref&gt;

It is the 4-dimesional member of an infinite family of polytopes called [[W:Cross-polytope|cross-polytope]]s, ''orthoplexes'', or ''hyperoctahedrons'' which are analogous to the [[W:Cctahedron|octahedron]] in three dimensions. It is Coxeter's &lt;math&gt;\beta_4&lt;/math&gt; polytope.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=120=121|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.2. See illustration Fig 7.2&lt;small&gt;B&lt;/small&gt;}} The [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] is the [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] (4-[[W:Hypercube|cube]]), which it can be combined with to form [[W:Compound of tesseract and 16-cell|a compound figure]]. The cells of the 16-cell are dual to the 16 vertices of the tesseract.

== Geometry ==
The 16-cell is the second in the sequence of 6 convex regular 4-polytopes (in order of size and complexity).{{Efn|name=4-polytopes ordered by size and complexity|group=}}

Each of its 4 successor convex regular 4-polytopes can be constructed as the [[W:Convex hull|convex hull]] of a [[W:Polytope compound|polytope compound]] of multiple 16-cells: the 16-vertex [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] as a compound of two 16-cells, the 24-vertex [[24-cell]] as a compound of three 16-cells, the 120-vertex [[600-cell]] as a compound of fifteen 16-cells, and the 600-vertex [[120-cell]] as a compound of seventy-five 16-cells.{{Efn|There are 2 and only 2 16-cells inscribed in the 8-cell (tesseract), 3 and only 3 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell, 75 distinct 16-cells (but only 15 disjoint 16-cells) inscribed in the 600-cell, and 675 distinct 16-cells (but only 75 disjoint 16-cells) inscribed in the 120-cell.}}

{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:}}

=== Coordinates ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;
!colspan=2|Disjoint squares
|-
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;
!colspan=2|''xy'' plane
|-
|( 0, 1, 0, 0)||( 0, 0,-1, 0)
|-
|( 0, 0, 1, 0)||( 0,-1, 0, 0)
|}
|-
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;
!colspan=2|''wz'' plane
|-
|( 1, 0, 0, 0)||( 0, 0, 0,-1)
|-
|( 0, 0, 0, 1)||(-1, 0, 0, 0)
|}
|}The 16-cell is the 4-dimensional [[W:Cross polytope|cross polytope (4-orthoplex)]], which means its vertices lie in opposite pairs on the 4 axes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system.

The eight vertices are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by edges except opposite pairs. The edge length is {{radic|2}}.

The vertex coordinates form 6 [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] central squares lying in the 6 coordinate planes. Squares in ''opposite'' planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal ''basis'']] for the choice of a 4-dimensional reference frame, because its vertices exactly define the four orthogonal axes.

=== Structure ===
The [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] of the 16-cell is {3,3,4}, indicating that its cells are [[W:Regular tetrahedron|regular tetrahedra]] {3,3} and its [[W:Vertex figure|vertex figure]] is a [[W:Regular octahedron|regular octahedron]] {3,4}. There are 8 tetrahedra, 12 triangles, and 6 edges meeting at every vertex. Its [[W:Edge figure|edge figure]] is a square. There are 4 tetrahedra and 4 triangles meeting at every edge.

The 16-cell is [[W:Totally bounded|bounded]] by 16 [[W:Cell (mathematics)|cells]], all of which are regular [[W:Tetrahedron|tetrahedra]].{{Efn|The boundary surface of a 16-cell is a finite 3-dimensional space consisting of 16 tetrahedra arranged face-to-face (four around one). It is a closed, tightly curved (non-Euclidean) 3-space, within which we can move straight through 4 tetrahedra in any direction and arrive back in the tetrahedron where we started. We can visualize moving around inside this tetrahedral [[W:Jungle gym|jungle gym]], climbing from one tetrahedron into another on its 24 struts (its edges), and never being able to get out (or see out) of the 16 tetrahedra no matter what direction we go (or look). We are always on (or in) the ''surface'' of the 16-cell, never inside the 16-cell itself (nor outside it). We can see that the 6 edges around each vertex radiate symmetrically in 3 dimensions and form an orthogonal 3-axis cross, just as the radii of an octahedron do (so we say the vertex figure of the 16-cell is the octahedron).{{Efn|name=octahedral pyramid}}}} It has 32 [[W:Triangle (geometry)|triangular]] [[W:Face (geometry)|faces]], 24 [[W:Edge (geometry)|edges]], and 8 [[W:Vertex (geometry)|vertices]]. The 24 edges bound 6 [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] central squares lying on [[W:Great circle|great circles]] in the 6 coordinate planes (3 pairs of completely orthogonal great squares). At each vertex, 3 great squares cross perpendicularly. The 6 edges meet at the vertex the way 6 edges meet at the [[W:Apex (geometry)|apex]] of a canonical [[W:Octahedral pyramid|octahedral pyramid]].{{Efn|Each vertex in the 16-cell is the apex of an [[W:Octahedral pyramid|octahedral pyramid]], the base of which is the octahedron formed by the 6 other vertices to which the apex is connected by edges. The 16-cell can be deconstructed (four different ways) into two octahedral pyramids by cutting it in half through one of its four octahedral central hyperplanes. Looked at from inside the curved 3 dimensional volume of its boundary surface of 16 face-bonded tetrahedra, the 16-cell's vertex figure is an octahedron. In 4 dimensions, the vertex octahedron is actually an octahedral pyramid. The apex of the octahedral pyramid (the vertex where the 6 edges meet) is not actually at the center of the octahedron: it is displaced radially outwards in the fourth dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the octahedron's 6 vertices. The 6 edges around the vertex make an orthogonal 3-axis cross in 3 dimensions (and in the [[W:Octahedral pyramid|3-dimensional projection of the 4-pyramid]]), but the 3 lines are actually bent 90 degrees in the fourth dimension where they meet in an apex.|name=octahedral pyramid}} The 6 orthogonal central planes of the 16-cell can be divided into 4 orthogonal central hyperplanes (3-spaces) each forming an [[W:Octahedron|octahedron]] with 3 orthogonal great squares.

=== Rotations ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=480
|- align=center valign=top
|rowspan=2|[[File:16-cell.gif]]&lt;br /&gt;A 3D projection of a 16-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Simple rotations|simple rotation]]
|[[File:16-cell-orig.gif]]&lt;br /&gt;A 3D projection of a 16-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]]
|}
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] planes.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=6|loc=§&amp;nbsp;5. Four-Dimensional Rotations}} The 16-cell is a simple frame in which to observe 4-dimensional rotations, because each of the 16-cell's 6 great squares has another completely orthogonal great square (there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal squares).{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} Many rotations of the 16-cell can be characterized by the angle of rotation in one of its great square planes (e.g. the ''xy'' plane) and another angle of rotation in the completely orthogonal great square plane (the ''wz'' plane).{{Efn|Each great square vertex is {{radic|2}} distant from two of the square's other vertices, and {{radic|4}} distant from its opposite vertex. The other four vertices of the 16-cell (also {{radic|2}} distant) are the vertices of the square's completely orthogonal square.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel great squares}} Each 16-cell vertex is a vertex of ''three'' orthogonal great squares which intersect there. Each great square has a different ''completely'' orthogonal great square. Thus there are three great squares completely orthogonal to each vertex: squares that the vertex is not part of.{{Efn|The three ''incompletely'' orthogonal great squares which intersect at each vertex of the 16-cell form the vertex's octahedral [[W:Vertex figure|vertex figure]].{{Efn|name=octahedral pyramid}} Any two of them, together with the completely orthogonal square of the third, also form an octahedron: a central octahedral hyperplane.{{Efn|Three great squares meet at each vertex (and at its opposite vertex) in the 16-cell. Each of them has a different completely orthogonal square. Thus there are three great squares completely orthogonal to each vertex and its opposite vertex (each axis). They form an octahedron (a central hyperplane). Every axis line in the 16-cell is completely orthogonal to a central octahedron hyperplane, as every great square plane is completely orthogonal to another great square plane.{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} The axis and the octahedron intersect only at one point (the center of the 16-cell), as each pair of completely orthogonal great squares intersects only at one point (the center of the 16-cell). Each central octahedron is also the octahedral vertex figure of two of the eight vertices: the two on its completely orthogonal axis.|name=octahedral hyperplanes}} In the 16-cell, each octahedral vertex figure is also a central octahedral hyperplane.|name=completely orthogonal great squares}}|name=vertex and central octahedra}} Completely orthogonal great squares have disjoint vertices: 4 of the 16-cell's 8 vertices rotate in one plane, and the other 4 rotate independently in the completely orthogonal plane.{{Efn|Completely orthogonal great squares are non-intersecting and rotate independently because the great circles on which their vertices lie are [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]].{{Efn|[[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point.{{Sfn|Tyrrell &amp; Semple|1971|loc=§&amp;nbsp;3. Clifford's original definition of parallelism|pp=5-6}} A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=7-10|loc=§&amp;nbsp;6. Angles between two Planes in 4-Space}} In the 16-cell the corresponding vertices of completely orthogonal great circle squares are all {{radic|2}} apart, so these squares are Clifford parallel polygons.{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}} Note that only the vertices of the great squares (the points on the great circle) are {{radic|2}} apart; points on the edges of the squares (on chords of the circle) are closer together.|name=Clifford parallels}} They are {{radic|2}} apart at each pair of nearest vertices (and in the 16-cell ''all'' the pairs except antipodal pairs are nearest). The two squares cannot intersect at all because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell.{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two squares are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel squares in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent square links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]].|name=Clifford parallel great squares}}

In 2 or 3 dimensions a rotation is characterized by a single plane of rotation; this kind of rotation taking place in 4-space is called a [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Simple rotations|simple rotation]], in which only one of the two completely orthogonal planes rotates (the angle of rotation in the other plane is 0). In the 16-cell, a simple rotation in one of the 6 orthogonal planes moves only 4 of the 8 vertices; the other 4 remain fixed. (In the simple rotation animation above, all 8 vertices move because the plane of rotation is not one of the 6 orthogonal basis planes.)

In a [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|double rotation]] both sets of 4 vertices move, but independently: the angles of rotation may be different in the 2 completely orthogonal planes. If the two angles happen to be the same, a maximally symmetric [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] takes place.{{Efn|In an isoclinic rotation, all 6 orthogonal planes are displaced in two orthogonal directions at once: they are rotated by the angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. An isoclinic displacement (also known as a [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement) is 4-dimensionally diagonal. Points are displaced an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, and displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance#Higher dimensions|Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance (which is two times that distance). For example, when the unit-radius 16-cell rotates isoclinically 90° in a great square invariant plane, it also rotates 90° in the completely orthogonal great square invariant plane.{{Efn||name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} The great square plane tilts sideways 90° to occupy its completely orthogonal plane. (By isoclinic symmetry, every great square plane rotates 90° and tilts sideways 90° into its completely orthogonal plane.) Each vertex (in every great square) is displaced a distance of {{radic|2}}/2 in each of four orthogonal directions, a total distance of {{radic|2}}, to a vertex in its completely orthogonal great square. The original and displaced vertex are two edge lengths apart by three{{Efn|There are six different two-edge paths connecting a pair of antipodal vertices along the edges of a great square. The left isoclinic rotation runs diagonally between three of them, and the right isoclinic rotation runs diagonally between the other three. These diagonals are the straight lines (geodesics) connecting opposite vertices of face-bonded tetrahedral cells in the left-handed [[#Helical construction|eight-cell ring]] and the right-handed eight-cell ring, respectively.}} different paths along two edges of a great square. But the ''isocline'' (the helical arc the vertex follows during the isoclinic rotation) does not run along edges: it runs ''between'' these different edge-paths diagonally, on a geodesic (shortest arc) between the original and displaced vertices.{{Efn|name=isocline}} This isoclinic geodesic arc is not a segment of an ordinary great circle; it does not lie in the plane of any great square. It is a helical 90° arc that bends in a circle in two completely orthogonal planes at once. This [[W:Möbius loop|Möbius circle]] does not lie in any one great circle plane, or intersect any vertices of the 16-cell between the original and the displaced vertex.{{Efn|name=Möbius circle}}|name=isoclinic rotation}} In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90 degrees of any pair of completely orthogonal square planes takes every square plane to its completely orthogonal square plane in a twisting displacement, as they tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally.{{Efn|The 90 degree isoclinic rotation of two completely orthogonal planes takes them to each other. In such a rotation of a rigid 16-cell, all 6 orthogonal planes rotate by 90 degrees, and also tilt sideways by 90 degrees to their completely orthogonal (Clifford parallel){{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} plane.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} The two completely orthogonal planes are 90° apart, in the two orthogonal angles that separate them. If the isoclinic rotation is continued through another 90°, each great square returns to its original plane, but in a different orientation; the vertices are not returned to their original positions. Continuing through a 720° isoclinic rotation (through eight 90° isoclinic displacements) returns everything to its original place and orientation.|name=exchange of completely orthogonal planes}} All the vertices move at once on separate circular [[w:Geodesic|geodesics]], displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces a circular helix in 4-space, and also traces a great circle twice in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic rotation each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

=== Constructions ===

==== Octahedral dipyramid ====
{|class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;
!Octahedron &lt;math&gt;\beta_3&lt;/math&gt;
!16-cell &lt;math&gt;\beta_4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|[[File:3-cube t2.svg|160px]]
|[[File:4-demicube t0 D4.svg|160px]]
|-
|colspan=2|Orthogonal projections to skew hexagon hyperplane
|}
The simplest construction of the 16-cell is on the 3-dimensional cross polytope, the [[W:Octahedron|octahedron]]. The octahedron has 3 perpendicular axes and 6 vertices in 3 opposite pairs (its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]] is the [[W:Hexagon|hexagon]]). Add another pair of vertices, on a fourth axis perpendicular to all 3 of the other axes. Connect each new vertex to all 6 of the original vertices, adding 12 new edges. This raises two [[W:Octahedral pyramid|octahedral pyramid]]s on a shared octahedron base that lies in the 16-cell's central hyperplane.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=121|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.21. See illustration Fig 7.2&lt;small&gt;B&lt;/small&gt;|ps=: &quot;&lt;math&gt;\beta_4&lt;/math&gt; is a four-dimensional dipyramid based on &lt;math&gt;\beta_3&lt;/math&gt; (with its two apices in opposite directions along the fourth dimension).&quot;}}

[[File:stereographic_polytope_16cell_colour.png|thumb|[[W:Stereographic projection|Stereographic projection]] of the 16-cell's 6 orthogonal central squares onto their great circles. Each circle is divided into 4 arc-edges at the intersections where 3 circles cross perpendicularly. Notice that each circle has one Clifford parallel circle that it does ''not'' intersect. Those two circles pass through each other like adjacent links in a chain.]]The octahedron that the construction starts with has three perpendicular intersecting squares (which appear as rectangles in the hexagonal projections). Each square intersects with each of the other squares at two opposite vertices, with ''two'' of the squares crossing at each vertex. Then two more points are added in the fourth dimension (above and below the 3-dimensional hyperplane). These new vertices are connected to all the octahedron's vertices, creating 12 new edges and ''three more squares'' (which appear edge-on as the 3 ''diameters'' of the hexagon in the projection), and three more octahedra.{{Efn|name=octahedral hyperplanes}}

Something unprecedented has also been created. Notice that each square no longer intersects with ''all'' of the other squares: it does intersect with four of them (with ''three'' of the squares crossing at each vertex now), but each square has ''one'' other square with which it shares ''no'' vertices: it is not directly connected to that square at all. These two ''separate'' perpendicular squares (there are three pairs of them) are like the opposite edges of a [[W:Tetrahedron|tetrahedron]]: perpendicular, but non-intersecting. They lie opposite each other (parallel in some sense), and they don't touch, but they also pass through each other like two perpendicular links in a chain (but unlike links in a chain they have a common center). They are an example of '''''Clifford parallels''''', and the 16-cell is the simplest regular polytope in which they occur. [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] parallelism{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} of objects of more than one dimension (more than just curved ''lines'') emerges here and occurs in all the subsequent 4-dimensional regular polytopes, where it can be seen as the defining relationship ''among'' disjoint concentric regular 4-polytopes and their corresponding parts. It can occur between congruent (similar) polytopes of 2 or more dimensions.{{Sfn|Tyrrell &amp; Semple|1971}} For example, as noted [[#Geometry|above]] all the subsequent convex regular 4-polytopes are compounds of multiple 16-cells; those 16-cells are [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel polytopes]].

==== Tetrahedral constructions ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=480
|- align=center valign=top
|[[File:16-cell net.png|180px|]]
|[[File:16-cell nets.png|180px]]
|}

The 16-cell has two [[W:Wythoff construction|Wythoff construction]]s from regular tetrahedra, a regular form and alternated form, shown here as [[W:Net (polyhedron)|nets]], the second represented by tetrahedral cells of two alternating colors. The alternated form is a [[#Symmetry constructions|lower symmetry construction]] of the 16-cell called the [[W:Demitesseract|demitesseract]].

Wythoff's construction replicates the 16-cell's [[5-cell#Orthoschemes|characteristic 5-cell]] in a [[W:Kaleidoscope|kaleidoscope]] of mirrors. Every regular 4-polytope has its characteristic 4-orthoscheme, an [[5-cell#Irregular 5-cells|irregular 5-cell]].{{Efn|An [[W:Orthoscheme|orthoscheme]] is a [[W:Chiral|chiral]] irregular [[W:simplex|simplex]] with [[W:Right triangle|right triangle]] faces that is characteristic of some polytope if it will exactly fill that polytope with the reflections of itself in its own [[W:Facet (geometry)|facets]] (its ''mirror walls''). Every regular polytope can be dissected radially into instances of its [[W:Orthoscheme#Characteristic simplex of the general regular polytope|characteristic orthoscheme]] surrounding its center. The characteristic orthoscheme has the shape described by the same [[W:Coxeter-Dynkin diagram|Coxeter-Dynkin diagram]] as the regular polytope without the ''generating point'' ring.|name=characteristic orthoscheme}} There are three regular 4-polytopes with tetrahedral cells: the [[5-cell]], the 16-cell, and the [[600-cell]]. Although all are bounded by ''regular'' tetrahedron cells, their characteristic 5-cells (4-orthoschemes) are different [[5-cell#Isometries|tetrahedral pyramids]], all based on the same characteristic ''irregular'' tetrahedron. They share the same [[W:Tetrahedron#Orthoschemes|characteristic tetrahedron]] (3-orthoscheme) and characteristic [[W:Right triangle|right triangle]] (2-orthoscheme) because they have the same kind of cell.{{Efn|A regular polytope of dimension ''k'' has a characteristic ''k''-orthoscheme, and also a characteristic (''k''-1)-orthoscheme. A regular 4-polytope has a characteristic 5-cell (4-orthoscheme) into which it is subdivided by its (3-dimensional) hyperplanes of symmetry, and also a characteristic tetrahedron (3-orthoscheme) into which its surface is subdivided by its cells' (2-dimensional) planes of symmetry. After subdividing its (3-dimensional) surface into characteristic tetrahedra surrounding each cell center, its (4-dimensional) interior can be subdivided into characteristic 5-cells by adding radii joining the vertices of the surface characteristic tetrahedra to the 4-polytope's center.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=130|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.6|ps=; &quot;simplicial subdivision&quot;.}} The interior tetrahedra and triangles thus formed will also be orthoschemes.}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;
!colspan=6|Characteristics of the 16-cell{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=292-293|loc=Table I(ii); &quot;16-cell, 𝛽&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&quot;}}
|-
!align=right|
!align=center|edge{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=139|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.9 The characteristic simplex}}
!colspan=2 align=center|arc
!colspan=2 align=center|dihedral{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=290|loc=Table I(ii); &quot;dihedral angles&quot;}}
|-
!align=right|𝒍
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \approx 1.414&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;120°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{2\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!align=right|𝟀
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{2}{3}} \approx 0.816&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60″&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|𝝉{{Efn|{{Harv|Coxeter|1973}} uses the greek letter 𝝓 (phi) to represent one of the three ''characteristic angles'' 𝟀, 𝝓, 𝟁 of a regular polytope. Because 𝝓 is commonly used to represent the [[W:Golden ratio|golden ratio]] constant ≈ 1.618, for which Coxeter uses 𝝉 (tau), we reverse Coxeter's conventions, and use 𝝉 to represent the characteristic angle.|name=reversed greek symbols}}
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}} \approx 0.707&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;45″&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;45°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|𝟁
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{6}} \approx 0.408&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;30″&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{6}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_0R^3/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{3}{4}} \approx 0.866&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_1R^3/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}} = 0.5&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;45°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_2R^3/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{12}} \approx 0.289&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;30°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{6}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_0R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_1R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}} \approx 0.707&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_2R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{3}} \approx 0.577&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_3R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}} = 0.5&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|}
The '''characteristic 5-cell of the regular 16-cell''' is represented by the [[W:Coxeter-Dynkin diagram|Coxeter-Dynkin diagram]] {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node|3|node|3|node|4|node}}, which can be read as a list of the dihedral angles between its mirror facets. It is an irregular [[W:Pyramid (mathematics)#Polyhedral pyramid|tetrahedral pyramid]] based on the [[W:Tetrahedron#Orthoschemes|characteristic tetrahedron of the regular tetrahedron]]. The regular 16-cell is subdivided by its symmetry hyperplanes into 384 instances of its characteristic 5-cell that all meet at its center.

The characteristic 5-cell (4-orthoscheme) has four more edges than its base characteristic tetrahedron (3-orthoscheme), joining the four vertices of the base to its apex (the fifth vertex of the 4-orthoscheme, at the center of the regular 16-cell).{{Efn|The four edges of each 4-orthoscheme which meet at the center of a regular 4-polytope are of unequal length, because they are the four characteristic radii of the regular 4-polytope: a vertex radius, an edge center radius, a face center radius, and a cell center radius. The five vertices of the 4-orthoscheme always include one regular 4-polytope vertex, one regular 4-polytope edge center, one regular 4-polytope face center, one regular 4-polytope cell center, and the regular 4-polytope center. Those five vertices (in that order) comprise a path along four mutually perpendicular edges (that makes three right angle turns), the characteristic feature of a 4-orthoscheme. The 4-orthoscheme has five dissimilar 3-orthoscheme facets.|name=characteristic radii}} If the regular 16-cell has unit radius edge and edge length 𝒍 = &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, its characteristic 5-cell's ten edges have lengths &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{2}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{6}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; around its exterior right-triangle face (the edges opposite the ''characteristic angles'' 𝟀, 𝝉, 𝟁),{{Efn|name=reversed greek symbols}} plus &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{3}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{12}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; (the other three edges of the exterior 3-orthoscheme facet the characteristic tetrahedron, which are the ''characteristic radii'' of the regular tetrahedron), plus &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; (edges which are the characteristic radii of the regular 16-cell). The 4-edge path along orthogonal edges of the orthoscheme is &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{6}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, first from a 16-cell vertex to a 16-cell edge center, then turning 90° to a 16-cell face center, then turning 90° to a 16-cell tetrahedral cell center, then turning 90° to the 16-cell center.

==== Helical construction ====
[[File:Eight face-bonded tetrahedra.jpg|thumb|A 4-dimensional ring of 8 face-bonded tetrahedra, seen in the [[W:Boerdijk–Coxeter helix|Boerdijk–Coxeter helix]], bounded by three eight-edge circular paths of different colors, cut and laid out flat in 3-dimensional space. It contains an ''isocline'' axis (not shown), a helical circle of circumference 4𝝅 that twists through all four dimensions and visits all 8 vertices.{{Efn|name=isocline}} The two blue-blue-yellow triangles at either end of the cut ring are the same object.]]
[[File:16-cell 8-ring net4.png|thumb|Net and orthogonal projection]]

A 16-cell can be constructed (three different ways) from two [[W:Boerdijk–Coxeter helix|Boerdijk–Coxeter helix]]es of eight chained tetrahedra, each bent in the fourth dimension into a ring.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1970|loc=Table 2: Reflexible honeycombs and their groups|p=45|ps=; Honeycomb [3,3,4]&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; is a tiling of the 3-sphere by 2 rings of 8 tetrahedral cells.}}{{Sfn|Banchoff|2013}} The two circular helixes share the same 8 vertices and 24 edges, but their tetrahedra are disjoint. The helixes spiral around each other, nest into each other and pass through each other forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]. 16 of the 32 triangle faces can be seen in a 2D net within a [[W:Triangular tiling|triangular tiling]], with 6 triangles around every vertex. The [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]] of the 16-cell is a skew octagon, visible as the purple edges in the octagon orthogonal projection, and as the light blue edges in the tetrahedral helix. Each eight-cell ring of tetrahedra actually contains three such skew [[W:Octagram|octagram]]s of different colors, eight-edge circular paths that wind twice around the 16-cell on every third vertex of the octagram. The orange and yellow edges are two four-edge halves of one skew octagram, which join their ends to form a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius strip]].

Thus the 16-cell can be decomposed into two cell-disjoint circular chains of eight tetrahedrons each, four edges long, one spiraling to the right (clockwise) and the other spiraling to the left (counterclockwise). The left-handed and right-handed cell rings fit together, nesting into each other and entirely filling the 16-cell, even though they are of opposite chirality. This decomposition can be seen in a 4-4 [[W:Duoantiprism|duoantiprism]] construction of the 16-cell: {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}} or {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node|4|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node}}, [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {2}⨂{2} or s{2}s{2}, [[W:Coxeter notation|symmetry]] [4,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4], order 64.

Three eight-edge paths (of different colors) spiral along each eight-cell ring, making 90° angles at each vertex. (In the Boerdijk–Coxeter helix before it is bent into a ring, the angles in different paths vary, but are not 90°.) Three paths (with three different colors and apparent angles) pass through each vertex. When the helix is bent into a ring, the segments of each eight-edge path (of various lengths) join their ends, forming a Möbius strip eight edges long along its single-sided circumference of 4𝝅, and one edge wide.{{Efn|name=Möbius circle}} The six four-edge halves of the three eight-edge paths each make four 90° angles, but they are ''not'' the six orthogonal great squares: they are open-ended squares, four-edge 360° helices whose open ends are [[W:Antipodal point|antipodal]] vertices. The four edges come from four different great squares, and are mutually orthogonal. Combined end-to-end in pairs of the same [[W:Chirality|chirality]], the six four-edge paths make three eight-edge Möbius loops, [[W:Helix|helical]] octagrams. Each octagram is both a [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]] of the 16-cell, and the helical track along which all eight vertices rotate together, in one of the 16-cell's distinct isoclinic [[#Rotations|rotations]].{{Efn|The 16-cell can be constructed from two cell-disjoint eight-cell rings in three different ways; it has three orientations of its pair of rings. Each orientation &quot;contains&quot; a distinct left-right pair of isoclinic rotations, and also a pair of completely orthogonal great squares (Clifford parallel fibers), so each orientation is a discrete [[W:Hopf fibration|fibration]] of the 16-cell. Each eight-cell ring contains three axial octagrams which have different orientations (they exchange roles) in the three discrete fibrations and six distinct isoclinic rotations (three left and three right) through the cell rings. Three octagrams (of different colors) can be seen in the illustration of a single cell ring, one in the role of Petrie polygon, one as the right isocline, and one as the left isocline. Because each octagram plays three roles, there are exactly six distinct isoclines in the 16-cell, not 18.|name=only one disjoint pair of eight-cell rings}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=610
!colspan=5|Five ways of looking at the same [[W:Skew polygon|skew]] [[W:Octagram|octagram]]{{Efn|All five views are the same orthogonal projection of the 16-cell into the same plane (a circular cross-section of the eight-cell ring cylinder), looking along the central axis of the cut ring cylinder pictured above, from one end of the cylinder. The only difference is which {{radic|2}} edges and {{radic|4}} chords are ''omitted'' for focus. The different colors of {{radic|2}} edges appear to be of different lengths because they are oblique to the viewer at different angles. Vertices are numbered 1 (top) through 8 in counterclockwise order.}}
|-
![[#Rotations|Edge path]]
![[W:Petrie polygon#The Petrie polygon of regular polychora (4-polytopes)|Petrie polygon]]{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=292-293|loc=Table I(ii); 24-cell ''h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''}}
!16-cell
![[W:Hopf fibration|Discrete fibration]]
![[#Coordinates|Diameter chords]]
|-
![[W:Octagram|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/3}&lt;/sub&gt;{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=292-293|loc=Table I(ii); 24-cell ''h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''}}
![[W:Petrie polygon#The Petrie polygon of regular polychora (4-polytopes)|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/1}&lt;/sub&gt;
![[W:Coxeter element#Coxeter plane|Coxeter plane]] [[W:B4 polytope|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]]
![[W:Octagram#Star polygon compounds|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/2}=2{4}&lt;/sub&gt;
![[W:Octagram#Star polygon compounds|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/4}=4{2}&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram (8-3).png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram (8).png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram.png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram 2(4).png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram 4(2).png|120px]]
|-
|The eight {{radic|2}} chords of the edge-path of an isocline.{{Efn|name=isocline curve}}
|Skew [[W:Octagon|octagon]] of eight {{radic|2}} edges. The 16-cell has 6 of these 8-vertex circuits.
|All 24 {{radic|2}} edges and the four {{radic|4}} orthogonal axes.
|Two completely orthogonal (disjoint) great squares of {{radic|2}} edges.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel great squares}}
|The four {{radic|4}} chords of an isocline. Every fourth isocline vertex is joined to its antipodal vertex by a 16-cell axis.{{Efn|Each isocline has the eight continuous {{radic|2}} chords of its octagram&lt;sub&gt;{8/3}&lt;/sub&gt; edge-path, and also four discontinuous {{radic|4}} diameter chords that connect every ''fourth'' vertex on the octagram but do not connect to each other. Antipodal vertices also have a twisted continuous path of four mutually orthogonal {{radic|2}} edges connecting them. Between antipodal vertices, the isocline curves smoothly around in a helix over the four {{radic|2}} chords of its edge-path, hitting the three intervening vertices. Each {{radic|2}} edge is an edge of a great square, that is completely orthogonal to another great square, in which the {{radic|4}} chord is a diagonal.|name=isocline curve}}
|}
Each eight-edge helix is a [[W:Skew polygon|skew]] [[W:Octagram|octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/3}&lt;/sub&gt; that [[W:Winding number|winds three times]] around the 16-cell and visits every vertex before closing into a loop. Its eight {{radic|2}} edges are chords of an ''isocline'', a helical geodesic on which the 8 vertices circle during an isoclinic rotation.{{Efn|An isocline is a circle of special kind corresponding to a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s linked in a [[W:Möbius loop|Möbius loop]]. It curves through four dimensions instead of just two. All ordinary circles have a 2𝝅 circumference, but the 16-cell's isocline is a circle with an 4𝝅 circumference (over eight 90° chords). An isocline is a circle that does not lie in a plane, but to avoid confusion we always refer to it as an ''isocline'' and reserve the term ''circle'' for an ordinary circle in the plane.|name=Möbius circle}} All eight 16-cell vertices are {{radic|2}} apart except for opposite (antipodal) vertices, which are {{radic|4}} apart. A vertex moving on the isocline visits three other vertices that are {{radic|2}} apart before reaching the fourth vertex that is {{radic|4}} away.{{Efn|In the 16-cell, two antipodal vertices are opposite vertices of two face-bonded tetrahedral cells. The two antipodal vertices are connected by (three different) two-edge great circle paths along edges of the tetrahedral cells, by various three-edge paths, and by four-edge paths on isoclines and Petrie polygons. {{Efn|name=Möbius circle}}|name=isocline}}

The eight-cell ring is [[W:Chiral|chiral]]: there is a right-handed form which spirals clockwise, and a left-handed form which spirals counterclockwise. The 16-cell contains one of each, so it also contains a left and a right isocline; the isocline is the circular axis around which the eight-cell ring twists. Each isocline visits all eight vertices of the 16-cell.{{Efn|In the 16-cell each ''single'' isocline winds through all 8 vertices: an entire [[W:Hopf fibration|fibration]] of two completely orthogonal great squares.{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}} The 5-cell and the 16-cell are the only regular 4-polytopes where each discrete fibration has just one isocline fiber.{{Efn|Except in the 5-cell and 16-cell,{{Efn|name=two special cases}} a pair of left and right isocline circles have disjoint vertices: the left and right isocline helices are non-intersecting parallels but counter-rotating, forming a special kind of double helix which cannot occur in three dimensions (where counter-rotating helices of the same radius must intersect).|name=counter-rotating double helix}}|name=each 16-cell isocline reaches all 8 vertices}} Each eight-cell ring contains half of the 16 cells, but all 8 vertices; the two rings share the vertices, as they nest into each other and fit together. They also share the 24 edges, though left and right octagram helices are different eight-edge paths.{{Efn|The left and right isoclines intersect each other at every vertex. They are different sequences of the same set of 8 vertices. With respect only to the set of 4 vertex pairs which are {{radic|2}} apart, they can be considered to be Clifford parallel. With respect only to the set of 4 vertex pairs which are {{radic|4}} apart, they can be considered to be completely orthogonal.{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}}}}

Because there are three pairs of completely orthogonal great squares,{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} there are three congruent ways to compose a 16-cell from two eight-cell rings. The 16-cell contains three left-right pairs of eight-cell rings in different orientations, with each cell ring containing its axial isocline.{{Efn|name=only one disjoint pair of eight-cell rings}} Each left-right pair of isoclines is the track of a left-right pair of distinct isoclinic rotations: the rotations in one pair of completely orthogonal invariant planes of rotation.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel great squares}} At each vertex, there are three great squares and six octagram isoclines that cross at the vertex and share a 16-cell axis chord.{{Efn|This is atypical for isoclinic rotations generally; normally both the left and right isoclines do not occur at the same vertex: there are two disjoint sets of vertices reachable only by the left or right rotation respectively.{{Efn|name=counter-rotating double helix}} The left and right isoclines of the 16-cell form a very special double helix: unusual not just because it is circular, but because its different left and right helices twist around each other through the ''same set'' of antipodal vertices,{{Efn|name=each 16-cell isocline reaches all 8 vertices}} not through the two ''disjoint subsets'' of antipodal vertices, as the isocline pairs do in most isoclinic rotations.{{Efn|For another example of the left and right isoclines of a rotation visiting the same set of vertices, see the [[5-cell#Geodesics and rotations|characteristic isoclinic rotation of the 5-cell]]. Although in these two special cases left and right isoclines of the same rotation visit the same set of vertices, they still take very different rotational paths because they visit the same vertices in different sequences.|name=two special cases}} Isoclinic rotations in completely orthogonal invariant planes are special.{{Efn|Each great square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal to only one of them. Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal. There is also another way in which completely orthogonal planes are in a distinguished category of Clifford parallel planes: they are not [[W:Chiral|chiral]]. A pair of isoclinic (Clifford parallel) planes is either a ''left pair'' or a ''right pair'' unless they are separated by two angles of 90° (completely orthogonal planes) or 0° (coincident planes).{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=7-8|loc=§&amp;nbsp;6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; Left and Right Pairs of Isoclinic Planes.}} Most isoclinic planes are brought together only by a left isoclinic rotation or a right isoclinic rotation, respectively. Completely orthogonal planes are special: the pair of planes is both a left and a right pair, so either a left or a right isoclinic rotation will bring them together. Because planes separated by a 90° isoclinic rotation are 90° apart in two orthogonal angles, the plane to the ''left'' and the plane to the ''right'' are the same plane.{{Efn|name=exchange of completely orthogonal planes}}|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}} To see how and why they are special, visualize two completely orthogonal invariant planes of rotation, each rotating by some rotation angle and tilting sideways by the same rotation angle into a different plane entirely.{{Efn|name=isoclinic rotation}} Only when the rotation angle is 90°, that different plane in which the tilting invariant plane lands will be the completely orthogonal invariant plane itself. The destination plane of the rotation is the completely orthogonal invariant plane. The 90° isoclinic rotation is the only rotation which takes the completely orthogonal invariant planes to each other.{{Efn|name=exchange of completely orthogonal planes}} This reciprocity is the reason both left and right rotations go to the same place.}}

=== As a configuration ===
This [[W:Regular 4-polytope#As configurations|configuration matrix]] represents the 16-cell. The rows and columns correspond to vertices, edges, faces, and cells. The diagonal numbers say how many of each element occur in the whole 16-cell. The nondiagonal numbers say how many of the column's element occur in or at the row's element.

&lt;math&gt;\begin{bmatrix}\begin{matrix}8 &amp; 6 &amp; 12 &amp; 8 \\ 2 &amp; 24 &amp; 4 &amp; 4 \\ 3 &amp; 3 &amp; 32 &amp; 2 \\ 4 &amp; 6 &amp; 4 &amp; 16 \end{matrix}\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;

== Tessellations ==
One can [[W:Tessellation|tessellate]] 4-dimensional [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] by regular 16-cells. This is called the [[W:16-cell honeycomb|16-cell honeycomb]] and has [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {3,3,4,3}. Hence, the 16-cell has a [[W:Dihedral angle|dihedral angle]] of 120°.{{sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=293}} Each 16-cell has 16 neighbors with which it shares a tetrahedron, 24 neighbors with which it shares only an edge, and 72 neighbors with which it shares only a single point. Twenty-four 16-cells meet at any given vertex in this tessellation.

The dual tessellation, the [[W:24-cell honeycomb|24-cell honeycomb]], {3,4,3,3}, is made of regular [[24-cell]]s. Together with the [[W:Tesseractic honeycomb|tesseractic honeycomb]] {4,3,3,4} these are the only three [[W:List of regular polytopes#Tessellations of Euclidean 4-space|regular tessellations]] of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;.

== Projections ==
{{B4 Coxeter plane graphs|t3|150}}

[[File:Orthogonal projection envelopes 16-cell.png|thumb|Projection envelopes of the 16-cell. (Each cell is drawn with different color faces, inverted cells are undrawn)]]

The cell-first parallel projection of the 16-cell into 3-space has a [[W:cube|cubical]] envelope. The closest and farthest cells are projected to inscribed tetrahedra within the cube, corresponding with the two possible ways to inscribe a regular tetrahedron in a cube. Surrounding each of these tetrahedra are 4 other (non-regular) tetrahedral volumes that are the images of the 4 surrounding tetrahedral cells, filling up the space between the inscribed tetrahedron and the cube. The remaining 6 cells are projected onto the square faces of the cube. In this projection of the 16-cell, all its edges lie on the faces of the cubical envelope.

The cell-first perspective projection of the 16-cell into 3-space has a [[W:triakis tetrahedron|triakis tetrahedral]] envelope. The layout of the cells within this envelope are analogous to that of the cell-first parallel projection.

The vertex-first parallel [[W:Graphical projection|projection]] of the 16-cell into 3-space has an [[W:octahedron|octahedral]] [[W:projection envelope|envelope]]. This octahedron can be divided into 8 tetrahedral volumes, by cutting along the coordinate planes. Each of these volumes is the image of a pair of cells in the 16-cell. The closest vertex of the 16-cell to the viewer projects onto the center of the octahedron.

Finally the edge-first parallel projection has a shortened octahedral envelope, and the face-first parallel projection has a [[W:hexagonal bipyramid]]al envelope.

== 4 sphere Venn diagram ==
A 3-dimensional projection of the 16-cell and 4 intersecting spheres (a [[W:Venn diagram|Venn diagram]] of 4 sets) are [[W:topology|topologically]] equivalent.

{|
|-
|
{{multiple image
 | align = left  | total_width = 700
 | image1 = 4 spheres, cell 00, solid.png
 | image2 = 4 spheres, weight 1, solid.png
 | image3 = 4 spheres, weight 2, solid.png
 | image4 = 4 spheres, weight 3, solid.png
 | image5 = 4 spheres, cell 15, solid.png
 | footer = The 16 cells ordered by number of intersecting spheres (from 0 to 4) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;small&gt;(see all [[commons:Category:Venn diagrams rgby; single cells|cells]] and [[v:Tesseract and 16-cell faces|''k''-faces]])&lt;/small&gt;
}}
|
{{multiple image
 | align = right  | total_width = 290
 | image1 = 4 spheres as rings, vertical.png
 | image2 = Stereographic polytope 16cell.png
 | footer = 4 sphere Venn diagram and 16-cell projection in the same orientation
}}
|}

== Symmetry constructions ==
The 16-cell's [[W:Coxeter group|symmetry group]] is denoted [[W:B4 polytope|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]].

There is a lower symmetry form of the ''16-cell'', called a '''demitesseract''' or '''4-demicube''', a member of the [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercube]] family.{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel &amp; Goodman-Strauss|2008| loc=Chapter 26. Hemicubes: 1&lt;sub&gt;n1&lt;/sub&gt; | p=409 }} It is represented by h{4,3,3} and [[W:Coxeter diagram|Coxeter diagram]]s {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h1|4|node|3|node|3|node}} or {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|nodes_10ru|split2|node|3|node}}. It can be drawn bicolored with alternating [[W:tetrahedron|tetrahedral]] cells.

It can also be seen in lower symmetry form as a '''tetrahedral antiprism''', constructed by 2 parallel [[W:tetrahedron|tetrahedra]] in dual configurations, connected by 8 (possibly elongated) tetrahedra. It is represented by s{2,4,3}, and Coxeter diagram: {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node|3|node}}.

It can also be seen as a snub 4-[[W:Orthotope|orthotope]], represented by s{2&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;}, and Coxeter diagram: {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}} or {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|split1-22|nodes_hh}}.

With the [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] constructed as a 4-4 [[W:Duoprism|duoprism]], the 16-cell can be seen as its dual, a 4-4 [[W:Duopyramid|duopyramid]].

{| class=wikitable
!Name
![[W:Coxeter diagram|Coxeter diagram]]
![[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]]
![[W:Coxeter notation|Coxeter notation]]
!Order
![[W:Vertex figure|Vertex figure]]
|- align=center
!Regular 16-cell
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|3|node|4|node}}
|{3,3,4}
|[3,3,4]||384
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|4|node}}
|- align=center
!Demitesseract&lt;br /&gt;[[W:Quasiregular polytope|Quasiregular]] 16-cell
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|nodes_10ru|split2|node|3|node}} = {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h1|4|node|3|node|3|node}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|split1|nodes}} = {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|3|node|4|node_h0}}
|h{4,3,3}&lt;br /&gt;{3,3&lt;sup&gt;1,1&lt;/sup&gt;}
|[3&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;] = [1&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4,3,3]||192
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node|3|node_1|3|node}}
|- align=center
!Alternated 4-4 [[W:Duoprism|duoprism]]
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|label2|branch_hh|4a4b|nodes}}
|2s{4,2,4}
|[[W:4,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4|4,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4]]||64
|
|- align=center
!Tetrahedral antiprism
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node|3|node}}
|s{2,4,3}
|[2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4,3]||48
|
|- align=center
!Alternated square prism prism
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node}}
|sr{2,2,4}
|[(2,2)&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4]||16
|
|- align=center
!Snub 4-[[W:Orthotope|orthotope]]
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}} = {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|split1-22|nodes_hh}}
|s{2&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;}
|[2,2,2]&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; = [2&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;]&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;||8
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=6|4-[[W:Rhombic fusil|fusil]]
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node|3|node}}
|{3,3,4}
|[3,3,4]||384
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1|4|node}}
|{4}+{4} or 2{4}
|&lt;nowiki&gt;[[W:4,2,4|4,2,4]]&lt;/nowiki&gt; = [8,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,8]||128
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node|2x|node_f1}}
|{3,4}+{ }
|[4,3,2]||96
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|{4}+2{ }
|[4,2,2]||32
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|{ }+{ }+{ }+{ } or 4{ }
|[2,2,2]||16
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|}

== Related complex polygons ==
The [[W:Möbius–Kantor polygon|Möbius–Kantor polygon]] is a [[W:Regular complex polytope|regular complex polygon]] &lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;{3}&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|3node_1|3|3node}}, in &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}^2&lt;/math&gt; shares the same vertices as the 16-cell. It has 8 vertices, and 8 3-edges.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1991|pp=30,47}}{{Sfn|Coxeter &amp; Shephard|1992}}

The regular complex polygon, &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{4}&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|4|4node}}, in &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}^2&lt;/math&gt; has a real representation as a 16-cell in 4-dimensional space with 8 vertices, 16 2-edges, only half of the edges of the 16-cell.  Its symmetry is &lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;[4]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, order 32.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1991|p=108}}

{| class=wikitable width=320
|+ [[W:Orthographic projection|Orthographic projection]]s of &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{4}&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; polygon
|- valign=top
|[[File:Complex polygon 2-4-4.png|160px]]&lt;br /&gt;In B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; [[W:Coxeter plane|Coxeter plane]], &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{4}&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; has 8 vertices and 16 2-edges, shown here with 4 sets of colors.
|[[File:Complex polygon 2-4-4 bipartite graph.png|160px]]&lt;br /&gt;The 8 vertices are grouped in 2 sets (shown red and blue), each only connected with edges to vertices in the other set, making this polygon a [[W:Complete bipartite graph|complete bipartite graph]], K&lt;sub&gt;4,4&lt;/sub&gt;.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1991|p=114}}
|}

== Related uniform polytopes and honeycombs ==

The regular 16-cell and [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] are the regular members of a set of 15 [[W:B4 polytope|uniform 4-polytopes with the same B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; symmetry]]. The 16-cell is also one of the [[W:D4 polytope|uniform polytopes of D&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; symmetry]].

The 16-cell is also related to the [[W:Cubic honeycomb|cubic honeycomb]], [[W:Order-4 dodecahedral honeycomb|order-4 dodecahedral honeycomb]], and [[W:Order-4 hexagonal tiling honeycomb|order-4 hexagonal tiling honeycomb]] which all have [[W:Hexagonal tiling honeycomb#Polytopes and honeycombs with tetrahedral vertex figures|octahedral vertex figures]].

It belongs to the sequence of  [[W:Order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb#Related polytopes and honeycombs|{3,3,p} 4-polytopes]] which have tetrahedral cells. The sequence includes three [[W:Regular 4-polytope|regular 4-polytope]]s of Euclidean 4-space, the [[5-cell]] {3,3,3}, 16-cell {3,3,4}, and [[600-cell]] {3,3,5}), and the [[W:Order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb|order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb]] {3,3,6} of hyperbolic space.

It is first in a sequence of [[W:Tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb#Quasuiregular honeycombs|quasiregular polytopes and honeycombs]] h{4,p,q}, and a [[W:Order-4 hexagonal tiling honeycomb#Quasiregular honeycombs|half symmetry sequence]], for regular forms {p,3,4}.

== See also ==
*[[24-cell]]
*[[W:4-polytope|4-polytope]]
*[[W:D4 polytope|D4 polytope]]

== Notes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}}

== Citations ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/incmats/hex.htm hex], at [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/home.htm Klitzing polytopes]
* [https://polytope.miraheze.org/wiki/Hexadecachoron Hexadecachoron], at [https://polytope.miraheze.org/wiki/Main_Page Polytope wiki]
* [http://hi.gher.space/wiki/Aerochoron Aerochoron], at [http://hi.gher.space/wiki/Main_Page Higher space]
* [https://www.qfbox.info/4d/uniform Uniform polychora (The tesseract/16-cell family)], at [https://www.qfbox.info/4d/index 4D Euclidean Space]

[[Category:Geometry]]
[[Category:Polyscheme]]</text>
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      <text bytes="59476" sha1="nwwjr9mp1ht412qy9xs11g8fknfz3wa" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Four-dimensional analog of the octahedron}}
{{Polyscheme|radius=an '''expanded version''' of}}
{{Infobox 4-polytope |
  Name=16-cell&lt;br /&gt;(4-orthoplex)|
  Image_File=Schlegel wireframe 16-cell.png|
  Image_Caption=[[W:Schlegel diagram|Schlegel diagram]]&lt;br /&gt;(vertices and edges)|
  Type=[[W:Convex regular 4-polytope|Convex regular 4-polytope]]&lt;br /&gt;4-[[W:Orthoplex|orthoplex]]&lt;br /&gt;4-[[W:Demihypercube|demicube]]|
  Last=[[W:Rectified tesseract|11]]|
  Index=12|
  Next=[[W:Truncated tesseract|13]]|
  Schläfli={3,3,4}|
  CD={{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|3|node|4|node}} |
  Cell_List=16 [[W:Tetrahedron|{3,3}]] [[File:3-simplex t0.svg|25px]]|
  Face_List=32 [[W:Triangle|{3}]] [[File:2-simplex t0.svg|25px]]|
  Edge_Count= 24|
  Vertex_Count= 8|
  Petrie_Polygon=[[W:Octagon|octagon]]|
  Coxeter_Group=B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, [3,3,4], order 384&lt;br /&gt;D&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, order 192|
  Vertex_Figure=[[File:16-cell verf.svg|80px]]&lt;br /&gt;[[W:Octahedron|Octahedron]]|
  Dual=[[W:Tesseract|Tesseract]]|
  Property_List=[[W:Convex polytope|convex]], [[W:Isogonal figure|isogonal]], [[W:Isotoxal figure|isotoxal]], [[W:Isohedral figure|isohedral]], [[W:Regular polytope|regular]], [[W:Hanner polytope|Hanner polytope]]
}}
In [[W:Geometry|geometry]], the '''16-cell''' is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] (four-dimensional analogue of a Platonic solid) with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {3,3,4}. It is one of the six regular convex 4-polytopes first described by the Swiss mathematician [[W:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] in the mid-19th century.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=141|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7-x. Historical remarks}} It is also called '''C&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;''', '''hexadecachoron''',&lt;ref&gt;[[W:Norman Johnson (mathematician)|N.W. Johnson]]: ''Geometries and Transformations'', (2018) {{ISBN|978-1-107-10340-5}} Chapter 11: ''Finite Symmetry Groups'', 11.5 ''Spherical Coxeter groups'', p.249&lt;/ref&gt; or '''hexdecahedroid'''.&lt;ref&gt;Matila Ghyka, ''The Geometry of Art and Life'' (1977), p.68&lt;/ref&gt;

It is the 4-dimesional member of an infinite family of polytopes called [[W:Cross-polytope|cross-polytope]]s, ''orthoplexes'', or ''hyperoctahedrons'' which are analogous to the [[W:Cctahedron|octahedron]] in three dimensions. It is Coxeter's &lt;math&gt;\beta_4&lt;/math&gt; polytope.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=120=121|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.2. See illustration Fig 7.2&lt;small&gt;B&lt;/small&gt;}} The [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] is the [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] (4-[[W:Hypercube|cube]]), which it can be combined with to form [[W:Compound of tesseract and 16-cell|a compound figure]]. The cells of the 16-cell are dual to the 16 vertices of the tesseract.

== Geometry ==
The 16-cell is the second in the sequence of 6 convex regular 4-polytopes (in order of size and complexity).{{Efn|name=4-polytopes ordered by size and complexity|group=}}

Each of its 4 successor convex regular 4-polytopes can be constructed as the [[W:Convex hull|convex hull]] of a [[W:Polytope compound|polytope compound]] of multiple 16-cells: the 16-vertex [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] as a compound of two 16-cells, the 24-vertex [[24-cell]] as a compound of three 16-cells, the 120-vertex [[600-cell]] as a compound of fifteen 16-cells, and the 600-vertex [[120-cell]] as a compound of seventy-five 16-cells.{{Efn|There are 2 and only 2 16-cells inscribed in the 8-cell (tesseract), 3 and only 3 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell, 75 distinct 16-cells (but only 15 disjoint 16-cells) inscribed in the 600-cell, and 675 distinct 16-cells (but only 75 disjoint 16-cells) inscribed in the 120-cell.}}

{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:}}

=== Coordinates ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;
!colspan=2|Disjoint squares
|-
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;
!colspan=2|''xy'' plane
|-
|( 0, 1, 0, 0)||( 0, 0,-1, 0)
|-
|( 0, 0, 1, 0)||( 0,-1, 0, 0)
|}
|-
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;
!colspan=2|''wz'' plane
|-
|( 1, 0, 0, 0)||( 0, 0, 0,-1)
|-
|( 0, 0, 0, 1)||(-1, 0, 0, 0)
|}
|}The 16-cell is the 4-dimensional [[W:Cross polytope|cross polytope (4-orthoplex)]], which means its vertices lie in opposite pairs on the 4 axes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system.

The eight vertices are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by edges except opposite pairs. The edge length is {{radic|2}}.

The vertex coordinates form 6 [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] central squares lying in the 6 coordinate planes. Squares in ''opposite'' planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal ''basis'']] for the choice of a 4-dimensional reference frame, because its vertices exactly define the four orthogonal axes.

=== Structure ===
The [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] of the 16-cell is {3,3,4}, indicating that its cells are [[W:Regular tetrahedron|regular tetrahedra]] {3,3} and its [[W:Vertex figure|vertex figure]] is a [[W:Regular octahedron|regular octahedron]] {3,4}. There are 8 tetrahedra, 12 triangles, and 6 edges meeting at every vertex. Its [[W:Edge figure|edge figure]] is a square. There are 4 tetrahedra and 4 triangles meeting at every edge.

The 16-cell is [[W:Totally bounded|bounded]] by 16 [[W:Cell (mathematics)|cells]], all of which are regular [[W:Tetrahedron|tetrahedra]].{{Efn|The boundary surface of a 16-cell is a finite 3-dimensional space consisting of 16 tetrahedra arranged face-to-face (four around one). It is a closed, tightly curved (non-Euclidean) 3-space, within which we can move straight through 4 tetrahedra in any direction and arrive back in the tetrahedron where we started. We can visualize moving around inside this tetrahedral [[W:Jungle gym|jungle gym]], climbing from one tetrahedron into another on its 24 struts (its edges), and never being able to get out (or see out) of the 16 tetrahedra no matter what direction we go (or look). We are always on (or in) the ''surface'' of the 16-cell, never inside the 16-cell itself (nor outside it). We can see that the 6 edges around each vertex radiate symmetrically in 3 dimensions and form an orthogonal 3-axis cross, just as the radii of an octahedron do (so we say the vertex figure of the 16-cell is the octahedron).{{Efn|name=octahedral pyramid}}}} It has 32 [[W:Triangle (geometry)|triangular]] [[W:Face (geometry)|faces]], 24 [[W:Edge (geometry)|edges]], and 8 [[W:Vertex (geometry)|vertices]]. The 24 edges bound 6 [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] central squares lying on [[W:Great circle|great circles]] in the 6 coordinate planes (3 pairs of completely orthogonal great squares). At each vertex, 3 great squares cross perpendicularly. The 6 edges meet at the vertex the way 6 edges meet at the [[W:Apex (geometry)|apex]] of a canonical [[W:Octahedral pyramid|octahedral pyramid]].{{Efn|Each vertex in the 16-cell is the apex of an [[W:Octahedral pyramid|octahedral pyramid]], the base of which is the octahedron formed by the 6 other vertices to which the apex is connected by edges. The 16-cell can be deconstructed (four different ways) into two octahedral pyramids by cutting it in half through one of its four octahedral central hyperplanes. Looked at from inside the curved 3 dimensional volume of its boundary surface of 16 face-bonded tetrahedra, the 16-cell's vertex figure is an octahedron. In 4 dimensions, the vertex octahedron is actually an octahedral pyramid. The apex of the octahedral pyramid (the vertex where the 6 edges meet) is not actually at the center of the octahedron: it is displaced radially outwards in the fourth dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the octahedron's 6 vertices. The 6 edges around the vertex make an orthogonal 3-axis cross in 3 dimensions (and in the [[W:Octahedral pyramid|3-dimensional projection of the 4-pyramid]]), but the 3 lines are actually bent 90 degrees in the fourth dimension where they meet in an apex.|name=octahedral pyramid}} The 6 orthogonal central planes of the 16-cell can be divided into 4 orthogonal central hyperplanes (3-spaces) each forming an [[W:Octahedron|octahedron]] with 3 orthogonal great squares.

=== Rotations ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=480
|- align=center valign=top
|rowspan=2|[[File:16-cell.gif]]&lt;br /&gt;A 3D projection of a 16-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Simple rotations|simple rotation]]
|[[File:16-cell-orig.gif]]&lt;br /&gt;A 3D projection of a 16-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]]
|}
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] planes.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=6|loc=§&amp;nbsp;5. Four-Dimensional Rotations}} The 16-cell is a simple frame in which to observe 4-dimensional rotations, because each of the 16-cell's 6 great squares has another completely orthogonal great square (there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal squares).{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} Many rotations of the 16-cell can be characterized by the angle of rotation in one of its great square planes (e.g. the ''xy'' plane) and another angle of rotation in the completely orthogonal great square plane (the ''wz'' plane).{{Efn|Each great square vertex is {{radic|2}} distant from two of the square's other vertices, and {{radic|4}} distant from its opposite vertex. The other four vertices of the 16-cell (also {{radic|2}} distant) are the vertices of the square's completely orthogonal square.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel great squares}} Each 16-cell vertex is a vertex of ''three'' orthogonal great squares which intersect there. Each great square has a different ''completely'' orthogonal great square. Thus there are three great squares completely orthogonal to each vertex: squares that the vertex is not part of.{{Efn|The three ''incompletely'' orthogonal great squares which intersect at each vertex of the 16-cell form the vertex's octahedral [[W:Vertex figure|vertex figure]].{{Efn|name=octahedral pyramid}} Any two of them, together with the completely orthogonal square of the third, also form an octahedron: a central octahedral hyperplane.{{Efn|Three great squares meet at each vertex (and at its opposite vertex) in the 16-cell. Each of them has a different completely orthogonal square. Thus there are three great squares completely orthogonal to each vertex and its opposite vertex (each axis). They form an octahedron (a central hyperplane). Every axis line in the 16-cell is completely orthogonal to a central octahedron hyperplane, as every great square plane is completely orthogonal to another great square plane.{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} The axis and the octahedron intersect only at one point (the center of the 16-cell), as each pair of completely orthogonal great squares intersects only at one point (the center of the 16-cell). Each central octahedron is also the octahedral vertex figure of two of the eight vertices: the two on its completely orthogonal axis.|name=octahedral hyperplanes}} In the 16-cell, each octahedral vertex figure is also a central octahedral hyperplane.|name=completely orthogonal great squares}}|name=vertex and central octahedra}} Completely orthogonal great squares have disjoint vertices: 4 of the 16-cell's 8 vertices rotate in one plane, and the other 4 rotate independently in the completely orthogonal plane.{{Efn|Completely orthogonal great squares are non-intersecting and rotate independently because the great circles on which their vertices lie are [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]].{{Efn|[[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point.{{Sfn|Tyrrell &amp; Semple|1971|loc=§&amp;nbsp;3. Clifford's original definition of parallelism|pp=5-6}} A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=7-10|loc=§&amp;nbsp;6. Angles between two Planes in 4-Space}} In the 16-cell the corresponding vertices of completely orthogonal great circle squares are all {{radic|2}} apart, so these squares are Clifford parallel polygons.{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}} Note that only the vertices of the great squares (the points on the great circle) are {{radic|2}} apart; points on the edges of the squares (on chords of the circle) are closer together.|name=Clifford parallels}} They are {{radic|2}} apart at each pair of nearest vertices (and in the 16-cell ''all'' the pairs except antipodal pairs are nearest). The two squares cannot intersect at all because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell.{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two squares are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel squares in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent square links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]].|name=Clifford parallel great squares}}

In 2 or 3 dimensions a rotation is characterized by a single plane of rotation; this kind of rotation taking place in 4-space is called a [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Simple rotations|simple rotation]], in which only one of the two completely orthogonal planes rotates (the angle of rotation in the other plane is 0). In the 16-cell, a simple rotation in one of the 6 orthogonal planes moves only 4 of the 8 vertices; the other 4 remain fixed. (In the simple rotation animation above, all 8 vertices move because the plane of rotation is not one of the 6 orthogonal basis planes.)

In a [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|double rotation]] both sets of 4 vertices move, but independently: the angles of rotation may be different in the 2 completely orthogonal planes. If the two angles happen to be the same, a maximally symmetric [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] takes place.{{Efn|In an isoclinic rotation, all 6 orthogonal planes are displaced in two orthogonal directions at once: they are rotated by the angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. An isoclinic displacement (also known as a [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement) is 4-dimensionally diagonal. Points are displaced an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, and displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance#Higher dimensions|Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance (which is two times that distance). For example, when the unit-radius 16-cell rotates isoclinically 90° in a great square invariant plane, it also rotates 90° in the completely orthogonal great square invariant plane.{{Efn||name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} The great square plane tilts sideways 90° to occupy its completely orthogonal plane. (By isoclinic symmetry, every great square plane rotates 90° and tilts sideways 90° into its completely orthogonal plane.) Each vertex (in every great square) is displaced a distance of {{radic|2}}/2 in each of four orthogonal directions, a total distance of {{radic|2}}, to a vertex in its completely orthogonal great square. The original and displaced vertex are two edge lengths apart by three{{Efn|There are six different two-edge paths connecting a pair of antipodal vertices along the edges of a great square. The left isoclinic rotation runs diagonally between three of them, and the right isoclinic rotation runs diagonally between the other three. These diagonals are the straight lines (geodesics) connecting opposite vertices of face-bonded tetrahedral cells in the left-handed [[#Helical construction|eight-cell ring]] and the right-handed eight-cell ring, respectively.}} different paths along two edges of a great square. But the ''isocline'' (the helical arc the vertex follows during the isoclinic rotation) does not run along edges: it runs ''between'' these different edge-paths diagonally, on a geodesic (shortest arc) between the original and displaced vertices.{{Efn|name=isocline}} This isoclinic geodesic arc is not a segment of an ordinary great circle; it does not lie in the plane of any great square. It is a helical 90° arc that bends in a circle in two completely orthogonal planes at once. This [[W:Möbius loop|Möbius circle]] does not lie in any one great circle plane, or intersect any vertices of the 16-cell between the original and the displaced vertex.{{Efn|name=Möbius circle}}|name=isoclinic rotation}} In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90 degrees of any pair of completely orthogonal square planes takes every square plane to its completely orthogonal square plane in a twisting displacement, as they tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally.{{Efn|The 90 degree isoclinic rotation of two completely orthogonal planes takes them to each other. In such a rotation of a rigid 16-cell, all 6 orthogonal planes rotate by 90 degrees, and also tilt sideways by 90 degrees to their completely orthogonal (Clifford parallel){{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} plane.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} The two completely orthogonal planes are 90° apart, in the two orthogonal angles that separate them. If the isoclinic rotation is continued through another 90°, each great square returns to its original plane, but in a different orientation; the vertices are not returned to their original positions. Continuing through a 720° isoclinic rotation (through eight 90° isoclinic displacements) returns everything to its original place and orientation.|name=exchange of completely orthogonal planes}} All the vertices move at once on separate circular [[w:Geodesic|geodesics]], displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. After 360° of rotation each vertex reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces a circular helix in 4-space, and also traces a great circle twice in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic rotation each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

=== Constructions ===

==== Octahedral dipyramid ====
{|class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;
!Octahedron &lt;math&gt;\beta_3&lt;/math&gt;
!16-cell &lt;math&gt;\beta_4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|[[File:3-cube t2.svg|160px]]
|[[File:4-demicube t0 D4.svg|160px]]
|-
|colspan=2|Orthogonal projections to skew hexagon hyperplane
|}
The simplest construction of the 16-cell is on the 3-dimensional cross polytope, the [[W:Octahedron|octahedron]]. The octahedron has 3 perpendicular axes and 6 vertices in 3 opposite pairs (its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]] is the [[W:Hexagon|hexagon]]). Add another pair of vertices, on a fourth axis perpendicular to all 3 of the other axes. Connect each new vertex to all 6 of the original vertices, adding 12 new edges. This raises two [[W:Octahedral pyramid|octahedral pyramid]]s on a shared octahedron base that lies in the 16-cell's central hyperplane.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=121|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.21. See illustration Fig 7.2&lt;small&gt;B&lt;/small&gt;|ps=: &quot;&lt;math&gt;\beta_4&lt;/math&gt; is a four-dimensional dipyramid based on &lt;math&gt;\beta_3&lt;/math&gt; (with its two apices in opposite directions along the fourth dimension).&quot;}}

[[File:stereographic_polytope_16cell_colour.png|thumb|[[W:Stereographic projection|Stereographic projection]] of the 16-cell's 6 orthogonal central squares onto their great circles. Each circle is divided into 4 arc-edges at the intersections where 3 circles cross perpendicularly. Notice that each circle has one Clifford parallel circle that it does ''not'' intersect. Those two circles pass through each other like adjacent links in a chain.]]The octahedron that the construction starts with has three perpendicular intersecting squares (which appear as rectangles in the hexagonal projections). Each square intersects with each of the other squares at two opposite vertices, with ''two'' of the squares crossing at each vertex. Then two more points are added in the fourth dimension (above and below the 3-dimensional hyperplane). These new vertices are connected to all the octahedron's vertices, creating 12 new edges and ''three more squares'' (which appear edge-on as the 3 ''diameters'' of the hexagon in the projection), and three more octahedra.{{Efn|name=octahedral hyperplanes}}

Something unprecedented has also been created. Notice that each square no longer intersects with ''all'' of the other squares: it does intersect with four of them (with ''three'' of the squares crossing at each vertex now), but each square has ''one'' other square with which it shares ''no'' vertices: it is not directly connected to that square at all. These two ''separate'' perpendicular squares (there are three pairs of them) are like the opposite edges of a [[W:Tetrahedron|tetrahedron]]: perpendicular, but non-intersecting. They lie opposite each other (parallel in some sense), and they don't touch, but they also pass through each other like two perpendicular links in a chain (but unlike links in a chain they have a common center). They are an example of '''''Clifford parallels''''', and the 16-cell is the simplest regular polytope in which they occur. [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] parallelism{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} of objects of more than one dimension (more than just curved ''lines'') emerges here and occurs in all the subsequent 4-dimensional regular polytopes, where it can be seen as the defining relationship ''among'' disjoint concentric regular 4-polytopes and their corresponding parts. It can occur between congruent (similar) polytopes of 2 or more dimensions.{{Sfn|Tyrrell &amp; Semple|1971}} For example, as noted [[#Geometry|above]] all the subsequent convex regular 4-polytopes are compounds of multiple 16-cells; those 16-cells are [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel polytopes]].

==== Tetrahedral constructions ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=480
|- align=center valign=top
|[[File:16-cell net.png|180px|]]
|[[File:16-cell nets.png|180px]]
|}

The 16-cell has two [[W:Wythoff construction|Wythoff construction]]s from regular tetrahedra, a regular form and alternated form, shown here as [[W:Net (polyhedron)|nets]], the second represented by tetrahedral cells of two alternating colors. The alternated form is a [[#Symmetry constructions|lower symmetry construction]] of the 16-cell called the [[W:Demitesseract|demitesseract]].

Wythoff's construction replicates the 16-cell's [[5-cell#Orthoschemes|characteristic 5-cell]] in a [[W:Kaleidoscope|kaleidoscope]] of mirrors. Every regular 4-polytope has its characteristic 4-orthoscheme, an [[5-cell#Irregular 5-cells|irregular 5-cell]].{{Efn|An [[W:Orthoscheme|orthoscheme]] is a [[W:Chiral|chiral]] irregular [[W:simplex|simplex]] with [[W:Right triangle|right triangle]] faces that is characteristic of some polytope if it will exactly fill that polytope with the reflections of itself in its own [[W:Facet (geometry)|facets]] (its ''mirror walls''). Every regular polytope can be dissected radially into instances of its [[W:Orthoscheme#Characteristic simplex of the general regular polytope|characteristic orthoscheme]] surrounding its center. The characteristic orthoscheme has the shape described by the same [[W:Coxeter-Dynkin diagram|Coxeter-Dynkin diagram]] as the regular polytope without the ''generating point'' ring.|name=characteristic orthoscheme}} There are three regular 4-polytopes with tetrahedral cells: the [[5-cell]], the 16-cell, and the [[600-cell]]. Although all are bounded by ''regular'' tetrahedron cells, their characteristic 5-cells (4-orthoschemes) are different [[5-cell#Isometries|tetrahedral pyramids]], all based on the same characteristic ''irregular'' tetrahedron. They share the same [[W:Tetrahedron#Orthoschemes|characteristic tetrahedron]] (3-orthoscheme) and characteristic [[W:Right triangle|right triangle]] (2-orthoscheme) because they have the same kind of cell.{{Efn|A regular polytope of dimension ''k'' has a characteristic ''k''-orthoscheme, and also a characteristic (''k''-1)-orthoscheme. A regular 4-polytope has a characteristic 5-cell (4-orthoscheme) into which it is subdivided by its (3-dimensional) hyperplanes of symmetry, and also a characteristic tetrahedron (3-orthoscheme) into which its surface is subdivided by its cells' (2-dimensional) planes of symmetry. After subdividing its (3-dimensional) surface into characteristic tetrahedra surrounding each cell center, its (4-dimensional) interior can be subdivided into characteristic 5-cells by adding radii joining the vertices of the surface characteristic tetrahedra to the 4-polytope's center.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=130|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.6|ps=; &quot;simplicial subdivision&quot;.}} The interior tetrahedra and triangles thus formed will also be orthoschemes.}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;
!colspan=6|Characteristics of the 16-cell{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=292-293|loc=Table I(ii); &quot;16-cell, 𝛽&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&quot;}}
|-
!align=right|
!align=center|edge{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=139|loc=§&amp;nbsp;7.9 The characteristic simplex}}
!colspan=2 align=center|arc
!colspan=2 align=center|dihedral{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=290|loc=Table I(ii); &quot;dihedral angles&quot;}}
|-
!align=right|𝒍
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \approx 1.414&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;120°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{2\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!align=right|𝟀
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{2}{3}} \approx 0.816&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60″&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|𝝉{{Efn|{{Harv|Coxeter|1973}} uses the greek letter 𝝓 (phi) to represent one of the three ''characteristic angles'' 𝟀, 𝝓, 𝟁 of a regular polytope. Because 𝝓 is commonly used to represent the [[W:Golden ratio|golden ratio]] constant ≈ 1.618, for which Coxeter uses 𝝉 (tau), we reverse Coxeter's conventions, and use 𝝉 to represent the characteristic angle.|name=reversed greek symbols}}
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}} \approx 0.707&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;45″&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;45°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|𝟁
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{6}} \approx 0.408&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;30″&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{6}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|
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|
|
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|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_0R^3/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{3}{4}} \approx 0.866&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;60°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_1R^3/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}} = 0.5&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;45°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_2R^3/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{12}} \approx 0.289&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;30°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{6}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;90°&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\pi}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
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|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_0R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_1R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}} \approx 0.707&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_2R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{3}} \approx 0.577&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
!align=right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;_3R^4/l&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}} = 0.5&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|}
The '''characteristic 5-cell of the regular 16-cell''' is represented by the [[W:Coxeter-Dynkin diagram|Coxeter-Dynkin diagram]] {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node|3|node|3|node|4|node}}, which can be read as a list of the dihedral angles between its mirror facets. It is an irregular [[W:Pyramid (mathematics)#Polyhedral pyramid|tetrahedral pyramid]] based on the [[W:Tetrahedron#Orthoschemes|characteristic tetrahedron of the regular tetrahedron]]. The regular 16-cell is subdivided by its symmetry hyperplanes into 384 instances of its characteristic 5-cell that all meet at its center.

The characteristic 5-cell (4-orthoscheme) has four more edges than its base characteristic tetrahedron (3-orthoscheme), joining the four vertices of the base to its apex (the fifth vertex of the 4-orthoscheme, at the center of the regular 16-cell).{{Efn|The four edges of each 4-orthoscheme which meet at the center of a regular 4-polytope are of unequal length, because they are the four characteristic radii of the regular 4-polytope: a vertex radius, an edge center radius, a face center radius, and a cell center radius. The five vertices of the 4-orthoscheme always include one regular 4-polytope vertex, one regular 4-polytope edge center, one regular 4-polytope face center, one regular 4-polytope cell center, and the regular 4-polytope center. Those five vertices (in that order) comprise a path along four mutually perpendicular edges (that makes three right angle turns), the characteristic feature of a 4-orthoscheme. The 4-orthoscheme has five dissimilar 3-orthoscheme facets.|name=characteristic radii}} If the regular 16-cell has unit radius edge and edge length 𝒍 = &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, its characteristic 5-cell's ten edges have lengths &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{2}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{6}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; around its exterior right-triangle face (the edges opposite the ''characteristic angles'' 𝟀, 𝝉, 𝟁),{{Efn|name=reversed greek symbols}} plus &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{3}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{12}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; (the other three edges of the exterior 3-orthoscheme facet the characteristic tetrahedron, which are the ''characteristic radii'' of the regular tetrahedron), plus &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; (edges which are the characteristic radii of the regular 16-cell). The 4-edge path along orthogonal edges of the orthoscheme is &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{6}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1}{4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, first from a 16-cell vertex to a 16-cell edge center, then turning 90° to a 16-cell face center, then turning 90° to a 16-cell tetrahedral cell center, then turning 90° to the 16-cell center.

==== Helical construction ====
[[File:Eight face-bonded tetrahedra.jpg|thumb|A 4-dimensional ring of 8 face-bonded tetrahedra, seen in the [[W:Boerdijk–Coxeter helix|Boerdijk–Coxeter helix]], bounded by three eight-edge circular paths of different colors, cut and laid out flat in 3-dimensional space. It contains an ''isocline'' axis (not shown), a helical circle of circumference 4𝝅 that twists through all four dimensions and visits all 8 vertices.{{Efn|name=isocline}} The two blue-blue-yellow triangles at either end of the cut ring are the same object.]]
[[File:16-cell 8-ring net4.png|thumb|Net and orthogonal projection]]

A 16-cell can be constructed (three different ways) from two [[W:Boerdijk–Coxeter helix|Boerdijk–Coxeter helix]]es of eight chained tetrahedra, each bent in the fourth dimension into a ring.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1970|loc=Table 2: Reflexible honeycombs and their groups|p=45|ps=; Honeycomb [3,3,4]&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; is a tiling of the 3-sphere by 2 rings of 8 tetrahedral cells.}}{{Sfn|Banchoff|2013}} The two circular helixes share the same 8 vertices and 24 edges, but their tetrahedra are disjoint. The helixes spiral around each other, nest into each other and pass through each other forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]. 16 of the 32 triangle faces can be seen in a 2D net within a [[W:Triangular tiling|triangular tiling]], with 6 triangles around every vertex. The [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]] of the 16-cell is a skew octagon, visible as the purple edges in the octagon orthogonal projection, and as the light blue edges in the tetrahedral helix. Each eight-cell ring of tetrahedra actually contains three such skew [[W:Octagram|octagram]]s of different colors, eight-edge circular paths that wind twice around the 16-cell on every third vertex of the octagram. The orange and yellow edges are two four-edge halves of one skew octagram, which join their ends to form a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius strip]].

Thus the 16-cell can be decomposed into two cell-disjoint circular chains of eight tetrahedrons each, four edges long, one spiraling to the right (clockwise) and the other spiraling to the left (counterclockwise). The left-handed and right-handed cell rings fit together, nesting into each other and entirely filling the 16-cell, even though they are of opposite chirality. This decomposition can be seen in a 4-4 [[W:Duoantiprism|duoantiprism]] construction of the 16-cell: {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}} or {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node|4|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node}}, [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {2}⨂{2} or s{2}s{2}, [[W:Coxeter notation|symmetry]] [4,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4], order 64.

Three eight-edge paths (of different colors) spiral along each eight-cell ring, making 90° angles at each vertex. (In the Boerdijk–Coxeter helix before it is bent into a ring, the angles in different paths vary, but are not 90°.) Three paths (with three different colors and apparent angles) pass through each vertex. When the helix is bent into a ring, the segments of each eight-edge path (of various lengths) join their ends, forming a Möbius strip eight edges long along its single-sided circumference of 4𝝅, and one edge wide.{{Efn|name=Möbius circle}} The six four-edge halves of the three eight-edge paths each make four 90° angles, but they are ''not'' the six orthogonal great squares: they are open-ended squares, four-edge 360° helices whose open ends are [[W:Antipodal point|antipodal]] vertices. The four edges come from four different great squares, and are mutually orthogonal. Combined end-to-end in pairs of the same [[W:Chirality|chirality]], the six four-edge paths make three eight-edge Möbius loops, [[W:Helix|helical]] octagrams. Each octagram is both a [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]] of the 16-cell, and the helical track along which all eight vertices rotate together, in one of the 16-cell's distinct isoclinic [[#Rotations|rotations]].{{Efn|The 16-cell can be constructed from two cell-disjoint eight-cell rings in three different ways; it has three orientations of its pair of rings. Each orientation &quot;contains&quot; a distinct left-right pair of isoclinic rotations, and also a pair of completely orthogonal great squares (Clifford parallel fibers), so each orientation is a discrete [[W:Hopf fibration|fibration]] of the 16-cell. Each eight-cell ring contains three axial octagrams which have different orientations (they exchange roles) in the three discrete fibrations and six distinct isoclinic rotations (three left and three right) through the cell rings. Three octagrams (of different colors) can be seen in the illustration of a single cell ring, one in the role of Petrie polygon, one as the right isocline, and one as the left isocline. Because each octagram plays three roles, there are exactly six distinct isoclines in the 16-cell, not 18.|name=only one disjoint pair of eight-cell rings}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=610
!colspan=5|Five ways of looking at the same [[W:Skew polygon|skew]] [[W:Octagram|octagram]]{{Efn|All five views are the same orthogonal projection of the 16-cell into the same plane (a circular cross-section of the eight-cell ring cylinder), looking along the central axis of the cut ring cylinder pictured above, from one end of the cylinder. The only difference is which {{radic|2}} edges and {{radic|4}} chords are ''omitted'' for focus. The different colors of {{radic|2}} edges appear to be of different lengths because they are oblique to the viewer at different angles. Vertices are numbered 1 (top) through 8 in counterclockwise order.}}
|-
![[#Rotations|Edge path]]
![[W:Petrie polygon#The Petrie polygon of regular polychora (4-polytopes)|Petrie polygon]]{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=292-293|loc=Table I(ii); 24-cell ''h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''}}
!16-cell
![[W:Hopf fibration|Discrete fibration]]
![[#Coordinates|Diameter chords]]
|-
![[W:Octagram|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/3}&lt;/sub&gt;{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=292-293|loc=Table I(ii); 24-cell ''h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''}}
![[W:Petrie polygon#The Petrie polygon of regular polychora (4-polytopes)|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/1}&lt;/sub&gt;
![[W:Coxeter element#Coxeter plane|Coxeter plane]] [[W:B4 polytope|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]]
![[W:Octagram#Star polygon compounds|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/2}=2{4}&lt;/sub&gt;
![[W:Octagram#Star polygon compounds|Octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/4}=4{2}&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram (8-3).png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram (8).png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram.png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram 2(4).png|120px]]
|align=center|[[File:16-cell skew octagram 4(2).png|120px]]
|-
|The eight {{radic|2}} chords of the edge-path of an isocline.{{Efn|name=isocline curve}}
|Skew [[W:Octagon|octagon]] of eight {{radic|2}} edges. The 16-cell has 6 of these 8-vertex circuits.
|All 24 {{radic|2}} edges and the four {{radic|4}} orthogonal axes.
|Two completely orthogonal (disjoint) great squares of {{radic|2}} edges.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel great squares}}
|The four {{radic|4}} chords of an isocline. Every fourth isocline vertex is joined to its antipodal vertex by a 16-cell axis.{{Efn|Each isocline has the eight continuous {{radic|2}} chords of its octagram&lt;sub&gt;{8/3}&lt;/sub&gt; edge-path, and also four discontinuous {{radic|4}} diameter chords that connect every ''fourth'' vertex on the octagram but do not connect to each other. Antipodal vertices also have a twisted continuous path of four mutually orthogonal {{radic|2}} edges connecting them. Between antipodal vertices, the isocline curves smoothly around in a helix over the four {{radic|2}} chords of its edge-path, hitting the three intervening vertices. Each {{radic|2}} edge is an edge of a great square, that is completely orthogonal to another great square, in which the {{radic|4}} chord is a diagonal.|name=isocline curve}}
|}
Each eight-edge helix is a [[W:Skew polygon|skew]] [[W:Octagram|octagram]]&lt;sub&gt;{8/3}&lt;/sub&gt; that [[W:Winding number|winds three times]] around the 16-cell and visits every vertex before closing into a loop. Its eight {{radic|2}} edges are chords of an ''isocline'', a helical geodesic on which the 8 vertices circle during an isoclinic rotation.{{Efn|An isocline is a circle of special kind corresponding to a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s linked in a [[W:Möbius loop|Möbius loop]]. It curves through four dimensions instead of just two. All ordinary circles have a 2𝝅 circumference, but the 16-cell's isocline is a circle with an 4𝝅 circumference (over eight 90° chords). An isocline is a circle that does not lie in a plane, but to avoid confusion we always refer to it as an ''isocline'' and reserve the term ''circle'' for an ordinary circle in the plane.|name=Möbius circle}} All eight 16-cell vertices are {{radic|2}} apart except for opposite (antipodal) vertices, which are {{radic|4}} apart. A vertex moving on the isocline visits three other vertices that are {{radic|2}} apart before reaching the fourth vertex that is {{radic|4}} away.{{Efn|In the 16-cell, two antipodal vertices are opposite vertices of two face-bonded tetrahedral cells. The two antipodal vertices are connected by (three different) two-edge great circle paths along edges of the tetrahedral cells, by various three-edge paths, and by four-edge paths on isoclines and Petrie polygons. {{Efn|name=Möbius circle}}|name=isocline}}

The eight-cell ring is [[W:Chiral|chiral]]: there is a right-handed form which spirals clockwise, and a left-handed form which spirals counterclockwise. The 16-cell contains one of each, so it also contains a left and a right isocline; the isocline is the circular axis around which the eight-cell ring twists. Each isocline visits all eight vertices of the 16-cell.{{Efn|In the 16-cell each ''single'' isocline winds through all 8 vertices: an entire [[W:Hopf fibration|fibration]] of two completely orthogonal great squares.{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}} The 5-cell and the 16-cell are the only regular 4-polytopes where each discrete fibration has just one isocline fiber.{{Efn|Except in the 5-cell and 16-cell,{{Efn|name=two special cases}} a pair of left and right isocline circles have disjoint vertices: the left and right isocline helices are non-intersecting parallels but counter-rotating, forming a special kind of double helix which cannot occur in three dimensions (where counter-rotating helices of the same radius must intersect).|name=counter-rotating double helix}}|name=each 16-cell isocline reaches all 8 vertices}} Each eight-cell ring contains half of the 16 cells, but all 8 vertices; the two rings share the vertices, as they nest into each other and fit together. They also share the 24 edges, though left and right octagram helices are different eight-edge paths.{{Efn|The left and right isoclines intersect each other at every vertex. They are different sequences of the same set of 8 vertices. With respect only to the set of 4 vertex pairs which are {{radic|2}} apart, they can be considered to be Clifford parallel. With respect only to the set of 4 vertex pairs which are {{radic|4}} apart, they can be considered to be completely orthogonal.{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}}}}

Because there are three pairs of completely orthogonal great squares,{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} there are three congruent ways to compose a 16-cell from two eight-cell rings. The 16-cell contains three left-right pairs of eight-cell rings in different orientations, with each cell ring containing its axial isocline.{{Efn|name=only one disjoint pair of eight-cell rings}} Each left-right pair of isoclines is the track of a left-right pair of distinct isoclinic rotations: the rotations in one pair of completely orthogonal invariant planes of rotation.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel great squares}} At each vertex, there are three great squares and six octagram isoclines that cross at the vertex and share a 16-cell axis chord.{{Efn|This is atypical for isoclinic rotations generally; normally both the left and right isoclines do not occur at the same vertex: there are two disjoint sets of vertices reachable only by the left or right rotation respectively.{{Efn|name=counter-rotating double helix}} The left and right isoclines of the 16-cell form a very special double helix: unusual not just because it is circular, but because its different left and right helices twist around each other through the ''same set'' of antipodal vertices,{{Efn|name=each 16-cell isocline reaches all 8 vertices}} not through the two ''disjoint subsets'' of antipodal vertices, as the isocline pairs do in most isoclinic rotations.{{Efn|For another example of the left and right isoclines of a rotation visiting the same set of vertices, see the [[5-cell#Geodesics and rotations|characteristic isoclinic rotation of the 5-cell]]. Although in these two special cases left and right isoclines of the same rotation visit the same set of vertices, they still take very different rotational paths because they visit the same vertices in different sequences.|name=two special cases}} Isoclinic rotations in completely orthogonal invariant planes are special.{{Efn|Each great square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal to only one of them. Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal. There is also another way in which completely orthogonal planes are in a distinguished category of Clifford parallel planes: they are not [[W:Chiral|chiral]]. A pair of isoclinic (Clifford parallel) planes is either a ''left pair'' or a ''right pair'' unless they are separated by two angles of 90° (completely orthogonal planes) or 0° (coincident planes).{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=7-8|loc=§&amp;nbsp;6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; Left and Right Pairs of Isoclinic Planes.}} Most isoclinic planes are brought together only by a left isoclinic rotation or a right isoclinic rotation, respectively. Completely orthogonal planes are special: the pair of planes is both a left and a right pair, so either a left or a right isoclinic rotation will bring them together. Because planes separated by a 90° isoclinic rotation are 90° apart in two orthogonal angles, the plane to the ''left'' and the plane to the ''right'' are the same plane.{{Efn|name=exchange of completely orthogonal planes}}|name=completely orthogonal Clifford parallels are special}} To see how and why they are special, visualize two completely orthogonal invariant planes of rotation, each rotating by some rotation angle and tilting sideways by the same rotation angle into a different plane entirely.{{Efn|name=isoclinic rotation}} Only when the rotation angle is 90°, that different plane in which the tilting invariant plane lands will be the completely orthogonal invariant plane itself. The destination plane of the rotation is the completely orthogonal invariant plane. The 90° isoclinic rotation is the only rotation which takes the completely orthogonal invariant planes to each other.{{Efn|name=exchange of completely orthogonal planes}} This reciprocity is the reason both left and right rotations go to the same place.}}

=== As a configuration ===
This [[W:Regular 4-polytope#As configurations|configuration matrix]] represents the 16-cell. The rows and columns correspond to vertices, edges, faces, and cells. The diagonal numbers say how many of each element occur in the whole 16-cell. The nondiagonal numbers say how many of the column's element occur in or at the row's element.

&lt;math&gt;\begin{bmatrix}\begin{matrix}8 &amp; 6 &amp; 12 &amp; 8 \\ 2 &amp; 24 &amp; 4 &amp; 4 \\ 3 &amp; 3 &amp; 32 &amp; 2 \\ 4 &amp; 6 &amp; 4 &amp; 16 \end{matrix}\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;

== Tessellations ==
One can [[W:Tessellation|tessellate]] 4-dimensional [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] by regular 16-cells. This is called the [[W:16-cell honeycomb|16-cell honeycomb]] and has [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {3,3,4,3}. Hence, the 16-cell has a [[W:Dihedral angle|dihedral angle]] of 120°.{{sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=293}} Each 16-cell has 16 neighbors with which it shares a tetrahedron, 24 neighbors with which it shares only an edge, and 72 neighbors with which it shares only a single point. Twenty-four 16-cells meet at any given vertex in this tessellation.

The dual tessellation, the [[W:24-cell honeycomb|24-cell honeycomb]], {3,4,3,3}, is made of regular [[24-cell]]s. Together with the [[W:Tesseractic honeycomb|tesseractic honeycomb]] {4,3,3,4} these are the only three [[W:List of regular polytopes#Tessellations of Euclidean 4-space|regular tessellations]] of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;.

== Projections ==
{{B4 Coxeter plane graphs|t3|150}}

[[File:Orthogonal projection envelopes 16-cell.png|thumb|Projection envelopes of the 16-cell. (Each cell is drawn with different color faces, inverted cells are undrawn)]]

The cell-first parallel projection of the 16-cell into 3-space has a [[W:cube|cubical]] envelope. The closest and farthest cells are projected to inscribed tetrahedra within the cube, corresponding with the two possible ways to inscribe a regular tetrahedron in a cube. Surrounding each of these tetrahedra are 4 other (non-regular) tetrahedral volumes that are the images of the 4 surrounding tetrahedral cells, filling up the space between the inscribed tetrahedron and the cube. The remaining 6 cells are projected onto the square faces of the cube. In this projection of the 16-cell, all its edges lie on the faces of the cubical envelope.

The cell-first perspective projection of the 16-cell into 3-space has a [[W:triakis tetrahedron|triakis tetrahedral]] envelope. The layout of the cells within this envelope are analogous to that of the cell-first parallel projection.

The vertex-first parallel [[W:Graphical projection|projection]] of the 16-cell into 3-space has an [[W:octahedron|octahedral]] [[W:projection envelope|envelope]]. This octahedron can be divided into 8 tetrahedral volumes, by cutting along the coordinate planes. Each of these volumes is the image of a pair of cells in the 16-cell. The closest vertex of the 16-cell to the viewer projects onto the center of the octahedron.

Finally the edge-first parallel projection has a shortened octahedral envelope, and the face-first parallel projection has a [[W:hexagonal bipyramid]]al envelope.

== 4 sphere Venn diagram ==
A 3-dimensional projection of the 16-cell and 4 intersecting spheres (a [[W:Venn diagram|Venn diagram]] of 4 sets) are [[W:topology|topologically]] equivalent.

{|
|-
|
{{multiple image
 | align = left  | total_width = 700
 | image1 = 4 spheres, cell 00, solid.png
 | image2 = 4 spheres, weight 1, solid.png
 | image3 = 4 spheres, weight 2, solid.png
 | image4 = 4 spheres, weight 3, solid.png
 | image5 = 4 spheres, cell 15, solid.png
 | footer = The 16 cells ordered by number of intersecting spheres (from 0 to 4) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;small&gt;(see all [[commons:Category:Venn diagrams rgby; single cells|cells]] and [[v:Tesseract and 16-cell faces|''k''-faces]])&lt;/small&gt;
}}
|
{{multiple image
 | align = right  | total_width = 290
 | image1 = 4 spheres as rings, vertical.png
 | image2 = Stereographic polytope 16cell.png
 | footer = 4 sphere Venn diagram and 16-cell projection in the same orientation
}}
|}

== Symmetry constructions ==
The 16-cell's [[W:Coxeter group|symmetry group]] is denoted [[W:B4 polytope|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]].

There is a lower symmetry form of the ''16-cell'', called a '''demitesseract''' or '''4-demicube''', a member of the [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercube]] family.{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel &amp; Goodman-Strauss|2008| loc=Chapter 26. Hemicubes: 1&lt;sub&gt;n1&lt;/sub&gt; | p=409 }} It is represented by h{4,3,3} and [[W:Coxeter diagram|Coxeter diagram]]s {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h1|4|node|3|node|3|node}} or {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|nodes_10ru|split2|node|3|node}}. It can be drawn bicolored with alternating [[W:tetrahedron|tetrahedral]] cells.

It can also be seen in lower symmetry form as a '''tetrahedral antiprism''', constructed by 2 parallel [[W:tetrahedron|tetrahedra]] in dual configurations, connected by 8 (possibly elongated) tetrahedra. It is represented by s{2,4,3}, and Coxeter diagram: {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node|3|node}}.

It can also be seen as a snub 4-[[W:Orthotope|orthotope]], represented by s{2&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;}, and Coxeter diagram: {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}} or {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|split1-22|nodes_hh}}.

With the [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] constructed as a 4-4 [[W:Duoprism|duoprism]], the 16-cell can be seen as its dual, a 4-4 [[W:Duopyramid|duopyramid]].

{| class=wikitable
!Name
![[W:Coxeter diagram|Coxeter diagram]]
![[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]]
![[W:Coxeter notation|Coxeter notation]]
!Order
![[W:Vertex figure|Vertex figure]]
|- align=center
!Regular 16-cell
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|3|node|4|node}}
|{3,3,4}
|[3,3,4]||384
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|4|node}}
|- align=center
!Demitesseract&lt;br /&gt;[[W:Quasiregular polytope|Quasiregular]] 16-cell
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|nodes_10ru|split2|node|3|node}} = {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h1|4|node|3|node|3|node}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|split1|nodes}} = {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|3|node|3|node|4|node_h0}}
|h{4,3,3}&lt;br /&gt;{3,3&lt;sup&gt;1,1&lt;/sup&gt;}
|[3&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;] = [1&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4,3,3]||192
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node|3|node_1|3|node}}
|- align=center
!Alternated 4-4 [[W:Duoprism|duoprism]]
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|label2|branch_hh|4a4b|nodes}}
|2s{4,2,4}
|[[W:4,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4|4,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4]]||64
|
|- align=center
!Tetrahedral antiprism
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node|3|node}}
|s{2,4,3}
|[2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4,3]||48
|
|- align=center
!Alternated square prism prism
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|4|node}}
|sr{2,2,4}
|[(2,2)&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,4]||16
|
|- align=center
!Snub 4-[[W:Orthotope|orthotope]]
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}} = {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|split1-22|nodes_hh}}
|s{2&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;}
|[2,2,2]&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; = [2&lt;sup&gt;1,1,1&lt;/sup&gt;]&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;||8
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_h|2x|node_h|2x|node_h}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=6|4-[[W:Rhombic fusil|fusil]]
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node|3|node}}
|{3,3,4}
|[3,3,4]||384
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1|4|node}}
|{4}+{4} or 2{4}
|&lt;nowiki&gt;[[W:4,2,4|4,2,4]]&lt;/nowiki&gt; = [8,2&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,8]||128
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node|2x|node_f1}}
|{3,4}+{ }
|[4,3,2]||96
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|3|node}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|{4}+2{ }
|[4,2,2]||32
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|4|node|2x|node_f1}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|- align=center
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|{ }+{ }+{ }+{ } or 4{ }
|[2,2,2]||16
|{{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_f1|2x|node_f1|2x|node_f1}}
|}

== Related complex polygons ==
The [[W:Möbius–Kantor polygon|Möbius–Kantor polygon]] is a [[W:Regular complex polytope|regular complex polygon]] &lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;{3}&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|3node_1|3|3node}}, in &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}^2&lt;/math&gt; shares the same vertices as the 16-cell. It has 8 vertices, and 8 3-edges.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1991|pp=30,47}}{{Sfn|Coxeter &amp; Shephard|1992}}

The regular complex polygon, &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{4}&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, {{Coxeter–Dynkin diagram|node_1|4|4node}}, in &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}^2&lt;/math&gt; has a real representation as a 16-cell in 4-dimensional space with 8 vertices, 16 2-edges, only half of the edges of the 16-cell.  Its symmetry is &lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;[4]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, order 32.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1991|p=108}}

{| class=wikitable width=320
|+ [[W:Orthographic projection|Orthographic projection]]s of &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{4}&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; polygon
|- valign=top
|[[File:Complex polygon 2-4-4.png|160px]]&lt;br /&gt;In B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; [[W:Coxeter plane|Coxeter plane]], &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{4}&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; has 8 vertices and 16 2-edges, shown here with 4 sets of colors.
|[[File:Complex polygon 2-4-4 bipartite graph.png|160px]]&lt;br /&gt;The 8 vertices are grouped in 2 sets (shown red and blue), each only connected with edges to vertices in the other set, making this polygon a [[W:Complete bipartite graph|complete bipartite graph]], K&lt;sub&gt;4,4&lt;/sub&gt;.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1991|p=114}}
|}

== Related uniform polytopes and honeycombs ==

The regular 16-cell and [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] are the regular members of a set of 15 [[W:B4 polytope|uniform 4-polytopes with the same B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; symmetry]]. The 16-cell is also one of the [[W:D4 polytope|uniform polytopes of D&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; symmetry]].

The 16-cell is also related to the [[W:Cubic honeycomb|cubic honeycomb]], [[W:Order-4 dodecahedral honeycomb|order-4 dodecahedral honeycomb]], and [[W:Order-4 hexagonal tiling honeycomb|order-4 hexagonal tiling honeycomb]] which all have [[W:Hexagonal tiling honeycomb#Polytopes and honeycombs with tetrahedral vertex figures|octahedral vertex figures]].

It belongs to the sequence of  [[W:Order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb#Related polytopes and honeycombs|{3,3,p} 4-polytopes]] which have tetrahedral cells. The sequence includes three [[W:Regular 4-polytope|regular 4-polytope]]s of Euclidean 4-space, the [[5-cell]] {3,3,3}, 16-cell {3,3,4}, and [[600-cell]] {3,3,5}), and the [[W:Order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb|order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb]] {3,3,6} of hyperbolic space.

It is first in a sequence of [[W:Tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb#Quasuiregular honeycombs|quasiregular polytopes and honeycombs]] h{4,p,q}, and a [[W:Order-4 hexagonal tiling honeycomb#Quasiregular honeycombs|half symmetry sequence]], for regular forms {p,3,4}.

== See also ==
*[[24-cell]]
*[[W:4-polytope|4-polytope]]
*[[W:D4 polytope|D4 polytope]]

== Notes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}}

== Citations ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/incmats/hex.htm hex], at [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/home.htm Klitzing polytopes]
* [https://polytope.miraheze.org/wiki/Hexadecachoron Hexadecachoron], at [https://polytope.miraheze.org/wiki/Main_Page Polytope wiki]
* [http://hi.gher.space/wiki/Aerochoron Aerochoron], at [http://hi.gher.space/wiki/Main_Page Higher space]
* [https://www.qfbox.info/4d/uniform Uniform polychora (The tesseract/16-cell family)], at [https://www.qfbox.info/4d/index 4D Euclidean Space]

[[Category:Geometry]]
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{{CountryHeader|File:Germany (orthographic projection).svg|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany}}

{{HTitle|General Information}} 
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany Germany], officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. German is the official and predominantly spoken language in Germany. Recognised native minority languages in Germany are Danish, Low German, Low Rhenish, Sorbian, Romani, North Frisian and Saterland Frisian; they are officially protected by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The most used immigrant languages are Turkish, Arabic, Kurdish, Polish, Italian, Greek, Spanish, Serbo-Croatian, Bulgarian and other Balkan languages, as well as Russian. 

{{HTitle|History of Audiology}}
The development of Audiology in Germany as a scientific discipline started in the 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century. An important milestone was the publication by the German physicist and physician [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz Hermann von Helmholtz] entitled &quot;On the sensations of tone as a physiological basis for the theory of music&quot; in 1863. After World War II, Audiology was defined as a sub-discipline of Otorhinolaryngology. In 1949 the working group ADA („Arbeitsgemeinschaft Deutscher Audiologen“) was founded at the first conference of ENT physicians and expanded in 1973 by including Otology and Neurotology („[https://adano.hno.org Arbeitsgemeinschaft Deutschsprachiger Audiologen und Neurootologen]“). The first chairman was [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alf_Meyer_zum_Gottesberge Prof. Dr. Alf Meyer zum Gottesberge]. ADANO still exists as a working group of the German Society for Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery ([https://hno.org Deutsche Gesellschaft für Hals-Nasen-Ohrenheilkunde, Kopf- und Hals-Chirurgie e.V.]). In 1979, the subgroup AG-ERA („[http://ag-era.bplaced.net/wordpress/ Arbeitsgruppe Elektrische Reaktionsaudiometrie]“, working group electric response audiometry) was founded by Prof. Dr. Günter Stange in Hannover. At annual meetings of the AG-ERA the latest developments in objective audiometry are discussed.

In 1996, the German Society of Audiology ([https://dga-ev.com DGA, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Audiologie]) was founded in Münster as an independent interdisciplinary scientific association of experts who deal with hearing, hearing disorders, and their diagnosis, therapy, rehabilitation, and prevention. As a scientific society, the DGA promotes professional exchange, the further development of audiological standards, and networking among its members from medicine, natural sciences, engineering, education, psychology, and related disciplines. Today, the DGA has more than 600 society members. A detailed description of the development of Audiology in Germany is given in&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kießling|first=Jürgen|date=2021-08-01|title=Die Entwicklung der Audiologie - von Helmholtz bis heute|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0939388920300933|journal=Zeitschrift für Medizinische Physik|series=Special Issue: Audiology|volume=31|issue=3|pages=238–253|doi=10.1016/j.zemedi.2020.08.003|issn=0939-3889}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

{{HTitle|Incidence and Prevalence of Hearing Loss}}
Epidemiological data on the prevalence of hearing disorders in Germany are sparse. In 2017, a study conducted in two regions in Germany found hearing impairment in approximately 16% of adults when applying the WHO criterion of 2016&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=von Gablenz|first=Petra|last2=Hoffmann|first2=Eckehardt|last3=Holube|first3=Inga|title=Prevalence of hearing loss in Northern and Southern Germany|journal=HNO|volume=65|pages=S130-S135|doi=DOI 10.1007/s00106-016-0318-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  The results  are in good agreement with other European studies and show differences to US American results. A 2022 study conducted in the city of Mainz and the neighboring Mainz-Bingen district reported a prevalence of 25.5% when applying the WHO criterion of 2021 &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hackenberg|first=Berit|last2=Döge|first2=Julia|last3=Lackner|first3=Karl J.|last4=Beutel|first4=Manfred E.|last5=Münzel|first5=Thomas|last6=Pfeiffer|first6=Norbert|last7=Nagler|first7=Markus|last8=Schmidtmann|first8=Irene|last9=Wild|first9=Philipp S.|date=2022-09|title=Hearing Loss and Its Burden of Disease in a Large German Cohort-Hearing Loss in Germany|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34904723|journal=The Laryngoscope|volume=132|issue=9|pages=1843–1849|doi=10.1002/lary.29980|issn=1531-4995|pmid=34904723}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 2024 a self-report study on the prevalence and co-prevalence of the audiovestibular symptoms hearing loss, tinnitus and dizziness in the Pomerania region of Germany reported a weighted prevalence of 14.2% for hearing loss, 9.7% for tinnitus, and 13.5% for dizziness in the population of 8134 study participants. Prevalence increased with age and differed among the sexes. 28% of the study participants reported more than one symptom at once.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ihler|first=Friedrich|last2=Brzoska|first2=Tina|last3=Altindal|first3=Reyhan|last4=Dziemba|first4=Oliver|last5=Völzke|first5=Henry|last6=Busch|first6=Chia-Jung|last7=Ittermann|first7=Till|date=2024-07-31|title=Prevalence and risk factors of self-reported hearing loss, tinnitus, and dizziness in a population-based sample from rural northeastern Germany|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39085387|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=14|issue=1|pages=17739|doi=10.1038/s41598-024-68577-3|issn=2045-2322|pmc=11291685|pmid=39085387}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A population-based two-staged ‘screening’ and ‘follow-up’ newborn hearing screening program in North-Rhine, Germany and a hospital-based screening at a University Hospital was conducted for the 2007–2016 period. The 10-year coverage rate for these newborns was 98.7%, the referral rate after a failed two-step screening was 3.4%, and the lost-to-follow-up rate was 1% but no information on final diagnosis was provided.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thangavelu|first=Kruthika|last2=Martakis|first2=Kyriakos|last3=Feldmann|first3=Silke|last4=Roth|first4=Bernhard|last5=Herkenrath|first5=Peter|last6=Lang-Roth|first6=Ruth|date=2023-10-23|title=Universal Newborn Hearing Screening Program: 10-Year Outcome and Follow-Up from a Screening Center in Germany|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2409-515X/9/4/61|journal=International Journal of Neonatal Screening|language=en|volume=9|issue=4|pages=61|doi=10.3390/ijns9040061|issn=2409-515X|pmc=10594500|pmid=37873852}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

{{HTitle|Information About Audiology}}

=== Bachelor and Master courses in Audiology (audiologists) ===
Though the job title „Audiologist“ is not an officially protected professional title, it is usually used for people with an academic education on bachelor (B.Sc.) or master level (M.Sc.). There are two universities of applied sciences in Germany offering a bachelor program and two universities offering master courses. They are located in Oldenburg and Lübeck. In total, around 20 students finish their academic courses per year. In addition, a significant number of audiologists have primary education in physics, engineering and other related disciplines with appropriate individual training.

=== Services offered by Technical Audiologists ===
Technical audiologists work primarily in hospitals and specialized hearing clinics, where they support the diagnosis and treatment of hearing disorders under the supervision of an ENT physician. Their responsibilities include performing audiological assessments, conducting objective hearing measurements, assisting in the evaluation and follow-up of cochlear implant patients, and managing technical aspects of audiological equipment. They are also involved in the programming and technical support of cochlear implant systems, as well as patient counseling related to implant use and rehabilitation.

=== Services offered by Otolaryngologists ===
ENT doctors perform physical examination and all necessary audiometric tests for diagnosis of hearing loss. In particular, they perform subjective and objective tests in order to determine the cause and extent of hearing loss. Associated disorders such as Tinnitus, Hyperacusis nad vestibular disorders are also diagnosed by ENT specialists. When no causative treatment of hearing loss is available, Hearing Aids (HAs) are prescribed. The regulatory basis for hearing aid prescription is the Guideline for assistive devices (&quot;Hilfsmittelrichtlinie&quot;). Roughly, specific audiometric criteria for puretone tresholds and speech recognition have to be fulfilled in order to justify HA prescription. A comprehensive description of the process is given in. 

=== Services offered by Hearing Aid Acousticians ===
Hearing Aid Acousticians (HAA) are non-academic craftsmen. Based on the prescription they select appropriate hearing aids and perform the HA fitting. Powers and duties are regulated by the &quot;Hörakustikermeisterverordnung&quot;. As demanded by §30 in the Hilfsmittelrichtlinie the success of an HA provision is confirmed by an ENT doctor at the end of the trial period. Standard health insurance covers costs for hearing aids up to about 800 € per HA including otoplastic and fitting. 

=== Services offered by Pedagogical Audiologists ===
Pedagogical Audiologists (or: Educational Audiologists) have an academic qualification in special needs education and practical experience in teaching children who are deaf or hard of hearing. They should be qualified in a training programme in accordance with the BDH and BUDIKO standards (&quot;Grundsatzpapier Pädagogische Audiologie&quot;) (2020). Pedagogical audiologists carry out hearing and speech audiometry. They analyse test results and assess hearing, speech and communication behaviour to provide advice for parents and caretakers in (pre-)school environments. 

=== Services offered by Audiometrists ===
Hearing healthcare is primarily part of ENT doctors in cabinets. Audiometry is usually done by specialized nurses or audiometrists. Audiometrists have usually an education as medical technologist („Medizinischer Technologe, MTF“).{{HTitle|Scope of Practice and Licensing}}In Germany, Austria and Switzerland, ‘audiologist’ is not a [https://www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/684720/8bc3b06008858a32d0e500882afce792/WD-8-164-19-pdf-data.pdf regulated profession] and is not a legally protected professional title. Various professional groups with differing levels of education work in the field of audiology. In Germany, there are no recognition authorities for university degrees leading to unregulated professions. Applications for jobs on the labour market must be addressed directly to the employer. The employer in question decides on suitability at their own discretion. Potential employers include, for example, hospitals, doctors’ practices, hearing aid manufacturers and implant manufacturers.

In Germany, hearing aids are fitted by hearing aid specialists in specialized shops. Such a shop must always be run by a “Meister” hearing aid specialist. “Meister” hearing aid specialist is a regulated profession that requires the successful completion of the Meister’s examination in this skilled trade (see [https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/hwo/HwO.pdf Handwerksordnung]). The requirements for obtaining the Meister craftsman qualification are set out in the Regulations on the Meister Craftsman Examination for the Hearing Aid Dispensing Trade ([https://www.bgbl.de/xaver/bgbl/start.xav#/switch/tocPane?_ts=1778415605193 Meisterprüfungsordnung des Hörakustiker-Handwerks]). Typically, in the hearing aid dispensing trade, an apprenticeship is first completed, culminating in a journeyman’s examination. Passing the journeyman’s examination is usually a prerequisite for preparing for the Meister craftsman examination and subsequently sitting the examination. Employment in a specialist hearing aid shop is also possible without the journeyman’s certificate. In this case, the employee works under the professional supervision of a Meister craftsman. Self-employment, however, requires the acquisition of the Meister craftsman’s qualification. With regard to foreign qualifications, an equivalence assessment procedure can be initiated at the local Chamber of Crafts. Upon application, the Chamber of Crafts will assess whether the professional qualification obtained abroad is equivalent to the German master craftsman’s examination or the journeyman’s examination. The Chambers of Crafts provide advice prior to the application. The Chambers of Crafts then determine whether the qualification obtained abroad corresponds to the job profile of a German Meister hearing aid acoustician or that of a journeyman. Further training measures are also possible to address any specific gaps.

In Germany, a bachelor’s degree with a focus on audiology can currently be obtained at the Technical University of Lübeck ([https://www.th-luebeck.de/studium/studienangebot/studiengaenge/hoerakustik-bsc/uebersicht programme Hörakustik]) and Jade University of Applied Sciences in Oldenburg ([https://www.jade-hs.de/studiengang/hoertechnik-audiologie-bachelor/ Hearing Technology and Audiology programme]) or Aalen University (programme Hörtechnik und Audiologie[HI5] ). Both programmes have a more technical and less clinical focus than audiology programmes abroad. They lead to the regulated higher education profession of Engineer – Hearing Technology and Audiology ([https://www.make-it-in-germany.com/fileadmin/1_Rebrush_2022/a_Fachkraefte/PDF-Dateien/3_Visum_u_Aufenthalt/2024_Mangelberufe_DE.pdf Ingenieur/in – Hörtechnik und Audiologie]).

Audiologists are included in the [https://www.make-it-in-germany.com/fileadmin/1_Rebrush_2022/a_Fachkraefte/PDF-Dateien/3_Visum_u_Aufenthalt/2024_Mangelberufe_DE.pdf list of shortage occupations in Germany] (see Group 226). In this list, audiologists are mentioned alongside speech therapists. Speech therapist (also known as a logopaedist) is a regulated profession in Germany.{{HTitle|Professional and Regulatory Bodies}}Professional organizations within Audiology in Germany are:

·        Deutsche Gesellschaft für Audiologie[HI1] (DGA)

·        Deutsche Gesellschaft für Hals-Nasen-Ohrenheilkunde, Kopf- und Hals-Chirurgie[HI2] (DGHNO-KHC)

·        Berufs- und Fachverband Hören und Kommunikation [HI3] (BDH)

·        Europäische Union der Hörakustiker [HI4] (EUHA)

·        Bundesinnung der Hörakustiker [HI5] (biha)

·        Dachverband für Technologen/-innen und Analytiker/-innen in der Medizin Deutschland [HI6] (DVTA)

·        Berufsverband der AudiologieAssistenten [HI7] (BAA)
---- [HI1]Link: &lt;nowiki&gt;https://dga-ev.com/&lt;/nowiki&gt;

&lt;nowiki&gt; &lt;/nowiki&gt;[HI2]Link: &lt;nowiki&gt;https://hno.org/&lt;/nowiki&gt;

&lt;nowiki&gt; &lt;/nowiki&gt;[HI3]Link: &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.b-d-h.de/&lt;/nowiki&gt;

&lt;nowiki&gt; &lt;/nowiki&gt;[HI4]Link: &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.euha.org/&lt;/nowiki&gt;

&lt;nowiki&gt; &lt;/nowiki&gt;[HI5]Link: &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.biha.de/&lt;/nowiki&gt;

&lt;nowiki&gt; &lt;/nowiki&gt;[HI6]Link: &lt;nowiki&gt;https://dvta.de/mtf&lt;/nowiki&gt;

&lt;nowiki&gt; &lt;/nowiki&gt;[HI7]Link: &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.baa-audiologie.de/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.{{HTitle|Ongoing audiology research}}Audiology research is done in clinics, in technical and psychological departments as well in biological departments at universities.  Scienitifc exchange is mainly organized by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Audiologie ([https://dga-ev.com/ DGA]) at annual conferences. The DGA comprises five working groups (&quot;Fachausschüsse&quot;) focusing on 

* Audiometry and Quality Assurance
* Hearing Aid Technology and Hearing Aid provision
* Pediatric Audiology
* Cochlear Implant Provision
* Neurotology and Vestibular System

Official publication organ of the DGA is the open access journal  [https://journals.publisso.de/de/journals/zaud/ Zeitschrift für Audiologie].

{{HTitle|Challenges, Opportunities and Notes}}Germany pioneered social health insurance in 1883 based on the social legislation of Otto von Bismarck. Today Germany's health system is strong and hearing healthcare is mainly covered by social insurance. Newborn hearings screening was established in 2009 and is completely covered by social insurance. Additionally, hearing diagnostics and therapy (including hearing aids and cochlear implants) are usually paid in total or partly by the statutory health insurance. However, several challenges remain. For example, the adoption rate of hearing aids is only 47% of those with self-declared hearing loss&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=file:///C:/Users/hoppeuh/Downloads/EuroTrak_GERMANY_2025-1.pdf|title=Euro Track Germany 2025|access-date=May, 5th 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; and about 5.1% of the total population. {{HTitle|Audiology Charities}}The largest foundation for hearing research is the [https://kind-hoerstiftung.de/ KIND Hörstiftung]. According to its statutes, the KIND Hörstiftung aims to reduce the impact of hearing impairment and to foster full participation in social life of hearing impaired people. The foundation's instruments are funding of hearing research projects. Furthermore, it organize a biennial interdisciplinary colloquium and awards a Foundation Prize for outstanding scieitfic work in the fiedl of Audiology. Decisions regarding the allocation of funds are made by the Scientific Board and the Foundation Council.

There are several self-help groups for Tinnitus ([https://www.tinnitus-liga.de/ Deutsche TinitusLiga, DTL]), hearing loss ([https://schwerhoerigen-netz.de/ Deutscher Schwerhörigenbund, DSB]) , and Cochlear Implants ([https://dcig.de/ Deutsche Cochlea Implantat Gesellschaft, DCIG]). The latter two groups combined their forces in [https://www.hoerverband.de/ Deutscher Hörverband].  {{HTitle|References}}
{{reflist}}


{{:Global Audiology/Authors-1|Ulrich Hoppe | https://de.linkedin.com/in/ulrich-hoppe-3397238b }}

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{{HTitle|General Information}} 
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany Germany], officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. German is the official and predominantly spoken language in Germany. Recognised native minority languages in Germany are Danish, Low German, Low Rhenish, Sorbian, Romani, North Frisian and Saterland Frisian; they are officially protected by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The most used immigrant languages are Turkish, Arabic, Kurdish, Polish, Italian, Greek, Spanish, Serbo-Croatian, Bulgarian and other Balkan languages, as well as Russian. 

{{HTitle|History of Audiology}}
The development of Audiology in Germany as a scientific discipline started in the 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century. An important milestone was the publication by the German physicist and physician [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz Hermann von Helmholtz] entitled &quot;On the sensations of tone as a physiological basis for the theory of music&quot; in 1863. After World War II, Audiology was defined as a sub-discipline of Otorhinolaryngology. In 1949 the working group ADA („Arbeitsgemeinschaft Deutscher Audiologen“) was founded at the first conference of ENT physicians and expanded in 1973 by including Otology and Neurotology („[https://adano.hno.org Arbeitsgemeinschaft Deutschsprachiger Audiologen und Neurootologen]“). The first chairman was [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alf_Meyer_zum_Gottesberge Prof. Dr. Alf Meyer zum Gottesberge]. ADANO still exists as a working group of the German Society for Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery ([https://hno.org Deutsche Gesellschaft für Hals-Nasen-Ohrenheilkunde, Kopf- und Hals-Chirurgie e.V.]). In 1979, the subgroup AG-ERA („[http://ag-era.bplaced.net/wordpress/ Arbeitsgruppe Elektrische Reaktionsaudiometrie]“, working group electric response audiometry) was founded by Prof. Dr. Günter Stange in Hannover. At annual meetings of the AG-ERA the latest developments in objective audiometry are discussed.

In 1996, the German Society of Audiology ([https://dga-ev.com DGA, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Audiologie]) was founded in Münster as an independent interdisciplinary scientific association of experts who deal with hearing, hearing disorders, and their diagnosis, therapy, rehabilitation, and prevention. As a scientific society, the DGA promotes professional exchange, the further development of audiological standards, and networking among its members from medicine, natural sciences, engineering, education, psychology, and related disciplines. Today, the DGA has more than 600 society members. A detailed description of the development of Audiology in Germany is given in&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kießling|first=Jürgen|date=2021-08-01|title=Die Entwicklung der Audiologie - von Helmholtz bis heute|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0939388920300933|journal=Zeitschrift für Medizinische Physik|series=Special Issue: Audiology|volume=31|issue=3|pages=238–253|doi=10.1016/j.zemedi.2020.08.003|issn=0939-3889}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

{{HTitle|Incidence and Prevalence of Hearing Loss}}
Epidemiological data on the prevalence of hearing disorders in Germany are sparse. In 2017, a study conducted in two regions in Germany found hearing impairment in approximately 16% of adults when applying the WHO criterion of 2016&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=von Gablenz|first=Petra|last2=Hoffmann|first2=Eckehardt|last3=Holube|first3=Inga|title=Prevalence of hearing loss in Northern and Southern Germany|journal=HNO|volume=65|pages=S130-S135|doi=DOI 10.1007/s00106-016-0318-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  The results  are in good agreement with other European studies and show differences to US American results. A 2022 study conducted in the city of Mainz and the neighboring Mainz-Bingen district reported a prevalence of 25.5% when applying the WHO criterion of 2021 &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hackenberg|first=Berit|last2=Döge|first2=Julia|last3=Lackner|first3=Karl J.|last4=Beutel|first4=Manfred E.|last5=Münzel|first5=Thomas|last6=Pfeiffer|first6=Norbert|last7=Nagler|first7=Markus|last8=Schmidtmann|first8=Irene|last9=Wild|first9=Philipp S.|date=2022-09|title=Hearing Loss and Its Burden of Disease in a Large German Cohort-Hearing Loss in Germany|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34904723|journal=The Laryngoscope|volume=132|issue=9|pages=1843–1849|doi=10.1002/lary.29980|issn=1531-4995|pmid=34904723}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 2024 a self-report study on the prevalence and co-prevalence of the audiovestibular symptoms hearing loss, tinnitus and dizziness in the Pomerania region of Germany reported a weighted prevalence of 14.2% for hearing loss, 9.7% for tinnitus, and 13.5% for dizziness in the population of 8134 study participants. Prevalence increased with age and differed among the sexes. 28% of the study participants reported more than one symptom at once.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ihler|first=Friedrich|last2=Brzoska|first2=Tina|last3=Altindal|first3=Reyhan|last4=Dziemba|first4=Oliver|last5=Völzke|first5=Henry|last6=Busch|first6=Chia-Jung|last7=Ittermann|first7=Till|date=2024-07-31|title=Prevalence and risk factors of self-reported hearing loss, tinnitus, and dizziness in a population-based sample from rural northeastern Germany|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39085387|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=14|issue=1|pages=17739|doi=10.1038/s41598-024-68577-3|issn=2045-2322|pmc=11291685|pmid=39085387}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A population-based two-staged ‘screening’ and ‘follow-up’ newborn hearing screening program in North-Rhine, Germany and a hospital-based screening at a University Hospital was conducted for the 2007–2016 period. The 10-year coverage rate for these newborns was 98.7%, the referral rate after a failed two-step screening was 3.4%, and the lost-to-follow-up rate was 1% but no information on final diagnosis was provided.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thangavelu|first=Kruthika|last2=Martakis|first2=Kyriakos|last3=Feldmann|first3=Silke|last4=Roth|first4=Bernhard|last5=Herkenrath|first5=Peter|last6=Lang-Roth|first6=Ruth|date=2023-10-23|title=Universal Newborn Hearing Screening Program: 10-Year Outcome and Follow-Up from a Screening Center in Germany|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2409-515X/9/4/61|journal=International Journal of Neonatal Screening|language=en|volume=9|issue=4|pages=61|doi=10.3390/ijns9040061|issn=2409-515X|pmc=10594500|pmid=37873852}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

{{HTitle|Information About Audiology}}

=== Bachelor and Master courses in Audiology (audiologists) ===
Though the job title „Audiologist“ is not an officially protected professional title, it is usually used for people with an academic education on bachelor (B.Sc.) or master level (M.Sc.). There are two universities of applied sciences in Germany offering a bachelor program and two universities offering master courses. They are located in Oldenburg and Lübeck. In total, around 20 students finish their academic courses per year. In addition, a significant number of audiologists have primary education in physics, engineering and other related disciplines with appropriate individual training.

=== Services offered by Technical Audiologists ===
Technical audiologists work primarily in hospitals and specialized hearing clinics, where they support the diagnosis and treatment of hearing disorders under the supervision of an ENT physician. Their responsibilities include performing audiological assessments, conducting objective hearing measurements, assisting in the evaluation and follow-up of cochlear implant patients, and managing technical aspects of audiological equipment. They are also involved in the programming and technical support of cochlear implant systems, as well as patient counseling related to implant use and rehabilitation.

=== Services offered by Otolaryngologists ===
ENT doctors perform physical examination and all necessary audiometric tests for diagnosis of hearing loss. In particular, they perform subjective and objective tests in order to determine the cause and extent of hearing loss. Associated disorders such as Tinnitus, Hyperacusis nad vestibular disorders are also diagnosed by ENT specialists. When no causative treatment of hearing loss is available, Hearing Aids (HAs) are prescribed. The regulatory basis for hearing aid prescription is the Guideline for assistive devices (&quot;Hilfsmittelrichtlinie&quot;). Roughly, specific audiometric criteria for puretone tresholds and speech recognition have to be fulfilled in order to justify HA prescription. A comprehensive description of the process is given in &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hoppe|first=Ulrich|last2=Hesse|first2=Gerhard|title=Hearing aids: indications, technology, adaptation, and quality control|journal=GMS Current Topics in Otorhinolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery|volume=16|doi=10.3205/cto000147. ISSN 1865-1011.}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Services offered by Hearing Aid Acousticians ===
Hearing Aid Acousticians (HAA) are non-academic craftsmen. Based on the prescription they select appropriate hearing aids and perform the HA fitting. Powers and duties are regulated by the &quot;Hörakustikermeisterverordnung&quot;. As demanded by §30 in the Hilfsmittelrichtlinie the success of an HA provision is confirmed by an ENT doctor at the end of the trial period. Standard health insurance covers costs for hearing aids up to about 800 € per HA including otoplastic and fitting. 

=== Services offered by Pedagogical Audiologists ===
Pedagogical Audiologists (or: Educational Audiologists) have an academic qualification in special needs education and practical experience in teaching children who are deaf or hard of hearing. They should be qualified in a training programme in accordance with the BDH and BUDIKO standards (&quot;Grundsatzpapier Pädagogische Audiologie&quot;) (2020). Pedagogical audiologists carry out hearing and speech audiometry. They analyse test results and assess hearing, speech and communication behaviour to provide advice for parents and caretakers in (pre-)school environments. 

=== Services offered by Audiometrists ===
Hearing healthcare is primarily part of ENT doctors in cabinets. Audiometry is usually done by specialized nurses or audiometrists. Audiometrists have usually an education as medical technologist („Medizinischer Technologe, MTF“).{{HTitle|Scope of Practice and Licensing}}In Germany, Austria and Switzerland, ‘audiologist’ is not a [https://www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/684720/8bc3b06008858a32d0e500882afce792/WD-8-164-19-pdf-data.pdf regulated profession] and is not a legally protected professional title. Various professional groups with differing levels of education work in the field of audiology. In Germany, there are no recognition authorities for university degrees leading to unregulated professions. Applications for jobs on the labour market must be addressed directly to the employer. The employer in question decides on suitability at their own discretion. Potential employers include, for example, hospitals, doctors’ practices, hearing aid manufacturers and implant manufacturers.

In Germany, hearing aids are fitted by hearing aid specialists in specialized shops. Such a shop must always be run by a “Meister” hearing aid specialist. “Meister” hearing aid specialist is a regulated profession that requires the successful completion of the Meister’s examination in this skilled trade (see [https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/hwo/HwO.pdf Handwerksordnung]). The requirements for obtaining the Meister craftsman qualification are set out in the Regulations on the Meister Craftsman Examination for the Hearing Aid Dispensing Trade ([https://www.bgbl.de/xaver/bgbl/start.xav#/switch/tocPane?_ts=1778415605193 Meisterprüfungsordnung des Hörakustiker-Handwerks]). Typically, in the hearing aid dispensing trade, an apprenticeship is first completed, culminating in a journeyman’s examination. Passing the journeyman’s examination is usually a prerequisite for preparing for the Meister craftsman examination and subsequently sitting the examination. Employment in a specialist hearing aid shop is also possible without the journeyman’s certificate. In this case, the employee works under the professional supervision of a Meister craftsman. Self-employment, however, requires the acquisition of the Meister craftsman’s qualification. With regard to foreign qualifications, an equivalence assessment procedure can be initiated at the local Chamber of Crafts. Upon application, the Chamber of Crafts will assess whether the professional qualification obtained abroad is equivalent to the German master craftsman’s examination or the journeyman’s examination. The Chambers of Crafts provide advice prior to the application. The Chambers of Crafts then determine whether the qualification obtained abroad corresponds to the job profile of a German Meister hearing aid acoustician or that of a journeyman. Further training measures are also possible to address any specific gaps.

In Germany, a bachelor’s degree with a focus on audiology can currently be obtained at the Technical University of Lübeck ([https://www.th-luebeck.de/studium/studienangebot/studiengaenge/hoerakustik-bsc/uebersicht programme Hörakustik]) and Jade University of Applied Sciences in Oldenburg ([https://www.jade-hs.de/studiengang/hoertechnik-audiologie-bachelor/ Hearing Technology and Audiology programme]) or Aalen University (programme Hörtechnik und Audiologie[HI5] ). Both programmes have a more technical and less clinical focus than audiology programmes abroad. They lead to the regulated higher education profession of Engineer – Hearing Technology and Audiology ([https://www.make-it-in-germany.com/fileadmin/1_Rebrush_2022/a_Fachkraefte/PDF-Dateien/3_Visum_u_Aufenthalt/2024_Mangelberufe_DE.pdf Ingenieur/in – Hörtechnik und Audiologie]).

Audiologists are included in the [https://www.make-it-in-germany.com/fileadmin/1_Rebrush_2022/a_Fachkraefte/PDF-Dateien/3_Visum_u_Aufenthalt/2024_Mangelberufe_DE.pdf list of shortage occupations in Germany] (see Group 226). In this list, audiologists are mentioned alongside speech therapists. Speech therapist (also known as a logopaedist) is a regulated profession in Germany.{{HTitle|Professional and Regulatory Bodies}}

=== Professional organizations within Audiology in Germany are: ===
·        Deutsche Gesellschaft für Audiologie ([https://dga-ev.com/ DGA])

·        Deutsche Gesellschaft für Hals-Nasen-Ohrenheilkunde, Kopf- und Hals-Chirurgie ([https://hno.org/ DGHNO-KHC])

·        Berufs- und Fachverband Hören und Kommunikation ([https://www.b-d-h.de/ BDH])

·        Europäische Union der Hörakustiker ([https://www.euha.org/ EUHA])

·        Bundesinnung der Hörakustiker ([https://www.biha.de/ biha])

·        Dachverband für Technologen/-innen und Analytiker/-innen in der Medizin Deutschland ([https://dvta.de/mtf DVTA])

·        Berufsverband der Audiologie-Assistenten ([https://www.baa-audiologie.de/ BAA]){{HTitle|Ongoing audiology research}}Audiology research is done in clinics, in technical and psychological departments as well in biological departments at universities.  Scienitifc exchange is mainly organized by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Audiologie ([https://dga-ev.com/ DGA]) at annual conferences. The DGA comprises five working groups (&quot;Fachausschüsse&quot;) focusing on 

* Audiometry and Quality Assurance
* Hearing Aid Technology and Hearing Aid provision
* Pediatric Audiology
* Cochlear Implant Provision
* Neurotology and Vestibular System

Official publication organ of the DGA is the open access journal  [https://journals.publisso.de/de/journals/zaud/ Zeitschrift für Audiologie].

{{HTitle|Challenges, Opportunities and Notes}}Germany pioneered social health insurance in 1883 based on the social legislation of Otto von Bismarck. Today Germany's health system is strong and hearing healthcare is mainly covered by social insurance. Newborn hearings screening was established in 2009 and is completely covered by social insurance. Additionally, hearing diagnostics and therapy (including hearing aids and cochlear implants) are usually paid in total or partly by the statutory health insurance. However, several challenges remain. For example, the adoption rate of hearing aids is only 47% of those with self-declared hearing loss&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=file:///C:/Users/hoppeuh/Downloads/EuroTrak_GERMANY_2025-1.pdf|title=Euro Track Germany 2025|access-date=May, 5th 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; and about 5.1% of the total population. {{HTitle|Audiology Charities}}The largest foundation for hearing research is the [https://kind-hoerstiftung.de/ KIND Hörstiftung]. According to its statutes, the KIND Hörstiftung aims to reduce the impact of hearing impairment and to foster full participation in social life of hearing impaired people. The foundation's instruments are funding of hearing research projects. Furthermore, it organize a biennial interdisciplinary colloquium and awards a Foundation Prize for outstanding scieitfic work in the fiedl of Audiology. Decisions regarding the allocation of funds are made by the Scientific Board and the Foundation Council.

There are several self-help groups for Tinnitus ([https://www.tinnitus-liga.de/ Deutsche TinitusLiga, DTL]), hearing loss ([https://schwerhoerigen-netz.de/ Deutscher Schwerhörigenbund, DSB]) , and Cochlear Implants ([https://dcig.de/ Deutsche Cochlea Implantat Gesellschaft, DCIG]). The latter two groups combined their forces in [https://www.hoerverband.de/ Deutscher Hörverband].  {{HTitle|References}}
{{reflist}}


{{:Global Audiology/Authors-1|Ulrich Hoppe | https://de.linkedin.com/in/ulrich-hoppe-3397238b }}

[[Category:Audiology]]
[[Category:Germany]]</text>
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{{:Global Audiology/Europe/Header}}
{{CountryHeader|File:Germany (orthographic projection).svg|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany}}

{{HTitle|General Information}} 
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany Germany], officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. German is the official and predominantly spoken language in Germany. Recognised native minority languages in Germany are Danish, Low German, Low Rhenish, Sorbian, Romani, North Frisian and Saterland Frisian; they are officially protected by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The most used immigrant languages are Turkish, Arabic, Kurdish, Polish, Italian, Greek, Spanish, Serbo-Croatian, Bulgarian and other Balkan languages, as well as Russian. 

{{HTitle|History of Audiology}}
The development of Audiology in Germany as a scientific discipline started in the 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century. An important milestone was the publication by the German physicist and physician [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz Hermann von Helmholtz] entitled &quot;On the sensations of tone as a physiological basis for the theory of music&quot; in 1863. After World War II, Audiology was defined as a sub-discipline of Otorhinolaryngology. In 1949 the working group ADA („Arbeitsgemeinschaft Deutscher Audiologen“) was founded at the first conference of ENT physicians and expanded in 1973 by including Otology and Neurotology („[https://adano.hno.org Arbeitsgemeinschaft Deutschsprachiger Audiologen und Neurootologen]“). The first chairman was [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alf_Meyer_zum_Gottesberge Prof. Dr. Alf Meyer zum Gottesberge]. ADANO still exists as a working group of the German Society for Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery ([https://hno.org Deutsche Gesellschaft für Hals-Nasen-Ohrenheilkunde, Kopf- und Hals-Chirurgie e.V.]). In 1979, the subgroup AG-ERA („[http://ag-era.bplaced.net/wordpress/ Arbeitsgruppe Elektrische Reaktionsaudiometrie]“, working group electric response audiometry) was founded by Prof. Dr. Günter Stange in Hannover. At annual meetings of the AG-ERA the latest developments in objective audiometry are discussed.

In 1996, the German Society of Audiology ([https://dga-ev.com DGA, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Audiologie]) was founded in Münster as an independent interdisciplinary scientific association of experts who deal with hearing, hearing disorders, and their diagnosis, therapy, rehabilitation, and prevention. As a scientific society, the DGA promotes professional exchange, the further development of audiological standards, and networking among its members from medicine, natural sciences, engineering, education, psychology, and related disciplines. Today, the DGA has more than 600 society members. A detailed description of the development of Audiology in Germany is given in&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kießling|first=Jürgen|date=2021-08-01|title=Die Entwicklung der Audiologie - von Helmholtz bis heute|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0939388920300933|journal=Zeitschrift für Medizinische Physik|series=Special Issue: Audiology|volume=31|issue=3|pages=238–253|doi=10.1016/j.zemedi.2020.08.003|issn=0939-3889}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

{{HTitle|Incidence and Prevalence of Hearing Loss}}
Epidemiological data on the prevalence of hearing disorders in Germany are sparse. In 2017, a study conducted in two regions in Germany found hearing impairment in approximately 16% of adults when applying the WHO criterion of 2016&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=von Gablenz|first=Petra|last2=Hoffmann|first2=Eckehardt|last3=Holube|first3=Inga|title=Prevalence of hearing loss in Northern and Southern Germany|journal=HNO|volume=65|pages=S130-S135|doi=DOI 10.1007/s00106-016-0318-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  The results  are in good agreement with other European studies and show differences to US American results. A 2022 study conducted in the city of Mainz and the neighboring Mainz-Bingen district reported a prevalence of 25.5% when applying the WHO criterion of 2021 &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hackenberg|first=Berit|last2=Döge|first2=Julia|last3=Lackner|first3=Karl J.|last4=Beutel|first4=Manfred E.|last5=Münzel|first5=Thomas|last6=Pfeiffer|first6=Norbert|last7=Nagler|first7=Markus|last8=Schmidtmann|first8=Irene|last9=Wild|first9=Philipp S.|date=2022-09|title=Hearing Loss and Its Burden of Disease in a Large German Cohort-Hearing Loss in Germany|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34904723|journal=The Laryngoscope|volume=132|issue=9|pages=1843–1849|doi=10.1002/lary.29980|issn=1531-4995|pmid=34904723}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 2024 a self-report study on the prevalence and co-prevalence of the audiovestibular symptoms hearing loss, tinnitus and dizziness in the Pomerania region of Germany reported a weighted prevalence of 14.2% for hearing loss, 9.7% for tinnitus, and 13.5% for dizziness in the population of 8134 study participants. Prevalence increased with age and differed among the sexes. 28% of the study participants reported more than one symptom at once.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ihler|first=Friedrich|last2=Brzoska|first2=Tina|last3=Altindal|first3=Reyhan|last4=Dziemba|first4=Oliver|last5=Völzke|first5=Henry|last6=Busch|first6=Chia-Jung|last7=Ittermann|first7=Till|date=2024-07-31|title=Prevalence and risk factors of self-reported hearing loss, tinnitus, and dizziness in a population-based sample from rural northeastern Germany|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39085387|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=14|issue=1|pages=17739|doi=10.1038/s41598-024-68577-3|issn=2045-2322|pmc=11291685|pmid=39085387}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A population-based two-staged ‘screening’ and ‘follow-up’ newborn hearing screening program in North-Rhine, Germany and a hospital-based screening at a University Hospital was conducted for the 2007–2016 period. The 10-year coverage rate for these newborns was 98.7%, the referral rate after a failed two-step screening was 3.4%, and the lost-to-follow-up rate was 1% but no information on final diagnosis was provided.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thangavelu|first=Kruthika|last2=Martakis|first2=Kyriakos|last3=Feldmann|first3=Silke|last4=Roth|first4=Bernhard|last5=Herkenrath|first5=Peter|last6=Lang-Roth|first6=Ruth|date=2023-10-23|title=Universal Newborn Hearing Screening Program: 10-Year Outcome and Follow-Up from a Screening Center in Germany|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2409-515X/9/4/61|journal=International Journal of Neonatal Screening|language=en|volume=9|issue=4|pages=61|doi=10.3390/ijns9040061|issn=2409-515X|pmc=10594500|pmid=37873852}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

{{HTitle|Information About Audiology}}

=== Bachelor and Master courses in Audiology (audiologists) ===
Though the job title „Audiologist“ is not an officially protected professional title, it is usually used for people with an academic education on bachelor (B.Sc.) or master level (M.Sc.). There are two universities of applied sciences in Germany offering a bachelor program and two universities offering master courses. They are located in Oldenburg and Lübeck. In total, around 20 students finish their academic courses per year. In addition, a significant number of audiologists have primary education in physics, engineering and other related disciplines with appropriate individual training.

=== Services offered by Technical Audiologists ===
Technical audiologists work primarily in hospitals and specialized hearing clinics, where they support the diagnosis and treatment of hearing disorders under the supervision of an ENT physician. Their responsibilities include performing audiological assessments, conducting objective hearing measurements, assisting in the evaluation and follow-up of cochlear implant patients, and managing technical aspects of audiological equipment. They are also involved in the programming and technical support of cochlear implant systems, as well as patient counseling related to implant use and rehabilitation.

=== Services offered by Otolaryngologists ===
ENT doctors perform physical examination and all necessary audiometric tests for diagnosis of hearing loss. In particular, they perform subjective and objective tests in order to determine the cause and extent of hearing loss. Associated disorders such as Tinnitus, Hyperacusis nad vestibular disorders are also diagnosed by ENT specialists. When no causative treatment of hearing loss is available, Hearing Aids (HAs) are prescribed. The regulatory basis for hearing aid prescription is the Guideline for assistive devices (&quot;Hilfsmittelrichtlinie&quot;). Roughly, specific audiometric criteria for puretone tresholds and speech recognition have to be fulfilled in order to justify HA prescription. A comprehensive description of the process is given in &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hoppe|first=Ulrich|last2=Hesse|first2=Gerhard|title=Hearing aids: indications, technology, adaptation, and quality control|journal=GMS Current Topics in Otorhinolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery|volume=16|doi=10.3205/cto000147. ISSN 1865-1011.}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Services offered by Hearing Aid Acousticians ===
Hearing Aid Acousticians (HAA) are non-academic craftsmen. Based on the prescription they select appropriate hearing aids and perform the HA fitting. Powers and duties are regulated by the &quot;[https://www.bgbl.de/xaver/bgbl/start.xav#/switch/tocPane?_ts=1778415605193 Hörakustikermeisterverordnung]&quot;. As demanded by §30 in the Hilfsmittelrichtlinie the success of an HA provision is confirmed by an ENT doctor at the end of the trial period. Standard health insurance covers costs for hearing aids up to about 800 € per HA including otoplastic and fitting. 

=== Services offered by Pedagogical Audiologists ===
Pedagogical Audiologists (or: Educational Audiologists) have an academic qualification in special needs education and practical experience in teaching children who are deaf or hard of hearing. They should be qualified in a training programme in accordance with the BDH and BUDIKO standards ([http://www.b-d-h.de/images/pdf/Paedagogische_Audiologie_Neuauflage_Broschuere_2020_05_11.pdf &quot;Grundsatzpapier Pädagogische Audiologie&quot;]) (2020). Pedagogical audiologists carry out hearing and speech audiometry. They analyse test results and assess hearing, speech and communication behaviour to provide advice for parents and caretakers in (pre-)school environments. 

=== Services offered by Audiometrists ===
Hearing healthcare is primarily part of ENT doctors in cabinets. Audiometry is usually done by specialized nurses or audiometrists. Audiometrists have usually an education as medical technologist („Medizinischer Technologe, MTF“).{{HTitle|Scope of Practice and Licensing}}In Germany, Austria and Switzerland, ‘audiologist’ is not a [https://www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/684720/8bc3b06008858a32d0e500882afce792/WD-8-164-19-pdf-data.pdf regulated profession] and is not a legally protected professional title. Various professional groups with differing levels of education work in the field of audiology. In Germany, there are no recognition authorities for university degrees leading to unregulated professions. Applications for jobs on the labour market must be addressed directly to the employer. The employer in question decides on suitability at their own discretion. Potential employers include, for example, hospitals, doctors’ practices, hearing aid manufacturers and implant manufacturers.

In Germany, hearing aids are fitted by hearing aid specialists in specialized shops. Such a shop must always be run by a “Meister” hearing aid specialist. “Meister” hearing aid specialist is a regulated profession that requires the successful completion of the Meister’s examination in this skilled trade (see [https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/hwo/HwO.pdf Handwerksordnung]). The requirements for obtaining the Meister craftsman qualification are set out in the Regulations on the Meister Craftsman Examination for the Hearing Aid Dispensing Trade ([https://www.bgbl.de/xaver/bgbl/start.xav#/switch/tocPane?_ts=1778415605193 Meisterprüfungsordnung des Hörakustiker-Handwerks]). Typically, in the hearing aid dispensing trade, an apprenticeship is first completed, culminating in a journeyman’s examination. Passing the journeyman’s examination is usually a prerequisite for preparing for the Meister craftsman examination and subsequently sitting the examination. Employment in a specialist hearing aid shop is also possible without the journeyman’s certificate. In this case, the employee works under the professional supervision of a Meister craftsman. Self-employment, however, requires the acquisition of the Meister craftsman’s qualification. With regard to foreign qualifications, an equivalence assessment procedure can be initiated at the local Chamber of Crafts. Upon application, the Chamber of Crafts will assess whether the professional qualification obtained abroad is equivalent to the German master craftsman’s examination or the journeyman’s examination. The Chambers of Crafts provide advice prior to the application. The Chambers of Crafts then determine whether the qualification obtained abroad corresponds to the job profile of a German Meister hearing aid acoustician or that of a journeyman. Further training measures are also possible to address any specific gaps.

In Germany, a bachelor’s degree with a focus on audiology can currently be obtained at the Technical University of Lübeck ([https://www.th-luebeck.de/studium/studienangebot/studiengaenge/hoerakustik-bsc/uebersicht programme Hörakustik]) and Jade University of Applied Sciences in Oldenburg ([https://www.jade-hs.de/studiengang/hoertechnik-audiologie-bachelor/ Hearing Technology and Audiology programme]) or Aalen University (programme Hörtechnik und Audiologie[HI5] ). Both programmes have a more technical and less clinical focus than audiology programmes abroad. They lead to the regulated higher education profession of Engineer – Hearing Technology and Audiology ([https://www.make-it-in-germany.com/fileadmin/1_Rebrush_2022/a_Fachkraefte/PDF-Dateien/3_Visum_u_Aufenthalt/2024_Mangelberufe_DE.pdf Ingenieur/in – Hörtechnik und Audiologie]).

Audiologists are included in the [https://www.make-it-in-germany.com/fileadmin/1_Rebrush_2022/a_Fachkraefte/PDF-Dateien/3_Visum_u_Aufenthalt/2024_Mangelberufe_DE.pdf list of shortage occupations in Germany] (see Group 226). In this list, audiologists are mentioned alongside speech therapists. Speech therapist (also known as a logopaedist) is a regulated profession in Germany.{{HTitle|Professional and Regulatory Bodies}}

=== Professional organizations within Audiology in Germany are: ===
·        Deutsche Gesellschaft für Audiologie ([https://dga-ev.com/ DGA])

·        Deutsche Gesellschaft für Hals-Nasen-Ohrenheilkunde, Kopf- und Hals-Chirurgie ([https://hno.org/ DGHNO-KHC])

·        Berufs- und Fachverband Hören und Kommunikation ([https://www.b-d-h.de/ BDH])

·        Europäische Union der Hörakustiker ([https://www.euha.org/ EUHA])

·        Bundesinnung der Hörakustiker ([https://www.biha.de/ biha])

·        Dachverband für Technologen/-innen und Analytiker/-innen in der Medizin Deutschland ([https://dvta.de/mtf DVTA])

·        Berufsverband der Audiologie-Assistenten ([https://www.baa-audiologie.de/ BAA]){{HTitle|Ongoing audiology research}}Audiology research is done in clinics, in technical and psychological departments as well in biological departments at universities.  Scienitifc exchange is mainly organized by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Audiologie ([https://dga-ev.com/ DGA]) at annual conferences. The DGA comprises five working groups (&quot;Fachausschüsse&quot;) focusing on 

* Audiometry and Quality Assurance
* Hearing Aid Technology and Hearing Aid provision
* Pediatric Audiology
* Cochlear Implant Provision
* Neurotology and Vestibular System

Official publication organ of the DGA is the open access journal  [https://journals.publisso.de/de/journals/zaud/ Zeitschrift für Audiologie].

{{HTitle|Challenges, Opportunities and Notes}}Germany pioneered social health insurance in 1883 based on the social legislation of Otto von Bismarck. Today Germany's health system is strong and hearing healthcare is mainly covered by social insurance. Newborn hearings screening was established in 2009 and is completely covered by social insurance. Additionally, hearing diagnostics and therapy (including hearing aids and cochlear implants) are usually paid in total or partly by the statutory health insurance. However, several challenges remain. For example, according to the [https://www.ehima.com/sdc_download/4891/?key=q5tpwysll8pp68cia4r9mijpnpbh1i Euro Trak Germany survey in 2025], the adoption rate of hearing aids is only 47% of those with self-declared hearing loss and about 5.1% of the total population. {{HTitle|Audiology Charities}}The largest foundation for hearing research is the [https://kind-hoerstiftung.de/ KIND Hörstiftung]. According to its statutes, the KIND Hörstiftung aims to reduce the impact of hearing impairment and to foster full participation in social life of hearing impaired people. The foundation's instruments are funding of hearing research projects. Furthermore, it organize a biennial interdisciplinary colloquium and awards a Foundation Prize for outstanding scieitfic work in the fiedl of Audiology. Decisions regarding the allocation of funds are made by the Scientific Board and the Foundation Council.

There are several self-help groups for Tinnitus ([https://www.tinnitus-liga.de/ Deutsche TinitusLiga, DTL]), hearing loss ([https://schwerhoerigen-netz.de/ Deutscher Schwerhörigenbund, DSB]) , and Cochlear Implants ([https://dcig.de/ Deutsche Cochlea Implantat Gesellschaft, DCIG]). The latter two groups combined their forces in [https://www.hoerverband.de/ Deutscher Hörverband].  {{HTitle|References}}
{{reflist}}


{{:Global Audiology/Authors-1|Ulrich Hoppe | https://de.linkedin.com/in/ulrich-hoppe-3397238b }}

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    <title>Talk:One man's look at concept</title>
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      <text bytes="1662" sha1="cqn19zh2mcyie8f7fc9qx7x9syptw2v" xml:space="preserve">== Items to process ==
1) [[W:Fuzzy concept]] should be linked. Potential fuzziness of a concept should perhaps be covered.

2) Operationalization should be covered. I need to clarify whether the result of an operationalization is also called concept (it could be one talks of conceptual level and operational level, but this implies the thing on the operational level is not a concept? Or is it just bad terminology and one should rather talk of vague level and operational level?). I vaguely remember I read about operationalization of the concept of suicide by Durkheim in Sociology by Calhoun et al., for the purpose of sociological research.

3) I could add a section for collocations. That is more of a lexicographical material, but it naturally leads to interesting questions and help tie down the concept of concepts. For instance, are there undefined concepts, are there primitive concepts, etc.

3.1) Add intuitive notion vs. intuitive concept[https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=intuitive+notion%2C+intuitive+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3].

--[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:42, 28 February 2025 (UTC)
: Expanded. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:16, 28 February 2025 (UTC)

== Зомбик обкакался ==

Обкакался зомбик [[User:Skibidi Titan 5.0|Skibidi Titan 5.0]] ([[User talk:Skibidi Titan 5.0|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Skibidi Titan 5.0|contribs]]) 15:05, 10 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
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      <comment>Undid edits by [[Special:Contribs/Skibidi Titan 5.0|Skibidi Titan 5.0]] ([[User talk:Skibidi Titan 5.0|talk]]) to last version by Dan Polansky: reverting vandalism</comment>
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      <text bytes="1421" sha1="b3su7c59opw12w1sovr7s5p4za0e9u3" xml:space="preserve">== Items to process ==
1) [[W:Fuzzy concept]] should be linked. Potential fuzziness of a concept should perhaps be covered.

2) Operationalization should be covered. I need to clarify whether the result of an operationalization is also called concept (it could be one talks of conceptual level and operational level, but this implies the thing on the operational level is not a concept? Or is it just bad terminology and one should rather talk of vague level and operational level?). I vaguely remember I read about operationalization of the concept of suicide by Durkheim in Sociology by Calhoun et al., for the purpose of sociological research.

3) I could add a section for collocations. That is more of a lexicographical material, but it naturally leads to interesting questions and help tie down the concept of concepts. For instance, are there undefined concepts, are there primitive concepts, etc.

3.1) Add intuitive notion vs. intuitive concept[https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=intuitive+notion%2C+intuitive+concept&amp;year_start=1800&amp;year_end=2019&amp;corpus=en-2019&amp;smoothing=3].

--[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:42, 28 February 2025 (UTC)
: Expanded. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:16, 28 February 2025 (UTC)</text>
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  <page>
    <title>OpenStax Anatomy and Physiology 2e</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>324972</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2808300</id>
      <parentid>2795347</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T07:57:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andy?yes</username>
        <id>3006471</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>2808300</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1150" sha1="qj6s4etyph84t4l90md92peg0dql9za" xml:space="preserve">See also [[OpenStax]]

'''&lt;big&gt;OpenStax A&lt;/big&gt;&lt;big&gt;natomy &amp; Physiology 2e&lt;/big&gt;'''

''Anatomy and Physiology 2e'' is developed to meet the scope and sequence for a two-semester human anatomy and physiology course for life science and allied health majors. The book is organized by body systems. The revision focuses on inclusive and equitable instruction and includes new student support. Illustrations have been extensively revised to be clearer and more inclusive. The web-based version of ''Anatomy and Physiology 2e'' also features links to surgical videos, histology, and interactive diagrams. Please learn more about the changes by previewing the preface.

* [https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e OpenStax Anatomy &amp; Physiology 2e] (original content)
* [https://audileo.com/audiobooks/openstax/anatomy-physiology-2e/ OpenStax Anatomy &amp; Physiology 2e audiobook] (official audiobook)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rjQ5WS8XeBU OpenStax Anatomy &amp; Physiology 2e audio textbook] (chapter 1 on YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BhmhqyNzLls Lecture videos] for A&amp;P 2e

[[Category:Anatomy]]
[[Category:Physiology]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>326765</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2808247</id>
      <parentid>2808106</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-10T15:52:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dc.samizdat</username>
        <id>2856930</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The 8-point regular polytopes */</comment>
      <origin>2808247</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="45895" sha1="sjfibj0imyri1jzwa0xqna95njmqd3a" xml:space="preserve">{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - April 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains &lt;math&gt;3^2&lt;/math&gt; times  &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  &lt;math&gt;3^3&lt;/math&gt; times &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

...

== The 8-point regular polytopes ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[W:16-cell|16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.84776,r_3=1+\sqrt{2} \approx 2.41421,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.61313&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=1+\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.41421&lt;/math&gt;

Notice that &lt;math&gt;1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1=r_3-2&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed this planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, so we obtain a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, so we obtain a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length. Only the edges of the two disjoint squares lie parallel to the view plane, in completely orthogonal central planes.]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {3,3,4}. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a regular skew octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]]. The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell has 6 such Petrie octagons, which share the same 8 vertices but have distinct sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-orthoplex, the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular 4-polytopes, including the 120-cell, are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; edges except opposite pairs. In this convenient unit-radius 4-coordinate system, the original planar octagon we started with had chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2(2+\sqrt{2})} \approx 2.61313,r_3=2+\sqrt{2} \approx 3.41421,r_4=2 \sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 3.69552&lt;/math&gt;

none of which chords occur in a 16-cell or 120-cell except &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;. 

In the unit-radius 120-cell, the great square edge chord &lt;math&gt;c_{15} = \sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; occurs in 675 distinct (75 disjoint) 16-cells. The vertex coordinates of each 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in ''opposite'' planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the invariant planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic isoclinic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every square central plane to its completely orthogonal square central plane in a twisting displacment, as they tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once on separate circular [[w:Geodesic|geodesics]], displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to the first displacement. The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces a circular helix in 4-space, and also traces a great circle twice in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic rotation each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

== Hypercubes ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The cuboctahedron and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {4,3,3}. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular octagon, but the tesseract contains 2 disjoint instances and 4 distinct instances of the skew octagon. We can construct the tesseract the way we constructed the 16-cell, by skewing a planar octagon's edges so they become edges of the 4-polytope. Because the tesseract has 16 vertices we will need two planar octagons, and to start we must embedded them in 4-space as completely orthogonal planes that intersect at only one point, their common center. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), to build a unit-radius tesseract we start with our original octagon of unit-edge length, rather than the octagon of edge length &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; that we needed to build the unit-radius 16-cell.

For our tesseract construction we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes. Provided the planes were completely orthogonal in 4-space and we skewed them both the same way, the 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half of its 32 edges missing.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two regular 4-point tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, which are also the edges of the square central planes.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common and their corresponding vertices 180° apart. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation with their corresponding vertices 90° apart, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in two completely orthogonal invariant square central planes, with the same effect on both alternate 16-cells. In the course of a 720° isoclinic rotation in invariant square central planes each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The skew octagon geodesic orbits of the 16 vertices are disjoint circular helixes, and those 16 circular helixes are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 4 cuboctahedral central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

Great hexagons are a rounder choice than great squares for the invariant rotation planes in which to rotate a 4-polytope isoclinically. The complete hexagonal isoclinic revolution requires 720° like the complete square isoclinic revolution, but it is completed in 6 chordal steps of 120° each rather than 8 chordal steps of 180° each.

...

== The 600-cell ==

...

== Finally the 120-cell ==

...

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the distinct isoclinic rotation characteristic of a ''d''-dimensional regular polytope. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords.

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery of a chordal formula for isoclinic rotations closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in higher-dimensional spaces demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden polygon chord sequences, to chord sequences in isoclinic rotation helixes, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
      <sha1>sjfibj0imyri1jzwa0xqna95njmqd3a</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808248</id>
      <parentid>2808247</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-10T16:00:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dc.samizdat</username>
        <id>2856930</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The 8-point regular polytopes */</comment>
      <origin>2808248</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="45895" sha1="2gbuguy0iai29hbzq3mbpjui9evtcol" xml:space="preserve">{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - April 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains &lt;math&gt;3^2&lt;/math&gt; times  &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  &lt;math&gt;3^3&lt;/math&gt; times &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

...

== The 8-point regular polytopes ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[W:16-cell|16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.84776,r_3=1+\sqrt{2} \approx 2.41421,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.61313&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=1+\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.41421&lt;/math&gt;

Notice that &lt;math&gt;1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1=r_3-2&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed this planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, so we obtain a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, so we obtain a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length. Only the edges of the two disjoint squares lie parallel to the view plane, in completely orthogonal central planes.]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {3,3,4}. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a regular skew octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]]. The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell has 6 such Petrie octagons, which share the same 8 vertices but have distinct sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-orthoplex, the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular 4-polytopes, including the 120-cell, are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; edges except opposite pairs. In this convenient unit-radius 4-coordinate system, the original planar octagon we started with had chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2(2+\sqrt{2})} \approx 2.61313,r_3=2+\sqrt{2} \approx 3.41421,r_4=2 \sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 3.69552&lt;/math&gt;

none of which chords occur in a 16-cell or 120-cell except &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;. 

In the unit-radius 120-cell, the great square edge chord &lt;math&gt;c_{15} = \sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; occurs in 675 distinct (75 disjoint) 16-cells. The vertex coordinates of each 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in ''opposite'' planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the invariant planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic isoclinic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every square central plane to its completely orthogonal square central plane in a twisting displacment, as they tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once on separate circular [[w:Geodesic|geodesics]], displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first displacement. The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces a circular helix in 4-space, and also traces a great circle twice in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic rotation each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

== Hypercubes ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The cuboctahedron and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {4,3,3}. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular octagon, but the tesseract contains 2 disjoint instances and 4 distinct instances of the skew octagon. We can construct the tesseract the way we constructed the 16-cell, by skewing a planar octagon's edges so they become edges of the 4-polytope. Because the tesseract has 16 vertices we will need two planar octagons, and to start we must embedded them in 4-space as completely orthogonal planes that intersect at only one point, their common center. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), to build a unit-radius tesseract we start with our original octagon of unit-edge length, rather than the octagon of edge length &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; that we needed to build the unit-radius 16-cell.

For our tesseract construction we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes. Provided the planes were completely orthogonal in 4-space and we skewed them both the same way, the 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half of its 32 edges missing.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two regular 4-point tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, which are also the edges of the square central planes.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common and their corresponding vertices 180° apart. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation with their corresponding vertices 90° apart, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in two completely orthogonal invariant square central planes, with the same effect on both alternate 16-cells. In the course of a 720° isoclinic rotation in invariant square central planes each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The skew octagon geodesic orbits of the 16 vertices are disjoint circular helixes, and those 16 circular helixes are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 4 cuboctahedral central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

Great hexagons are a rounder choice than great squares for the invariant rotation planes in which to rotate a 4-polytope isoclinically. The complete hexagonal isoclinic revolution requires 720° like the complete square isoclinic revolution, but it is completed in 6 chordal steps of 120° each rather than 8 chordal steps of 180° each.

...

== The 600-cell ==

...

== Finally the 120-cell ==

...

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the distinct isoclinic rotation characteristic of a ''d''-dimensional regular polytope. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords.

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery of a chordal formula for isoclinic rotations closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in higher-dimensional spaces demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden polygon chord sequences, to chord sequences in isoclinic rotation helixes, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
      <sha1>2gbuguy0iai29hbzq3mbpjui9evtcol</sha1>
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      <id>2808260</id>
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      <text bytes="45900" sha1="nopjpyxptogfy3zxbdtfk8m0nofq51p" xml:space="preserve">{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - April 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains &lt;math&gt;3^2&lt;/math&gt; times  &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  &lt;math&gt;3^3&lt;/math&gt; times &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

...

== The 8-point regular polytopes ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[W:16-cell|16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.84776,r_3=1+\sqrt{2} \approx 2.41421,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.61313&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=1+\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.41421&lt;/math&gt;

Notice that &lt;math&gt;1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1=r_3-2&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed this planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, so we obtain a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, so we obtain a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length. Only the edges of the two disjoint squares lie parallel to the view plane, in completely orthogonal central planes.]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {3,3,4}. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a regular skew octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]]. The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell has 6 such Petrie octagons, which share the same 8 vertices but have distinct sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-orthoplex, the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular 4-polytopes, including the 120-cell, are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; edges except opposite pairs. In this convenient unit-radius 4-coordinate system, the original planar octagon we started with had chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2(2+\sqrt{2})} \approx 2.61313,r_3=2+\sqrt{2} \approx 3.41421,r_4=2 \sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 3.69552&lt;/math&gt;

none of which chords occur in a 16-cell or 120-cell except &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;. 

In the unit-radius 120-cell, the great square edge chord &lt;math&gt;c_{15} = \sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; occurs in 675 distinct (75 disjoint) 16-cells. The vertex coordinates of each 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in ''opposite'' planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the invariant planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic isoclinic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every square central plane to its completely orthogonal square central plane in a twisting displacment, as they tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once on separate circular [[w:Geodesic|geodesics]], displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces a circular helix in 4-space, and also traces a great circle twice in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic rotation each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

== Hypercubes ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The cuboctahedron and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {4,3,3}. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular octagon, but the tesseract contains 2 disjoint instances and 4 distinct instances of the skew octagon. We can construct the tesseract the way we constructed the 16-cell, by skewing a planar octagon's edges so they become edges of the 4-polytope. Because the tesseract has 16 vertices we will need two planar octagons, and to start we must embedded them in 4-space as completely orthogonal planes that intersect at only one point, their common center. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), to build a unit-radius tesseract we start with our original octagon of unit-edge length, rather than the octagon of edge length &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; that we needed to build the unit-radius 16-cell.

For our tesseract construction we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes. Provided the planes were completely orthogonal in 4-space and we skewed them both the same way, the 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half of its 32 edges missing.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two regular 4-point tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, which are also the edges of the square central planes.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common and their corresponding vertices 180° apart. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation with their corresponding vertices 90° apart, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in two completely orthogonal invariant square central planes, with the same effect on both alternate 16-cells. In the course of a 720° isoclinic rotation in invariant square central planes each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The skew octagon geodesic orbits of the 16 vertices are disjoint circular helixes, and those 16 circular helixes are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 4 cuboctahedral central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

Great hexagons are a rounder choice than great squares for the invariant rotation planes in which to rotate a 4-polytope isoclinically. The complete hexagonal isoclinic revolution requires 720° like the complete square isoclinic revolution, but it is completed in 6 chordal steps of 120° each rather than 8 chordal steps of 180° each.

...

== The 600-cell ==

...

== Finally the 120-cell ==

...

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the distinct isoclinic rotation characteristic of a ''d''-dimensional regular polytope. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords.

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery of a chordal formula for isoclinic rotations closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in higher-dimensional spaces demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden polygon chord sequences, to chord sequences in isoclinic rotation helixes, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
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      <id>2808292</id>
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      <text bytes="45969" sha1="hl6bwufm1qoif3d2z7kkhkm3vk7bida" xml:space="preserve">{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - April 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains &lt;math&gt;3^2&lt;/math&gt; times  &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  &lt;math&gt;3^3&lt;/math&gt; times &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

...

== The 8-point regular polytopes ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[W:16-cell|16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.84776,r_3=1+\sqrt{2} \approx 2.41421,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.61313&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=1+\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.41421&lt;/math&gt;

Notice that &lt;math&gt;1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1=r_3-2&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed this planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, so we obtain a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, so we obtain a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length. Only the edges of the two disjoint squares lie parallel to the view plane, in completely orthogonal central planes.]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {3,3,4}. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a regular skew octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]]. The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell has 6 such Petrie octagons, which share the same 8 vertices but have distinct sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-orthoplex, the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular 4-polytopes, including the 120-cell, are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; edges except opposite pairs. In this convenient unit-radius 4-coordinate system, the original planar octagon we started with had chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2(2+\sqrt{2})} \approx 2.61313,r_3=2+\sqrt{2} \approx 3.41421,r_4=2 \sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 3.69552&lt;/math&gt;

none of which chords occur in a 16-cell or 120-cell except &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;. 

In the unit-radius 120-cell, the great square edge chord &lt;math&gt;c_{15} = \sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; occurs in 675 distinct (75 disjoint) 16-cells. The vertex coordinates of each 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in ''opposite'' planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the invariant planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic isoclinic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every square central plane to its completely orthogonal square central plane in a twisting displacment, as they tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once on separate circular [[w:Geodesic|geodesics]], displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. After 360° of rotation each vertex reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces a circular helix in 4-space, and also traces a great circle twice in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic rotation each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

== Hypercubes ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The cuboctahedron and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {4,3,3}. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular octagon, but the tesseract contains 2 disjoint instances and 4 distinct instances of the skew octagon. We can construct the tesseract the way we constructed the 16-cell, by skewing a planar octagon's edges so they become edges of the 4-polytope. Because the tesseract has 16 vertices we will need two planar octagons, and to start we must embedded them in 4-space as completely orthogonal planes that intersect at only one point, their common center. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), to build a unit-radius tesseract we start with our original octagon of unit-edge length, rather than the octagon of edge length &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; that we needed to build the unit-radius 16-cell.

For our tesseract construction we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes. Provided the planes were completely orthogonal in 4-space and we skewed them both the same way, the 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half of its 32 edges missing.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two regular 4-point tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, which are also the edges of the square central planes.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common and their corresponding vertices 180° apart. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation with their corresponding vertices 90° apart, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in two completely orthogonal invariant square central planes, with the same effect on both alternate 16-cells. In the course of a 720° isoclinic rotation in invariant square central planes each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The skew octagon geodesic orbits of the 16 vertices are disjoint circular helixes, and those 16 circular helixes are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 4 cuboctahedral central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

Great hexagons are a rounder choice than great squares for the invariant rotation planes in which to rotate a 4-polytope isoclinically. The complete hexagonal isoclinic revolution requires 720° like the complete square isoclinic revolution, but it is completed in 6 chordal steps of 120° each rather than 8 chordal steps of 180° each.

...

== The 600-cell ==

...

== Finally the 120-cell ==

...

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the distinct isoclinic rotation characteristic of a ''d''-dimensional regular polytope. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords.

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery of a chordal formula for isoclinic rotations closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in higher-dimensional spaces demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden polygon chord sequences, to chord sequences in isoclinic rotation helixes, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
      <sha1>hl6bwufm1qoif3d2z7kkhkm3vk7bida</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2808293</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Dc.samizdat</username>
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      <text bytes="45959" sha1="c13nwgfgnvmu8qfgjppxd9b4q8jakc2" xml:space="preserve">{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - April 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains &lt;math&gt;3^2&lt;/math&gt; times  &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  &lt;math&gt;3^3&lt;/math&gt; times &lt;math&gt;5^2&lt;/math&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

...

== The 8-point regular polytopes ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.84776,r_3=1+\sqrt{2} \approx 2.41421,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.61313&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=1+\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.41421&lt;/math&gt;

Notice that &lt;math&gt;1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1=r_3-2&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed this planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, so we obtain a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, so we obtain a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length. Only the edges of the two disjoint squares lie parallel to the view plane, in completely orthogonal central planes.]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {3,3,4}. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a regular skew octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]]. The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell has 6 such Petrie octagons, which share the same 8 vertices but have distinct sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-orthoplex, the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular 4-polytopes, including the 120-cell, are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; edges except opposite pairs. In this convenient unit-radius 4-coordinate system, the original planar octagon we started with had chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2(2+\sqrt{2})} \approx 2.61313,r_3=2+\sqrt{2} \approx 3.41421,r_4=2 \sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 3.69552&lt;/math&gt;

none of which chords occur in a 16-cell or 120-cell except &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;. 

In the unit-radius 120-cell, the great square edge chord &lt;math&gt;c_{15} = \sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; occurs in 675 distinct (75 disjoint) 16-cells. The vertex coordinates of each 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in ''opposite'' planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the invariant planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic isoclinic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every square central plane to its completely orthogonal square central plane in a twisting displacment, as they tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once on separate circular [[w:Geodesic|geodesics]], displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. After 360° of rotation each vertex reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces a circular helix in 4-space, and also traces a great circle twice in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic rotation each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

== Hypercubes ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The cuboctahedron and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] {4,3,3}. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular octagon, but the tesseract contains 2 disjoint instances and 4 distinct instances of the skew octagon. We can construct the tesseract the way we constructed the 16-cell, by skewing a planar octagon's edges so they become edges of the 4-polytope. Because the tesseract has 16 vertices we will need two planar octagons, and to start we must embedded them in 4-space as completely orthogonal planes that intersect at only one point, their common center. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), to build a unit-radius tesseract we start with our original octagon of unit-edge length, rather than the octagon of edge length &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; that we needed to build the unit-radius 16-cell.

For our tesseract construction we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes. Provided the planes were completely orthogonal in 4-space and we skewed them both the same way, the 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half of its 32 edges missing.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two regular 4-point tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, which are also the edges of the square central planes.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common and their corresponding vertices 180° apart. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation with their corresponding vertices 90° apart, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in two completely orthogonal invariant square central planes, with the same effect on both alternate 16-cells. In the course of a 720° isoclinic rotation in invariant square central planes each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The skew octagon geodesic orbits of the 16 vertices are disjoint circular helixes, and those 16 circular helixes are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 4 cuboctahedral central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

Great hexagons are a rounder choice than great squares for the invariant rotation planes in which to rotate a 4-polytope isoclinically. The complete hexagonal isoclinic revolution requires 720° like the complete square isoclinic revolution, but it is completed in 6 chordal steps of 120° each rather than 8 chordal steps of 180° each.

...

== The 600-cell ==

...

== Finally the 120-cell ==

...

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the distinct isoclinic rotation characteristic of a ''d''-dimensional regular polytope. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords.

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery of a chordal formula for isoclinic rotations closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in higher-dimensional spaces demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden polygon chord sequences, to chord sequences in isoclinic rotation helixes, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
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    <title>Communications Law in China</title>
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      <text bytes="83482" sha1="7vhha10zsqiecxv3ac46wbh17jf6wxb" xml:space="preserve">== '''Communications Law in China''' ==
Communication law in China is subject to a complex regulatory scheme. While the Constitution of China promises freedom of speech, the Chinese Communist Party enforces strict censorship, utilizes prior restraint, and attempts to block important ideas and concepts from the minds of the Chinese people. Chinese communication law impact everything from radio to religious dress and even digital assets. The Chinese regulatory scheme faces the complex challenge of keeping up with cutting edge methods of communications while ensuring dominance of the Chinese Communist Party.

=== '''Sources of Communications Law in China''' ===
China’s Constitution guarantees freedom of speech but it’s communication laws tell a different story. China has a sophisticated regulatory framework in place to govern communications in China. These regulatory bodies, in combination with wide reaching laws, have resulted in a nation whose communications are subject to review and approval by the single party in power.

==== '''''Constitution of the People’s Republic of China''''' ====
The key place to begin when approaching a countries approach to any form of law is their Constitution. The Chinese “[c]onstitution recognizes Marxism as the country’s leading ideology and the Communist Party the leading party.”[1] Notably, “[t]he preamble deserves particular attention because China’s leadership has consistently placed great weight upon the ideological and expressive functions of the constitution and has used the preamble to identify and highlight its core commitments.”[2] The preamble lays out broad goals for the People’s Republic of China, it states that the Chinese people “will continue, under the leadership of the Communist Party of China and the guidance of Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory… to… improve socialist rule of law… and promote coordinated material, political, cultural-ethical, social and ecological advancement, in order to build China into a great modern socialist country.”[3] This broad phrasing gives the party significant latitude. Furthermore, the Constitution has three key articles that address the issue of communications law. First, Article 35 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of speech, the press, assembly, association, procession and demonstration.”[4] Second, Article 36 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of religious belief.”[5] Third, Article 40 addresses correspondence:

Freedom and confidentiality of correspondence of citizens of the People’s Republic of China shall be protected by law. Except in cases necessary for national security or criminal investigation, when public security organs or procuratorial organs shall examine correspondence in accordance with procedures prescribed by law, no organization or individual shall infringe on a citizen’s freedom and confidentiality of correspondence for any reason.[6]

At least on paper, these articles are share some similarities to Articles 18, 19, and 20 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[7] However, at the United Nations Human Rights Convention, “China is increasingly vocal in defending its statist position and interpretation of human rights norms.”[8] Notably, the Constitution is missing several provisions such as freedom of thought, freedom of conscience, and “freedom to receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers” which are seen in the Universal Declaration.[9]

==== '''''National Regulatory Bodies''''' ====
The regulatory scheme in China is complicated and grows out of a post-Mao era which “reconstituted the sinews of governance and especially sought to strengthen the government’s regulatory capacity while reducing the government’s direct intervention in state firms. In area after area, they have invoked ‘chaos’ or ‘turmoil’ to justify the need to strengthen or assert control.”[10] The Central Propaganda Department sets the ideology for Chinese communications regulatory bodies. It is “responsible for monitoring content to ensure that China's publishers, in particular its news publishers, do not print anything that is inconsistent with the Communist Party's political dogma.”[11] It accomplishes this by screening any writings that touch on politically sensitive issues, informing publishers what they can, and cannot, publish as well as what ideological viewpoint should be taken, and requiring editors and publishers to attend indoctrination sessions in order to ensure they publish from the desired viewpoint.[12]

The Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) reports to the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission which “Xi Jinping, General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the Central Military Commission, personally serve[s] as the group leader.”[13] As a result, the CAC “is China’s top authority on internet governance, overseeing data privacy, cybersecurity, and platform regulation. It is the primary regulator behind major laws such as the Cybersecurity Law (CSL), Data Security Law (DSL), and Personal Information Protection Law (PIPL).”[14] The CAC can issue “departmental rules, which are issued by State Council administrative agencies and are legally binding under China’s Legislation Law.”[15] A counterpart of the CAC is the National Radio and Television Administration (NRTA). The NRTA’s “main task is to censor the radio, film, and television industries.”[16] In 2021, the NRTA banned “nine types of banned content, including content that ‘endangers security,’ ‘slanders Chinese culture,’ or does not help youth ‘establish the correct world view.’”[17]

The Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT)[18] is charged with “regulating and managing China's telecommunications and software sectors, as well as the electronics and information technology manufacturing industries.” The MIIT “enforces regulations aligned with the CAC’s central tenets” The MIIT focuses on the providers and carriers themselves and enforces “cyber and data security rules against providers in the telecommunications and internet sector.”[19] For example, in December of 2021 MIIT found that over one hundred apps were in violation of China’s Personal Information Protection Law and Data Security Law.[20] As a result, they were removed from app stores.

==== '''''Key Communications Laws''''' ====
The Cybersecurity Law[21] is overseen by the CAC and seeks to “promote the healthy development of the informatization of the economy and society.” Article 6 of the Cybersecurity Law states that a goal of the law is to advocate for “sincere, honest, healthy and civilized online conduct; it promotes the dissemination of core socialist values, adopts measures to raise the entire society’s awareness and level of cybersecurity, and formulates a good environment for the entire society to jointly participate in advancing cybersecurity.” In 2015 the Cybersecurity Law “introduced fines and detentions of up to 15 days for telecommunications firms and internet service providers (ISP), as well as relevant personnel, who fail to restrict certain forms of content”.[22]

The CAC also handles the implementation of the Provisions on the Governance of the Online Information Content Ecosystem. Article 5 states “A network information content producer shall be encouraged to produce, copy and publish information containing the following: Publicizing the Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era…”[23]

Finally, China is part of a many international agreements pertaining to communications law. China is a member of the UN and a signatory to both the ICCPR and the ICESCR.[24] Additionally, in 2005 China signed the United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts.[25] The purpose of this agreement is “facilitating the use of electronic communications in international trade by assuring that contracts concluded and other communications exchanged electronically are as valid and enforceable as their traditional paper-based equivalents.”[26] Finally, China signed the Universal Copyright Convention in 1992.[27] The agreement “undertakes to provide for the adequate and effective, protection of the rights of authors and other copyright proprietors in literary, scientific and artistic works, including writings, musical, dramatic and cinematographic works, and paintings, engravings and sculpture.”[28]

=== '''Law and the Media in China''' ===
There are some that believe there are three aims of communication: truth, beauty, and dialogue. These aims are furthered by the elements of communications law. There are three such elements that are most relevant to China. First, the means of transmission. Second, the sender and receiver. Third, the message. These are most relevant to China because the government seeks to control all three. As a result, the three aims of communications: truth, beauty, and dialogue are threatened daily. Truth, because certain historical events and facts are banned. Beauty, because words are good, they allow us to think and develop our thoughts which is a beautiful thing for the human person. Finally, dialogue, because a person cannot say what they wish without fear of retaliation.

==== '''''The Means of Transmission''''' ====
The means of transmission of the message may include its code, channel, mode, and nature. However, “[a] major constraint on regulatory state building is the political environment in which Chinese regulators have had to operate. The Administration of Press, Publications, Radio, Film, and TV, for example, operate at the behest of Chinese Communist Party (CCP) organs, especially the CCP Central Committee Propaganda Department.”[29] In China television is regulated by the National Radio and Television Administration. Regarding the nature of the communications, “[t]he Propaganda Department of the Chinese Communist Party sends a detailed notice to all media every day that includes editorial guidelines and censored topics.”[30] Furthermore, the “[s]tate-run Chinese Central TV (CCTV) is China's largest media company.[31] The government released a statement summing up the CCTV’s main tasks.

Its principal responsibilities will be to propagate the theories, political line and policies of the Party; to plan and manage major propaganda reports; to organize the production of radio and television; to produce and broadcast premium radio and television products; to channel hot social topics; to strengthen and improve supervision by public opinion, to promote the integrated development of multimedia; to strengthen the building of international broadcasting capacity; to tell China’s story well.[32]

Furthermore, “[a]ll of China's 2,600-plus radio stations are state-owned”[33] as well as “around 1,900 newspapers. Each city has its own title, usually published by the local government, as well as a local Communist Party daily.”[34] As a result, the means and nature of the communications are subject to the government’s control.

Internet censoring in China has been dubbed “the great firewall.” The Golden Shield Project’s aim is “to monitor and censor what can and cannot be seen through an online network in China.”[35] Popular sites such as “Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, WhatsApp, and Instagram are all blocked in the mainland.”[36] Furthermore, China has blocked the use of Starlink. In 2025 China penalized a foreign vessel after an inspection revealed the vessel employing Starlink had “continued transmitting data after entering Chinese territorial waters, in violation of national telecommunications and radio regulations.”[37] As a result, “[t]he long-standing blocks on international communications platforms have helped to enable the exponential growth of local services such as Tencent’s WeChat and Sina Weibo, which are subject to the government’s strict censorship demands.”[38] The regulatory agencies discussed above play a crucial role in maintaining the “great firewall”. For example, in 2017 MIIT banned the use of unlicensed VPNs. [39] Furthermore, in 2020 the CAC  “suspended 281 websites, and shut down 2,686 websites and 31,000 accounts” as well as 179,000 social media accounts. [40] Finally, “[i]n February 2021, authorities blocked the newly emerged mobile audio app Clubhouse, after thousands of users in China had flocked to the app to discuss detention camps in Xinjiang.”[41]

==== '''''The Sender and Receiver''''' ====
There are two key principles in this element of communications, namely, the centrality of the person and freedom. The principle of the centrality of the person holds that communications are for the human person, this is why human rights are so integral to communication law. In China, communications are for the government, or the centrality of the party. For example, “[t]housands of cyber-police watch the web and material deemed politically and socially sensitive is filtered. Blocked resources include Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and human rights sites.”[42] As opposed to fostering a government that supports the human person’s ability to attain truth and enter into dialogue, the government jealously protects access to information. This is seen in China’s restrictions on internet cafés where individuals may access the web. Startling, “between June and September 2002, the government shutdown 150,000 unlicensed Internet cafes. [today], police routinely ‘[raid]’ internet cafes to see whether there is any ‘illegal’ activity going on.”[43] The latter point is connected to the second key principle, freedom.

The principle of freedom in any communication holds that you are free to express your opinion and those who hear it will tolerate it. This principle has not found a permanent home in China historically. In 1898, following the Hundred Days Reform, “the dynasty imposed a general prohibition of privately published newspaper” for “spreading rumours and confusing the people’s thoughts.”[44] In 1927, the Guomindang built “a system of censorship boards and licensing obligations for films, radio, publications and newspapers.”[45] Starting in 1980, Deng Xiaoping, former Chairman of the Central Military Commission, further restricting freedom of communication. From then on, “political debate would be an intra-Party matter only, and official media were to be the mouthpiece of the Party.”[46] This time saw a growing administrative state taking control of the communications field by “laying the basis for the current regulatory structure by creating an administrative department to govern the print sector, and by centralizing licensing procedures.”[47] The introduction of the internet saw “central and local governments [establish] special Internet information management departments.”[48]

==== '''''The Message''''' ====
Within this element there is the key principle of objectivity and context. This principle holds that journalists, and other professions, ought to give the proper context when communicating and do so in as objective a manner as possible. In China, if a journalist wishes to obtain to renew their press cards they “must download the Study Xi, Strengthen the Country propaganda application that can collect their personal data.”[49] Furthermore, journalists and everyday citizens alike are restricted in how they can communicate their messages because certain words are banned. For example, no one cannot search for “dictatorship,” “Great Firewall of China,” or “Go, Hong Kong.”[50] China’s approach to Tiananmen Square Massacre is an example of the principle of objectivity and context. After the Chinese military killed possible thousands during a protest in 1989 the government has tried to “erase what it calls the ‘political turmoil’ of 1989 from the collective memory. It bans any public commemoration or mention of the June 4 crackdown, scrubbing references from the internet.”[51] In 2024, China was the top jailer of journalists in the world, holding 14% of the world’s journalists in their jails.[52]

=== '''Censorship &amp; Violent Content''' ===
China practices rigorous censorship in all forms of speech. A foundational principle of freedom of speech is that of no prior restraint which allows speech to enter the marketplace, and its issuer must deal with the consequences after the fact. This principle is not welcome in China. Related to this principal China’s justification for much of their prior restraint, national security. Most clearly demonstrated in the Hong Kong National Security Law, China has enforced expansive prior restraints on speech and jailed those who have attempted to speak out.

==== '''''No Prior Restraint''''' ====
The principle of no prior restraint says that speech cannot be stopped before it takes place. Rather, one may say what they wish but may have to deal with the consequences after. This principle is well known in the West.

The liberty of the press is indeed essential to the nature of a free state: but this consists in laying no prior restraints upon publications, and not in freedom from censure for criminal matter when published. Every freeman has an undoubted right to lay what sentiments he pleases before the public: to forbid this, is to destroy the freedom of the press: but if he publishes what is improper, mischievous, or illegal, he must take the consequence of his own temerity.[53]

This principle ensures that ideas are free to enter the marketplace in nations that have chosen to adopt this concept, like the United States. However, China has not adopted this principle. Rather, China is diametrically opposed to the principle of no prior restraint. The Chinese government requires people to “ask the government's permission before they are allowed to publish.”[54] Moreover, “[t]he Communist Party has the right and the ability to screen works prior to publication, and stop publication of those works it finds objectionable.”[55] One of the main methods of enforcing prior restraints in China is their licensing scheme…” where “the government requires individuals to obtain a license, permit, or other authorization in order to legally engage in publishing.”[56] Such requirements ensure that the government approves of any speech before it can enter the marketplace.

A notable piece of Chinese legislation is the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing.[57] Article 3 of the Regulations states that “publishing businesses shall adhere to the path of serving the people and serving socialism, adhere to the guidance of Marxism, Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought and Deng Xiaoping Theory, and promulgate and accumulate scientific technology and cultural knowledge that is advantageous to economic development and social progress.”[58] This legislation requires that anything published in China aligns with their preferred thought. This is exactly what the marketplace of ideas sought to prevent. A healthy competition of ideas is best for humanity, not a forced set of ideas. A breach of the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing has grave consequences. In 2019 “[a] Chinese court slapped a dozen of people with varying jail terms for illegally publishing books related to the Communist Party of China.”[59] The Intermediate People's Court of Yueyang in Hunan province stated that “[t]he accused were convicted of violating state regulations by illegally reprinting and selling huge volumes of publications, which seriously endangered the social order and disrupted the legitimate publishing market.”[60]

Another important piece of legislation is the eloquently named Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications.[61] Article 3 of the Measures says that “[t]he scope of the important topics… shall be adjusted and promulgated by the General Administration of Press and Publication.”[62] Such important topics include “works and literature concerning any former or current leaders of the party ” ,[63] “topics which deal with maps of China's borders,”[64] and even “topics which deal with any significant historical matters or important historical figures in the history of the Chinese Communist Party.”[65] This legislation requires government approval prior to publishing on important topics. While the complete list of important topics is much longer these three are notable because they are meant to shape the way, one understands Chinese history and China’s place in the world. This dystopian law enforces not only a specific world view, like the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing, but also a specific understanding of China’s history and how they arrived at their present communist government. Thus, these measures bolster the Chinese Communist Party’s control over all speech in China.

==== '''''National Security''''' ====
The Chinese Party often censors speech under the pretense of protecting national security. An example occurred recently in Hong Kong. In 2020 China introduced the National Security Law (“NSL”) to Hong Kong. The NSL “criminalises anything considered as secession, which is breaking away from China; subversion, which is undermining the power or authority of the central government; terrorism, which is using violence or intimidation against people; and collusion with foreign or external forces.”[66] This Law has resulted in “[n]umerous pro-democracy news outlets in Hong Kong [being] shut down, including Lai's Apple Daily, which was known to be critical of the mainland Chinese leadership.”[67] For example, in 2021 “Hong Kong's national security police raided the offices of ''Stand News'' for suspected breaches of the NSL and separately arrested six senior staff members and one former senior staff member for conspiracy to publish seditious publications.”[68] The NSL has also impacted other forms of speech as shut down of the Tiananmen vigil in 2002 when “authorities announced they were closing Victoria Park—the traditional site of the Tiananmen vigil—citing ‘Police's observation that some people are using different channels to incite the participation of unauthorised assemblies’ and these assemblies' potential to affect ‘public safety and public order.’”[69] These alarming instances demonstrates China’s use of overbroad justifications, such as national security, to exert control over China and its special administrative regions. Finally, China’s desire for a tighter grip on information does not stop at its borders. In 2015 China signed the Sino-Russian Cybersecurity Agreement.[70] The agreement “has two key features: mutual assurance on non-aggression in cyberspace and language advocating cyber-sovereignty.”[71]

=== '''Truth, Honor, &amp; Tolerance''' ===
Chinese censorship has ensured that there is only one product to be bought and sold in the marketplace of ideas, the Chinese Communist Party’s. This booth peddles China’s view of history, as seen in their memory laws, and their chosen religions. China’s failure to encourage a marketplace of ideas has not only impacted freedom of expression in China but also hindered their economic and scientific growth. This limited marketplace extends to how certain historical events are seen. Finally, it is notable that China does allow the practice of religion in their Constitution, and to an extent in practice. However, examples such as the Chinese oppression of Muslims and requiring the Vatican to agree to bishop appointments demonstrates the fact that the Chinese Communist Party is firmly in control of this marketplace.

==== '''''The Marketplace of Ideas''''' ====
The marketplace of ideas is a western concept that has been adopted in the United States. The concept of the marketplace of ideas says that “[t]he best test of truth is the power of the thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market.” This concept is seen in robust public discourse, protests, debate, etc. These all further the belief that government should foster a lively discourse that allows everyone to choose which ideas they believe are best. This concept has not been adopted by China. Rather, “while China has increased economic freedom, it has protected the Party’s iron grip on power and suppressed freedom of expression — there is no free market for ideas. Without such a market, the Chinese people are subservient to the state and their range of choices limited.”[72] Chinese censorship is pervasive and leaves no stall at the marketplace of ideas uncaptured. For example, “significant amendments were made to both the [Constitution], further consolidating the dominant leadership of the CCP. While these changes were not explicitly centered on censorship, this strengthened power structure indirectly set the stage for a reshaped censorship framework, presenting an illiberal substance under a facade of legitimacy.”[73]

While the lack of a robust coemption of ideas certainly treads on individual rights, some also argue that it also limits China’s potential, “[b]ecause the freedom to supply ideas, choose ideas, and criticize ideas is severely limited, the creativity of the Chinese people is underutilized and their innovative potential undertapped.”[74] Furthermore, “without the freedom to think, speak, and innovate openly, China’s economic growth could stagnate” and as a result “lead to a lack of critical thinking and creativity, which are vital for addressing complex challenges and advancing technological and social innovation.”[75] China’s suppression of the market place of ideas not only violates individual rights but is likely harming both the Chinese economy and even society itself.

==== '''''Memory Laws''''' ====
For China “[t]here is only one correct interpretation of the national past, and it is the party-state – and the party-state alone – that promulgates and polices it.”[76] In 2018, after an incident where Chinese youths cosplayed as Japanese Imperial soldiers and took phots at a war monument in Shanghai, China passed the Heroes and Martyrs Protection Law.[77] This law “calls on citizens to ‘respect, study, and defend’ national heroes and criminalises their defamation.”[78] China’s use of memory laws, or selective history, has resulted in the erasure of historical events that are not flattering or supportive of the Chinese Communist Party. For example, in 2012 a professor teaching in Hong Kong “asked his class of more than forty students from China, all of whom were born in the 1980s, ‘Have any of you heard of June Fourth, Liu Binyan, or Fang Lizhi?’ However, the students simply gazed at one another in silence.”[79] As discussed, nowhere is this amnesia seen better than in the case of Tiananmen Square.

An example of such memory laws in action was seen in 2016 where a group of individuals who promoted liquor bottles that had labels commemorating June 4, 1989, the date of the Tiananmen Square Massacre.[80] One man was “criminally detained on suspicion of ‘inciting subversion of state power’ while [another] was detained on suspicion of ‘picking quarrels and provoking trouble.’”[81] In 2019, one of the men received a three and a half year sentence by a court in southwestern China.[82]

==== '''''Tolerance as Applied to Religion''''' ====
The Chinese Constitution explicitly allows for freedom of religion, Article 36 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of religious belief.”[83] The Chinese Embassy in South Africa published a paper on religious freedom stating “[r]eligious disputes are unknown in China. Religious believers and non-believers respect each other, are united and have a harmonious relationship.”[84] However, while China allows for the practice of religion, the Chinese Communist Party has worked to force religion to align with its worldview. As a result, “China is pursuing a policy of ‘Sinicization’ that requires religious groups to align their doctrines, customs and morality with Chinese culture.”[85] In 2018 the Vatican agreed to a deal with the Chinese Communist Party regarding the appointment of bishops. Following this “Cardinal Joseph Zen… said it would legitimise the Communist Party’s control over Chinese Catholics, and be like ‘giving the flock into the mouths of the wolves.’”[86] China’s concern with religions such as Islam and Christianity is not that they are new to China, they are not. Rather, “Muslims are part of Islam’s global ''umma'' (Arabic for ‘community’) of believers” and “Christians, meanwhile, are thought to have strong overseas ties either to the Vatican, for Catholics, or to overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia and the West, for Protestants in particular.”[87] As a result, China sees these religions as non-Chinese. Other religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, and folk religions the states are viewed as “so-called indigenous faiths.”[88] A key law impacting religious tolerance is the Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups.[89] Article 5 of the measures states that “[r]eligious groups must follow the leadership of the Communist Party of China… persist in the direction of sinification of religion[, and] practice the Core Socialist Values.”[90] Furthermore, under Article 6, “[r]eligious groups shall accept the supervision, oversight, and administration of people's governments religious affairs departments.”[91] Article 17 states that “[r]eligious groups shall publicize the Communist Party of]China's directives and policies.”[92] Finally, “[t]he legal protection of citizens' right to the freedom of religious belief in China is basically in accordance with the main contents of the concerned international documents and conventions in this respect.”[93] The Embassy goes on to list the following international agreements: the United Nations Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the International Convenient on Civil and Political Rights, the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, and the Vienna Declaration and Action Program.[94]

=== '''Cultural and Religious Expressions''' ===
           In China there are many festivals and cultural events, with the Chinese New Year being the most famous and one of the oldest. This holiday is lauded as important for many reasons, but it is allowed because it promotes Chinese identity. Some religions, and religious symbols, do not receive an equally welcoming invite from the Chinese Communist Party. While religious worship is allowed theoretically, China has cracked down on the Church in China and on religious symbols.

==== '''''Festivals, The Chinese New Year or Spring Festival''''' ====
Feasts and festivals are thousands of years old. Key aspects of festivals include bringing people together, feasting over food, a reason to celebrate, and the symbolization of the shared joy. China has a long history of festivals. Perhaps the largest and most important is the Chinese New Year. The Chinese New Year is thousands of years old. It likely “originated in the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BC), when people held sacrificial ceremonies in honor of gods and ancestors at the beginning or the end of each year.”[95] This festival has become an integral part of the Chinese nation. However, Chinese Americans, and those around the world, can also be seen celebrating this festival. As a result, this festival is intimately intertwined with the Chinese identity.

There are many traditions that play critical roles in the Chinese New Year festival season. The legend of the Chinese New Year began with a mythical beast called Nian that would eat crops and people. Legend states “a wise old man figured out that Nian was scared of loud noises (firecrackers) and the color red. So, people put red lanterns and red scrolls on their windows and doors to stop Nian from coming inside. Crackling bamboo (later replaced by firecrackers) was lit to scare Nian away.”[96] The famous tradition of exchanging red envelopes began with the mythical beast Sui, who would scare children while they slept. As a result, “[e]lders began to give out red envelopes of coins to children for them to play with and keep them awake throughout the night.”[97] Furthermore, “round dumplings shaped like the full moon are shared as a symbol of the family unit and perfection.”[98] These traditions give the Chinese people tangible things to pass down to future generations. It is incredible to see how consistent these traditions have been, indicating how important they are to the Chinese people’s cultural expression.

A critical law in the area of cultural and religious expression in China is the Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage.[99] Under Article 1 of the Law, it’s stated purpose is  that “of inheriting and promoting the distinguished traditional culture of the Chinese nation, promoting the building of the socialist spiritual civilization and strengthening the protection and preservation of intangible cultural heritage.”[100] Article 6 of the law requires the local governments to “include the protection and preservation of intangible cultural heritage in the national economic and social development plans at their same levels and include the protection and preservation funding into the financial budgets.”[101] According to a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization report “[d]uring [Chiense New Year] in 2024, Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the PRC mobilized the whole country to widely carry out Spring Festival [Intangible Cultural Heritage] activities. A total of more than 45,400 ICH promotion and display activities were carried out nationwide.”[102]

==== '''''Religious Symbols''''' ====
While religious exercise is allowed in China to some extent, the display of certain items has come under attack. According to a recent report, “Chinese officials have ordered the removal of crosses from churches and have replaced images of Christ and the Virgin Mary with images of President Xi Jinping”.[103] Furthermore, “new rules to ensure that sites of religious worship, like mosques, look adequately “Chinese,” and to mandate the cultivation of “patriotic” religious leaders.”[104] Article 26 of the 2024 Xinjiang Religious Affairs Regulations states that “Religious activity sites that are newly built, renovated, expanded, or rebuilt should reflect Chinese characteristics and style in terms of architecture, sculptures, paintings, decorations, etc.”[105] These actions indicate the Chinese Communist Parties attempt to more deeply accelerate sinicization.

==== '''''The Church in China''''' ====
In China there are two faces to the Catholic Church. The first is the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (the “CCPA”). The CCPA is obedient to the “the State Council's Religious Affairs Bureau, which is an agency under the United Front Department of the Communist Party. It does not recognize the supreme administrative, legislative, and judicial authority of the Pope.”[106] The second face is the “Underground Catholic Church” which is not governed by the Chinese Communist Party. Recently, the CCPA held the 10th National Congress of Catholicism in China. The CCPA “delegates also unanimously accepted the Work Report of the 9th Standing Committee on Church efforts and activities in the promotion of patriotism, socialism, and sinicization in the Catholic Church as outlined by President Xi Jinping.”[107] Opposed to the CCPA are the underground Church leaders like Cardinal Joseph Zen. Cardinal Zen is critical of the Chinese persecution of Catholics and heavily criticized the 2018 deal the Vatican made with China which requires Chinese approval of bishops.[108] Regarding the deal, Cardinal Zen stated that “[t]hey’re [sending] the flock into the mouths of the wolves. It’s an incredible betrayal.”[109] In China it is “illegal for the priest to instruct the children of the parish in the Faith or give them any materials to read.”[110] Moreover, “minors are not allowed to attend the Mass in some areas of China.”[111] Finally, it must be noted that the Holy See does not recognize the Chinese communist Party as the leader of China. Rather, “the Vatican has maintained formal diplomatic relations with Taiwan.”[112]

As discussed above, China has set a clear policy goal of maintaining, celebrating, and promulgating traditional Chinese festivals to the public. Religious festivals do not enjoy the same support. Article 42 of the Religious Affairs Regulations 2017 provides that “[w]here a large-scale religious activity is held that is beyond the accommodation capacity of a religious activity site the religious group… sponsoring the activity shall, 30 days before the activity is to be held, submit an application to the religious affairs department of the people’s government for the province.”[113] On Easter Sunday 2011, a [c]hurch in Beijing planned to hold an outdoor worship service in a plaza amid high-rise office and commercial buildings. However the police sealed off the plaza and dispelled gathering congregants… Thirty six of the congregants were taken to police stations for interrogation.”[114]

=== '''Privacy and Data Protection''' ===
Our private thoughts and actions are intimate to who we are as people. However, in China, the government wishes to be included in that inner circle. They seek to accomplish this by a program of mass surveillance. While artificial intelligence has been an incredible breakthrough for the world it has also been taken advantage of by nefarious actors. Chief among these is perhaps China. China has employed artificial intelligence to better control its citizens and ensure compliance. Another technology breakthrough, cryptocurrency, has had mixed reactions from China. Cryptocurrency allows transactions to be kept private, a no-go for the Chinese Communist Party. As a result, China has banned cryptocurrency use.

==== '''''Mass Surveillance and Artificial Intelligence''''' ====
It is no surprise that China is renowned for its mass surveillance. Citizens are watched almost constantly to ensure compliance with the Chinese Communist Party’s ideals. In fact the “[p]eople in China are among the most surveilled in the world, taking 16 of the top 20 spots on the most surveilled cities list based on the number of cameras per 1,000 people in an annual assessment.”[115] Moreover, “documents from one Shanghai district detail plans for AI-powered cameras and drones to ‘automatically discover and intelligently enforce the law,’ including potentially alerting police to crowd gatherings.”[116] China has also begun using artificial intelligence in satellite surveillance, “China is deploying AI-enabled Sun-synchronous satellites over regions that the CCP views as politically sensitive, including Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, Hong Kong and Macau.”[117] In the Xinjiang region China uses mobile apps, biometric data, and artificial intelligence to monitor millions of Muslims.[118] The use of artificial intelligence is not limited to technical uses. China has begun using artificial intelligence to help it draft policies, “[i]n one case, a ChatGPT user ‘likely connected to a [Chinese] government entity’ asked the AI model to help write a proposal for a tool that analyzes the travel movements and police records of the Uyghur minority— a Turkic-speaking, predominantly Muslim ethnic minority—and other ‘high-risk’ people, according to the OpenAI report.”[119] The use of artificial intelligence in China is alarming. While surveillance in Chian has grown alongside technology since the Chinese Communist Party took power, the introduction of artificial intelligence is the biggest leap that has yet to occur. Moreover, the “CAC’s approach to regulating AI or algorithms is centered on the regime of Algorithm Registry. Providers of certain recommendation algorithms, deep synthesis, and generative AI technologies must register detailed information with the CAC before offering services in China.”[120]

==== '''''Cryptocurrency in China''''' ====
If someone were to analyze an individual’s last year of credit card transactions it is likely one could learn quite a bit about them. For a mass surveillance state like China this is appealing. As a result, cryptocurrencies present an issue for China. Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum use a technology called blockchain that acts as a digital ledger of transactions. This allows individuals to exchange value without the need of an intermediary like a bank. These blockchains enhance “transactional privacy by removing the need for users to reveal their real identities. Confidential transactions and encryption techniques ensure only the involved parties know the details. Zero-knowledge proofs, ring signatures, and stealth addresses advances further strengthen privacy.”[121] As a result, while all transactions on the blockchain are visible, the identity of who made the transaction is private unless shared.

Importantly, “China’s central bank defined Cryptocurrency as a specified virtual commodity. This legal attribute is not clear, which brings difficulties in consumer protection and criminal identification.”[122] China was renowned for its large cryptocurrency market and “[p]rior to 2017, China had the world’s largest cryptocurrency market—with 80% of Bitcoin, the world’s leading digital coin, transactions conducted in yuan.”[123] However, after years of increasing restrictions, China banned cryptocurrency trading and mining in 2021.[124] This time period saw a flurry of laws implemented regarding digital assets and crypto currencies, “[o]n January 1, 2020, the ‘Cryptography Law of the People’s Republic of China’ came into effect. ‘Data Security Law’ was adopted on June 10, 2021, and ‘Personal Information Protection Law’ was adopted on August 20, 2021.”[125] The People’s Bank of China “warned financial institutions against providing banking and clearing services to virtual currency-related businesses.”[126] This warning has not been without teeth. In 2025 a Chinese court convicted five people of transacting more than $160 million worth of cryptocurrency.[127] The court said that these individuals “violated China’s Anti-Money Laundering Law and Foreign Exchange Administration Regulations, both of which prohibit unauthorized cross-border fund transfers.”[128]

While these penalties are steep, people in China have persisted in using cryptocurrencies to ensure their transactions remain private. Reports indicate “that there are still around 59 million crypto users in China as of 2025. That is roughly 10% of the global crypto user base, even though most users must operate outside official channels.”[129] Interestingly, “[w]hile private cryptocurrencies face heavy restrictions, China has fully embraced its own central bank digital currency (CBDC) known as the digital yuan (e-CNY). By late 2025, e-CNY platforms had processed over 14.2 trillion yuan in transactions and were used by more than 260 million wallets.”[130] While this may seem contradictory at first, there is a strategy. Banning cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin ensures private transactions will not occur. Introducing the digital yuan, which is subject to surveillance, will allow China to “create a mechanism through which the government can access reams of digital data that may prove helpful to Beijing in the global race to develop artificial intelligence.”[131]  To that end, “[u]nlike Bitcoin and other cyber currencies, all digital-yuan users will register with the [People's Bank of China] under a system described by government officials as “controllable anonymity,’ which will give the government the ability to track illicit transactions and presumably the activities of citizens who attract the attention of security services”[132]

Other reasons for adopting the digital yuan include payment efficiency, increased state oversight and support of the yuan as a strategy tool. According to a 2021 report by the working group for the e-CNY, “the issuance of e-CNY will fully meet the public’s daily payment needs, further improve the efficiency of the retail payment system and reduce the cost of retail payment.”[133]

=== '''Right to Bodily, Spiritual and Digital Identity''' ===
An individual’s identity is the essence of who they are and what they believe. In our digital age people have taken on digital identities. In many parts of the world people cannot get by without a digital identity. China is currently attempting to enroll its citizenry in a government issues digital identity. This identity will allow China to compile all enrollees’ personal information. On the other side of the identity coin, China has also sought to compile massive amount of biometric date such as DNA and facial recognition. These data collections have also been extended to individuals visiting China.

==== '''''Digital Identity''''' ====
In a world that has become intensely digital it makes sense that we humans would take on digital identities. These identities are demonstrated by social media, bank accounts, online use, and more. We use these identities to interact with other humans in the digital world. The Chinese government has introduced the National Online Identity Authentication Public Service. This is a “government-controlled digital identity system [which] will allow citizens to register by providing official government documents and then will shield their information from Internet services.”[134] Chinese authorities say “that the new measure intends to establish a trusted digital identity framework within the public service infrastructure.”[135] However, “[t]he Chinese government has not provided details about how the system is constructed or the policies in place to protect the data from misuse… for digital-rights activists, the danger is clear.”[136] The digital identity offered by China is proffered under the guise of ease of use. However, in exchange for this ease, Chinese citizens will need to give over intimate personal information to the government. While the program is optional for now it is possible necessary resources online could soon require one to obtain a government controlled digital identity.

==== '''''Biometric Data''''' ====
Despite the increasing importance of the digital identity and personal digital information, there is still information about ourselves that is intimate. Biometric data includes things like DNA, fingerprints, and even voice scans. In China “legislation and regulation are carefully crafted to give public security organs broad powers to harvest and use biometric data in conjunction with the performance of their law enforcement and national security duties.”[137] A main biometric tool used by the Chinese government is facial recognition which “is deployed to identify citizens for law enforcement purposes, such as performing identity verification at airports, train stations, or specific public areas, and for commercial purposes to enhance business operations’ efficiency.”[138] Such collections are not limited to Chinese citizens however. China has begun requiring foreign nationals “to submit their fingerprints and undergo a facial scan at self-help kiosks at their port of entry to the People's Republic of China. These self-help kiosks will issue a receipt once your biometric data is received and that receipt must be given to the border inspector for verification as part of the entry process.”[139] Finally, China has recently combined blockchain technology with biometric data, “the new digital ID service stores cryptographic keys on-chain after a real-name verification process. According to reports, the system authenticates users’ legal name, facial recognition, and government ID before allowing users to create an infinite number of public-private key pairs to register on online platforms.”[140]

==== '''''AI-Generated Personas''''' ====
           China has taken the concept of AI-generated personas to the next level with the creation of AI judges. Since 2019, millions of legal cases of been decided by these “smart courts” or “internet courts”. These courts make use of “non-human judges, powered by artificial intelligence (AI) and allows participants to register their cases online and resolve their matters via a digital court hearing.”[141] These courts have decided cases on various topics such as “intellectual property, e-commerce, financial disputes related to online conduct, loans acquired or performed online, domain name issues, property and civil rights cases involving the Internet, product liability arising from online purchases and certain administrative disputes.”[142] The “judge” appears “by hologram and are artificial creations — there is no real judge present. The holographic judge looks like a real person but is a synthesized, 3D image of different judges, and sets schedules, asks litigants questions, takes evidence and issues dispositive rulings.”[143] In addition to efficiency, there are other motives at play behind these smart courts, party control. Interestingly, these “[s]mart courts allow the party to intervene in court decisions without upending the entire normative system by automatically detecting and filtering cases that require political intervention.”[144] Judges are still involved in the cases process but the use of AI allows them to process cases faster “the Shenzhen Intermediate People’s Court said each judge in the city had handled an average of 744 cases in 2025 – up by 249 cases from the previous year.”[145]

=== '''Right to Reject Information, Clothing &amp; Human Exhibitions''' ===
In China people are bombarded with propaganda in a daily basis. As such it is virtually impossible to be free from unwanted content. In fact, one may not even realize they are ingesting content they do not want. China has a systemic practice of planting stories in the news and on social media. Furthermore, the government requires Chinese schools to incorporate propaganda into their lessons from the youngest of ages. Also, alarming is China’s oppression of religious clothing. Chief among these is China’s ban on certain Muslim garb in the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region. As such, people are prohibited from outwardly expressing what is most essential to their identity, their faith.

==== '''''Unwanted Content''''' ====
Do individuals in China have the power to reject unwanted content? In reality the answer is no. The Chinese government controls all forms of media in China and there is no way to really block this onslaught of propaganda. Somedays up to 30 percent of a newspapers content will be planted by the state.[146] A recent study showed that “state-scripted propaganda on newsstands is a near-daily phenomenon in China, with some form of scripted propaganda in the news around 90 percent of days. And, on average, at least one front-page article in party newspapers is planted by the state.”[147] While one could choose not to pick up a newspaper in China, for many this is their main source of information and a necessity. Other forms of media are subject to the same with researchers identifying “over 18,000 central or local government accounts on Douyin, China’s version of TikTok, that produce 5 million videos per year.” Notably “[t]he largest share of these accounts belongs to the public security apparatus (34%), followed by state media (24%) and propaganda organs (12%) at the county, city, provincial, or central level.”

In addition to media, the Chinese government requires schools to teach its chosen ideology. Namely, “Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory, the Theory of Three Represents, the Scientific Outlook on Development, and Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era.”[148] China recently introduced the Patriotic Education Law[149] which “mandates that love of the country and the ruling Chinese Communist Party be incorporated into work and study for everyone – from the youngest children to workers and professionals across all sectors.”[150] Article 15 states that “[s]chools at all levels and of all types shall provide coherent patriotic education throughout their curriculum, provide high-quality theoretical and political lessons, and integrate patriotic education into various subjects and textbooks.”[151]

Finally, Xuexi Qiangguo seeks to blend both media and education. Xuexi Qiangguo is an app run by the Chinese Communist Party that citizens are encouraged to download.[152] This app allows “users to see state media news reports, video chat with their friends, make a personal schedule and send ‘red envelopes’ of money to friends. The app comes with a Snapchat-like messaging function where messages disappear after being read.”[153] However,, the most important feature of the app is that it allows people to study Xi Jinping’s thought while taking quizzes and earning points. The app appears to hold political significance for the government because “[a] university in Zhejiang called on all party groups to use the app in order to form a ‘stronghold’ for Xi Jinping thought.[154] Moreover, some are reporting that “their employers are requiring them to score a certain number of points.”[155] Despite the app’s more lighthearted features, it’s “control models prioritize ideological content and get users to read specific information. This means that the Chinese state could transform the platform into a centralized communication model for manipulating information circulation and directing user behavior.”[156] A study shows that the app tracks President Xi’s political goals and helps promote them. For example, “the study channel recommended an online course about blockchain on October 25, 2019, since Xi Jinping announced the support for blockchain technology on October 24, 2019.”[157]

==== '''''Religious Clothing in China''''' ====
In China, certain religious garb is subject to scrutiny. China has introduced “counterterrorism” laws that seek to “ban wearing long beards, full face coverings, and religious dress.”[158] These laws also ban “wearing clothes associated with ‘religious extremism.’ These regulations do not define ‘abnormal’ or ‘religious extremism.’”[159] The ban of Muslim women’s head garb has been particular prominence with “regional authorities outlaw[ing] Islamic veils from all public spaces in the regional capital of China’s Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR)… [the ban] empowers Chinese police to punish violators and dole out fines of up to… $800 for those who fail to enforce the prohibition.”[160] The Chinese Communist Party has sought to promote alternatives to these veils such as hats and braided hair. As part of this campaign, “XUAR officials launched ‘Project Beauty’ in 2011: a five-year, $8 million dollar campaign aimed at developing Xinjiang’s fashion and cosmetics industries while encouraging Muslim women to ‘look towards ‘modern’ culture’ by removing their veils.”[161]

=== '''References''' ===
----[1] Larry Catá Backer, ''Party, People, Government, and State: On Constitutional Values and the Legitimacy of the Chinese State-Party Rule of Law System'', Boston University International Law Journal, Vol. 30, 2012, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1977551&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[2] Chen, Albert H. Y., ''Constitutions, Constitutionalism and the Case of Modern China'', (February 1, 2022). Constitutionalism in Context, Available at SSRN: &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ssrn.com/abstract=3027562&lt;/nowiki&gt; or &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3027562&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[3] XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, Preamble (China), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[4] XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 35 (China), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[5] XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 36 (China), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[6] XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 40 (China), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[7] ''See'' G.A. Res. 217 (III) A, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Dec. 10, 1948), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[8] Initiative for U.S.-China Dialogue on Global Issues, ''China and the UN Human Rights Regime'', Georgetown University (Feb. 28, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://uschinadialogue.georgetown.edu/events/china-and-the-un-human-rights-regime&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[9] UDHR art. 19.

[10] Yang, D.L., ''China’s Illiberal Regulatory State in Comparative Perspective''. Chin. Polit. Sci. Rev. '''2''', 114–133 (2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-017-0059-x&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[11] Congressional-Executive Commission on China'', Agencies Responsible for Censorship in'' China, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/agencies-responsible-for-censorship-in-china#:~:text=The%20Central%20Propaganda%20Department%20%5B%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1,reporting%20on%20politically%20sensitive%20topics&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[12] Id.

[13] Office of the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission, ''The Central Leading Group for Cybersecurity and Informatization was established: From a major cyber power to a leading cyber power.'', Cina Cyberspace Administration (Feb. 28, 2014), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cac.gov.cn/2014-02/28/c_126397488.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[14] Gabrielle Roper, ''What is the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC)?'', Chinafy (Jun. 2, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinafy.com/blog/what-is-the-cyberspace-administration-of-china-cac#:~:text=TL;DR:%20The%20Cyberspace%20Administration,fall%20short%20of%20legal%20requirements&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[15] Jamie P. Horsley, ''Behind the Facade of China’s Cyber Super-Regulator'', Stanford University (Aug. 8, 2022), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/behind-the-facade-of-chinas-cyber-super-regulator/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[16] ''NRTA Chief Emphasize Loyalty to the Party'', Chinascopehttps://chinascope.org/archives/19225

[17] Freedom House, ''supra''.

[18] ''Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT) (工业和信息化部)'', Thomson Reuters (Glossary), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/1-552-9335?transitionType=Default&amp;contextData=(sc.Default)&amp;firstPage=true&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[19] Xu Ke, Vicky Liu, Yan Luo &amp; Zhijing Yu, ''China's key enforcement agencies and lessons learned from recent actions'', iapp (Aug. 31, 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://iapp.org/news/a/chinas-key-enforcement-agencies-and-lessons-learned-from-recent-actions&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[20] Aris Teon, ''China’s Government Orders Removal of Douban and 105 Other Apps From App Stores'', China-Journal (Dec. 9, 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://china-journal.org/2021/12/09/china-government-orders-removal-of-douban-and-105-other-apps-from-app-stores/#:~:text=China's%20Government%20Orders%20Removal%20of,comply%20with%20the%20government's%20directives&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[21] Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (2016), Translation: Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (Effective June 1, 2017). Stanford University,

&lt;nowiki&gt;https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/translation-cybersecurity-law-of-the-peoples-republic-of-china-effective-june-1-2017/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[22] Freedom House, ''supra''.

[23] Order of the Cyberspace Administration of China (No. 5), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://wilmap.stanford.edu/entries/provisions-governance-online-information-content-ecosystem&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[24] ''U.N. Treaty Bodies and China'', Human Rights in China, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.hrichina.org/en/un-treaty-bodies-and-china&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[25] ''United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts'', Jun. 7, 2006, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://uncitral.un.org/en/texts/ecommerce/conventions/electronic_communications/status&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[26] ''Id.'', Preamble.

[27] ''Universal Copyright Convention, with Appendix Declaration relating to Article XVII and Resolution concerning Article XI'', Sep. 16, 1955, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/universal-copyright-convention-appendix-declaration-relating-article-xvii-and-resolution-concerning&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[28][28] Universal Copyright Convention, Article 1, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/universal-copyright-convention-appendix-declaration-relating-article-xvii-and-resolution-concerning&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[29] Yang, D.L., ''China’s Illiberal Regulatory State in Comparative Perspective''. Chin. Polit. Sci. Rev. 2, 114–133 (2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-017-0059-x&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[30] China, Reporters Without Borders, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://rsf.org/en/country/china&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[31] BBC News, ''China media guide'' (Aug. 22, 2023), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017881&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[32] safeguardDefenders'', Ownership and control of Chinese media'' (Jun. 14, 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://safeguarddefenders.com/en/blog/ownership-and-control-chinese-media&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[33] BBC, ''supra''.

[34] ''Id.''

[35] Conrad Chan, Anthony Dao, Justin Hou, Tony Jin, Calvin Tuong, ''Free speech vs Maintaining Social Cohesion A Closer Look at Different Policies'', Stanford University (2011), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/cs181/projects/2010-11/FreeExpressionVsSocialCohesion/china_policy.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[36] Sonali Chandel, Zang Jingji, Yu Yunnan, Sun Jingyao, Zhang Zhipeng, ''The Golden Shield Project of China: A Decade Later An in-depth study of the Great Firewall'', College of Engineering and Computing Sciences, New York Institute of Technology (2019).

[37] The Editorial Team, ''China imposes penalty to vessel using Starlink in its waters'', Saftery4Sea (Dec. 23, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://safety4sea.com/china-imposes-penalty-to-vessel-using-starlink-in-its-waters/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[38] Freedom House, ''supra''.

[39] Id.

[40] Cyberspace Administration of China, ''The national cybersecurity administrative law enforcement work was carried out solidly in the second quarter'' (Jul. 18, 2020), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cac.gov.cn/2020-07/21/c_1596879319813780.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;; ''see also'' Qiao Long; Editor: Hu Lihan; Web Editor: Rui Zhe, ''China shut down more than 2,000 websites in the second quarter, triggering another large-scale internet crackdown'', rfa (Jul. 24, 2020), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/yataibaodao/meiti/ql1-07242020062431.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[41] Freedom House, ''supra''.

[42] Id.

[43] Haiping Zheng, ''Regulating the Internet: China’s Law and Practice'', School of Law, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China (Jan. 4, 2013), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://content.scirp.org/pdf/blr_2013032615421340.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[44] DeLisle, Jacques, Avery Goldstein and Guobin Yang, ''The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era'', University of Pennsylvania (Jan. 16, 2014), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2379959&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[45] ''Id.''

[46] ''Id.''

[47] ''Id.''

[48] ''Id.''

[49] Reporters Without Borders, ''supra''.

[50] Leigh Hartman, ''In China, you can’t say these words'', ShareAmerica (Jun. 3, 2020), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://archive-share.america.gov/america.gov/in-china-you-cant-say-these-words/index.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[51] Ken Moritsugu, ''Tiananmen Square anniversary shows China's ability to suppress history'', PBS News (Jun. 4, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/tiananmen-square-anniversary-shows-chinas-ability-to-suppress-history#:~:text=Security%20was%20tight%20Wednesday%20around,gatherings%20can%20still%20take%20place&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[52] Arlene Getx, ''In record year, China, Israel, and Myanmar are world’s leading jailers of journalists'', Committee to Protect Journalists (Jan. 16, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://cpj.org/special-reports/in-record-year-china-israel-and-myanmar-are-worlds-leading-jailers-of-journalists/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[53]Sara L. Zeigler &amp; John R. Vile, ''William Blackstone'', Free Speech Center (Jan. 1, 2009), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://firstamendment.mtsu.edu/article/william-blackstone/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[54] Congressional-Executive Commission on China, ''Prior Restraints'', &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/prior-restraints&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[55] ''Id.''

[56] ''Id.''

[57] Regulations on the Administration of Publishing (2001.12.25), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/regulation-on-the-administration-of-publishing-chinese-and-english-text&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[58] Regulations on the Administration of Publishing (2001.12.25), Article 3, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/regulation-on-the-administration-of-publishing-chinese-and-english-text&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[59] Zehra Nur Duz, ''China jails 12 for illegal publications about party'', Ankara (Dec. 26, 2019), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877&lt;/nowiki&gt;?.

[60] ''Id.''

[61] Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10).

[62] Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3.

[63] ''Id.''

[64] ''Id.''

[65] ''Id.''

[66] BBC, ''Hong Kong national security law: What is it and is it worrying?'' (Mar. 18, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52765838&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[67] ''Id.''

[68] Ricardo Barrios, ''Hong Kong Under the National Security Law'', Congress.Gov (Nov. 15, 2023), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R47844&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[69] ''Id.''

[70] Sino-Russian Cybersecurity Agreement 2015, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://jsis.washington.edu/news/china-russia-cybersecurity-cooperation-working-towards-cyber-sovereignty/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[71] ''Id.''

[72] James A. Dorn, ''China Needs a Free Market for Ideas'', CATO Institute (Feb. 4, 2017), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cato.org/commentary/china-needs-free-market-ideas#:~:text=The%20lack%20of%20a%20free,of%20the%20Chinese%20Communist%20Party&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[73][73] Ge Chen, ''How China Curbs Free Speech Beyond Its Borders: Legal Strategies of Transnational Censorship'', J. Int'l Media &amp; Ent. L., 11(1), 1-41 (2025-26), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4621776&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

[74] Ning Wang, ''China’s Future and the Determining Role of the Market for Ideas'', CATO Journal (Vol. 37, No. 1, Winter 2017), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/cato-journal/2017/2/cj-v37n1-11.pdf#:~:text=A%20market%20for%20ideas%20flourished,the%20academies%20in%20ancient%20Greece&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[75] Heng-Fu Zou, ''A Free Market For Ideas In China'', The World Bank (April 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://down.aefweb.net/WorkingPapers/w664.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[76] Vincent K.L. Chang, ''China’s Memory Laws The Global Reach of Beijing’s Push to Juridify Memory'', Verfassungsblog (May 2, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://verfassungsblog.de/chinas-memory-laws/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[77] Guang Yang, ''China’s National Memory Laws and the War on Storytelling'', Australian Institute of International Affairs (May 3, 2023), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/chinas-national-memory-laws-and-the-war-on-storytelling/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. ''See also'' Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Heroes and Martyrs

中华人民共和国英雄烈士保护法, (adopted Apr. 27, 2018, effective May 1, 2018), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://npcobserver.com/legislation/heroes-and-martyrs-protection-law/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[78] Chang, ''supra''.

[79] Yan Lianke, ''China’s National Amnesia'', The Dial (Apr. 23, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.thedial.world/articles/news/issue-15/china-national-strategy-forgetting&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[80] Amnesty International, ''China: Further information: Two More Activists Detained for “June 4 Baijiu”'' (Jun. 21, 2016), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[81] ''Id.''

[82] Radio Free Asia, ''Court in China's Sichuan Jails Fourth Man Over Tiananmen Massacre Liquor'' (Apr. 4, 2019), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/liquor-04042019105951.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

[83] XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 36 (China).

[84] Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[85] Pew Research Center, 10 things to know about China’s policies on religion (Oct. 23, 2023),

&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/10/23/10-things-to-know-about-chinas-policies-on-religion/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[86] Economist, ''China wants to “sinicise” its Catholics'' (Nov. 22, 2022), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.economist.com/china/2022/11/22/china-wants-to-sinicise-its-catholics&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[87] Ian Johnson, ''China Is Reversing Its Crackdown on Some Religions, but Not All'', Council on Foreign Relations (May 14, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cfr.org/articles/china-reversing-its-crackdown-some-religions-not-all&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[88] ''Id.''

[89] Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[90] Article 5, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[91] Article 17, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[92] Article 6, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[93] Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[94] ''Id.''

[95] Wake Forest University, Timothy S. Y. Lam Museaum of Anthropology, ''History of Chinese New'' Year, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://lammuseum.wfu.edu/education/teachers/chinese-new-year/history-of-chinese-new-year/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[96] ''Id.''

[97] Kaysey A. Richardson, ''A Brief History of the Chinese New Year'', World Treasures (Jan. 27, 2022), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://worldtreasures.org/blog/a-brief-history-of-the-chinese-new-year&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[98] ''Id.''

[99] Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[100] Article 1, Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[101] Article 6, Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[102] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Periodic reporting on the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2004), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ich.unesco.org/en/periodic-reporting-00460&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[103] Tyler Arnold, ''China is Removing Crosses From Churches, Replacing Images of Christ With Xi Jinping'', The National Catholic Register (Oct. 1, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ncregister.com/cna/china-is-removing-crosses-from-churches-replacing-images-of-christ-with-xi-jinping&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[104] Martin Lavička, ''A New Round of Restrictions Further Constrains Religious Practice in Xinjiang'', China File (Apr. 19, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/new-round-of-restrictions-further-constrains-religious-practice-xinjiang&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[105] Article 26, 2024 Xinjiang Religious Affairs Regulations.

[106] The Cardinal Kung Foundation, ''Catholic Church in China, It Is Now Known As An Underground Church'',  &lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.cardinalkungfoundation.org/rc/RCrelfreedom.php&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[107] Union of Catholic Asian News, ''China's Catholic leaders vow to accelerate sinicization''''',''' &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ucanews.com/news/chinas-catholic-leaders-vow-to-accelerate-sinicization/98499&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[108] ''See'' Harriet Sherwood, ''Vatican signs historic deal with China – but critics denounce sellout'', The Guardian (Sep. 22, 2018), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/22/vatican-pope-francis-agreement-with-china-nominating-bishops&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[109] ''Id.''

[110] Michael Schmiesing, ''A Hidden Church in'' China, Catholic Answers (Dec. 12, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.catholic.com/magazine/online-edition/a-hidden-church-in-china&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[111] Aly Rothfus, ''Catholic Church in China Faces'' Crisis, The Irish Rover (Nov. 19, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://irishrover.net/2025/11/catholic-church-in-china-faces-crisis/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[112] Abhishank Mishra &amp; Ananya Sharma, ''China-Taiwan, and a Vatican'' conversion, the interpreter (Jul. 9, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/china-taiwan-vatican-conversion&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[113] Article 42, Religious Affairs Regulations 2017, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/religious-affairs-regulations-2017/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[114] Fenggang Yang, The Chinese House Church Goes Public, The University of Chicago | Divinity School (May 12, 2011), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://divinity.uchicago.edu/sightings/articles/chinese-house-church-goes-public-fenggang-yang&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[115] Megan Gates, ''The Rise of the Survellance'' State, Security Mangement (Jun. 1, 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.asisonline.org/security-management-magazine/monthly-issues/security-technology/archive/2021/june/The-Rise-of-The-Surveillance-State/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[116] Jessle Yeung, ''China’s censorship and surveillance were already intense. AI is turbocharging those systems'', CNN (Dec. 4, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cnn.com/2025/12/04/china/china-ai-censorship-surveillance-report-intl-hnk&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[117] Fergus Ryan, et al., ''The party’s AI How China’s new AI systems are reshaping human rights'', ASPI (dec. 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://aspi.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/27122307/The-partys-AI-How-Chinas-new-AI-systems-are-reshaping-human-rights.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;. ''See also'', Jinghe Fan, Xin Zhang, ‘Small, swift, and effective’ legislation in China: Towards adaptive governance of AI?, Computer Law &amp; Security Review, Volume 61, 2026, 106329, ISSN 2212-473X, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2026.106329&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[118] Gates, ''supra''.

[119] Sean Lyngaas &amp; Jim Sclutto, ''Suspected Chinese government operatives used ChatGPT to shape mass surveillance proposals, OpenAI says'', CNN (Oct. 7, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cnn.com/2025/10/07/politics/china-chatgpt-surveillance&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[120] Wayne Wei Wang ''et al'', ''Artificial Intelligence “Law(s)” in China: Retrospect and Prospect'', Part I, Journal of AI Law and Regulation (AIRe), Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 29-36, 2025 &amp; Part II, Journal of AI Law and Regulation (AIRe), Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 139-157, 2025, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=5039316&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[121] Rajendra Zaware, ''Data Privacy in Cryptocurrencies and Blockchain'', Infosys, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://blogs.infosys.com/emerging-technology-solutions/iedps/data-privacy-in-cryptocurrencies-and-blockchain.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[122] Jiye Hu, The Regulation of Cryptocurrency in China, China University of Political Science and Law, Business School; Business School (Apr. 25, 2023), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4423780&lt;/nowiki&gt;.  

[123] Richard Hoffman, ''China’s Cryptocurrency and Blockchain Regulatory Environment'', ECOVIS, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ecovis.com/focus-china/chinas-cryptocurrency/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[124] OxKira, ''Crypto in China: A 2025 guide to the crypto landscape'', Arham (Oct. 9, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://info.arkm.com/research/crypto-in-china-a-2025-guide-to-the-crypto-landscape&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[125] [125] Jiye Hu, The Regulation of Cryptocurrency in China, China University of Political Science and Law, Business School; Business School (Apr. 25, 2023), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4423780&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[126] Xiuhao, et al, ''China steps up crypto crackdown, will vet real-world asset tokens'', Reuters (Feb. 6, 2026), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/china-vows-tighten-virtual-currency-restrictions-2026-02-06/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[127] Prashant Jha, ''Five People Jailed in China Just for Moving USDT'', Yahoo! Finance (Oct. 29, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://finance.yahoo.com/news/five-people-jailed-china-just-080215125.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[128] ''Id.''

[129] Faari Labinjo, ''The Truth About China’s Crypto Ban: Adoption, Underground Markets and Billions in OTC Trading (2025–2026)'', DeFiPlanet (Mar. 17, 2026), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://defi-planet.com/2026/03/the-truth-about-chinas-crypto-ban-adoption-underground-markets-and-billions-in-otc-trading-2025-2026/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[130] ''Id.''

[131] Jeremy Mark, ''Why China’s digital currency threatens the country’s tech giants'', Atlantic Council (Jul. 15, 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/why-chinas-digital-currency-threatens-the-countrys-tech-giants/#:~:text=Unlike%20Bitcoin%20and%20other%20cyber,who%20attract%20the%20attention%20of&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[132] ''Id.''

[133] Working Group on E-CNY Research and Development of the People’s Bank of China, ''Progress of Research &amp; Development of E-CNY in China'' (July 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/server/api/core/bitstreams/8c1d1ea1-a8f7-402c-9f08-edf6863237bc/content&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[134] Robert Lemos, ''China Introduces National Cyber ID Amid Privacy Concerns'', Chinese Human Rights Defenders (Jul. 23, 2025),

&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.nchrd.org/2025/07/china-introduces-national-cyber-id-amid-privacy-concerns/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[135] Shane Yi &amp; Michael Caster, ''China: New Internet ID System a threat to online expression'', Article19 (Jun. 25, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.article19.org/resources/china-new-internet-id-system-a-threat-to-online-expression/&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[136] Lemos, ''supra''.

[137] Mercator Institute for China, ''China’s Handling of Biometric Data: Trends and Implications for Europe'' (Jun. 14, 2022), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://merics.org/en/events/chinas-handling-biometric-data-trends-and-implications-europe&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[138] Jianyu Zhou &amp; Jennifer Stevenson, ''Assessing Legal Protection of Biometric Data in China: Gaps, Principles, and Policy Recommendations'', St. Mary’s University (2022), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://commons.stmarytx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1776&amp;context=facarticles&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[139] Duke Travel Registry, ''Announcements: China now requires collection of biometric data upon arrival'', &lt;nowiki&gt;https://duke-travel.terradotta.com/index.cfm?FuseAction=Announcements.Announcement&amp;Announcement_ID=3026&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[140] Wahid Pessarlay, ''China blockchain=based ID experiment aims to stop data leaks'', Coingeek (Dec. 29, 2023), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://coingeek.com/china-blockchain-based-id-experiment-aims-to-stop-data-leaks/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[141] Tara Vasdani, Robot justice: China’s use of Internet courts, LexisNexis (Feb. 2020), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.lexisnexis.com/en-ca/ihc/robots-justice-chinas-use-of-internet-courts&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[142] ''Id.''

[143] ''Id''.

[144] Dory Reiling &amp; Straton Papagianneas, ''Lessons from China’s Smart Court Reform'', International Journal for Court Administration (2015), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.36745/ijca.679&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[145] William Zheg, ''AI helped Shenzhen judges handle cases 50% faster. Is this the future for China?'', South China Morning Post (May 4, 2026), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3352161/ai-helped-shenzhen-judges-handle-cases-50-faster-future-china&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

[146] University of Oregon, ''New research shows that propaganda is on the rise in'' China, (Apr. 2, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1079250&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[147] ''Id.''

[148] Article 6, Section 1, Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, &lt;nowiki&gt;http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[149] Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, &lt;nowiki&gt;http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[150] Chris Lau &amp; Simone McCarthy, ''China feels the country isn’t patriotic enough. A new law aims to change'' that, CNN (Jan. 6, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/06/china/china-patriotic-education-law-intl-hnk#:~:text=2%2C%202009.&amp;text=The%20new%20law%20also%20orders,subject%20to%20punishments%2C%20she%20said&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[151] Article 15, Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, 2023, &lt;nowiki&gt;http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[152] ''See'' Fan Liang, Yuchen Chen, Fangwei Zhao, ''The Platformization of Propaganda:How Xuexi Qiangguo Expands Persuasion and Assesses Citizens in China'', University of Michigan: International Journal of Communication (2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16484/3416&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[153] Lily Kuo &amp; Kate Lyons, China's most popular app brings Xi Jinping to your pocket, The Guardian (Feb. 15, 2019), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/15/chinas-most-popular-app-brings-xi-jinping-to-your-pocket&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[154] ''Id.''

[155] ''Id.''

[156] ''Supra'' Liang.

[157] ''Id.''

[158] U.S. Department of State, ''China (Includes Hong Kong, Macau, Tibet, and Xinjiang): Xinjian'', &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/xinjiang&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[159] ''Id.''

[160] Timothy Grose &amp; James Leibold, ''Why China Is Banning Islamic Veils'', ChinaFile (Feb. 4, 2015), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/why-china-banning-islamic-veils&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[161] ''Id.''
[[Category:Communication|Law in China]]
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      <text bytes="85006" sha1="3j2d0qrhp0sncocrrjbwseoywdrksua" xml:space="preserve">== '''Communications Law in China''' ==
[[File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|thumb|Flag of the People's Republic of China]]
Communication law in China is subject to a complex regulatory scheme. While the Constitution of China promises freedom of speech, the Chinese Communist Party enforces strict censorship, utilizes prior restraint, and attempts to block important ideas and concepts from the minds of the Chinese people. Chinese communication law impact everything from radio to religious dress and even digital assets. The Chinese regulatory scheme faces the complex challenge of keeping up with cutting edge methods of communications while ensuring dominance of the Chinese Communist Party.

=== '''Sources of Communications Law in China''' ===
China’s Constitution guarantees freedom of speech but it’s communication laws tell a different story. China has a sophisticated regulatory framework in place to govern communications in China. These regulatory bodies, in combination with wide reaching laws, have resulted in a nation whose communications are subject to review and approval by the single party in power.

==== '''''Constitution of the People’s Republic of China''''' ====
The key place to begin when approaching a countries approach to any form of law is their Constitution. The Chinese “[c]onstitution recognizes Marxism as the country’s leading ideology and the Communist Party the leading party.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Catá Backer|first=Larry|date=2012|title=Party, People, Government, and State: On Constitutional Values and the Legitimacy of the Chinese State-Party Rule of Law System|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1977551|journal=Boston University International Law Journal|volume=Vol. 30}}&lt;/ref&gt; Notably, “[t]he preamble deserves particular attention because China’s leadership has consistently placed great weight upon the ideological and expressive functions of the constitution and has used the preamble to identify and highlight its core commitments.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Albert|date=February 1, 2021|title=Constitutions, Constitutionalism and the Case of Modern China|url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=3027562 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3027562|journal=SSRN}}&lt;/ref&gt; The preamble lays out broad goals for the People’s Republic of China, it states that the Chinese people “will continue, under the leadership of the Communist Party of China and the guidance of Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory… to… improve socialist rule of law… and promote coordinated material, political, cultural-ethical, social and ecological advancement, in order to build China into a great modern socialist country.”[3] This broad phrasing gives the party significant latitude. Furthermore, the Constitution has three key articles that address the issue of communications law. First, Article 35 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of speech, the press, assembly, association, procession and demonstration.”[4] Second, Article 36 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of religious belief.”[5] Third, Article 40 addresses correspondence:

Freedom and confidentiality of correspondence of citizens of the People’s Republic of China shall be protected by law. Except in cases necessary for national security or criminal investigation, when public security organs or procuratorial organs shall examine correspondence in accordance with procedures prescribed by law, no organization or individual shall infringe on a citizen’s freedom and confidentiality of correspondence for any reason.[6]

At least on paper, these articles are share some similarities to Articles 18, 19, and 20 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[7] However, at the United Nations Human Rights Convention, “China is increasingly vocal in defending its statist position and interpretation of human rights norms.”[8] Notably, the Constitution is missing several provisions such as freedom of thought, freedom of conscience, and “freedom to receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers” which are seen in the Universal Declaration.[9]

==== '''''National Regulatory Bodies''''' ====
[[File:汉口中共中央宣传部旧址.jpg|thumb|Former Site of the Central Propaganda Department of the Chinese Communist Party in Hankou]]
The regulatory scheme in China is complicated and grows out of a post-Mao era which “reconstituted the sinews of governance and especially sought to strengthen the government’s regulatory capacity while reducing the government’s direct intervention in state firms. In area after area, they have invoked ‘chaos’ or ‘turmoil’ to justify the need to strengthen or assert control.”[10] The Central Propaganda Department sets the ideology for Chinese communications regulatory bodies. It is “responsible for monitoring content to ensure that China's publishers, in particular its news publishers, do not print anything that is inconsistent with the Communist Party's political dogma.”[11] It accomplishes this by screening any writings that touch on politically sensitive issues, informing publishers what they can, and cannot, publish as well as what ideological viewpoint should be taken, and requiring editors and publishers to attend indoctrination sessions in order to ensure they publish from the desired viewpoint.[12]

The Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) reports to the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission which “Xi Jinping, General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the Central Military Commission, personally serve[s] as the group leader.”[13] As a result, the CAC “is China’s top authority on internet governance, overseeing data privacy, cybersecurity, and platform regulation. It is the primary regulator behind major laws such as the Cybersecurity Law (CSL), Data Security Law (DSL), and Personal Information Protection Law (PIPL).”[14] The CAC can issue “departmental rules, which are issued by State Council administrative agencies and are legally binding under China’s Legislation Law.”[15] A counterpart of the CAC is the National Radio and Television Administration (NRTA). The NRTA’s “main task is to censor the radio, film, and television industries.”[16] In 2021, the NRTA banned “nine types of banned content, including content that ‘endangers security,’ ‘slanders Chinese culture,’ or does not help youth ‘establish the correct world view.’”[17]

The Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT)[18] is charged with “regulating and managing China's telecommunications and software sectors, as well as the electronics and information technology manufacturing industries.” The MIIT “enforces regulations aligned with the CAC’s central tenets” The MIIT focuses on the providers and carriers themselves and enforces “cyber and data security rules against providers in the telecommunications and internet sector.”[19] For example, in December of 2021 MIIT found that over one hundred apps were in violation of China’s Personal Information Protection Law and Data Security Law.[20] As a result, they were removed from app stores.

==== '''''Key Communications Laws''''' ====
The Cybersecurity Law[21] is overseen by the CAC and seeks to “promote the healthy development of the informatization of the economy and society.” Article 6 of the Cybersecurity Law states that a goal of the law is to advocate for “sincere, honest, healthy and civilized online conduct; it promotes the dissemination of core socialist values, adopts measures to raise the entire society’s awareness and level of cybersecurity, and formulates a good environment for the entire society to jointly participate in advancing cybersecurity.” In 2015 the Cybersecurity Law “introduced fines and detentions of up to 15 days for telecommunications firms and internet service providers (ISP), as well as relevant personnel, who fail to restrict certain forms of content”.[22]

The CAC also handles the implementation of the Provisions on the Governance of the Online Information Content Ecosystem. Article 5 states “A network information content producer shall be encouraged to produce, copy and publish information containing the following: Publicizing the Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era…”[23]

Finally, China is part of a many international agreements pertaining to communications law. China is a member of the UN and a signatory to both the ICCPR and the ICESCR.[24] Additionally, in 2005 China signed the United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts.[25] The purpose of this agreement is “facilitating the use of electronic communications in international trade by assuring that contracts concluded and other communications exchanged electronically are as valid and enforceable as their traditional paper-based equivalents.”[26] Finally, China signed the Universal Copyright Convention in 1992.[27] The agreement “undertakes to provide for the adequate and effective, protection of the rights of authors and other copyright proprietors in literary, scientific and artistic works, including writings, musical, dramatic and cinematographic works, and paintings, engravings and sculpture.”[28]

=== '''Law and the Media in China''' ===
There are some that believe there are three aims of communication: truth, beauty, and dialogue. These aims are furthered by the elements of communications law. There are three such elements that are most relevant to China. First, the means of transmission. Second, the sender and receiver. Third, the message. These are most relevant to China because the government seeks to control all three. As a result, the three aims of communications: truth, beauty, and dialogue are threatened daily. Truth, because certain historical events and facts are banned. Beauty, because words are good, they allow us to think and develop our thoughts which is a beautiful thing for the human person. Finally, dialogue, because a person cannot say what they wish without fear of retaliation.

==== '''''The Means of Transmission''''' ====
The means of transmission of the message may include its code, channel, mode, and nature. However, “[a] major constraint on regulatory state building is the political environment in which Chinese regulators have had to operate. The Administration of Press, Publications, Radio, Film, and TV, for example, operate at the behest of Chinese Communist Party (CCP) organs, especially the CCP Central Committee Propaganda Department.”[29] In China television is regulated by the National Radio and Television Administration. Regarding the nature of the communications, “[t]he Propaganda Department of the Chinese Communist Party sends a detailed notice to all media every day that includes editorial guidelines and censored topics.”[30] Furthermore, the “[s]tate-run Chinese Central TV (CCTV) is China's largest media company.[31] The government released a statement summing up the CCTV’s main tasks.

Its principal responsibilities will be to propagate the theories, political line and policies of the Party; to plan and manage major propaganda reports; to organize the production of radio and television; to produce and broadcast premium radio and television products; to channel hot social topics; to strengthen and improve supervision by public opinion, to promote the integrated development of multimedia; to strengthen the building of international broadcasting capacity; to tell China’s story well.[32]

Furthermore, “[a]ll of China's 2,600-plus radio stations are state-owned”[33] as well as “around 1,900 newspapers. Each city has its own title, usually published by the local government, as well as a local Communist Party daily.”[34] As a result, the means and nature of the communications are subject to the government’s control.
[[File:Guess on China's Great Firewall Mechanism.png|thumb|'''Guess on China's Great Firewall Mechanism''']]
Internet censoring in China has been dubbed “the great firewall.” The Golden Shield Project’s aim is “to monitor and censor what can and cannot be seen through an online network in China.”[35] Popular sites such as “Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, WhatsApp, and Instagram are all blocked in the mainland.”[36] Furthermore, China has blocked the use of Starlink. In 2025 China penalized a foreign vessel after an inspection revealed the vessel employing Starlink had “continued transmitting data after entering Chinese territorial waters, in violation of national telecommunications and radio regulations.”[37] As a result, “[t]he long-standing blocks on international communications platforms have helped to enable the exponential growth of local services such as Tencent’s WeChat and Sina Weibo, which are subject to the government’s strict censorship demands.”[38] The regulatory agencies discussed above play a crucial role in maintaining the “great firewall”. For example, in 2017 MIIT banned the use of unlicensed VPNs. [39] Furthermore, in 2020 the CAC  “suspended 281 websites, and shut down 2,686 websites and 31,000 accounts” as well as 179,000 social media accounts. [40] Finally, “[i]n February 2021, authorities blocked the newly emerged mobile audio app Clubhouse, after thousands of users in China had flocked to the app to discuss detention camps in Xinjiang.”[41]

==== '''''The Sender and Receiver''''' ====
There are two key principles in this element of communications, namely, the centrality of the person and freedom. The principle of the centrality of the person holds that communications are for the human person, this is why human rights are so integral to communication law. In China, communications are for the government, or the centrality of the party. For example, “[t]housands of cyber-police watch the web and material deemed politically and socially sensitive is filtered. Blocked resources include Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and human rights sites.”[42] As opposed to fostering a government that supports the human person’s ability to attain truth and enter into dialogue, the government jealously protects access to information. This is seen in China’s restrictions on internet cafés where individuals may access the web. Startling, “between June and September 2002, the government shutdown 150,000 unlicensed Internet cafes. [today], police routinely ‘[raid]’ internet cafes to see whether there is any ‘illegal’ activity going on.”[43] The latter point is connected to the second key principle, freedom.

The principle of freedom in any communication holds that you are free to express your opinion and those who hear it will tolerate it. This principle has not found a permanent home in China historically. In 1898, following the Hundred Days Reform, “the dynasty imposed a general prohibition of privately published newspaper” for “spreading rumours and confusing the people’s thoughts.”[44] In 1927, the Guomindang built “a system of censorship boards and licensing obligations for films, radio, publications and newspapers.”[45] Starting in 1980, Deng Xiaoping, former Chairman of the Central Military Commission, further restricting freedom of communication. From then on, “political debate would be an intra-Party matter only, and official media were to be the mouthpiece of the Party.”[46] This time saw a growing administrative state taking control of the communications field by “laying the basis for the current regulatory structure by creating an administrative department to govern the print sector, and by centralizing licensing procedures.”[47] The introduction of the internet saw “central and local governments [establish] special Internet information management departments.”[48]

==== '''''The Message''''' ====
Within this element there is the key principle of objectivity and context. This principle holds that journalists, and other professions, ought to give the proper context when communicating and do so in as objective a manner as possible. In China, if a journalist wishes to obtain to renew their press cards they “must download the Study Xi, Strengthen the Country propaganda application that can collect their personal data.”[49] Furthermore, journalists and everyday citizens alike are restricted in how they can communicate their messages because certain words are banned. For example, no one cannot search for “dictatorship,” “Great Firewall of China,” or “Go, Hong Kong.”[50] China’s approach to Tiananmen Square Massacre is an example of the principle of objectivity and context. After the Chinese military killed possible thousands during a protest in 1989 the government has tried to “erase what it calls the ‘political turmoil’ of 1989 from the collective memory. It bans any public commemoration or mention of the June 4 crackdown, scrubbing references from the internet.”[51] In 2024, China was the top jailer of journalists in the world, holding 14% of the world’s journalists in their jails.[52]

=== '''Censorship &amp; Violent Content''' ===
China practices rigorous censorship in all forms of speech. A foundational principle of freedom of speech is that of no prior restraint which allows speech to enter the marketplace, and its issuer must deal with the consequences after the fact. This principle is not welcome in China. Related to this principal China’s justification for much of their prior restraint, national security. Most clearly demonstrated in the Hong Kong National Security Law, China has enforced expansive prior restraints on speech and jailed those who have attempted to speak out.
[[File:Hong Kong Protests P1240680 Umbrella revolution - protest in Nathan road, Hong Kong (15375576579).jpg|thumb|'''Hong Kong Protests''']]

==== '''''No Prior Restraint''''' ====
The principle of no prior restraint says that speech cannot be stopped before it takes place. Rather, one may say what they wish but may have to deal with the consequences after. This principle is well known in the West.

The liberty of the press is indeed essential to the nature of a free state: but this consists in laying no prior restraints upon publications, and not in freedom from censure for criminal matter when published. Every freeman has an undoubted right to lay what sentiments he pleases before the public: to forbid this, is to destroy the freedom of the press: but if he publishes what is improper, mischievous, or illegal, he must take the consequence of his own temerity.[53]

This principle ensures that ideas are free to enter the marketplace in nations that have chosen to adopt this concept, like the United States. However, China has not adopted this principle. Rather, China is diametrically opposed to the principle of no prior restraint. The Chinese government requires people to “ask the government's permission before they are allowed to publish.”[54] Moreover, “[t]he Communist Party has the right and the ability to screen works prior to publication, and stop publication of those works it finds objectionable.”[55] One of the main methods of enforcing prior restraints in China is their licensing scheme…” where “the government requires individuals to obtain a license, permit, or other authorization in order to legally engage in publishing.”[56] Such requirements ensure that the government approves of any speech before it can enter the marketplace.

A notable piece of Chinese legislation is the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing.[57] Article 3 of the Regulations states that “publishing businesses shall adhere to the path of serving the people and serving socialism, adhere to the guidance of Marxism, Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought and Deng Xiaoping Theory, and promulgate and accumulate scientific technology and cultural knowledge that is advantageous to economic development and social progress.”[58] This legislation requires that anything published in China aligns with their preferred thought. This is exactly what the marketplace of ideas sought to prevent. A healthy competition of ideas is best for humanity, not a forced set of ideas. A breach of the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing has grave consequences. In 2019 “[a] Chinese court slapped a dozen of people with varying jail terms for illegally publishing books related to the Communist Party of China.”[59] The Intermediate People's Court of Yueyang in Hunan province stated that “[t]he accused were convicted of violating state regulations by illegally reprinting and selling huge volumes of publications, which seriously endangered the social order and disrupted the legitimate publishing market.”[60]

Another important piece of legislation is the eloquently named Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications.[61] Article 3 of the Measures says that “[t]he scope of the important topics… shall be adjusted and promulgated by the General Administration of Press and Publication.”[62] Such important topics include “works and literature concerning any former or current leaders of the party ” ,[63] “topics which deal with maps of China's borders,”[64] and even “topics which deal with any significant historical matters or important historical figures in the history of the Chinese Communist Party.”[65] This legislation requires government approval prior to publishing on important topics. While the complete list of important topics is much longer these three are notable because they are meant to shape the way, one understands Chinese history and China’s place in the world. This dystopian law enforces not only a specific world view, like the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing, but also a specific understanding of China’s history and how they arrived at their present communist government. Thus, these measures bolster the Chinese Communist Party’s control over all speech in China.

==== '''''National Security''''' ====
The Chinese Party often censors speech under the pretense of protecting national security. An example occurred recently in Hong Kong. In 2020 China introduced the National Security Law (“NSL”) to Hong Kong. The NSL “criminalises anything considered as secession, which is breaking away from China; subversion, which is undermining the power or authority of the central government; terrorism, which is using violence or intimidation against people; and collusion with foreign or external forces.”[66] This Law has resulted in “[n]umerous pro-democracy news outlets in Hong Kong [being] shut down, including Lai's Apple Daily, which was known to be critical of the mainland Chinese leadership.”[67] For example, in 2021 “Hong Kong's national security police raided the offices of ''Stand News'' for suspected breaches of the NSL and separately arrested six senior staff members and one former senior staff member for conspiracy to publish seditious publications.”[68] The NSL has also impacted other forms of speech as shut down of the Tiananmen vigil in 2002 when “authorities announced they were closing Victoria Park—the traditional site of the Tiananmen vigil—citing ‘Police's observation that some people are using different channels to incite the participation of unauthorised assemblies’ and these assemblies' potential to affect ‘public safety and public order.’”[69] These alarming instances demonstrates China’s use of overbroad justifications, such as national security, to exert control over China and its special administrative regions. Finally, China’s desire for a tighter grip on information does not stop at its borders. In 2015 China signed the Sino-Russian Cybersecurity Agreement.[70] The agreement “has two key features: mutual assurance on non-aggression in cyberspace and language advocating cyber-sovereignty.”[71]

=== '''Truth, Honor, &amp; Tolerance''' ===
Chinese censorship has ensured that there is only one product to be bought and sold in the marketplace of ideas, the Chinese Communist Party’s. This booth peddles China’s view of history, as seen in their memory laws, and their chosen religions. China’s failure to encourage a marketplace of ideas has not only impacted freedom of expression in China but also hindered their economic and scientific growth. This limited marketplace extends to how certain historical events are seen. Finally, it is notable that China does allow the practice of religion in their Constitution, and to an extent in practice. However, examples such as the Chinese oppression of Muslims and requiring the Vatican to agree to bishop appointments demonstrates the fact that the Chinese Communist Party is firmly in control of this marketplace.

==== '''''The Marketplace of Ideas''''' ====
The marketplace of ideas is a western concept that has been adopted in the United States. The concept of the marketplace of ideas says that “[t]he best test of truth is the power of the thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market.” This concept is seen in robust public discourse, protests, debate, etc. These all further the belief that government should foster a lively discourse that allows everyone to choose which ideas they believe are best. This concept has not been adopted by China. Rather, “while China has increased economic freedom, it has protected the Party’s iron grip on power and suppressed freedom of expression — there is no free market for ideas. Without such a market, the Chinese people are subservient to the state and their range of choices limited.”[72] Chinese censorship is pervasive and leaves no stall at the marketplace of ideas uncaptured. For example, “significant amendments were made to both the [Constitution], further consolidating the dominant leadership of the CCP. While these changes were not explicitly centered on censorship, this strengthened power structure indirectly set the stage for a reshaped censorship framework, presenting an illiberal substance under a facade of legitimacy.”[73]

While the lack of a robust coemption of ideas certainly treads on individual rights, some also argue that it also limits China’s potential, “[b]ecause the freedom to supply ideas, choose ideas, and criticize ideas is severely limited, the creativity of the Chinese people is underutilized and their innovative potential undertapped.”[74] Furthermore, “without the freedom to think, speak, and innovate openly, China’s economic growth could stagnate” and as a result “lead to a lack of critical thinking and creativity, which are vital for addressing complex challenges and advancing technological and social innovation.”[75] China’s suppression of the market place of ideas not only violates individual rights but is likely harming both the Chinese economy and even society itself.

==== '''''Memory Laws''''' ====
For China “[t]here is only one correct interpretation of the national past, and it is the party-state – and the party-state alone – that promulgates and polices it.”[76] In 2018, after an incident where Chinese youths cosplayed as Japanese Imperial soldiers and took phots at a war monument in Shanghai, China passed the Heroes and Martyrs Protection Law.[77] This law “calls on citizens to ‘respect, study, and defend’ national heroes and criminalises their defamation.”[78] China’s use of memory laws, or selective history, has resulted in the erasure of historical events that are not flattering or supportive of the Chinese Communist Party. For example, in 2012 a professor teaching in Hong Kong “asked his class of more than forty students from China, all of whom were born in the 1980s, ‘Have any of you heard of June Fourth, Liu Binyan, or Fang Lizhi?’ However, the students simply gazed at one another in silence.”[79] As discussed, nowhere is this amnesia seen better than in the case of Tiananmen Square.

An example of such memory laws in action was seen in 2016 where a group of individuals who promoted liquor bottles that had labels commemorating June 4, 1989, the date of the Tiananmen Square Massacre.[80] One man was “criminally detained on suspicion of ‘inciting subversion of state power’ while [another] was detained on suspicion of ‘picking quarrels and provoking trouble.’”[81] In 2019, one of the men received a three and a half year sentence by a court in southwestern China.[82]

==== '''''Tolerance as Applied to Religion''''' ====
[[File:Cardinal Joseph Zen (2019).jpg|thumb|'''Cardinal Joseph Zen''']]
The Chinese Constitution explicitly allows for freedom of religion, Article 36 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of religious belief.”[83] The Chinese Embassy in South Africa published a paper on religious freedom stating “[r]eligious disputes are unknown in China. Religious believers and non-believers respect each other, are united and have a harmonious relationship.”[84] However, while China allows for the practice of religion, the Chinese Communist Party has worked to force religion to align with its worldview. As a result, “China is pursuing a policy of ‘Sinicization’ that requires religious groups to align their doctrines, customs and morality with Chinese culture.”[85] In 2018 the Vatican agreed to a deal with the Chinese Communist Party regarding the appointment of bishops. Following this “Cardinal Joseph Zen… said it would legitimise the Communist Party’s control over Chinese Catholics, and be like ‘giving the flock into the mouths of the wolves.’”[86] China’s concern with religions such as Islam and Christianity is not that they are new to China, they are not. Rather, “Muslims are part of Islam’s global ''umma'' (Arabic for ‘community’) of believers” and “Christians, meanwhile, are thought to have strong overseas ties either to the Vatican, for Catholics, or to overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia and the West, for Protestants in particular.”[87] As a result, China sees these religions as non-Chinese. Other religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, and folk religions the states are viewed as “so-called indigenous faiths.”[88] A key law impacting religious tolerance is the Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups.[89] Article 5 of the measures states that “[r]eligious groups must follow the leadership of the Communist Party of China… persist in the direction of sinification of religion[, and] practice the Core Socialist Values.”[90] Furthermore, under Article 6, “[r]eligious groups shall accept the supervision, oversight, and administration of people's governments religious affairs departments.”[91] Article 17 states that “[r]eligious groups shall publicize the Communist Party of] China's directives and policies.”[92] Finally, “[t]he legal protection of citizens' right to the freedom of religious belief in China is basically in accordance with the main contents of the concerned international documents and conventions in this respect.”[93] The Embassy goes on to list the following international agreements: the United Nations Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the International Convenient on Civil and Political Rights, the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, and the Vienna Declaration and Action Program.[94]

=== '''Cultural and Religious Expressions''' ===
[[File:Chinese New Year decorations in Chinatown, Singapore, 20240122 0852 2963.jpg|thumb|Chinese New Year decorations in Chinatown, Singapore]]
           In China there are many festivals and cultural events, with the Chinese New Year being the most famous and one of the oldest. This holiday is lauded as important for many reasons, but it is allowed because it promotes Chinese identity. Some religions, and religious symbols, do not receive an equally welcoming invite from the Chinese Communist Party. While religious worship is allowed theoretically, China has cracked down on the Church in China and on religious symbols.

==== '''''Festivals, The Chinese New Year or Spring Festival''''' ====
Feasts and festivals are thousands of years old. Key aspects of festivals include bringing people together, feasting over food, a reason to celebrate, and the symbolization of the shared joy. China has a long history of festivals. Perhaps the largest and most important is the Chinese New Year. The Chinese New Year is thousands of years old. It likely “originated in the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BC), when people held sacrificial ceremonies in honor of gods and ancestors at the beginning or the end of each year.”[95] This festival has become an integral part of the Chinese nation. However, Chinese Americans, and those around the world, can also be seen celebrating this festival. As a result, this festival is intimately intertwined with the Chinese identity.

There are many traditions that play critical roles in the Chinese New Year festival season. The legend of the Chinese New Year began with a mythical beast called Nian that would eat crops and people. Legend states “a wise old man figured out that Nian was scared of loud noises (firecrackers) and the color red. So, people put red lanterns and red scrolls on their windows and doors to stop Nian from coming inside. Crackling bamboo (later replaced by firecrackers) was lit to scare Nian away.”[96] The famous tradition of exchanging red envelopes began with the mythical beast Sui, who would scare children while they slept. As a result, “[e]lders began to give out red envelopes of coins to children for them to play with and keep them awake throughout the night.”[97] Furthermore, “round dumplings shaped like the full moon are shared as a symbol of the family unit and perfection.”[98] These traditions give the Chinese people tangible things to pass down to future generations. It is incredible to see how consistent these traditions have been, indicating how important they are to the Chinese people’s cultural expression.

A critical law in the area of cultural and religious expression in China is the Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage.[99] Under Article 1 of the Law, it’s stated purpose is  that “of inheriting and promoting the distinguished traditional culture of the Chinese nation, promoting the building of the socialist spiritual civilization and strengthening the protection and preservation of intangible cultural heritage.”[100] Article 6 of the law requires the local governments to “include the protection and preservation of intangible cultural heritage in the national economic and social development plans at their same levels and include the protection and preservation funding into the financial budgets.”[101] According to a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization report “[d]uring [Chiense New Year] in 2024, Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the PRC mobilized the whole country to widely carry out Spring Festival [Intangible Cultural Heritage] activities. A total of more than 45,400 ICH promotion and display activities were carried out nationwide.”[102]

==== '''''Religious Symbols''''' ====
While religious exercise is allowed in China to some extent, the display of certain items has come under attack. According to a recent report, “Chinese officials have ordered the removal of crosses from churches and have replaced images of Christ and the Virgin Mary with images of President Xi Jinping”.[103] Furthermore, “new rules to ensure that sites of religious worship, like mosques, look adequately “Chinese,” and to mandate the cultivation of “patriotic” religious leaders.”[104] Article 26 of the 2024 Xinjiang Religious Affairs Regulations states that “Religious activity sites that are newly built, renovated, expanded, or rebuilt should reflect Chinese characteristics and style in terms of architecture, sculptures, paintings, decorations, etc.”[105] These actions indicate the Chinese Communist Parties attempt to more deeply accelerate sinicization.

==== '''''The Church in China''''' ====
[[File:20251016 Shangqiu Catholic Church 04.jpg|thumb|Shangqiu Catholic Church]]
In China there are two faces to the Catholic Church. The first is the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (the “CCPA”). The CCPA is obedient to the “the State Council's Religious Affairs Bureau, which is an agency under the United Front Department of the Communist Party. It does not recognize the supreme administrative, legislative, and judicial authority of the Pope.”[106] The second face is the “Underground Catholic Church” which is not governed by the Chinese Communist Party. Recently, the CCPA held the 10th National Congress of Catholicism in China. The CCPA “delegates also unanimously accepted the Work Report of the 9th Standing Committee on Church efforts and activities in the promotion of patriotism, socialism, and sinicization in the Catholic Church as outlined by President Xi Jinping.”[107] Opposed to the CCPA are the underground Church leaders like Cardinal Joseph Zen. Cardinal Zen is critical of the Chinese persecution of Catholics and heavily criticized the 2018 deal the Vatican made with China which requires Chinese approval of bishops.[108] Regarding the deal, Cardinal Zen stated that “[t]hey’re [sending] the flock into the mouths of the wolves. It’s an incredible betrayal.”[109] In China it is “illegal for the priest to instruct the children of the parish in the Faith or give them any materials to read.”[110] Moreover, “minors are not allowed to attend the Mass in some areas of China.”[111] Finally, it must be noted that the Holy See does not recognize the Chinese communist Party as the leader of China. Rather, “the Vatican has maintained formal diplomatic relations with Taiwan.”[112]

As discussed above, China has set a clear policy goal of maintaining, celebrating, and promulgating traditional Chinese festivals to the public. Religious festivals do not enjoy the same support. Article 42 of the Religious Affairs Regulations 2017 provides that “[w]here a large-scale religious activity is held that is beyond the accommodation capacity of a religious activity site the religious group… sponsoring the activity shall, 30 days before the activity is to be held, submit an application to the religious affairs department of the people’s government for the province.”[113] On Easter Sunday 2011, a [c]hurch in Beijing planned to hold an outdoor worship service in a plaza amid high-rise office and commercial buildings. However the police sealed off the plaza and dispelled gathering congregants… Thirty six of the congregants were taken to police stations for interrogation.”[114]

=== '''Privacy and Data Protection''' ===
Our private thoughts and actions are intimate to who we are as people. However, in China, the government wishes to be included in that inner circle. They seek to accomplish this by a program of mass surveillance. While artificial intelligence has been an incredible breakthrough for the world it has also been taken advantage of by nefarious actors. Chief among these is perhaps China. China has employed artificial intelligence to better control its citizens and ensure compliance. Another technology breakthrough, cryptocurrency, has had mixed reactions from China. Cryptocurrency allows transactions to be kept private, a no-go for the Chinese Communist Party. As a result, China has banned cryptocurrency use.

==== '''''Mass Surveillance and Artificial Intelligence''''' ====
It is no surprise that China is renowned for its mass surveillance. Citizens are watched almost constantly to ensure compliance with the Chinese Communist Party’s ideals. In fact the “[p]eople in China are among the most surveilled in the world, taking 16 of the top 20 spots on the most surveilled cities list based on the number of cameras per 1,000 people in an annual assessment.”[115] Moreover, “documents from one Shanghai district detail plans for AI-powered cameras and drones to ‘automatically discover and intelligently enforce the law,’ including potentially alerting police to crowd gatherings.”[116] China has also begun using artificial intelligence in satellite surveillance, “China is deploying AI-enabled Sun-synchronous satellites over regions that the CCP views as politically sensitive, including Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, Hong Kong and Macau.”[117] In the Xinjiang region China uses mobile apps, biometric data, and artificial intelligence to monitor millions of Muslims.[118] The use of artificial intelligence is not limited to technical uses. China has begun using artificial intelligence to help it draft policies, “[i]n one case, a ChatGPT user ‘likely connected to a [Chinese] government entity’ asked the AI model to help write a proposal for a tool that analyzes the travel movements and police records of the Uyghur minority— a Turkic-speaking, predominantly Muslim ethnic minority—and other ‘high-risk’ people, according to the OpenAI report.”[119] The use of artificial intelligence in China is alarming. While surveillance in Chian has grown alongside technology since the Chinese Communist Party took power, the introduction of artificial intelligence is the biggest leap that has yet to occur. Moreover, the “CAC’s approach to regulating AI or algorithms is centered on the regime of Algorithm Registry. Providers of certain recommendation algorithms, deep synthesis, and generative AI technologies must register detailed information with the CAC before offering services in China.”[120]

==== '''''Cryptocurrency in China''''' ====
If someone were to analyze an individual’s last year of credit card transactions it is likely one could learn quite a bit about them. For a mass surveillance state like China this is appealing. As a result, cryptocurrencies present an issue for China. Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum use a technology called blockchain that acts as a digital ledger of transactions. This allows individuals to exchange value without the need of an intermediary like a bank. These blockchains enhance “transactional privacy by removing the need for users to reveal their real identities. Confidential transactions and encryption techniques ensure only the involved parties know the details. Zero-knowledge proofs, ring signatures, and stealth addresses advances further strengthen privacy.”[121] As a result, while all transactions on the blockchain are visible, the identity of who made the transaction is private unless shared.

Importantly, “China’s central bank defined Cryptocurrency as a specified virtual commodity. This legal attribute is not clear, which brings difficulties in consumer protection and criminal identification.”[122] China was renowned for its large cryptocurrency market and “[p]rior to 2017, China had the world’s largest cryptocurrency market—with 80% of Bitcoin, the world’s leading digital coin, transactions conducted in yuan.”[123] However, after years of increasing restrictions, China banned cryptocurrency trading and mining in 2021.[124] This time period saw a flurry of laws implemented regarding digital assets and crypto currencies, “[o]n January 1, 2020, the ‘Cryptography Law of the People’s Republic of China’ came into effect. ‘Data Security Law’ was adopted on June 10, 2021, and ‘Personal Information Protection Law’ was adopted on August 20, 2021.”[125] The People’s Bank of China “warned financial institutions against providing banking and clearing services to virtual currency-related businesses.”[126] This warning has not been without teeth. In 2025 a Chinese court convicted five people of transacting more than $160 million worth of cryptocurrency.[127] The court said that these individuals “violated China’s Anti-Money Laundering Law and Foreign Exchange Administration Regulations, both of which prohibit unauthorized cross-border fund transfers.”[128]
[[File:E-CNY logo.svg|thumb|E-CNY logo]]
While these penalties are steep, people in China have persisted in using cryptocurrencies to ensure their transactions remain private. Reports indicate “that there are still around 59 million crypto users in China as of 2025. That is roughly 10% of the global crypto user base, even though most users must operate outside official channels.”[129] Interestingly, “[w]hile private cryptocurrencies face heavy restrictions, China has fully embraced its own central bank digital currency (CBDC) known as the digital yuan (e-CNY). By late 2025, e-CNY platforms had processed over 14.2 trillion yuan in transactions and were used by more than 260 million wallets.”[130] While this may seem contradictory at first, there is a strategy. Banning cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin ensures private transactions will not occur. Introducing the digital yuan, which is subject to surveillance, will allow China to “create a mechanism through which the government can access reams of digital data that may prove helpful to Beijing in the global race to develop artificial intelligence.”[131]  To that end, “[u]nlike Bitcoin and other cyber currencies, all digital-yuan users will register with the [People's Bank of China] under a system described by government officials as “controllable anonymity,’ which will give the government the ability to track illicit transactions and presumably the activities of citizens who attract the attention of security services”[132]

Other reasons for adopting the digital yuan include payment efficiency, increased state oversight and support of the yuan as a strategy tool. According to a 2021 report by the working group for the e-CNY, “the issuance of e-CNY will fully meet the public’s daily payment needs, further improve the efficiency of the retail payment system and reduce the cost of retail payment.”[133]

=== '''Right to Bodily, Spiritual and Digital Identity''' ===
An individual’s identity is the essence of who they are and what they believe. In our digital age people have taken on digital identities. In many parts of the world people cannot get by without a digital identity. China is currently attempting to enroll its citizenry in a government issues digital identity. This identity will allow China to compile all enrollees’ personal information. On the other side of the identity coin, China has also sought to compile massive amount of biometric date such as DNA and facial recognition. These data collections have also been extended to individuals visiting China.

==== '''''Digital Identity''''' ====
In a world that has become intensely digital it makes sense that we humans would take on digital identities. These identities are demonstrated by social media, bank accounts, online use, and more. We use these identities to interact with other humans in the digital world. The Chinese government has introduced the National Online Identity Authentication Public Service. This is a “government-controlled digital identity system [which] will allow citizens to register by providing official government documents and then will shield their information from Internet services.”[134] Chinese authorities say “that the new measure intends to establish a trusted digital identity framework within the public service infrastructure.”[135] However, “[t]he Chinese government has not provided details about how the system is constructed or the policies in place to protect the data from misuse… for digital-rights activists, the danger is clear.”[136] The digital identity offered by China is proffered under the guise of ease of use. However, in exchange for this ease, Chinese citizens will need to give over intimate personal information to the government. While the program is optional for now it is possible necessary resources online could soon require one to obtain a government controlled digital identity.

==== '''''Biometric Data''''' ====
Despite the increasing importance of the digital identity and personal digital information, there is still information about ourselves that is intimate. Biometric data includes things like DNA, fingerprints, and even voice scans. In China “legislation and regulation are carefully crafted to give public security organs broad powers to harvest and use biometric data in conjunction with the performance of their law enforcement and national security duties.”[137] A main biometric tool used by the Chinese government is facial recognition which “is deployed to identify citizens for law enforcement purposes, such as performing identity verification at airports, train stations, or specific public areas, and for commercial purposes to enhance business operations’ efficiency.”[138] Such collections are not limited to Chinese citizens however. China has begun requiring foreign nationals “to submit their fingerprints and undergo a facial scan at self-help kiosks at their port of entry to the People's Republic of China. These self-help kiosks will issue a receipt once your biometric data is received and that receipt must be given to the border inspector for verification as part of the entry process.”[139] Finally, China has recently combined blockchain technology with biometric data, “the new digital ID service stores cryptographic keys on-chain after a real-name verification process. According to reports, the system authenticates users’ legal name, facial recognition, and government ID before allowing users to create an infinite number of public-private key pairs to register on online platforms.”[140]

==== '''''AI-Generated Personas''''' ====
           China has taken the concept of AI-generated personas to the next level with the creation of AI judges. Since 2019, millions of legal cases of been decided by these “smart courts” or “internet courts”. These courts make use of “non-human judges, powered by artificial intelligence (AI) and allows participants to register their cases online and resolve their matters via a digital court hearing.”[141] These courts have decided cases on various topics such as “intellectual property, e-commerce, financial disputes related to online conduct, loans acquired or performed online, domain name issues, property and civil rights cases involving the Internet, product liability arising from online purchases and certain administrative disputes.”[142] The “judge” appears “by hologram and are artificial creations — there is no real judge present. The holographic judge looks like a real person but is a synthesized, 3D image of different judges, and sets schedules, asks litigants questions, takes evidence and issues dispositive rulings.”[143] In addition to efficiency, there are other motives at play behind these smart courts, party control. Interestingly, these “[s]mart courts allow the party to intervene in court decisions without upending the entire normative system by automatically detecting and filtering cases that require political intervention.”[144] Judges are still involved in the cases process but the use of AI allows them to process cases faster “the Shenzhen Intermediate People’s Court said each judge in the city had handled an average of 744 cases in 2025 – up by 249 cases from the previous year.”[145]

=== '''Right to Reject Information, Clothing &amp; Human Exhibitions''' ===
In China people are bombarded with propaganda in a daily basis. As such it is virtually impossible to be free from unwanted content. In fact, one may not even realize they are ingesting content they do not want. China has a systemic practice of planting stories in the news and on social media. Furthermore, the government requires Chinese schools to incorporate propaganda into their lessons from the youngest of ages. Also, alarming is China’s oppression of religious clothing. Chief among these is China’s ban on certain Muslim garb in the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region. As such, people are prohibited from outwardly expressing what is most essential to their identity, their faith.

==== '''''Unwanted Content''''' ====
Do individuals in China have the power to reject unwanted content? In reality the answer is no. The Chinese government controls all forms of media in China and there is no way to really block this onslaught of propaganda. Somedays up to 30 percent of a newspapers content will be planted by the state.[146] A recent study showed that “state-scripted propaganda on newsstands is a near-daily phenomenon in China, with some form of scripted propaganda in the news around 90 percent of days. And, on average, at least one front-page article in party newspapers is planted by the state.”[147] While one could choose not to pick up a newspaper in China, for many this is their main source of information and a necessity. Other forms of media are subject to the same with researchers identifying “over 18,000 central or local government accounts on Douyin, China’s version of TikTok, that produce 5 million videos per year.” Notably “[t]he largest share of these accounts belongs to the public security apparatus (34%), followed by state media (24%) and propaganda organs (12%) at the county, city, provincial, or central level.”

In addition to media, the Chinese government requires schools to teach its chosen ideology. Namely, “Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory, the Theory of Three Represents, the Scientific Outlook on Development, and Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era.”[148] China recently introduced the Patriotic Education Law[149] which “mandates that love of the country and the ruling Chinese Communist Party be incorporated into work and study for everyone – from the youngest children to workers and professionals across all sectors.”[150] Article 15 states that “[s]chools at all levels and of all types shall provide coherent patriotic education throughout their curriculum, provide high-quality theoretical and political lessons, and integrate patriotic education into various subjects and textbooks.”[151]

Finally, Xuexi Qiangguo seeks to blend both media and education. Xuexi Qiangguo is an app run by the Chinese Communist Party that citizens are encouraged to download.[152] This app allows “users to see state media news reports, video chat with their friends, make a personal schedule and send ‘red envelopes’ of money to friends. The app comes with a Snapchat-like messaging function where messages disappear after being read.”[153] However,, the most important feature of the app is that it allows people to study Xi Jinping’s thought while taking quizzes and earning points. The app appears to hold political significance for the government because “[a] university in Zhejiang called on all party groups to use the app in order to form a ‘stronghold’ for Xi Jinping thought.[154] Moreover, some are reporting that “their employers are requiring them to score a certain number of points.”[155] Despite the app’s more lighthearted features, it’s “control models prioritize ideological content and get users to read specific information. This means that the Chinese state could transform the platform into a centralized communication model for manipulating information circulation and directing user behavior.”[156] A study shows that the app tracks President Xi’s political goals and helps promote them. For example, “the study channel recommended an online course about blockchain on October 25, 2019, since Xi Jinping announced the support for blockchain technology on October 24, 2019.”[157]

==== '''''Religious Clothing in China''''' ====
[[File:China Xinjiang Northern location map.svg|thumb|Xinjiang]]
In China, certain religious garb is subject to scrutiny. China has introduced “counterterrorism” laws that seek to “ban wearing long beards, full face coverings, and religious dress.”[158] These laws also ban “wearing clothes associated with ‘religious extremism.’ These regulations do not define ‘abnormal’ or ‘religious extremism.’”[159] The ban of Muslim women’s head garb has been particular prominence with “regional authorities outlaw[ing] Islamic veils from all public spaces in the regional capital of China’s Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR)… [the ban] empowers Chinese police to punish violators and dole out fines of up to… $800 for those who fail to enforce the prohibition.”[160] The Chinese Communist Party has sought to promote alternatives to these veils such as hats and braided hair. As part of this campaign, “XUAR officials launched ‘Project Beauty’ in 2011: a five-year, $8 million dollar campaign aimed at developing Xinjiang’s fashion and cosmetics industries while encouraging Muslim women to ‘look towards ‘modern’ culture’ by removing their veils.”[161]

=== '''References''' ===
----[1] Larry Catá Backer, ''Party, People, Government, and State: On Constitutional Values and the Legitimacy of the Chinese State-Party Rule of Law System'', Boston University International Law Journal, Vol. 30, 2012, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1977551.

[2] Chen, Albert H. Y., ''Constitutions, Constitutionalism and the Case of Modern China'', (February 1, 2022). Constitutionalism in Context, Available at SSRN: [https://ssrn.com/abstract=3027562&amp;#x20;or&amp;#x20;http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3027562 &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ssrn.com/abstract=3027562&lt;/nowiki&gt; or &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3027562&lt;/nowiki&gt;]

[3] XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, Preamble (China), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[4] XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 35 (China), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[5] XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 36 (China), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[6] XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 40 (China), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[7] ''See'' G.A. Res. 217 (III) A, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Dec. 10, 1948), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[8] Initiative for U.S.-China Dialogue on Global Issues, ''China and the UN Human Rights Regime'', Georgetown University (Feb. 28, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://uschinadialogue.georgetown.edu/events/china-and-the-un-human-rights-regime&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[9] UDHR art. 19.

[10] Yang, D.L., ''China’s Illiberal Regulatory State in Comparative Perspective''. Chin. Polit. Sci. Rev. '''2''', 114–133 (2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-017-0059-x&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[11] Congressional-Executive Commission on China'', Agencies Responsible for Censorship in'' China, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/agencies-responsible-for-censorship-in-china#:~:text=The%20Central%20Propaganda%20Department%20%5B%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1,reporting%20on%20politically%20sensitive%20topics&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[12] Id.

[13] Office of the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission, ''The Central Leading Group for Cybersecurity and Informatization was established: From a major cyber power to a leading cyber power.'', Cina Cyberspace Administration (Feb. 28, 2014), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cac.gov.cn/2014-02/28/c_126397488.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[14] Gabrielle Roper, ''What is the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC)?'', Chinafy (Jun. 2, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinafy.com/blog/what-is-the-cyberspace-administration-of-china-cac#:~:text=TL;DR:%20The%20Cyberspace%20Administration,fall%20short%20of%20legal%20requirements&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[15] Jamie P. Horsley, ''Behind the Facade of China’s Cyber Super-Regulator'', Stanford University (Aug. 8, 2022), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/behind-the-facade-of-chinas-cyber-super-regulator/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[16] ''NRTA Chief Emphasize Loyalty to the Party'', Chinascopehttps://chinascope.org/archives/19225

[17] Freedom House, ''supra''.

[18] ''Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT) (工业和信息化部)'', Thomson Reuters (Glossary), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/1-552-9335?transitionType=Default&amp;contextData=(sc.Default)&amp;firstPage=true&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[19] Xu Ke, Vicky Liu, Yan Luo &amp; Zhijing Yu, ''China's key enforcement agencies and lessons learned from recent actions'', iapp (Aug. 31, 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://iapp.org/news/a/chinas-key-enforcement-agencies-and-lessons-learned-from-recent-actions&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[20] Aris Teon, ''China’s Government Orders Removal of Douban and 105 Other Apps From App Stores'', China-Journal (Dec. 9, 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://china-journal.org/2021/12/09/china-government-orders-removal-of-douban-and-105-other-apps-from-app-stores/#:~:text=China's%20Government%20Orders%20Removal%20of,comply%20with%20the%20government's%20directives&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[21] Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (2016), Translation: Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (Effective June 1, 2017). Stanford University,

&lt;nowiki&gt;https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/translation-cybersecurity-law-of-the-peoples-republic-of-china-effective-june-1-2017/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[22] Freedom House, ''supra''.

[23] Order of the Cyberspace Administration of China (No. 5), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://wilmap.stanford.edu/entries/provisions-governance-online-information-content-ecosystem&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[24] ''U.N. Treaty Bodies and China'', Human Rights in China, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.hrichina.org/en/un-treaty-bodies-and-china&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[25] ''United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts'', Jun. 7, 2006, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://uncitral.un.org/en/texts/ecommerce/conventions/electronic_communications/status&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[26] ''Id.'', Preamble.

[27] ''Universal Copyright Convention, with Appendix Declaration relating to Article XVII and Resolution concerning Article XI'', Sep. 16, 1955, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/universal-copyright-convention-appendix-declaration-relating-article-xvii-and-resolution-concerning&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[28][28] Universal Copyright Convention, Article 1, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/universal-copyright-convention-appendix-declaration-relating-article-xvii-and-resolution-concerning&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[29] Yang, D.L., ''China’s Illiberal Regulatory State in Comparative Perspective''. Chin. Polit. Sci. Rev. 2, 114–133 (2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-017-0059-x&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[30] China, Reporters Without Borders, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://rsf.org/en/country/china&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[31] BBC News, ''China media guide'' (Aug. 22, 2023), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017881&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[32] safeguardDefenders'', Ownership and control of Chinese media'' (Jun. 14, 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://safeguarddefenders.com/en/blog/ownership-and-control-chinese-media&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[33] BBC, ''supra''.

[34] ''Id.''

[35] Conrad Chan, Anthony Dao, Justin Hou, Tony Jin, Calvin Tuong, ''Free speech vs Maintaining Social Cohesion A Closer Look at Different Policies'', Stanford University (2011), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/cs181/projects/2010-11/FreeExpressionVsSocialCohesion/china_policy.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[36] Sonali Chandel, Zang Jingji, Yu Yunnan, Sun Jingyao, Zhang Zhipeng, ''The Golden Shield Project of China: A Decade Later An in-depth study of the Great Firewall'', College of Engineering and Computing Sciences, New York Institute of Technology (2019).

[37] The Editorial Team, ''China imposes penalty to vessel using Starlink in its waters'', Saftery4Sea (Dec. 23, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://safety4sea.com/china-imposes-penalty-to-vessel-using-starlink-in-its-waters/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[38] Freedom House, ''supra''.

[39] Id.

[40] Cyberspace Administration of China, ''The national cybersecurity administrative law enforcement work was carried out solidly in the second quarter'' (Jul. 18, 2020), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cac.gov.cn/2020-07/21/c_1596879319813780.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;; ''see also'' Qiao Long; Editor: Hu Lihan; Web Editor: Rui Zhe, ''China shut down more than 2,000 websites in the second quarter, triggering another large-scale internet crackdown'', rfa (Jul. 24, 2020), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/yataibaodao/meiti/ql1-07242020062431.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[41] Freedom House, ''supra''.

[42] Id.

[43] Haiping Zheng, ''Regulating the Internet: China’s Law and Practice'', School of Law, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China (Jan. 4, 2013), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://content.scirp.org/pdf/blr_2013032615421340.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[44] DeLisle, Jacques, Avery Goldstein and Guobin Yang, ''The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era'', University of Pennsylvania (Jan. 16, 2014), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2379959&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[45] ''Id.''

[46] ''Id.''

[47] ''Id.''

[48] ''Id.''

[49] Reporters Without Borders, ''supra''.

[50] Leigh Hartman, ''In China, you can’t say these words'', ShareAmerica (Jun. 3, 2020), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://archive-share.america.gov/america.gov/in-china-you-cant-say-these-words/index.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[51] Ken Moritsugu, ''Tiananmen Square anniversary shows China's ability to suppress history'', PBS News (Jun. 4, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/tiananmen-square-anniversary-shows-chinas-ability-to-suppress-history#:~:text=Security%20was%20tight%20Wednesday%20around,gatherings%20can%20still%20take%20place&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[52] Arlene Getx, ''In record year, China, Israel, and Myanmar are world’s leading jailers of journalists'', Committee to Protect Journalists (Jan. 16, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://cpj.org/special-reports/in-record-year-china-israel-and-myanmar-are-worlds-leading-jailers-of-journalists/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[53]Sara L. Zeigler &amp; John R. Vile, ''William Blackstone'', Free Speech Center (Jan. 1, 2009), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://firstamendment.mtsu.edu/article/william-blackstone/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[54] Congressional-Executive Commission on China, ''Prior Restraints'', &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/prior-restraints&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[55] ''Id.''

[56] ''Id.''

[57] Regulations on the Administration of Publishing (2001.12.25), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/regulation-on-the-administration-of-publishing-chinese-and-english-text&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[58] Regulations on the Administration of Publishing (2001.12.25), Article 3, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/regulation-on-the-administration-of-publishing-chinese-and-english-text&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[59] Zehra Nur Duz, ''China jails 12 for illegal publications about party'', Ankara (Dec. 26, 2019), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877&lt;/nowiki&gt;?.

[60] ''Id.''

[61] Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10).

[62] Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3.

[63] ''Id.''

[64] ''Id.''

[65] ''Id.''

[66] BBC, ''Hong Kong national security law: What is it and is it worrying?'' (Mar. 18, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52765838&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[67] ''Id.''

[68] Ricardo Barrios, ''Hong Kong Under the National Security Law'', Congress.Gov (Nov. 15, 2023), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R47844&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[69] ''Id.''

[70] Sino-Russian Cybersecurity Agreement 2015, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://jsis.washington.edu/news/china-russia-cybersecurity-cooperation-working-towards-cyber-sovereignty/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[71] ''Id.''

[72] James A. Dorn, ''China Needs a Free Market for Ideas'', CATO Institute (Feb. 4, 2017), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cato.org/commentary/china-needs-free-market-ideas#:~:text=The%20lack%20of%20a%20free,of%20the%20Chinese%20Communist%20Party&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[73][73] Ge Chen, ''How China Curbs Free Speech Beyond Its Borders: Legal Strategies of Transnational Censorship'', J. Int'l Media &amp; Ent. L., 11(1), 1-41 (2025-26), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4621776&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

[74] Ning Wang, ''China’s Future and the Determining Role of the Market for Ideas'', CATO Journal (Vol. 37, No. 1, Winter 2017), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/cato-journal/2017/2/cj-v37n1-11.pdf#:~:text=A%20market%20for%20ideas%20flourished,the%20academies%20in%20ancient%20Greece&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[75] Heng-Fu Zou, ''A Free Market For Ideas In China'', The World Bank (April 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://down.aefweb.net/WorkingPapers/w664.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[76] Vincent K.L. Chang, ''China’s Memory Laws The Global Reach of Beijing’s Push to Juridify Memory'', Verfassungsblog (May 2, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://verfassungsblog.de/chinas-memory-laws/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[77] Guang Yang, ''China’s National Memory Laws and the War on Storytelling'', Australian Institute of International Affairs (May 3, 2023), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/chinas-national-memory-laws-and-the-war-on-storytelling/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. ''See also'' Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Heroes and Martyrs

中华人民共和国英雄烈士保护法, (adopted Apr. 27, 2018, effective May 1, 2018), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://npcobserver.com/legislation/heroes-and-martyrs-protection-law/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[78] Chang, ''supra''.

[79] Yan Lianke, ''China’s National Amnesia'', The Dial (Apr. 23, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.thedial.world/articles/news/issue-15/china-national-strategy-forgetting&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[80] Amnesty International, ''China: Further information: Two More Activists Detained for “June 4 Baijiu”'' (Jun. 21, 2016), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[81] ''Id.''

[82] Radio Free Asia, ''Court in China's Sichuan Jails Fourth Man Over Tiananmen Massacre Liquor'' (Apr. 4, 2019), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/liquor-04042019105951.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

[83] XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 36 (China).

[84] Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[85] Pew Research Center, 10 things to know about China’s policies on religion (Oct. 23, 2023),

&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/10/23/10-things-to-know-about-chinas-policies-on-religion/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[86] Economist, ''China wants to “sinicise” its Catholics'' (Nov. 22, 2022), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.economist.com/china/2022/11/22/china-wants-to-sinicise-its-catholics&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[87] Ian Johnson, ''China Is Reversing Its Crackdown on Some Religions, but Not All'', Council on Foreign Relations (May 14, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cfr.org/articles/china-reversing-its-crackdown-some-religions-not-all&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[88] ''Id.''

[89] Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[90] Article 5, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[91] Article 17, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[92] Article 6, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[93] Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[94] ''Id.''

[95] Wake Forest University, Timothy S. Y. Lam Museaum of Anthropology, ''History of Chinese New'' Year, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://lammuseum.wfu.edu/education/teachers/chinese-new-year/history-of-chinese-new-year/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[96] ''Id.''

[97] Kaysey A. Richardson, ''A Brief History of the Chinese New Year'', World Treasures (Jan. 27, 2022), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://worldtreasures.org/blog/a-brief-history-of-the-chinese-new-year&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[98] ''Id.''

[99] Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[100] Article 1, Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[101] Article 6, Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[102] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Periodic reporting on the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2004), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ich.unesco.org/en/periodic-reporting-00460&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[103] Tyler Arnold, ''China is Removing Crosses From Churches, Replacing Images of Christ With Xi Jinping'', The National Catholic Register (Oct. 1, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ncregister.com/cna/china-is-removing-crosses-from-churches-replacing-images-of-christ-with-xi-jinping&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[104] Martin Lavička, ''A New Round of Restrictions Further Constrains Religious Practice in Xinjiang'', China File (Apr. 19, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/new-round-of-restrictions-further-constrains-religious-practice-xinjiang&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[105] Article 26, 2024 Xinjiang Religious Affairs Regulations.

[106] The Cardinal Kung Foundation, ''Catholic Church in China, It Is Now Known As An Underground Church'',  &lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.cardinalkungfoundation.org/rc/RCrelfreedom.php&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[107] Union of Catholic Asian News, ''China's Catholic leaders vow to accelerate sinicization''''',''' &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ucanews.com/news/chinas-catholic-leaders-vow-to-accelerate-sinicization/98499&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[108] ''See'' Harriet Sherwood, ''Vatican signs historic deal with China – but critics denounce sellout'', The Guardian (Sep. 22, 2018), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/22/vatican-pope-francis-agreement-with-china-nominating-bishops&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[109] ''Id.''

[110] Michael Schmiesing, ''A Hidden Church in'' China, Catholic Answers (Dec. 12, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.catholic.com/magazine/online-edition/a-hidden-church-in-china&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[111] Aly Rothfus, ''Catholic Church in China Faces'' Crisis, The Irish Rover (Nov. 19, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://irishrover.net/2025/11/catholic-church-in-china-faces-crisis/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[112] Abhishank Mishra &amp; Ananya Sharma, ''China-Taiwan, and a Vatican'' conversion, the interpreter (Jul. 9, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/china-taiwan-vatican-conversion&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[113] Article 42, Religious Affairs Regulations 2017, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/religious-affairs-regulations-2017/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[114] Fenggang Yang, The Chinese House Church Goes Public, The University of Chicago | Divinity School (May 12, 2011), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://divinity.uchicago.edu/sightings/articles/chinese-house-church-goes-public-fenggang-yang&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[115] Megan Gates, ''The Rise of the Survellance'' State, Security Mangement (Jun. 1, 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.asisonline.org/security-management-magazine/monthly-issues/security-technology/archive/2021/june/The-Rise-of-The-Surveillance-State/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[116] Jessle Yeung, ''China’s censorship and surveillance were already intense. AI is turbocharging those systems'', CNN (Dec. 4, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cnn.com/2025/12/04/china/china-ai-censorship-surveillance-report-intl-hnk&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[117] Fergus Ryan, et al., ''The party’s AI How China’s new AI systems are reshaping human rights'', ASPI (dec. 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://aspi.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/27122307/The-partys-AI-How-Chinas-new-AI-systems-are-reshaping-human-rights.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;. ''See also'', Jinghe Fan, Xin Zhang, ‘Small, swift, and effective’ legislation in China: Towards adaptive governance of AI?, Computer Law &amp; Security Review, Volume 61, 2026, 106329, ISSN 2212-473X, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2026.106329&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[118] Gates, ''supra''.

[119] Sean Lyngaas &amp; Jim Sclutto, ''Suspected Chinese government operatives used ChatGPT to shape mass surveillance proposals, OpenAI says'', CNN (Oct. 7, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cnn.com/2025/10/07/politics/china-chatgpt-surveillance&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[120] Wayne Wei Wang ''et al'', ''Artificial Intelligence “Law(s)” in China: Retrospect and Prospect'', Part I, Journal of AI Law and Regulation (AIRe), Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 29-36, 2025 &amp; Part II, Journal of AI Law and Regulation (AIRe), Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 139-157, 2025, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=5039316&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[121] Rajendra Zaware, ''Data Privacy in Cryptocurrencies and Blockchain'', Infosys, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://blogs.infosys.com/emerging-technology-solutions/iedps/data-privacy-in-cryptocurrencies-and-blockchain.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[122] Jiye Hu, The Regulation of Cryptocurrency in China, China University of Political Science and Law, Business School; Business School (Apr. 25, 2023), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4423780&lt;/nowiki&gt;.  

[123] Richard Hoffman, ''China’s Cryptocurrency and Blockchain Regulatory Environment'', ECOVIS, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ecovis.com/focus-china/chinas-cryptocurrency/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[124] OxKira, ''Crypto in China: A 2025 guide to the crypto landscape'', Arham (Oct. 9, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://info.arkm.com/research/crypto-in-china-a-2025-guide-to-the-crypto-landscape&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[125] [125] Jiye Hu, The Regulation of Cryptocurrency in China, China University of Political Science and Law, Business School; Business School (Apr. 25, 2023), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4423780&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[126] Xiuhao, et al, ''China steps up crypto crackdown, will vet real-world asset tokens'', Reuters (Feb. 6, 2026), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/china-vows-tighten-virtual-currency-restrictions-2026-02-06/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[127] Prashant Jha, ''Five People Jailed in China Just for Moving USDT'', Yahoo! Finance (Oct. 29, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://finance.yahoo.com/news/five-people-jailed-china-just-080215125.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[128] ''Id.''

[129] Faari Labinjo, ''The Truth About China’s Crypto Ban: Adoption, Underground Markets and Billions in OTC Trading (2025–2026)'', DeFiPlanet (Mar. 17, 2026), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://defi-planet.com/2026/03/the-truth-about-chinas-crypto-ban-adoption-underground-markets-and-billions-in-otc-trading-2025-2026/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[130] ''Id.''

[131] Jeremy Mark, ''Why China’s digital currency threatens the country’s tech giants'', Atlantic Council (Jul. 15, 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/why-chinas-digital-currency-threatens-the-countrys-tech-giants/#:~:text=Unlike%20Bitcoin%20and%20other%20cyber,who%20attract%20the%20attention%20of&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[132] ''Id.''

[133] Working Group on E-CNY Research and Development of the People’s Bank of China, ''Progress of Research &amp; Development of E-CNY in China'' (July 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/server/api/core/bitstreams/8c1d1ea1-a8f7-402c-9f08-edf6863237bc/content&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[134] Robert Lemos, ''China Introduces National Cyber ID Amid Privacy Concerns'', Chinese Human Rights Defenders (Jul. 23, 2025),

&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.nchrd.org/2025/07/china-introduces-national-cyber-id-amid-privacy-concerns/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[135] Shane Yi &amp; Michael Caster, ''China: New Internet ID System a threat to online expression'', Article19 (Jun. 25, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.article19.org/resources/china-new-internet-id-system-a-threat-to-online-expression/&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[136] Lemos, ''supra''.

[137] Mercator Institute for China, ''China’s Handling of Biometric Data: Trends and Implications for Europe'' (Jun. 14, 2022), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://merics.org/en/events/chinas-handling-biometric-data-trends-and-implications-europe&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[138] Jianyu Zhou &amp; Jennifer Stevenson, ''Assessing Legal Protection of Biometric Data in China: Gaps, Principles, and Policy Recommendations'', St. Mary’s University (2022), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://commons.stmarytx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1776&amp;context=facarticles&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[139] Duke Travel Registry, ''Announcements: China now requires collection of biometric data upon arrival'', &lt;nowiki&gt;https://duke-travel.terradotta.com/index.cfm?FuseAction=Announcements.Announcement&amp;Announcement_ID=3026&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[140] Wahid Pessarlay, ''China blockchain=based ID experiment aims to stop data leaks'', Coingeek (Dec. 29, 2023), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://coingeek.com/china-blockchain-based-id-experiment-aims-to-stop-data-leaks/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[141] Tara Vasdani, Robot justice: China’s use of Internet courts, LexisNexis (Feb. 2020), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.lexisnexis.com/en-ca/ihc/robots-justice-chinas-use-of-internet-courts&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[142] ''Id.''

[143] ''Id''.

[144] Dory Reiling &amp; Straton Papagianneas, ''Lessons from China’s Smart Court Reform'', International Journal for Court Administration (2015), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.36745/ijca.679&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[145] William Zheg, ''AI helped Shenzhen judges handle cases 50% faster. Is this the future for China?'', South China Morning Post (May 4, 2026), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3352161/ai-helped-shenzhen-judges-handle-cases-50-faster-future-china&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

[146] University of Oregon, ''New research shows that propaganda is on the rise in'' China, (Apr. 2, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1079250&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[147] ''Id.''

[148] Article 6, Section 1, Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, &lt;nowiki&gt;http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[149] Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, &lt;nowiki&gt;http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[150] Chris Lau &amp; Simone McCarthy, ''China feels the country isn’t patriotic enough. A new law aims to change'' that, CNN (Jan. 6, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/06/china/china-patriotic-education-law-intl-hnk#:~:text=2%2C%202009.&amp;text=The%20new%20law%20also%20orders,subject%20to%20punishments%2C%20she%20said&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[151] Article 15, Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, 2023, &lt;nowiki&gt;http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[152] ''See'' Fan Liang, Yuchen Chen, Fangwei Zhao, ''The Platformization of Propaganda:How Xuexi Qiangguo Expands Persuasion and Assesses Citizens in China'', University of Michigan: International Journal of Communication (2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16484/3416&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[153] Lily Kuo &amp; Kate Lyons, China's most popular app brings Xi Jinping to your pocket, The Guardian (Feb. 15, 2019), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/15/chinas-most-popular-app-brings-xi-jinping-to-your-pocket&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[154] ''Id.''

[155] ''Id.''

[156] ''Supra'' Liang.

[157] ''Id.''

[158] U.S. Department of State, ''China (Includes Hong Kong, Macau, Tibet, and Xinjiang): Xinjian'', &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/xinjiang&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[159] ''Id.''

[160] Timothy Grose &amp; James Leibold, ''Why China Is Banning Islamic Veils'', ChinaFile (Feb. 4, 2015), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/why-china-banning-islamic-veils&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[161] ''Id.''
[[Category:Communication|Law in China]]
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      <text bytes="85186" sha1="0s610tviyp6xkxc5dhn1xxotc1lsvdc" xml:space="preserve">== '''Communications Law in China''' ==
[[File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|thumb|Flag of the People's Republic of China]]
Communication law in China is subject to a complex regulatory scheme. While the Constitution of China promises freedom of speech, the Chinese Communist Party enforces strict censorship, utilizes prior restraint, and attempts to block important ideas and concepts from the minds of the Chinese people. Chinese communication law impact everything from radio to religious dress and even digital assets. The Chinese regulatory scheme faces the complex challenge of keeping up with cutting edge methods of communications while ensuring dominance of the Chinese Communist Party.

=== '''Sources of Communications Law in China''' ===
China’s Constitution guarantees freedom of speech but it’s communication laws tell a different story. China has a sophisticated regulatory framework in place to govern communications in China. These regulatory bodies, in combination with wide reaching laws, have resulted in a nation whose communications are subject to review and approval by the single party in power.

==== '''''Constitution of the People’s Republic of China''''' ====
The key place to begin when approaching a countries approach to any form of law is their Constitution. The Chinese “[c]onstitution recognizes Marxism as the country’s leading ideology and the Communist Party the leading party.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Catá Backer|first=Larry|date=2012|title=Party, People, Government, and State: On Constitutional Values and the Legitimacy of the Chinese State-Party Rule of Law System|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1977551|journal=Boston University International Law Journal|volume=Vol. 30}}&lt;/ref&gt; Notably, “[t]he preamble deserves particular attention because China’s leadership has consistently placed great weight upon the ideological and expressive functions of the constitution and has used the preamble to identify and highlight its core commitments.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Albert|date=February 1, 2021|title=Constitutions, Constitutionalism and the Case of Modern China|url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=3027562 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3027562|journal=SSRN}}&lt;/ref&gt; The preamble lays out broad goals for the People’s Republic of China, it states that the Chinese people “will continue, under the leadership of the Communist Party of China and the guidance of Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory… to… improve socialist rule of law… and promote coordinated material, political, cultural-ethical, social and ecological advancement, in order to build China into a great modern socialist country.”&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, Preamble (China), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; This broad phrasing gives the party significant latitude. Furthermore, the Constitution has three key articles that address the issue of communications law. First, Article 35 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of speech, the press, assembly, association, procession and demonstration.”[4] Second, Article 36 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of religious belief.”[5] Third, Article 40 addresses correspondence:

Freedom and confidentiality of correspondence of citizens of the People’s Republic of China shall be protected by law. Except in cases necessary for national security or criminal investigation, when public security organs or procuratorial organs shall examine correspondence in accordance with procedures prescribed by law, no organization or individual shall infringe on a citizen’s freedom and confidentiality of correspondence for any reason.[6]

At least on paper, these articles are share some similarities to Articles 18, 19, and 20 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[7] However, at the United Nations Human Rights Convention, “China is increasingly vocal in defending its statist position and interpretation of human rights norms.”[8] Notably, the Constitution is missing several provisions such as freedom of thought, freedom of conscience, and “freedom to receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers” which are seen in the Universal Declaration.[9]

==== '''''National Regulatory Bodies''''' ====
[[File:汉口中共中央宣传部旧址.jpg|thumb|Former Site of the Central Propaganda Department of the Chinese Communist Party in Hankou]]
The regulatory scheme in China is complicated and grows out of a post-Mao era which “reconstituted the sinews of governance and especially sought to strengthen the government’s regulatory capacity while reducing the government’s direct intervention in state firms. In area after area, they have invoked ‘chaos’ or ‘turmoil’ to justify the need to strengthen or assert control.”[10] The Central Propaganda Department sets the ideology for Chinese communications regulatory bodies. It is “responsible for monitoring content to ensure that China's publishers, in particular its news publishers, do not print anything that is inconsistent with the Communist Party's political dogma.”[11] It accomplishes this by screening any writings that touch on politically sensitive issues, informing publishers what they can, and cannot, publish as well as what ideological viewpoint should be taken, and requiring editors and publishers to attend indoctrination sessions in order to ensure they publish from the desired viewpoint.[12]

The Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) reports to the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission which “Xi Jinping, General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the Central Military Commission, personally serve[s] as the group leader.”[13] As a result, the CAC “is China’s top authority on internet governance, overseeing data privacy, cybersecurity, and platform regulation. It is the primary regulator behind major laws such as the Cybersecurity Law (CSL), Data Security Law (DSL), and Personal Information Protection Law (PIPL).”[14] The CAC can issue “departmental rules, which are issued by State Council administrative agencies and are legally binding under China’s Legislation Law.”[15] A counterpart of the CAC is the National Radio and Television Administration (NRTA). The NRTA’s “main task is to censor the radio, film, and television industries.”[16] In 2021, the NRTA banned “nine types of banned content, including content that ‘endangers security,’ ‘slanders Chinese culture,’ or does not help youth ‘establish the correct world view.’”[17]

The Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT)[18] is charged with “regulating and managing China's telecommunications and software sectors, as well as the electronics and information technology manufacturing industries.” The MIIT “enforces regulations aligned with the CAC’s central tenets” The MIIT focuses on the providers and carriers themselves and enforces “cyber and data security rules against providers in the telecommunications and internet sector.”[19] For example, in December of 2021 MIIT found that over one hundred apps were in violation of China’s Personal Information Protection Law and Data Security Law.[20] As a result, they were removed from app stores.

==== '''''Key Communications Laws''''' ====
The Cybersecurity Law[21] is overseen by the CAC and seeks to “promote the healthy development of the informatization of the economy and society.” Article 6 of the Cybersecurity Law states that a goal of the law is to advocate for “sincere, honest, healthy and civilized online conduct; it promotes the dissemination of core socialist values, adopts measures to raise the entire society’s awareness and level of cybersecurity, and formulates a good environment for the entire society to jointly participate in advancing cybersecurity.” In 2015 the Cybersecurity Law “introduced fines and detentions of up to 15 days for telecommunications firms and internet service providers (ISP), as well as relevant personnel, who fail to restrict certain forms of content”.[22]

The CAC also handles the implementation of the Provisions on the Governance of the Online Information Content Ecosystem. Article 5 states “A network information content producer shall be encouraged to produce, copy and publish information containing the following: Publicizing the Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era…”[23]

Finally, China is part of a many international agreements pertaining to communications law. China is a member of the UN and a signatory to both the ICCPR and the ICESCR.[24] Additionally, in 2005 China signed the United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts.[25] The purpose of this agreement is “facilitating the use of electronic communications in international trade by assuring that contracts concluded and other communications exchanged electronically are as valid and enforceable as their traditional paper-based equivalents.”[26] Finally, China signed the Universal Copyright Convention in 1992.[27] The agreement “undertakes to provide for the adequate and effective, protection of the rights of authors and other copyright proprietors in literary, scientific and artistic works, including writings, musical, dramatic and cinematographic works, and paintings, engravings and sculpture.”[28]

=== '''Law and the Media in China''' ===
There are some that believe there are three aims of communication: truth, beauty, and dialogue. These aims are furthered by the elements of communications law. There are three such elements that are most relevant to China. First, the means of transmission. Second, the sender and receiver. Third, the message. These are most relevant to China because the government seeks to control all three. As a result, the three aims of communications: truth, beauty, and dialogue are threatened daily. Truth, because certain historical events and facts are banned. Beauty, because words are good, they allow us to think and develop our thoughts which is a beautiful thing for the human person. Finally, dialogue, because a person cannot say what they wish without fear of retaliation.

==== '''''The Means of Transmission''''' ====
The means of transmission of the message may include its code, channel, mode, and nature. However, “[a] major constraint on regulatory state building is the political environment in which Chinese regulators have had to operate. The Administration of Press, Publications, Radio, Film, and TV, for example, operate at the behest of Chinese Communist Party (CCP) organs, especially the CCP Central Committee Propaganda Department.”[29] In China television is regulated by the National Radio and Television Administration. Regarding the nature of the communications, “[t]he Propaganda Department of the Chinese Communist Party sends a detailed notice to all media every day that includes editorial guidelines and censored topics.”[30] Furthermore, the “[s]tate-run Chinese Central TV (CCTV) is China's largest media company.[31] The government released a statement summing up the CCTV’s main tasks.

Its principal responsibilities will be to propagate the theories, political line and policies of the Party; to plan and manage major propaganda reports; to organize the production of radio and television; to produce and broadcast premium radio and television products; to channel hot social topics; to strengthen and improve supervision by public opinion, to promote the integrated development of multimedia; to strengthen the building of international broadcasting capacity; to tell China’s story well.[32]

Furthermore, “[a]ll of China's 2,600-plus radio stations are state-owned”[33] as well as “around 1,900 newspapers. Each city has its own title, usually published by the local government, as well as a local Communist Party daily.”[34] As a result, the means and nature of the communications are subject to the government’s control.
[[File:Guess on China's Great Firewall Mechanism.png|thumb|'''Guess on China's Great Firewall Mechanism''']]
Internet censoring in China has been dubbed “the great firewall.” The Golden Shield Project’s aim is “to monitor and censor what can and cannot be seen through an online network in China.”[35] Popular sites such as “Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, WhatsApp, and Instagram are all blocked in the mainland.”[36] Furthermore, China has blocked the use of Starlink. In 2025 China penalized a foreign vessel after an inspection revealed the vessel employing Starlink had “continued transmitting data after entering Chinese territorial waters, in violation of national telecommunications and radio regulations.”[37] As a result, “[t]he long-standing blocks on international communications platforms have helped to enable the exponential growth of local services such as Tencent’s WeChat and Sina Weibo, which are subject to the government’s strict censorship demands.”[38] The regulatory agencies discussed above play a crucial role in maintaining the “great firewall”. For example, in 2017 MIIT banned the use of unlicensed VPNs. [39] Furthermore, in 2020 the CAC  “suspended 281 websites, and shut down 2,686 websites and 31,000 accounts” as well as 179,000 social media accounts. [40] Finally, “[i]n February 2021, authorities blocked the newly emerged mobile audio app Clubhouse, after thousands of users in China had flocked to the app to discuss detention camps in Xinjiang.”[41]

==== '''''The Sender and Receiver''''' ====
There are two key principles in this element of communications, namely, the centrality of the person and freedom. The principle of the centrality of the person holds that communications are for the human person, this is why human rights are so integral to communication law. In China, communications are for the government, or the centrality of the party. For example, “[t]housands of cyber-police watch the web and material deemed politically and socially sensitive is filtered. Blocked resources include Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and human rights sites.”[42] As opposed to fostering a government that supports the human person’s ability to attain truth and enter into dialogue, the government jealously protects access to information. This is seen in China’s restrictions on internet cafés where individuals may access the web. Startling, “between June and September 2002, the government shutdown 150,000 unlicensed Internet cafes. [today], police routinely ‘[raid]’ internet cafes to see whether there is any ‘illegal’ activity going on.”[43] The latter point is connected to the second key principle, freedom.

The principle of freedom in any communication holds that you are free to express your opinion and those who hear it will tolerate it. This principle has not found a permanent home in China historically. In 1898, following the Hundred Days Reform, “the dynasty imposed a general prohibition of privately published newspaper” for “spreading rumours and confusing the people’s thoughts.”[44] In 1927, the Guomindang built “a system of censorship boards and licensing obligations for films, radio, publications and newspapers.”[45] Starting in 1980, Deng Xiaoping, former Chairman of the Central Military Commission, further restricting freedom of communication. From then on, “political debate would be an intra-Party matter only, and official media were to be the mouthpiece of the Party.”[46] This time saw a growing administrative state taking control of the communications field by “laying the basis for the current regulatory structure by creating an administrative department to govern the print sector, and by centralizing licensing procedures.”[47] The introduction of the internet saw “central and local governments [establish] special Internet information management departments.”[48]

==== '''''The Message''''' ====
Within this element there is the key principle of objectivity and context. This principle holds that journalists, and other professions, ought to give the proper context when communicating and do so in as objective a manner as possible. In China, if a journalist wishes to obtain to renew their press cards they “must download the Study Xi, Strengthen the Country propaganda application that can collect their personal data.”[49] Furthermore, journalists and everyday citizens alike are restricted in how they can communicate their messages because certain words are banned. For example, no one cannot search for “dictatorship,” “Great Firewall of China,” or “Go, Hong Kong.”[50] China’s approach to Tiananmen Square Massacre is an example of the principle of objectivity and context. After the Chinese military killed possible thousands during a protest in 1989 the government has tried to “erase what it calls the ‘political turmoil’ of 1989 from the collective memory. It bans any public commemoration or mention of the June 4 crackdown, scrubbing references from the internet.”[51] In 2024, China was the top jailer of journalists in the world, holding 14% of the world’s journalists in their jails.[52]

=== '''Censorship &amp; Violent Content''' ===
China practices rigorous censorship in all forms of speech. A foundational principle of freedom of speech is that of no prior restraint which allows speech to enter the marketplace, and its issuer must deal with the consequences after the fact. This principle is not welcome in China. Related to this principal China’s justification for much of their prior restraint, national security. Most clearly demonstrated in the Hong Kong National Security Law, China has enforced expansive prior restraints on speech and jailed those who have attempted to speak out.
[[File:Hong Kong Protests P1240680 Umbrella revolution - protest in Nathan road, Hong Kong (15375576579).jpg|thumb|'''Hong Kong Protests''']]

==== '''''No Prior Restraint''''' ====
The principle of no prior restraint says that speech cannot be stopped before it takes place. Rather, one may say what they wish but may have to deal with the consequences after. This principle is well known in the West.

The liberty of the press is indeed essential to the nature of a free state: but this consists in laying no prior restraints upon publications, and not in freedom from censure for criminal matter when published. Every freeman has an undoubted right to lay what sentiments he pleases before the public: to forbid this, is to destroy the freedom of the press: but if he publishes what is improper, mischievous, or illegal, he must take the consequence of his own temerity.[53]

This principle ensures that ideas are free to enter the marketplace in nations that have chosen to adopt this concept, like the United States. However, China has not adopted this principle. Rather, China is diametrically opposed to the principle of no prior restraint. The Chinese government requires people to “ask the government's permission before they are allowed to publish.”[54] Moreover, “[t]he Communist Party has the right and the ability to screen works prior to publication, and stop publication of those works it finds objectionable.”[55] One of the main methods of enforcing prior restraints in China is their licensing scheme…” where “the government requires individuals to obtain a license, permit, or other authorization in order to legally engage in publishing.”[56] Such requirements ensure that the government approves of any speech before it can enter the marketplace.

A notable piece of Chinese legislation is the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing.[57] Article 3 of the Regulations states that “publishing businesses shall adhere to the path of serving the people and serving socialism, adhere to the guidance of Marxism, Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought and Deng Xiaoping Theory, and promulgate and accumulate scientific technology and cultural knowledge that is advantageous to economic development and social progress.”[58] This legislation requires that anything published in China aligns with their preferred thought. This is exactly what the marketplace of ideas sought to prevent. A healthy competition of ideas is best for humanity, not a forced set of ideas. A breach of the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing has grave consequences. In 2019 “[a] Chinese court slapped a dozen of people with varying jail terms for illegally publishing books related to the Communist Party of China.”[59] The Intermediate People's Court of Yueyang in Hunan province stated that “[t]he accused were convicted of violating state regulations by illegally reprinting and selling huge volumes of publications, which seriously endangered the social order and disrupted the legitimate publishing market.”[60]

Another important piece of legislation is the eloquently named Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications.[61] Article 3 of the Measures says that “[t]he scope of the important topics… shall be adjusted and promulgated by the General Administration of Press and Publication.”[62] Such important topics include “works and literature concerning any former or current leaders of the party ” ,[63] “topics which deal with maps of China's borders,”[64] and even “topics which deal with any significant historical matters or important historical figures in the history of the Chinese Communist Party.”[65] This legislation requires government approval prior to publishing on important topics. While the complete list of important topics is much longer these three are notable because they are meant to shape the way, one understands Chinese history and China’s place in the world. This dystopian law enforces not only a specific world view, like the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing, but also a specific understanding of China’s history and how they arrived at their present communist government. Thus, these measures bolster the Chinese Communist Party’s control over all speech in China.

==== '''''National Security''''' ====
The Chinese Party often censors speech under the pretense of protecting national security. An example occurred recently in Hong Kong. In 2020 China introduced the National Security Law (“NSL”) to Hong Kong. The NSL “criminalises anything considered as secession, which is breaking away from China; subversion, which is undermining the power or authority of the central government; terrorism, which is using violence or intimidation against people; and collusion with foreign or external forces.”[66] This Law has resulted in “[n]umerous pro-democracy news outlets in Hong Kong [being] shut down, including Lai's Apple Daily, which was known to be critical of the mainland Chinese leadership.”[67] For example, in 2021 “Hong Kong's national security police raided the offices of ''Stand News'' for suspected breaches of the NSL and separately arrested six senior staff members and one former senior staff member for conspiracy to publish seditious publications.”[68] The NSL has also impacted other forms of speech as shut down of the Tiananmen vigil in 2002 when “authorities announced they were closing Victoria Park—the traditional site of the Tiananmen vigil—citing ‘Police's observation that some people are using different channels to incite the participation of unauthorised assemblies’ and these assemblies' potential to affect ‘public safety and public order.’”[69] These alarming instances demonstrates China’s use of overbroad justifications, such as national security, to exert control over China and its special administrative regions. Finally, China’s desire for a tighter grip on information does not stop at its borders. In 2015 China signed the Sino-Russian Cybersecurity Agreement.[70] The agreement “has two key features: mutual assurance on non-aggression in cyberspace and language advocating cyber-sovereignty.”[71]

=== '''Truth, Honor, &amp; Tolerance''' ===
Chinese censorship has ensured that there is only one product to be bought and sold in the marketplace of ideas, the Chinese Communist Party’s. This booth peddles China’s view of history, as seen in their memory laws, and their chosen religions. China’s failure to encourage a marketplace of ideas has not only impacted freedom of expression in China but also hindered their economic and scientific growth. This limited marketplace extends to how certain historical events are seen. Finally, it is notable that China does allow the practice of religion in their Constitution, and to an extent in practice. However, examples such as the Chinese oppression of Muslims and requiring the Vatican to agree to bishop appointments demonstrates the fact that the Chinese Communist Party is firmly in control of this marketplace.

==== '''''The Marketplace of Ideas''''' ====
The marketplace of ideas is a western concept that has been adopted in the United States. The concept of the marketplace of ideas says that “[t]he best test of truth is the power of the thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market.” This concept is seen in robust public discourse, protests, debate, etc. These all further the belief that government should foster a lively discourse that allows everyone to choose which ideas they believe are best. This concept has not been adopted by China. Rather, “while China has increased economic freedom, it has protected the Party’s iron grip on power and suppressed freedom of expression — there is no free market for ideas. Without such a market, the Chinese people are subservient to the state and their range of choices limited.”[72] Chinese censorship is pervasive and leaves no stall at the marketplace of ideas uncaptured. For example, “significant amendments were made to both the [Constitution], further consolidating the dominant leadership of the CCP. While these changes were not explicitly centered on censorship, this strengthened power structure indirectly set the stage for a reshaped censorship framework, presenting an illiberal substance under a facade of legitimacy.”[73]

While the lack of a robust coemption of ideas certainly treads on individual rights, some also argue that it also limits China’s potential, “[b]ecause the freedom to supply ideas, choose ideas, and criticize ideas is severely limited, the creativity of the Chinese people is underutilized and their innovative potential undertapped.”[74] Furthermore, “without the freedom to think, speak, and innovate openly, China’s economic growth could stagnate” and as a result “lead to a lack of critical thinking and creativity, which are vital for addressing complex challenges and advancing technological and social innovation.”[75] China’s suppression of the market place of ideas not only violates individual rights but is likely harming both the Chinese economy and even society itself.

==== '''''Memory Laws''''' ====
For China “[t]here is only one correct interpretation of the national past, and it is the party-state – and the party-state alone – that promulgates and polices it.”[76] In 2018, after an incident where Chinese youths cosplayed as Japanese Imperial soldiers and took phots at a war monument in Shanghai, China passed the Heroes and Martyrs Protection Law.[77] This law “calls on citizens to ‘respect, study, and defend’ national heroes and criminalises their defamation.”[78] China’s use of memory laws, or selective history, has resulted in the erasure of historical events that are not flattering or supportive of the Chinese Communist Party. For example, in 2012 a professor teaching in Hong Kong “asked his class of more than forty students from China, all of whom were born in the 1980s, ‘Have any of you heard of June Fourth, Liu Binyan, or Fang Lizhi?’ However, the students simply gazed at one another in silence.”[79] As discussed, nowhere is this amnesia seen better than in the case of Tiananmen Square.

An example of such memory laws in action was seen in 2016 where a group of individuals who promoted liquor bottles that had labels commemorating June 4, 1989, the date of the Tiananmen Square Massacre.[80] One man was “criminally detained on suspicion of ‘inciting subversion of state power’ while [another] was detained on suspicion of ‘picking quarrels and provoking trouble.’”[81] In 2019, one of the men received a three and a half year sentence by a court in southwestern China.[82]

==== '''''Tolerance as Applied to Religion''''' ====
[[File:Cardinal Joseph Zen (2019).jpg|thumb|'''Cardinal Joseph Zen''']]
The Chinese Constitution explicitly allows for freedom of religion, Article 36 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of religious belief.”[83] The Chinese Embassy in South Africa published a paper on religious freedom stating “[r]eligious disputes are unknown in China. Religious believers and non-believers respect each other, are united and have a harmonious relationship.”[84] However, while China allows for the practice of religion, the Chinese Communist Party has worked to force religion to align with its worldview. As a result, “China is pursuing a policy of ‘Sinicization’ that requires religious groups to align their doctrines, customs and morality with Chinese culture.”[85] In 2018 the Vatican agreed to a deal with the Chinese Communist Party regarding the appointment of bishops. Following this “Cardinal Joseph Zen… said it would legitimise the Communist Party’s control over Chinese Catholics, and be like ‘giving the flock into the mouths of the wolves.’”[86] China’s concern with religions such as Islam and Christianity is not that they are new to China, they are not. Rather, “Muslims are part of Islam’s global ''umma'' (Arabic for ‘community’) of believers” and “Christians, meanwhile, are thought to have strong overseas ties either to the Vatican, for Catholics, or to overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia and the West, for Protestants in particular.”[87] As a result, China sees these religions as non-Chinese. Other religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, and folk religions the states are viewed as “so-called indigenous faiths.”[88] A key law impacting religious tolerance is the Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups.[89] Article 5 of the measures states that “[r]eligious groups must follow the leadership of the Communist Party of China… persist in the direction of sinification of religion[, and] practice the Core Socialist Values.”[90] Furthermore, under Article 6, “[r]eligious groups shall accept the supervision, oversight, and administration of people's governments religious affairs departments.”[91] Article 17 states that “[r]eligious groups shall publicize the Communist Party of] China's directives and policies.”[92] Finally, “[t]he legal protection of citizens' right to the freedom of religious belief in China is basically in accordance with the main contents of the concerned international documents and conventions in this respect.”[93] The Embassy goes on to list the following international agreements: the United Nations Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the International Convenient on Civil and Political Rights, the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, and the Vienna Declaration and Action Program.[94]

=== '''Cultural and Religious Expressions''' ===
[[File:Chinese New Year decorations in Chinatown, Singapore, 20240122 0852 2963.jpg|thumb|Chinese New Year decorations in Chinatown, Singapore]]
           In China there are many festivals and cultural events, with the Chinese New Year being the most famous and one of the oldest. This holiday is lauded as important for many reasons, but it is allowed because it promotes Chinese identity. Some religions, and religious symbols, do not receive an equally welcoming invite from the Chinese Communist Party. While religious worship is allowed theoretically, China has cracked down on the Church in China and on religious symbols.

==== '''''Festivals, The Chinese New Year or Spring Festival''''' ====
Feasts and festivals are thousands of years old. Key aspects of festivals include bringing people together, feasting over food, a reason to celebrate, and the symbolization of the shared joy. China has a long history of festivals. Perhaps the largest and most important is the Chinese New Year. The Chinese New Year is thousands of years old. It likely “originated in the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BC), when people held sacrificial ceremonies in honor of gods and ancestors at the beginning or the end of each year.”[95] This festival has become an integral part of the Chinese nation. However, Chinese Americans, and those around the world, can also be seen celebrating this festival. As a result, this festival is intimately intertwined with the Chinese identity.

There are many traditions that play critical roles in the Chinese New Year festival season. The legend of the Chinese New Year began with a mythical beast called Nian that would eat crops and people. Legend states “a wise old man figured out that Nian was scared of loud noises (firecrackers) and the color red. So, people put red lanterns and red scrolls on their windows and doors to stop Nian from coming inside. Crackling bamboo (later replaced by firecrackers) was lit to scare Nian away.”[96] The famous tradition of exchanging red envelopes began with the mythical beast Sui, who would scare children while they slept. As a result, “[e]lders began to give out red envelopes of coins to children for them to play with and keep them awake throughout the night.”[97] Furthermore, “round dumplings shaped like the full moon are shared as a symbol of the family unit and perfection.”[98] These traditions give the Chinese people tangible things to pass down to future generations. It is incredible to see how consistent these traditions have been, indicating how important they are to the Chinese people’s cultural expression.

A critical law in the area of cultural and religious expression in China is the Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage.[99] Under Article 1 of the Law, it’s stated purpose is  that “of inheriting and promoting the distinguished traditional culture of the Chinese nation, promoting the building of the socialist spiritual civilization and strengthening the protection and preservation of intangible cultural heritage.”[100] Article 6 of the law requires the local governments to “include the protection and preservation of intangible cultural heritage in the national economic and social development plans at their same levels and include the protection and preservation funding into the financial budgets.”[101] According to a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization report “[d]uring [Chiense New Year] in 2024, Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the PRC mobilized the whole country to widely carry out Spring Festival [Intangible Cultural Heritage] activities. A total of more than 45,400 ICH promotion and display activities were carried out nationwide.”[102]

==== '''''Religious Symbols''''' ====
While religious exercise is allowed in China to some extent, the display of certain items has come under attack. According to a recent report, “Chinese officials have ordered the removal of crosses from churches and have replaced images of Christ and the Virgin Mary with images of President Xi Jinping”.[103] Furthermore, “new rules to ensure that sites of religious worship, like mosques, look adequately “Chinese,” and to mandate the cultivation of “patriotic” religious leaders.”[104] Article 26 of the 2024 Xinjiang Religious Affairs Regulations states that “Religious activity sites that are newly built, renovated, expanded, or rebuilt should reflect Chinese characteristics and style in terms of architecture, sculptures, paintings, decorations, etc.”[105] These actions indicate the Chinese Communist Parties attempt to more deeply accelerate sinicization.

==== '''''The Church in China''''' ====
[[File:20251016 Shangqiu Catholic Church 04.jpg|thumb|Shangqiu Catholic Church]]
In China there are two faces to the Catholic Church. The first is the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (the “CCPA”). The CCPA is obedient to the “the State Council's Religious Affairs Bureau, which is an agency under the United Front Department of the Communist Party. It does not recognize the supreme administrative, legislative, and judicial authority of the Pope.”[106] The second face is the “Underground Catholic Church” which is not governed by the Chinese Communist Party. Recently, the CCPA held the 10th National Congress of Catholicism in China. The CCPA “delegates also unanimously accepted the Work Report of the 9th Standing Committee on Church efforts and activities in the promotion of patriotism, socialism, and sinicization in the Catholic Church as outlined by President Xi Jinping.”[107] Opposed to the CCPA are the underground Church leaders like Cardinal Joseph Zen. Cardinal Zen is critical of the Chinese persecution of Catholics and heavily criticized the 2018 deal the Vatican made with China which requires Chinese approval of bishops.[108] Regarding the deal, Cardinal Zen stated that “[t]hey’re [sending] the flock into the mouths of the wolves. It’s an incredible betrayal.”[109] In China it is “illegal for the priest to instruct the children of the parish in the Faith or give them any materials to read.”[110] Moreover, “minors are not allowed to attend the Mass in some areas of China.”[111] Finally, it must be noted that the Holy See does not recognize the Chinese communist Party as the leader of China. Rather, “the Vatican has maintained formal diplomatic relations with Taiwan.”[112]

As discussed above, China has set a clear policy goal of maintaining, celebrating, and promulgating traditional Chinese festivals to the public. Religious festivals do not enjoy the same support. Article 42 of the Religious Affairs Regulations 2017 provides that “[w]here a large-scale religious activity is held that is beyond the accommodation capacity of a religious activity site the religious group… sponsoring the activity shall, 30 days before the activity is to be held, submit an application to the religious affairs department of the people’s government for the province.”[113] On Easter Sunday 2011, a [c]hurch in Beijing planned to hold an outdoor worship service in a plaza amid high-rise office and commercial buildings. However the police sealed off the plaza and dispelled gathering congregants… Thirty six of the congregants were taken to police stations for interrogation.”[114]

=== '''Privacy and Data Protection''' ===
Our private thoughts and actions are intimate to who we are as people. However, in China, the government wishes to be included in that inner circle. They seek to accomplish this by a program of mass surveillance. While artificial intelligence has been an incredible breakthrough for the world it has also been taken advantage of by nefarious actors. Chief among these is perhaps China. China has employed artificial intelligence to better control its citizens and ensure compliance. Another technology breakthrough, cryptocurrency, has had mixed reactions from China. Cryptocurrency allows transactions to be kept private, a no-go for the Chinese Communist Party. As a result, China has banned cryptocurrency use.

==== '''''Mass Surveillance and Artificial Intelligence''''' ====
It is no surprise that China is renowned for its mass surveillance. Citizens are watched almost constantly to ensure compliance with the Chinese Communist Party’s ideals. In fact the “[p]eople in China are among the most surveilled in the world, taking 16 of the top 20 spots on the most surveilled cities list based on the number of cameras per 1,000 people in an annual assessment.”[115] Moreover, “documents from one Shanghai district detail plans for AI-powered cameras and drones to ‘automatically discover and intelligently enforce the law,’ including potentially alerting police to crowd gatherings.”[116] China has also begun using artificial intelligence in satellite surveillance, “China is deploying AI-enabled Sun-synchronous satellites over regions that the CCP views as politically sensitive, including Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, Hong Kong and Macau.”[117] In the Xinjiang region China uses mobile apps, biometric data, and artificial intelligence to monitor millions of Muslims.[118] The use of artificial intelligence is not limited to technical uses. China has begun using artificial intelligence to help it draft policies, “[i]n one case, a ChatGPT user ‘likely connected to a [Chinese] government entity’ asked the AI model to help write a proposal for a tool that analyzes the travel movements and police records of the Uyghur minority— a Turkic-speaking, predominantly Muslim ethnic minority—and other ‘high-risk’ people, according to the OpenAI report.”[119] The use of artificial intelligence in China is alarming. While surveillance in Chian has grown alongside technology since the Chinese Communist Party took power, the introduction of artificial intelligence is the biggest leap that has yet to occur. Moreover, the “CAC’s approach to regulating AI or algorithms is centered on the regime of Algorithm Registry. Providers of certain recommendation algorithms, deep synthesis, and generative AI technologies must register detailed information with the CAC before offering services in China.”[120]

==== '''''Cryptocurrency in China''''' ====
If someone were to analyze an individual’s last year of credit card transactions it is likely one could learn quite a bit about them. For a mass surveillance state like China this is appealing. As a result, cryptocurrencies present an issue for China. Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum use a technology called blockchain that acts as a digital ledger of transactions. This allows individuals to exchange value without the need of an intermediary like a bank. These blockchains enhance “transactional privacy by removing the need for users to reveal their real identities. Confidential transactions and encryption techniques ensure only the involved parties know the details. Zero-knowledge proofs, ring signatures, and stealth addresses advances further strengthen privacy.”[121] As a result, while all transactions on the blockchain are visible, the identity of who made the transaction is private unless shared.

Importantly, “China’s central bank defined Cryptocurrency as a specified virtual commodity. This legal attribute is not clear, which brings difficulties in consumer protection and criminal identification.”[122] China was renowned for its large cryptocurrency market and “[p]rior to 2017, China had the world’s largest cryptocurrency market—with 80% of Bitcoin, the world’s leading digital coin, transactions conducted in yuan.”[123] However, after years of increasing restrictions, China banned cryptocurrency trading and mining in 2021.[124] This time period saw a flurry of laws implemented regarding digital assets and crypto currencies, “[o]n January 1, 2020, the ‘Cryptography Law of the People’s Republic of China’ came into effect. ‘Data Security Law’ was adopted on June 10, 2021, and ‘Personal Information Protection Law’ was adopted on August 20, 2021.”[125] The People’s Bank of China “warned financial institutions against providing banking and clearing services to virtual currency-related businesses.”[126] This warning has not been without teeth. In 2025 a Chinese court convicted five people of transacting more than $160 million worth of cryptocurrency.[127] The court said that these individuals “violated China’s Anti-Money Laundering Law and Foreign Exchange Administration Regulations, both of which prohibit unauthorized cross-border fund transfers.”[128]
[[File:E-CNY logo.svg|thumb|E-CNY logo]]
While these penalties are steep, people in China have persisted in using cryptocurrencies to ensure their transactions remain private. Reports indicate “that there are still around 59 million crypto users in China as of 2025. That is roughly 10% of the global crypto user base, even though most users must operate outside official channels.”[129] Interestingly, “[w]hile private cryptocurrencies face heavy restrictions, China has fully embraced its own central bank digital currency (CBDC) known as the digital yuan (e-CNY). By late 2025, e-CNY platforms had processed over 14.2 trillion yuan in transactions and were used by more than 260 million wallets.”[130] While this may seem contradictory at first, there is a strategy. Banning cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin ensures private transactions will not occur. Introducing the digital yuan, which is subject to surveillance, will allow China to “create a mechanism through which the government can access reams of digital data that may prove helpful to Beijing in the global race to develop artificial intelligence.”[131]  To that end, “[u]nlike Bitcoin and other cyber currencies, all digital-yuan users will register with the [People's Bank of China] under a system described by government officials as “controllable anonymity,’ which will give the government the ability to track illicit transactions and presumably the activities of citizens who attract the attention of security services”[132]

Other reasons for adopting the digital yuan include payment efficiency, increased state oversight and support of the yuan as a strategy tool. According to a 2021 report by the working group for the e-CNY, “the issuance of e-CNY will fully meet the public’s daily payment needs, further improve the efficiency of the retail payment system and reduce the cost of retail payment.”[133]

=== '''Right to Bodily, Spiritual and Digital Identity''' ===
An individual’s identity is the essence of who they are and what they believe. In our digital age people have taken on digital identities. In many parts of the world people cannot get by without a digital identity. China is currently attempting to enroll its citizenry in a government issues digital identity. This identity will allow China to compile all enrollees’ personal information. On the other side of the identity coin, China has also sought to compile massive amount of biometric date such as DNA and facial recognition. These data collections have also been extended to individuals visiting China.

==== '''''Digital Identity''''' ====
In a world that has become intensely digital it makes sense that we humans would take on digital identities. These identities are demonstrated by social media, bank accounts, online use, and more. We use these identities to interact with other humans in the digital world. The Chinese government has introduced the National Online Identity Authentication Public Service. This is a “government-controlled digital identity system [which] will allow citizens to register by providing official government documents and then will shield their information from Internet services.”[134] Chinese authorities say “that the new measure intends to establish a trusted digital identity framework within the public service infrastructure.”[135] However, “[t]he Chinese government has not provided details about how the system is constructed or the policies in place to protect the data from misuse… for digital-rights activists, the danger is clear.”[136] The digital identity offered by China is proffered under the guise of ease of use. However, in exchange for this ease, Chinese citizens will need to give over intimate personal information to the government. While the program is optional for now it is possible necessary resources online could soon require one to obtain a government controlled digital identity.

==== '''''Biometric Data''''' ====
Despite the increasing importance of the digital identity and personal digital information, there is still information about ourselves that is intimate. Biometric data includes things like DNA, fingerprints, and even voice scans. In China “legislation and regulation are carefully crafted to give public security organs broad powers to harvest and use biometric data in conjunction with the performance of their law enforcement and national security duties.”[137] A main biometric tool used by the Chinese government is facial recognition which “is deployed to identify citizens for law enforcement purposes, such as performing identity verification at airports, train stations, or specific public areas, and for commercial purposes to enhance business operations’ efficiency.”[138] Such collections are not limited to Chinese citizens however. China has begun requiring foreign nationals “to submit their fingerprints and undergo a facial scan at self-help kiosks at their port of entry to the People's Republic of China. These self-help kiosks will issue a receipt once your biometric data is received and that receipt must be given to the border inspector for verification as part of the entry process.”[139] Finally, China has recently combined blockchain technology with biometric data, “the new digital ID service stores cryptographic keys on-chain after a real-name verification process. According to reports, the system authenticates users’ legal name, facial recognition, and government ID before allowing users to create an infinite number of public-private key pairs to register on online platforms.”[140]

==== '''''AI-Generated Personas''''' ====
           China has taken the concept of AI-generated personas to the next level with the creation of AI judges. Since 2019, millions of legal cases of been decided by these “smart courts” or “internet courts”. These courts make use of “non-human judges, powered by artificial intelligence (AI) and allows participants to register their cases online and resolve their matters via a digital court hearing.”[141] These courts have decided cases on various topics such as “intellectual property, e-commerce, financial disputes related to online conduct, loans acquired or performed online, domain name issues, property and civil rights cases involving the Internet, product liability arising from online purchases and certain administrative disputes.”[142] The “judge” appears “by hologram and are artificial creations — there is no real judge present. The holographic judge looks like a real person but is a synthesized, 3D image of different judges, and sets schedules, asks litigants questions, takes evidence and issues dispositive rulings.”[143] In addition to efficiency, there are other motives at play behind these smart courts, party control. Interestingly, these “[s]mart courts allow the party to intervene in court decisions without upending the entire normative system by automatically detecting and filtering cases that require political intervention.”[144] Judges are still involved in the cases process but the use of AI allows them to process cases faster “the Shenzhen Intermediate People’s Court said each judge in the city had handled an average of 744 cases in 2025 – up by 249 cases from the previous year.”[145]

=== '''Right to Reject Information, Clothing &amp; Human Exhibitions''' ===
In China people are bombarded with propaganda in a daily basis. As such it is virtually impossible to be free from unwanted content. In fact, one may not even realize they are ingesting content they do not want. China has a systemic practice of planting stories in the news and on social media. Furthermore, the government requires Chinese schools to incorporate propaganda into their lessons from the youngest of ages. Also, alarming is China’s oppression of religious clothing. Chief among these is China’s ban on certain Muslim garb in the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region. As such, people are prohibited from outwardly expressing what is most essential to their identity, their faith.

==== '''''Unwanted Content''''' ====
Do individuals in China have the power to reject unwanted content? In reality the answer is no. The Chinese government controls all forms of media in China and there is no way to really block this onslaught of propaganda. Somedays up to 30 percent of a newspapers content will be planted by the state.[146] A recent study showed that “state-scripted propaganda on newsstands is a near-daily phenomenon in China, with some form of scripted propaganda in the news around 90 percent of days. And, on average, at least one front-page article in party newspapers is planted by the state.”[147] While one could choose not to pick up a newspaper in China, for many this is their main source of information and a necessity. Other forms of media are subject to the same with researchers identifying “over 18,000 central or local government accounts on Douyin, China’s version of TikTok, that produce 5 million videos per year.” Notably “[t]he largest share of these accounts belongs to the public security apparatus (34%), followed by state media (24%) and propaganda organs (12%) at the county, city, provincial, or central level.”

In addition to media, the Chinese government requires schools to teach its chosen ideology. Namely, “Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory, the Theory of Three Represents, the Scientific Outlook on Development, and Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era.”[148] China recently introduced the Patriotic Education Law[149] which “mandates that love of the country and the ruling Chinese Communist Party be incorporated into work and study for everyone – from the youngest children to workers and professionals across all sectors.”[150] Article 15 states that “[s]chools at all levels and of all types shall provide coherent patriotic education throughout their curriculum, provide high-quality theoretical and political lessons, and integrate patriotic education into various subjects and textbooks.”[151]

Finally, Xuexi Qiangguo seeks to blend both media and education. Xuexi Qiangguo is an app run by the Chinese Communist Party that citizens are encouraged to download.[152] This app allows “users to see state media news reports, video chat with their friends, make a personal schedule and send ‘red envelopes’ of money to friends. The app comes with a Snapchat-like messaging function where messages disappear after being read.”[153] However,, the most important feature of the app is that it allows people to study Xi Jinping’s thought while taking quizzes and earning points. The app appears to hold political significance for the government because “[a] university in Zhejiang called on all party groups to use the app in order to form a ‘stronghold’ for Xi Jinping thought.[154] Moreover, some are reporting that “their employers are requiring them to score a certain number of points.”[155] Despite the app’s more lighthearted features, it’s “control models prioritize ideological content and get users to read specific information. This means that the Chinese state could transform the platform into a centralized communication model for manipulating information circulation and directing user behavior.”[156] A study shows that the app tracks President Xi’s political goals and helps promote them. For example, “the study channel recommended an online course about blockchain on October 25, 2019, since Xi Jinping announced the support for blockchain technology on October 24, 2019.”[157]

==== '''''Religious Clothing in China''''' ====
[[File:China Xinjiang Northern location map.svg|thumb|Xinjiang]]
In China, certain religious garb is subject to scrutiny. China has introduced “counterterrorism” laws that seek to “ban wearing long beards, full face coverings, and religious dress.”[158] These laws also ban “wearing clothes associated with ‘religious extremism.’ These regulations do not define ‘abnormal’ or ‘religious extremism.’”[159] The ban of Muslim women’s head garb has been particular prominence with “regional authorities outlaw[ing] Islamic veils from all public spaces in the regional capital of China’s Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR)… [the ban] empowers Chinese police to punish violators and dole out fines of up to… $800 for those who fail to enforce the prohibition.”[160] The Chinese Communist Party has sought to promote alternatives to these veils such as hats and braided hair. As part of this campaign, “XUAR officials launched ‘Project Beauty’ in 2011: a five-year, $8 million dollar campaign aimed at developing Xinjiang’s fashion and cosmetics industries while encouraging Muslim women to ‘look towards ‘modern’ culture’ by removing their veils.”[161]

=== '''References''' ===
----[1] Larry Catá Backer, ''Party, People, Government, and State: On Constitutional Values and the Legitimacy of the Chinese State-Party Rule of Law System'', Boston University International Law Journal, Vol. 30, 2012, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1977551.

[2] Chen, Albert H. Y., ''Constitutions, Constitutionalism and the Case of Modern China'', (February 1, 2022). Constitutionalism in Context, Available at SSRN: [https://ssrn.com/abstract=3027562&amp;#x20;or&amp;#x20;http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3027562 &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ssrn.com/abstract=3027562&lt;/nowiki&gt; or &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3027562&lt;/nowiki&gt;]

[3] XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, Preamble (China), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[4] XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 35 (China), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[5] XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 36 (China), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[6] XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 40 (China), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[7] ''See'' G.A. Res. 217 (III) A, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Dec. 10, 1948), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[8] Initiative for U.S.-China Dialogue on Global Issues, ''China and the UN Human Rights Regime'', Georgetown University (Feb. 28, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://uschinadialogue.georgetown.edu/events/china-and-the-un-human-rights-regime&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[9] UDHR art. 19.

[10] Yang, D.L., ''China’s Illiberal Regulatory State in Comparative Perspective''. Chin. Polit. Sci. Rev. '''2''', 114–133 (2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-017-0059-x&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[11] Congressional-Executive Commission on China'', Agencies Responsible for Censorship in'' China, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/agencies-responsible-for-censorship-in-china#:~:text=The%20Central%20Propaganda%20Department%20%5B%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1,reporting%20on%20politically%20sensitive%20topics&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[12] Id.

[13] Office of the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission, ''The Central Leading Group for Cybersecurity and Informatization was established: From a major cyber power to a leading cyber power.'', Cina Cyberspace Administration (Feb. 28, 2014), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cac.gov.cn/2014-02/28/c_126397488.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[14] Gabrielle Roper, ''What is the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC)?'', Chinafy (Jun. 2, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinafy.com/blog/what-is-the-cyberspace-administration-of-china-cac#:~:text=TL;DR:%20The%20Cyberspace%20Administration,fall%20short%20of%20legal%20requirements&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[15] Jamie P. Horsley, ''Behind the Facade of China’s Cyber Super-Regulator'', Stanford University (Aug. 8, 2022), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/behind-the-facade-of-chinas-cyber-super-regulator/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[16] ''NRTA Chief Emphasize Loyalty to the Party'', Chinascopehttps://chinascope.org/archives/19225

[17] Freedom House, ''supra''.

[18] ''Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT) (工业和信息化部)'', Thomson Reuters (Glossary), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/1-552-9335?transitionType=Default&amp;contextData=(sc.Default)&amp;firstPage=true&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[19] Xu Ke, Vicky Liu, Yan Luo &amp; Zhijing Yu, ''China's key enforcement agencies and lessons learned from recent actions'', iapp (Aug. 31, 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://iapp.org/news/a/chinas-key-enforcement-agencies-and-lessons-learned-from-recent-actions&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[20] Aris Teon, ''China’s Government Orders Removal of Douban and 105 Other Apps From App Stores'', China-Journal (Dec. 9, 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://china-journal.org/2021/12/09/china-government-orders-removal-of-douban-and-105-other-apps-from-app-stores/#:~:text=China's%20Government%20Orders%20Removal%20of,comply%20with%20the%20government's%20directives&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[21] Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (2016), Translation: Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (Effective June 1, 2017). Stanford University,

&lt;nowiki&gt;https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/translation-cybersecurity-law-of-the-peoples-republic-of-china-effective-june-1-2017/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[22] Freedom House, ''supra''.

[23] Order of the Cyberspace Administration of China (No. 5), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://wilmap.stanford.edu/entries/provisions-governance-online-information-content-ecosystem&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[24] ''U.N. Treaty Bodies and China'', Human Rights in China, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.hrichina.org/en/un-treaty-bodies-and-china&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[25] ''United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts'', Jun. 7, 2006, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://uncitral.un.org/en/texts/ecommerce/conventions/electronic_communications/status&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[26] ''Id.'', Preamble.

[27] ''Universal Copyright Convention, with Appendix Declaration relating to Article XVII and Resolution concerning Article XI'', Sep. 16, 1955, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/universal-copyright-convention-appendix-declaration-relating-article-xvii-and-resolution-concerning&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[28][28] Universal Copyright Convention, Article 1, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/universal-copyright-convention-appendix-declaration-relating-article-xvii-and-resolution-concerning&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[29] Yang, D.L., ''China’s Illiberal Regulatory State in Comparative Perspective''. Chin. Polit. Sci. Rev. 2, 114–133 (2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-017-0059-x&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[30] China, Reporters Without Borders, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://rsf.org/en/country/china&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[31] BBC News, ''China media guide'' (Aug. 22, 2023), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017881&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[32] safeguardDefenders'', Ownership and control of Chinese media'' (Jun. 14, 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://safeguarddefenders.com/en/blog/ownership-and-control-chinese-media&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[33] BBC, ''supra''.

[34] ''Id.''

[35] Conrad Chan, Anthony Dao, Justin Hou, Tony Jin, Calvin Tuong, ''Free speech vs Maintaining Social Cohesion A Closer Look at Different Policies'', Stanford University (2011), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/cs181/projects/2010-11/FreeExpressionVsSocialCohesion/china_policy.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[36] Sonali Chandel, Zang Jingji, Yu Yunnan, Sun Jingyao, Zhang Zhipeng, ''The Golden Shield Project of China: A Decade Later An in-depth study of the Great Firewall'', College of Engineering and Computing Sciences, New York Institute of Technology (2019).

[37] The Editorial Team, ''China imposes penalty to vessel using Starlink in its waters'', Saftery4Sea (Dec. 23, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://safety4sea.com/china-imposes-penalty-to-vessel-using-starlink-in-its-waters/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[38] Freedom House, ''supra''.

[39] Id.

[40] Cyberspace Administration of China, ''The national cybersecurity administrative law enforcement work was carried out solidly in the second quarter'' (Jul. 18, 2020), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cac.gov.cn/2020-07/21/c_1596879319813780.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;; ''see also'' Qiao Long; Editor: Hu Lihan; Web Editor: Rui Zhe, ''China shut down more than 2,000 websites in the second quarter, triggering another large-scale internet crackdown'', rfa (Jul. 24, 2020), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/yataibaodao/meiti/ql1-07242020062431.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[41] Freedom House, ''supra''.

[42] Id.

[43] Haiping Zheng, ''Regulating the Internet: China’s Law and Practice'', School of Law, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China (Jan. 4, 2013), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://content.scirp.org/pdf/blr_2013032615421340.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[44] DeLisle, Jacques, Avery Goldstein and Guobin Yang, ''The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era'', University of Pennsylvania (Jan. 16, 2014), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2379959&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[45] ''Id.''

[46] ''Id.''

[47] ''Id.''

[48] ''Id.''

[49] Reporters Without Borders, ''supra''.

[50] Leigh Hartman, ''In China, you can’t say these words'', ShareAmerica (Jun. 3, 2020), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://archive-share.america.gov/america.gov/in-china-you-cant-say-these-words/index.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[51] Ken Moritsugu, ''Tiananmen Square anniversary shows China's ability to suppress history'', PBS News (Jun. 4, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/tiananmen-square-anniversary-shows-chinas-ability-to-suppress-history#:~:text=Security%20was%20tight%20Wednesday%20around,gatherings%20can%20still%20take%20place&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[52] Arlene Getx, ''In record year, China, Israel, and Myanmar are world’s leading jailers of journalists'', Committee to Protect Journalists (Jan. 16, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://cpj.org/special-reports/in-record-year-china-israel-and-myanmar-are-worlds-leading-jailers-of-journalists/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[53]Sara L. Zeigler &amp; John R. Vile, ''William Blackstone'', Free Speech Center (Jan. 1, 2009), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://firstamendment.mtsu.edu/article/william-blackstone/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[54] Congressional-Executive Commission on China, ''Prior Restraints'', &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/prior-restraints&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[55] ''Id.''

[56] ''Id.''

[57] Regulations on the Administration of Publishing (2001.12.25), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/regulation-on-the-administration-of-publishing-chinese-and-english-text&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[58] Regulations on the Administration of Publishing (2001.12.25), Article 3, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/regulation-on-the-administration-of-publishing-chinese-and-english-text&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[59] Zehra Nur Duz, ''China jails 12 for illegal publications about party'', Ankara (Dec. 26, 2019), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877&lt;/nowiki&gt;?.

[60] ''Id.''

[61] Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10).

[62] Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3.

[63] ''Id.''

[64] ''Id.''

[65] ''Id.''

[66] BBC, ''Hong Kong national security law: What is it and is it worrying?'' (Mar. 18, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52765838&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[67] ''Id.''

[68] Ricardo Barrios, ''Hong Kong Under the National Security Law'', Congress.Gov (Nov. 15, 2023), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R47844&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[69] ''Id.''

[70] Sino-Russian Cybersecurity Agreement 2015, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://jsis.washington.edu/news/china-russia-cybersecurity-cooperation-working-towards-cyber-sovereignty/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[71] ''Id.''

[72] James A. Dorn, ''China Needs a Free Market for Ideas'', CATO Institute (Feb. 4, 2017), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cato.org/commentary/china-needs-free-market-ideas#:~:text=The%20lack%20of%20a%20free,of%20the%20Chinese%20Communist%20Party&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[73][73] Ge Chen, ''How China Curbs Free Speech Beyond Its Borders: Legal Strategies of Transnational Censorship'', J. Int'l Media &amp; Ent. L., 11(1), 1-41 (2025-26), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4621776&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

[74] Ning Wang, ''China’s Future and the Determining Role of the Market for Ideas'', CATO Journal (Vol. 37, No. 1, Winter 2017), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/cato-journal/2017/2/cj-v37n1-11.pdf#:~:text=A%20market%20for%20ideas%20flourished,the%20academies%20in%20ancient%20Greece&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[75] Heng-Fu Zou, ''A Free Market For Ideas In China'', The World Bank (April 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://down.aefweb.net/WorkingPapers/w664.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[76] Vincent K.L. Chang, ''China’s Memory Laws The Global Reach of Beijing’s Push to Juridify Memory'', Verfassungsblog (May 2, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://verfassungsblog.de/chinas-memory-laws/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[77] Guang Yang, ''China’s National Memory Laws and the War on Storytelling'', Australian Institute of International Affairs (May 3, 2023), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/chinas-national-memory-laws-and-the-war-on-storytelling/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. ''See also'' Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Heroes and Martyrs

中华人民共和国英雄烈士保护法, (adopted Apr. 27, 2018, effective May 1, 2018), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://npcobserver.com/legislation/heroes-and-martyrs-protection-law/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[78] Chang, ''supra''.

[79] Yan Lianke, ''China’s National Amnesia'', The Dial (Apr. 23, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.thedial.world/articles/news/issue-15/china-national-strategy-forgetting&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[80] Amnesty International, ''China: Further information: Two More Activists Detained for “June 4 Baijiu”'' (Jun. 21, 2016), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[81] ''Id.''

[82] Radio Free Asia, ''Court in China's Sichuan Jails Fourth Man Over Tiananmen Massacre Liquor'' (Apr. 4, 2019), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/liquor-04042019105951.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

[83] XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 36 (China).

[84] Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[85] Pew Research Center, 10 things to know about China’s policies on religion (Oct. 23, 2023),

&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/10/23/10-things-to-know-about-chinas-policies-on-religion/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[86] Economist, ''China wants to “sinicise” its Catholics'' (Nov. 22, 2022), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.economist.com/china/2022/11/22/china-wants-to-sinicise-its-catholics&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[87] Ian Johnson, ''China Is Reversing Its Crackdown on Some Religions, but Not All'', Council on Foreign Relations (May 14, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cfr.org/articles/china-reversing-its-crackdown-some-religions-not-all&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[88] ''Id.''

[89] Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[90] Article 5, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[91] Article 17, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[92] Article 6, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[93] Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[94] ''Id.''

[95] Wake Forest University, Timothy S. Y. Lam Museaum of Anthropology, ''History of Chinese New'' Year, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://lammuseum.wfu.edu/education/teachers/chinese-new-year/history-of-chinese-new-year/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[96] ''Id.''

[97] Kaysey A. Richardson, ''A Brief History of the Chinese New Year'', World Treasures (Jan. 27, 2022), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://worldtreasures.org/blog/a-brief-history-of-the-chinese-new-year&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[98] ''Id.''

[99] Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[100] Article 1, Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[101] Article 6, Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[102] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Periodic reporting on the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2004), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ich.unesco.org/en/periodic-reporting-00460&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[103] Tyler Arnold, ''China is Removing Crosses From Churches, Replacing Images of Christ With Xi Jinping'', The National Catholic Register (Oct. 1, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ncregister.com/cna/china-is-removing-crosses-from-churches-replacing-images-of-christ-with-xi-jinping&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[104] Martin Lavička, ''A New Round of Restrictions Further Constrains Religious Practice in Xinjiang'', China File (Apr. 19, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/new-round-of-restrictions-further-constrains-religious-practice-xinjiang&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[105] Article 26, 2024 Xinjiang Religious Affairs Regulations.

[106] The Cardinal Kung Foundation, ''Catholic Church in China, It Is Now Known As An Underground Church'',  &lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.cardinalkungfoundation.org/rc/RCrelfreedom.php&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[107] Union of Catholic Asian News, ''China's Catholic leaders vow to accelerate sinicization''''',''' &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ucanews.com/news/chinas-catholic-leaders-vow-to-accelerate-sinicization/98499&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[108] ''See'' Harriet Sherwood, ''Vatican signs historic deal with China – but critics denounce sellout'', The Guardian (Sep. 22, 2018), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/22/vatican-pope-francis-agreement-with-china-nominating-bishops&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[109] ''Id.''

[110] Michael Schmiesing, ''A Hidden Church in'' China, Catholic Answers (Dec. 12, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.catholic.com/magazine/online-edition/a-hidden-church-in-china&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[111] Aly Rothfus, ''Catholic Church in China Faces'' Crisis, The Irish Rover (Nov. 19, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://irishrover.net/2025/11/catholic-church-in-china-faces-crisis/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[112] Abhishank Mishra &amp; Ananya Sharma, ''China-Taiwan, and a Vatican'' conversion, the interpreter (Jul. 9, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/china-taiwan-vatican-conversion&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[113] Article 42, Religious Affairs Regulations 2017, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/religious-affairs-regulations-2017/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[114] Fenggang Yang, The Chinese House Church Goes Public, The University of Chicago | Divinity School (May 12, 2011), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://divinity.uchicago.edu/sightings/articles/chinese-house-church-goes-public-fenggang-yang&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[115] Megan Gates, ''The Rise of the Survellance'' State, Security Mangement (Jun. 1, 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.asisonline.org/security-management-magazine/monthly-issues/security-technology/archive/2021/june/The-Rise-of-The-Surveillance-State/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[116] Jessle Yeung, ''China’s censorship and surveillance were already intense. AI is turbocharging those systems'', CNN (Dec. 4, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cnn.com/2025/12/04/china/china-ai-censorship-surveillance-report-intl-hnk&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[117] Fergus Ryan, et al., ''The party’s AI How China’s new AI systems are reshaping human rights'', ASPI (dec. 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://aspi.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/27122307/The-partys-AI-How-Chinas-new-AI-systems-are-reshaping-human-rights.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;. ''See also'', Jinghe Fan, Xin Zhang, ‘Small, swift, and effective’ legislation in China: Towards adaptive governance of AI?, Computer Law &amp; Security Review, Volume 61, 2026, 106329, ISSN 2212-473X, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2026.106329&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[118] Gates, ''supra''.

[119] Sean Lyngaas &amp; Jim Sclutto, ''Suspected Chinese government operatives used ChatGPT to shape mass surveillance proposals, OpenAI says'', CNN (Oct. 7, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cnn.com/2025/10/07/politics/china-chatgpt-surveillance&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[120] Wayne Wei Wang ''et al'', ''Artificial Intelligence “Law(s)” in China: Retrospect and Prospect'', Part I, Journal of AI Law and Regulation (AIRe), Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 29-36, 2025 &amp; Part II, Journal of AI Law and Regulation (AIRe), Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 139-157, 2025, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=5039316&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[121] Rajendra Zaware, ''Data Privacy in Cryptocurrencies and Blockchain'', Infosys, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://blogs.infosys.com/emerging-technology-solutions/iedps/data-privacy-in-cryptocurrencies-and-blockchain.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[122] Jiye Hu, The Regulation of Cryptocurrency in China, China University of Political Science and Law, Business School; Business School (Apr. 25, 2023), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4423780&lt;/nowiki&gt;.  

[123] Richard Hoffman, ''China’s Cryptocurrency and Blockchain Regulatory Environment'', ECOVIS, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ecovis.com/focus-china/chinas-cryptocurrency/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[124] OxKira, ''Crypto in China: A 2025 guide to the crypto landscape'', Arham (Oct. 9, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://info.arkm.com/research/crypto-in-china-a-2025-guide-to-the-crypto-landscape&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[125] [125] Jiye Hu, The Regulation of Cryptocurrency in China, China University of Political Science and Law, Business School; Business School (Apr. 25, 2023), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4423780&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[126] Xiuhao, et al, ''China steps up crypto crackdown, will vet real-world asset tokens'', Reuters (Feb. 6, 2026), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/china-vows-tighten-virtual-currency-restrictions-2026-02-06/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[127] Prashant Jha, ''Five People Jailed in China Just for Moving USDT'', Yahoo! Finance (Oct. 29, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://finance.yahoo.com/news/five-people-jailed-china-just-080215125.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[128] ''Id.''

[129] Faari Labinjo, ''The Truth About China’s Crypto Ban: Adoption, Underground Markets and Billions in OTC Trading (2025–2026)'', DeFiPlanet (Mar. 17, 2026), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://defi-planet.com/2026/03/the-truth-about-chinas-crypto-ban-adoption-underground-markets-and-billions-in-otc-trading-2025-2026/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[130] ''Id.''

[131] Jeremy Mark, ''Why China’s digital currency threatens the country’s tech giants'', Atlantic Council (Jul. 15, 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/why-chinas-digital-currency-threatens-the-countrys-tech-giants/#:~:text=Unlike%20Bitcoin%20and%20other%20cyber,who%20attract%20the%20attention%20of&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[132] ''Id.''

[133] Working Group on E-CNY Research and Development of the People’s Bank of China, ''Progress of Research &amp; Development of E-CNY in China'' (July 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/server/api/core/bitstreams/8c1d1ea1-a8f7-402c-9f08-edf6863237bc/content&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[134] Robert Lemos, ''China Introduces National Cyber ID Amid Privacy Concerns'', Chinese Human Rights Defenders (Jul. 23, 2025),

&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.nchrd.org/2025/07/china-introduces-national-cyber-id-amid-privacy-concerns/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[135] Shane Yi &amp; Michael Caster, ''China: New Internet ID System a threat to online expression'', Article19 (Jun. 25, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.article19.org/resources/china-new-internet-id-system-a-threat-to-online-expression/&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[136] Lemos, ''supra''.

[137] Mercator Institute for China, ''China’s Handling of Biometric Data: Trends and Implications for Europe'' (Jun. 14, 2022), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://merics.org/en/events/chinas-handling-biometric-data-trends-and-implications-europe&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[138] Jianyu Zhou &amp; Jennifer Stevenson, ''Assessing Legal Protection of Biometric Data in China: Gaps, Principles, and Policy Recommendations'', St. Mary’s University (2022), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://commons.stmarytx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1776&amp;context=facarticles&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[139] Duke Travel Registry, ''Announcements: China now requires collection of biometric data upon arrival'', &lt;nowiki&gt;https://duke-travel.terradotta.com/index.cfm?FuseAction=Announcements.Announcement&amp;Announcement_ID=3026&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[140] Wahid Pessarlay, ''China blockchain=based ID experiment aims to stop data leaks'', Coingeek (Dec. 29, 2023), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://coingeek.com/china-blockchain-based-id-experiment-aims-to-stop-data-leaks/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[141] Tara Vasdani, Robot justice: China’s use of Internet courts, LexisNexis (Feb. 2020), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.lexisnexis.com/en-ca/ihc/robots-justice-chinas-use-of-internet-courts&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[142] ''Id.''

[143] ''Id''.

[144] Dory Reiling &amp; Straton Papagianneas, ''Lessons from China’s Smart Court Reform'', International Journal for Court Administration (2015), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.36745/ijca.679&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[145] William Zheg, ''AI helped Shenzhen judges handle cases 50% faster. Is this the future for China?'', South China Morning Post (May 4, 2026), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3352161/ai-helped-shenzhen-judges-handle-cases-50-faster-future-china&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

[146] University of Oregon, ''New research shows that propaganda is on the rise in'' China, (Apr. 2, 2025), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1079250&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[147] ''Id.''

[148] Article 6, Section 1, Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, &lt;nowiki&gt;http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[149] Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, &lt;nowiki&gt;http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[150] Chris Lau &amp; Simone McCarthy, ''China feels the country isn’t patriotic enough. A new law aims to change'' that, CNN (Jan. 6, 2024), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/06/china/china-patriotic-education-law-intl-hnk#:~:text=2%2C%202009.&amp;text=The%20new%20law%20also%20orders,subject%20to%20punishments%2C%20she%20said&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[151] Article 15, Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, 2023, &lt;nowiki&gt;http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[152] ''See'' Fan Liang, Yuchen Chen, Fangwei Zhao, ''The Platformization of Propaganda:How Xuexi Qiangguo Expands Persuasion and Assesses Citizens in China'', University of Michigan: International Journal of Communication (2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16484/3416&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[153] Lily Kuo &amp; Kate Lyons, China's most popular app brings Xi Jinping to your pocket, The Guardian (Feb. 15, 2019), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/15/chinas-most-popular-app-brings-xi-jinping-to-your-pocket&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[154] ''Id.''

[155] ''Id.''

[156] ''Supra'' Liang.

[157] ''Id.''

[158] U.S. Department of State, ''China (Includes Hong Kong, Macau, Tibet, and Xinjiang): Xinjian'', &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/xinjiang&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[159] ''Id.''

[160] Timothy Grose &amp; James Leibold, ''Why China Is Banning Islamic Veils'', ChinaFile (Feb. 4, 2015), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/why-china-banning-islamic-veils&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[161] ''Id.''
[[Category:Communication|Law in China]]
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      <text bytes="123068" sha1="8dlljn8bex2i6n27c6xkuqteyupuspe" xml:space="preserve">== '''Communications Law in China''' ==
[[File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|thumb|Flag of the People's Republic of China]]
Communication law in China is subject to a complex regulatory scheme. While the Constitution of China promises freedom of speech, the Chinese Communist Party enforces strict censorship, utilizes prior restraint, and attempts to block important ideas and concepts from the minds of the Chinese people. Chinese communication law impact everything from radio to religious dress and even digital assets. The Chinese regulatory scheme faces the complex challenge of keeping up with cutting edge methods of communications while ensuring dominance of the Chinese Communist Party.

=== '''Sources of Communications Law in China''' ===
China’s Constitution guarantees freedom of speech but it’s communication laws tell a different story. China has a sophisticated regulatory framework in place to govern communications in China. These regulatory bodies, in combination with wide reaching laws, have resulted in a nation whose communications are subject to review and approval by the single party in power.

==== '''''Constitution of the People’s Republic of China''''' ====
The key place to begin when approaching a countries approach to any form of law is their Constitution. The Chinese “[c]onstitution recognizes Marxism as the country’s leading ideology and the Communist Party the leading party.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Catá Backer|first=Larry|date=2012|title=Party, People, Government, and State: On Constitutional Values and the Legitimacy of the Chinese State-Party Rule of Law System|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1977551|journal=Boston University International Law Journal|volume=Vol. 30}}&lt;/ref&gt; Notably, “[t]he preamble deserves particular attention because China’s leadership has consistently placed great weight upon the ideological and expressive functions of the constitution and has used the preamble to identify and highlight its core commitments.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Albert|date=February 1, 2021|title=Constitutions, Constitutionalism and the Case of Modern China|url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=3027562 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3027562|journal=SSRN}}&lt;/ref&gt; The preamble lays out broad goals for the People’s Republic of China, it states that the Chinese people “will continue, under the leadership of the Communist Party of China and the guidance of Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory… to… improve socialist rule of law… and promote coordinated material, political, cultural-ethical, social and ecological advancement, in order to build China into a great modern socialist country.”&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, Preamble (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt; This broad phrasing gives the party significant latitude. Furthermore, the Constitution has three key articles that address the issue of communications law. First, Article 35 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of speech, the press, assembly, association, procession and demonstration.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 35 (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt; Second, Article 36 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of religious belief.”&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 36 (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt; Third, Article 40 addresses correspondence:&lt;blockquote&gt;Freedom and confidentiality of correspondence of citizens of the People’s Republic of China shall be protected by law. Except in cases necessary for national security or criminal investigation, when public security organs or procuratorial organs shall examine correspondence in accordance with procedures prescribed by law, no organization or individual shall infringe on a citizen’s freedom and confidentiality of correspondence for any reason.&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 40 (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
[[File:Eleanor Roosevelt UDHR.jpg|thumb|'''Eleanor Roosevelt UDHR''']]
At least on paper, these articles are share some similarities to Articles 18, 19, and 20 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights.&lt;ref&gt;G.A. Res. 217 (III) A, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Dec. 10, 1948), https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights&lt;/ref&gt; However, at the United Nations Human Rights Convention, “China is increasingly vocal in defending its statist position and interpretation of human rights norms.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Initiative for U.S.-China Dialogue on Global Issues|date=Feb. 28, 2024|title=China and the UN Human Rights Regime|url=https://uschinadialogue.georgetown.edu/events/china-and-the-un-human-rights-regime|journal=Georgetown University}}&lt;/ref&gt; Notably, the Constitution is missing several provisions such as freedom of thought, freedom of conscience, and “freedom to receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers” which are seen in the Universal Declaration.&lt;ref&gt;UDHR art. 19, https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''National Regulatory Bodies''''' ====
[[File:汉口中共中央宣传部旧址.jpg|thumb|Former Site of the Central Propaganda Department of the Chinese Communist Party in Hankou]]
The regulatory scheme in China is complicated and grows out of a post-Mao era which “reconstituted the sinews of governance and especially sought to strengthen the government’s regulatory capacity while reducing the government’s direct intervention in state firms. In area after area, they have invoked ‘chaos’ or ‘turmoil’ to justify the need to strengthen or assert control.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=D.L.|date=2017|title=China’s Illiberal Regulatory State in Comparative Perspective|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-017-0059-x|journal=Chin. Polit. Sci. Rev. 2, 114–133}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Central Propaganda Department sets the ideology for Chinese communications regulatory bodies. It is “responsible for monitoring content to ensure that China's publishers, in particular its news publishers, do not print anything that is inconsistent with the Communist Party's political dogma.”&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China'', Agencies Responsible for Censorship in'' China, [https://www.cecc.gov/agencies-responsible-for-censorship-in-china#:~:text=The%20Central%20Propaganda%20Department%20%5B%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1,reporting%20on%20politically%20sensitive%20topics. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/agencies-responsible-for-censorship-in-china#:~:text=The%20Central%20Propaganda%20Department%20%5B%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1,reporting%20on%20politically%20sensitive%20topics&lt;/nowiki&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt; It accomplishes this by screening any writings that touch on politically sensitive issues, informing publishers what they can, and cannot, publish as well as what ideological viewpoint should be taken, and requiring editors and publishers to attend indoctrination sessions in order to ensure they publish from the desired viewpoint.&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China'', Agencies Responsible for Censorship in'' China, [https://www.cecc.gov/agencies-responsible-for-censorship-in-china#:~:text=The%20Central%20Propaganda%20Department%20%5B%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1,reporting%20on%20politically%20sensitive%20topics. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/agencies-responsible-for-censorship-in-china#:~:text=The%20Central%20Propaganda%20Department%20%5B%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1,reporting%20on%20politically%20sensitive%20topics&lt;/nowiki&gt;.]&lt;/ref&gt;

The Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) reports to the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission which “Xi Jinping, General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the Central Military Commission, personally serve[s] as the group leader.”&lt;ref&gt;Office of the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission, ''The Central Leading Group for Cybersecurity and Informatization was established: From a major cyber power to a leading cyber power.'', China Cyberspace Administration (Feb. 28, 2014), https://www.cac.gov.cn/2014-02/28/c_126397488.htm&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, the CAC “is China’s top authority on internet governance, overseeing data privacy, cybersecurity, and platform regulation. It is the primary regulator behind major laws such as the Cybersecurity Law (CSL), Data Security Law (DSL), and Personal Information Protection Law (PIPL).&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Roper|first=Gabrielle|date=Jun. 2, 2025|title=What is the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC)?|url=https://www.chinafy.com/blog/what-is-the-cyberspace-administration-of-china-cac#:~:text=TL;DR:%20The%20Cyberspace%20Administration,fall%20short%20of%20legal%20requirements|journal=Chinafy}}&lt;/ref&gt; The CAC can issue “departmental rules, which are issued by State Council administrative agencies and are legally binding under China’s Legislation Law.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Horsley|first=Jamie P.|date=Aug. 8, 2022|title=Behind the Facade of China’s Cyber Super-Regulator|url=https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/behind-the-facade-of-chinas-cyber-super-regulator/|journal=Stanford University}}&lt;/ref&gt; A counterpart of the CAC is the National Radio and Television Administration (NRTA). The NRTA’s “main task is to censor the radio, film, and television industries.”&lt;ref&gt;''NRTA Chief Emphasize Loyalty to the Party'', Chinascope, https://chinascope.org/archives/19225&lt;/ref&gt; In 2021, the NRTA banned “nine types of banned content, including content that ‘endangers security,’ ‘slanders Chinese culture,’ or does not help youth ‘establish the correct world view.’”&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:MIIT Wanshoulu Office (20210512174810).jpg|thumb|'''MIIT Wanshoulu Office''']]
The Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT)&lt;ref&gt;''Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT) (工业和信息化部)'', Thomson Reuters (Glossary), https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/1-552-9335?transitionType=Default&amp;contextData=(sc.Default)&amp;firstPage=true&lt;/ref&gt; is charged with “regulating and managing China's telecommunications and software sectors, as well as the electronics and information technology manufacturing industries.” The MIIT “enforces regulations aligned with the CAC’s central tenets” The MIIT focuses on the providers and carriers themselves and enforces “cyber and data security rules against providers in the telecommunications and internet sector.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ke|first=Xu|last2=Liu|first2=Vicky|last3=Luo|first3=Yan|last4=Yu|first4=Zhijing|date=Aug. 31, 2021|title=China's key enforcement agencies and lessons learned from recent actions|url=https://iapp.org/news/a/chinas-key-enforcement-agencies-and-lessons-learned-from-recent-actions|journal=iapp}}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, in December of 2021 MIIT found that over one hundred apps were in violation of China’s Personal Information Protection Law and Data Security Law.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Teon|first=Aris|date=Dec. 9, 2021|title=China’s Government Orders Removal of Douban and 105 Other Apps From App Stores|url=https://china-journal.org/2021/12/09/china-government-orders-removal-of-douban-and-105-other-apps-from-app-stores/#:~:text=China's%20Government%20Orders%20Removal%20of,comply%20with%20the%20government's%20directives|journal=China-Journal}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, they were removed from app stores.

==== '''''Key Communications Laws''''' ====
The Cybersecurity Law&lt;ref&gt;Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (2016), Translation: Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (Effective June 1, 2017). Stanford University,

https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/translation-cybersecurity-law-of-the-peoples-republic-of-china-effective-june-1-2017/&lt;/ref&gt; is overseen by the CAC and seeks to “promote the healthy development of the informatization of the economy and society.” Article 6 of the Cybersecurity Law states that a goal of the law is to advocate for “sincere, honest, healthy and civilized online conduct; it promotes the dissemination of core socialist values, adopts measures to raise the entire society’s awareness and level of cybersecurity, and formulates a good environment for the entire society to jointly participate in advancing cybersecurity.”&lt;ref&gt;Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (2016), Translation: Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (Effective June 1, 2017). Stanford University,

&lt;nowiki&gt;https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/translation-cybersecurity-law-of-the-peoples-republic-of-china-effective-june-1-2017/&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; In 2015 the Cybersecurity Law “introduced fines and detentions of up to 15 days for telecommunications firms and internet service providers (ISP), as well as relevant personnel, who fail to restrict certain forms of content”.&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/ref&gt;

The CAC also handles the implementation of the Provisions on the Governance of the Online Information Content Ecosystem. Article 5 states “A network information content producer shall be encouraged to produce, copy and publish information containing the following: Publicizing the Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era…”&lt;ref&gt;Order of the Cyberspace Administration of China (No. 5), https://wilmap.stanford.edu/entries/provisions-governance-online-information-content-ecosystem&lt;/ref&gt;

Finally, China is part of a many international agreements pertaining to communications law. China is a member of the UN and a signatory to both the ICCPR and the ICESCR.&lt;ref&gt;Order of the Cyberspace Administration of China (No. 5), https://wilmap.stanford.edu/entries/provisions-governance-online-information-content-ecosystem&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, in 2005 China signed the United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts.&lt;ref&gt;''U.N. Treaty Bodies and China'', Human Rights in China, https://www.hrichina.org/en/un-treaty-bodies-and-china&lt;/ref&gt; The purpose of this agreement is “facilitating the use of electronic communications in international trade by assuring that contracts concluded and other communications exchanged electronically are as valid and enforceable as their traditional paper-based equivalents.”&lt;ref&gt;''United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts'', Preamble, Jun. 7, 2006, https://uncitral.un.org/en/texts/ecommerce/conventions/electronic_communications/status&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, China signed the Universal Copyright Convention in 1992.&lt;ref&gt;''Universal Copyright Convention, with Appendix Declaration relating to Article XVII and Resolution concerning Article XI'', Sep. 16, 1955, https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/universal-copyright-convention-appendix-declaration-relating-article-xvii-and-resolution-concerning&lt;/ref&gt; The agreement “undertakes to provide for the adequate and effective, protection of the rights of authors and other copyright proprietors in literary, scientific and artistic works, including writings, musical, dramatic and cinematographic works, and paintings, engravings and sculpture.”&lt;ref&gt;Universal Copyright Convention, Article 1, https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/universal-copyright-convention-appendix-declaration-relating-article-xvii-and-resolution-concerning&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Law and the Media in China''' ===
There are some that believe there are three aims of communication: truth, beauty, and dialogue. These aims are furthered by the elements of communications law. There are three such elements that are most relevant to China. First, the means of transmission. Second, the sender and receiver. Third, the message. These are most relevant to China because the government seeks to control all three. As a result, the three aims of communications: truth, beauty, and dialogue are threatened daily. Truth, because certain historical events and facts are banned. Beauty, because words are good, they allow us to think and develop our thoughts which is a beautiful thing for the human person. Finally, dialogue, because a person cannot say what they wish without fear of retaliation.

==== '''''The Means of Transmission''''' ====
The means of transmission of the message may include its code, channel, mode, and nature. However, “[a] major constraint on regulatory state building is the political environment in which Chinese regulators have had to operate. The Administration of Press, Publications, Radio, Film, and TV, for example, operate at the behest of Chinese Communist Party (CCP) organs, especially the CCP Central Committee Propaganda Department.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=D.L.|date=2017|title=China’s Illiberal Regulatory State in Comparative Perspective|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-017-0059-x|journal=Chin. Polit. Sci. Rev. 2, 114–133}}&lt;/ref&gt; In China television is regulated by the National Radio and Television Administration. Regarding the nature of the communications, “[t]he Propaganda Department of the Chinese Communist Party sends a detailed notice to all media every day that includes editorial guidelines and censored topics.”&lt;ref&gt;China, Reporters Without Borders, https://rsf.org/en/country/china&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, the “[s]tate-run Chinese Central TV (CCTV) is China's largest media company.&lt;ref&gt;BBC News, ''China media guide'' (Aug. 22, 2023), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017881&lt;/ref&gt; The government released a statement summing up the CCTV’s main tasks.&lt;blockquote&gt;Its principal responsibilities will be to propagate the theories, political line and policies of the Party; to plan and manage major propaganda reports; to organize the production of radio and television; to produce and broadcast premium radio and television products; to channel hot social topics; to strengthen and improve supervision by public opinion, to promote the integrated development of multimedia; to strengthen the building of international broadcasting capacity; to tell China’s story well.&lt;ref&gt;safeguardDefenders'', Ownership and control of Chinese media'' (Jun. 14, 2021), https://safeguarddefenders.com/en/blog/ownership-and-control-chinese-media&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Furthermore, “[a]ll of China's 2,600-plus radio stations are state-owned”&lt;ref&gt;BBC News, ''China media guide'' (Aug. 22, 2023), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017881&lt;/ref&gt; as well as “around 1,900 newspapers. Each city has its own title, usually published by the local government, as well as a local Communist Party daily.”&lt;ref&gt;BBC News, ''China media guide'' (Aug. 22, 2023), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017881&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, the means and nature of the communications are subject to the government’s control.
[[File:Guess on China's Great Firewall Mechanism.png|thumb|'''Guess on China's Great Firewall Mechanism''']]
Internet censoring in China has been dubbed “the great firewall.” The Golden Shield Project’s aim is “to monitor and censor what can and cannot be seen through an online network in China.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chan|first=Conrad|last2=et al.|date=2011|title=Free Speech vs Maintaining Social Cohesion A Closer Look at Different Policies|url=https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/cs181/projects/2010-11/FreeExpressionVsSocialCohesion/china_policy.html|journal=Stanford University}}&lt;/ref&gt; Popular sites such as “Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, WhatsApp, and Instagram are all blocked in the mainland.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chandel|first=Sonali|last2=et al.|date=2019|title=The Golden Shield Project of China: A Decade Later An in-depth study of the Great Firewall|url=https://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~yunnanyu/files/papers/Golden.pdf|journal=College of Engineering and Computing Sciences, New York Institute of Technology}}&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, China has blocked the use of Starlink. In 2025 China penalized a foreign vessel after an inspection revealed the vessel employing Starlink had “continued transmitting data after entering Chinese territorial waters, in violation of national telecommunications and radio regulations.”&lt;ref&gt;The Editorial Team, ''China imposes penalty to vessel using Starlink in its waters'', Saftery4Sea (Dec. 23, 2025), https://safety4sea.com/china-imposes-penalty-to-vessel-using-starlink-in-its-waters/&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, “[t]he long-standing blocks on international communications platforms have helped to enable the exponential growth of local services such as Tencent’s WeChat and Sina Weibo, which are subject to the government’s strict censorship demands.”&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/ref&gt; The regulatory agencies discussed above play a crucial role in maintaining the “great firewall”. For example, in 2017 MIIT banned the use of unlicensed VPNs.&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, in 2020 the CAC  “suspended 281 websites, and shut down 2,686 websites and 31,000 accounts” as well as 179,000 social media accounts.&lt;ref&gt;Cyberspace Administration of China, ''The national cybersecurity administrative law enforcement work was carried out solidly in the second quarter'' (Jul. 18, 2020), https://www.cac.gov.cn/2020-07/21/c_1596879319813780.html; ''see also'' Qiao Long; Editor: Hu Lihan; Web Editor: Rui Zhe, ''China shut down more than 2,000 websites in the second quarter, triggering another large-scale internet crackdown'', rfa (Jul. 24, 2020), https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/yataibaodao/meiti/ql1-07242020062431.html&lt;/ref&gt;  Finally, “[i]n February 2021, authorities blocked the newly emerged mobile audio app Clubhouse, after thousands of users in China had flocked to the app to discuss detention camps in Xinjiang.”&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' &lt;nowiki&gt;https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''The Sender and Receiver''''' ====
There are two key principles in this element of communications, namely, the centrality of the person and freedom. The principle of the centrality of the person holds that communications are for the human person, this is why human rights are so integral to communication law. In China, communications are for the government, or the centrality of the party. For example, “[t]housands of cyber-police watch the web and material deemed politically and socially sensitive is filtered. Blocked resources include Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and human rights sites.”&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' &lt;nowiki&gt;https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; As opposed to fostering a government that supports the human person’s ability to attain truth and enter into dialogue, the government jealously protects access to information. This is seen in China’s restrictions on internet cafés where individuals may access the web. Startling, “between June and September 2002, the government shutdown 150,000 unlicensed Internet cafes. [today], police routinely ‘[raid]’ internet cafes to see whether there is any ‘illegal’ activity going on.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Haiping|first=Zheng|date=Jan. 4, 2013|title=Regulating the Internet: China’s Law and Practice|url=https://content.scirp.org/pdf/blr_2013032615421340.pdf|journal=School of Law, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China}}&lt;/ref&gt; The latter point is connected to the second key principle, freedom.
[[File:Statue of Deng Xiaoping in Lianhuashan Park Shenzen China 1310759.jpg|thumb|Statue of Deng Xiaoping in Lianhuashan Park Shenzen China]]
The principle of freedom in any communication holds that you are free to express your opinion and those who hear it will tolerate it. This principle has not found a permanent home in China historically. In 1898, following the Hundred Days Reform, “the dynasty imposed a general prohibition of privately published newspaper” for “spreading rumours and confusing the people’s thoughts.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=DeLisle|first=Jacques|last2=et al.|date=Jan. 16, 2014|title=The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2379959|journal=University of Pennsylvania}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1927, the Guomindang built “a system of censorship boards and licensing obligations for films, radio, publications and newspapers.”&lt;ref&gt;DeLisle,&amp;#x20;Jacques&amp;#x3B;&amp;#x20;et al.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 16, 2014).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era&quot;.&amp;#x20;''University of Pennsylvania''.&lt;/ref&gt; Starting in 1980, Deng Xiaoping, former Chairman of the Central Military Commission, further restricting freedom of communication. From then on, “political debate would be an intra-Party matter only, and official media were to be the mouthpiece of the Party.”&lt;ref&gt;DeLisle,&amp;#x20;Jacques&amp;#x3B;&amp;#x20;et al.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 16, 2014).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era&quot;.&amp;#x20;''University of Pennsylvania''.&lt;/ref&gt; This time saw a growing administrative state taking control of the communications field by “laying the basis for the current regulatory structure by creating an administrative department to govern the print sector, and by centralizing licensing procedures.”&lt;ref&gt;DeLisle,&amp;#x20;Jacques&amp;#x3B;&amp;#x20;et al.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 16, 2014).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era&quot;.&amp;#x20;''University of Pennsylvania''.&lt;/ref&gt; The introduction of the internet saw “central and local governments [establish] special Internet information management departments.”&lt;ref&gt;DeLisle,&amp;#x20;Jacques&amp;#x3B;&amp;#x20;et al.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 16, 2014).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era&quot;.&amp;#x20;''University of Pennsylvania''.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''The Message''''' ====
[[File:Umbrella Revolution in Admiralty Night View 20141010.jpg|thumb|Umbrella Revolution]]
Within this element there is the key principle of objectivity and context. This principle holds that journalists, and other professions, ought to give the proper context when communicating and do so in as objective a manner as possible. In China, if a journalist wishes to obtain to renew their press cards they “must download the Study Xi, Strengthen the Country propaganda application that can collect their personal data.”&lt;ref&gt;China, Reporters Without Borders, https://rsf.org/en/country/china&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, journalists and everyday citizens alike are restricted in how they can communicate their messages because certain words are banned. For example, no one cannot search for “dictatorship,” “Great Firewall of China,” or “Go, Hong Kong.”&lt;ref&gt;Leigh Hartman, ''In China, you can’t say these words'', ShareAmerica (Jun. 3, 2020), https://archive-share.america.gov/america.gov/in-china-you-cant-say-these-words/index.html&lt;/ref&gt; China’s approach to Tiananmen Square Massacre is an example of the principle of objectivity and context. After the Chinese military killed possible thousands during a protest in 1989 the government has tried to “erase what it calls the ‘political turmoil’ of 1989 from the collective memory. It bans any public commemoration or mention of the June 4 crackdown, scrubbing references from the internet.”&lt;ref&gt;Ken Moritsugu, ''Tiananmen Square anniversary shows China's ability to suppress history'', PBS News (Jun. 4, 2025), https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/tiananmen-square-anniversary-shows-chinas-ability-to-suppress-history#:~:text=Security%20was%20tight%20Wednesday%20around,gatherings%20can%20still%20take%20place&lt;/ref&gt; In 2024, China was the top jailer of journalists in the world, holding 14% of the world’s journalists in their jails.&lt;ref&gt;Arlene Getx, ''In record year, China, Israel, and Myanmar are world’s leading jailers of journalists'', Committee to Protect Journalists (Jan. 16, 2025), https://cpj.org/special-reports/in-record-year-china-israel-and-myanmar-are-worlds-leading-jailers-of-journalists/&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Censorship &amp; Violent Content''' ===
China practices rigorous censorship in various forms of speech. A foundational principle of freedom of speech is that of no prior restraint which allows speech to enter the marketplace, and its issuer must deal with the consequences after the fact. This principle is not welcome in China. Related to this principal China’s justification for much of their prior restraint, national security. Most clearly demonstrated in the Hong Kong National Security Law, China has enforced expansive prior restraints on speech and jailed those who have attempted to speak out.
[[File:Hong Kong Protests P1240680 Umbrella revolution - protest in Nathan road, Hong Kong (15375576579).jpg|thumb|'''Hong Kong Protests''']]

==== '''''No Prior Restraint''''' ====
The principle of no prior restraint says that speech cannot be stopped before it takes place. Rather, one may say what they wish but may have to deal with the consequences after. This principle is well known in the West.&lt;blockquote&gt;The liberty of the press is indeed essential to the nature of a free state: but this consists in laying no prior restraints upon publications, and not in freedom from censure for criminal matter when published. Every freeman has an undoubted right to lay what sentiments he pleases before the public: to forbid this, is to destroy the freedom of the press: but if he publishes what is improper, mischievous, or illegal, he must take the consequence of his own temerity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zeigler|first=Sara L.|last2=Vile|first2=John R.|date=Jan. 1, 2009|title=William Blackstone|url=https://firstamendment.mtsu.edu/article/william-blackstone/|journal=Free Speech Center}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;This principle ensures that ideas are free to enter the marketplace in nations that have chosen to adopt this concept, like the United States. However, China has not adopted this principle. Rather, China is diametrically opposed to the principle of no prior restraint. The Chinese government requires people to “ask the government's permission before they are allowed to publish.”&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China, ''Prior Restraints'', https://www.cecc.gov/prior-restraints&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, “[t]he Communist Party has the right and the ability to screen works prior to publication, and stop publication of those works it finds objectionable.”&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China, ''Prior Restraints'', https://www.cecc.gov/prior-restraints&lt;/ref&gt; One of the main methods of enforcing prior restraints in China is their licensing scheme…” where “the government requires individuals to obtain a license, permit, or other authorization in order to legally engage in publishing.”&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China, ''Prior Restraints'', https://www.cecc.gov/prior-restraints&lt;/ref&gt; Such requirements ensure that the government approves of any speech before it can enter the marketplace.

A notable piece of Chinese legislation is the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing.&lt;ref&gt;Regulations on the Administration of Publishing (2001.12.25), https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/regulation-on-the-administration-of-publishing-chinese-and-english-text&lt;/ref&gt; Article 3 of the Regulations states that “publishing businesses shall adhere to the path of serving the people and serving socialism, adhere to the guidance of Marxism, Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought and Deng Xiaoping Theory, and promulgate and accumulate scientific technology and cultural knowledge that is advantageous to economic development and social progress.”&lt;ref&gt;Regulations on the Administration of Publishing (2001.12.25), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/regulation-on-the-administration-of-publishing-chinese-and-english-text&lt;/ref&gt; This legislation requires that anything published in China aligns with their preferred thought. This is exactly what the marketplace of ideas sought to prevent. A healthy competition of ideas is best for humanity, not a forced set of ideas. A breach of the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing has grave consequences. In 2019 “[a] Chinese court slapped a dozen of people with varying jail terms for illegally publishing books related to the Communist Party of China.”&lt;ref&gt;Zehra Nur Duz, ''China jails 12 for illegal publications about party'', Ankara (Dec. 26, 2019), [https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877? https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877?]&lt;/ref&gt; The Intermediate People's Court of Yueyang in Hunan province stated that “[t]he accused were convicted of violating state regulations by illegally reprinting and selling huge volumes of publications, which seriously endangered the social order and disrupted the legitimate publishing market.”&lt;ref&gt;Zehra Nur Duz, ''China jails 12 for illegal publications about party'', Ankara (Dec. 26, 2019), [https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877? https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877?]&lt;/ref&gt;

Another important piece of legislation is the eloquently named Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications.&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; Article 3 of the Measures says that “[t]he scope of the important topics… shall be adjusted and promulgated by the General Administration of Press and Publication.”&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; Such important topics include “works and literature concerning any former or current leaders of the party ” ,&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; “topics which deal with maps of China's borders,”&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; and even “topics which deal with any significant historical matters or important historical figures in the history of the Chinese Communist Party.”&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; This legislation requires government approval prior to publishing on important topics. While the complete list of important topics is much longer these three are notable because they are meant to shape the way, one understands Chinese history and China’s place in the world. This dystopian law enforces not only a specific world view, like the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing, but also a specific understanding of China’s history and how they arrived at their present communist government. Thus, these measures bolster the Chinese Communist Party’s control over all speech in China.

==== '''''National Security''''' ====
The Chinese Party often censors speech under the pretense of protecting national security. An example occurred recently in Hong Kong. In 2020 China introduced the National Security Law (“NSL”) to Hong Kong. The NSL “criminalises anything considered as secession, which is breaking away from China; subversion, which is undermining the power or authority of the central government; terrorism, which is using violence or intimidation against people; and collusion with foreign or external forces.”&lt;ref&gt;BBC, ''Hong Kong national security law: What is it and is it worrying?'' (Mar. 18, 2024), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52765838&lt;/ref&gt; This Law has resulted in “[n]umerous pro-democracy news outlets in Hong Kong [being] shut down, including Lai's Apple Daily, which was known to be critical of the mainland Chinese leadership.”&lt;ref&gt;BBC, ''Hong Kong national security law: What is it and is it worrying?'' (Mar. 18, 2024), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52765838&lt;/ref&gt; For example, in 2021 “Hong Kong's national security police raided the offices of ''Stand News'' for suspected breaches of the NSL and separately arrested six senior staff members and one former senior staff member for conspiracy to publish seditious publications.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barrios|first=Ricardo|date=Nov. 15, 2023|title=Hong Kong Under the National Security Law|url=https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R47844|journal=Congress.Gov}}&lt;/ref&gt; The NSL has also impacted other forms of speech as shut down of the Tiananmen vigil in 2002 when “authorities announced they were closing Victoria Park—the traditional site of the Tiananmen vigil—citing ‘Police's observation that some people are using different channels to incite the participation of unauthorised assemblies’ and these assemblies' potential to affect ‘public safety and public order.’”&lt;ref&gt;Barrios,&amp;#x20;Ricardo&amp;#x20;(Nov. 15, 2023).&amp;#x20;&quot;Hong Kong Under the National Security Law&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Congress.Gov''.&lt;/ref&gt; These alarming instances demonstrates China’s use of overbroad justifications, such as national security, to exert control over China and its special administrative regions. Finally, China’s desire for a tighter grip on information does not stop at its borders. In 2015 China signed the Sino-Russian Cybersecurity Agreement.&lt;ref&gt;Sino-Russian Cybersecurity Agreement 2015, https://jsis.washington.edu/news/china-russia-cybersecurity-cooperation-working-towards-cyber-sovereignty/&lt;/ref&gt; The agreement “has two key features: mutual assurance on non-aggression in cyberspace and language advocating cyber-sovereignty.”&lt;ref&gt;Sino-Russian Cybersecurity Agreement 2015, https://jsis.washington.edu/news/china-russia-cybersecurity-cooperation-working-towards-cyber-sovereignty/&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Truth, Honor, &amp; Tolerance''' ===
Chinese censorship has ensured that there is only one product to be bought and sold in the marketplace of ideas, the Chinese Communist Party’s. This booth peddles China’s view of history, as seen in their memory laws, and their chosen religions. China’s failure to encourage a marketplace of ideas has not only impacted freedom of expression in China but also hindered their economic and scientific growth. This limited marketplace extends to how certain historical events are seen. Finally, it is notable that China does allow the practice of religion in their Constitution, and to an extent in practice. However, examples such as the Chinese oppression of Muslims and requiring the Vatican to agree to bishop appointments demonstrates the fact that the Chinese Communist Party is firmly in control of this marketplace.

==== '''''The Marketplace of Ideas''''' ====
The marketplace of ideas is a western concept that has been adopted in the United States. The concept of the marketplace of ideas says that “[t]he best test of truth is the power of the thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market.” This concept is seen in robust public discourse, protests, debate, etc. These all further the belief that government should foster a lively discourse that allows everyone to choose which ideas they believe are best. This concept has not been adopted by China. Rather, “while China has increased economic freedom, it has protected the Party’s iron grip on power and suppressed freedom of expression — there is no free market for ideas. Without such a market, the Chinese people are subservient to the state and their range of choices limited.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dorn|first=James A.|date=Feb. 4, 2017|title=China Needs a Free Market for Ideas|url=https://www.cato.org/commentary/china-needs-free-market-ideas#:~:text=The%20lack%20of%20a%20free,of%20the%20Chinese%20Communist%20Party|journal=CATO Institute}}&lt;/ref&gt; Chinese censorship is pervasive and leaves no stall at the marketplace of ideas uncaptured. For example, “significant amendments were made to both the [Constitution], further consolidating the dominant leadership of the CCP. While these changes were not explicitly centered on censorship, this strengthened power structure indirectly set the stage for a reshaped censorship framework, presenting an illiberal substance under a facade of legitimacy.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Ge|date=2025-26|title=How China Curbs Free Speech Beyond Its Borders: Legal Strategies of Transnational Censorship|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4621776|journal=J. Int'l Media &amp; Ent. L., 11(1), 1-41}}&lt;/ref&gt;

While the lack of a robust coemption of ideas certainly treads on individual rights, some also argue that it also limits China’s potential, “[b]ecause the freedom to supply ideas, choose ideas, and criticize ideas is severely limited, the creativity of the Chinese people is underutilized and their innovative potential undertapped.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Ning|date=Winter 2017|title=China’s Future and the Determining Role of the Market for Ideas|journal=CATO Journal (Vol. 37, No. 1}}&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, “without the freedom to think, speak, and innovate openly, China’s economic growth could stagnate” and as a result “lead to a lack of critical thinking and creativity, which are vital for addressing complex challenges and advancing technological and social innovation.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zou|first=Heng-Fu|date=April 2021|title=A Free Market For Ideas In China|url=https://down.aefweb.net/WorkingPapers/w664.pdf|journal=The World Bank}}&lt;/ref&gt; China’s suppression of the market place of ideas not only violates individual rights but is likely harming both the Chinese economy and even society itself.

==== '''''Memory Laws''''' ====
For China “[t]here is only one correct interpretation of the national past, and it is the party-state – and the party-state alone – that promulgates and polices it.”&lt;ref&gt;Chang,&amp;#x20;Vincent K.L.&amp;#x20;(May 2, 2024).&amp;#x20;&quot;China’s Memory Laws The Global Reach of Beijing’s Push to Juridify Memory&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Verfassungsblog''.&lt;/ref&gt; In 2018, after an incident where Chinese youths cosplayed as Japanese Imperial soldiers and took phots at a war monument in Shanghai, China passed the Heroes and Martyrs Protection Law.&lt;ref&gt;Guang Yang, ''China’s National Memory Laws and the War on Storytelling'', Australian Institute of International Affairs (May 3, 2023), https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/chinas-national-memory-laws-and-the-war-on-storytelling/. ''See also'' Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Heroes and Martyrs, Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, 中华人民共和国英雄烈士保护法, (adopted Apr. 27, 2018, effective May 1, 2018), https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/peoples-republic-of-china-law-on-protection-of-heroes-and-martyrs/.&lt;/ref&gt; This law “calls on citizens to ‘respect, study, and defend’ national heroes and criminalises their defamation.”&lt;ref&gt;Vincent K.L. Chang, ''China’s Memory Laws The Global Reach of Beijing’s Push to Juridify Memory'', Verfassungsblog (May 2, 2024), https://verfassungsblog.de/chinas-memory-laws/&lt;/ref&gt; China’s use of memory laws, or selective history, has resulted in the erasure of historical events that are not flattering or supportive of the Chinese Communist Party. For example, in 2012 a professor teaching in Hong Kong “asked his class of more than forty students from China, all of whom were born in the 1980s, ‘Have any of you heard of June Fourth, Liu Binyan, or Fang Lizhi?’ However, the students simply gazed at one another in silence.”&lt;ref&gt;Yan Lianke, ''China’s National Amnesia'', The Dial (Apr. 23, 2024), https://www.thedial.world/articles/news/issue-15/china-national-strategy-forgetting&lt;/ref&gt; As discussed, nowhere is this amnesia seen better than in the case of Tiananmen Square.

An example of such memory laws in action was seen in 2016 where a group of individuals who promoted liquor bottles that had labels commemorating June 4, 1989, the date of the Tiananmen Square Massacre.&lt;ref&gt;Amnesty International, ''China: Further information: Two More Activists Detained for “June 4 Baijiu”'' (Jun. 21, 2016), [https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/ https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/.]&lt;/ref&gt; One man was “criminally detained on suspicion of ‘inciting subversion of state power’ while [another] was detained on suspicion of ‘picking quarrels and provoking trouble.’”&lt;ref&gt;Amnesty International, ''China: Further information: Two More Activists Detained for “June 4 Baijiu”'' (Jun. 21, 2016), [https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/ https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/.]&lt;/ref&gt; In 2019, one of the men received a three and a half year sentence by a court in southwestern China.&lt;ref&gt;Radio Free Asia, ''Court in China's Sichuan Jails Fourth Man Over Tiananmen Massacre Liquor'' (Apr. 4, 2019), https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/liquor-04042019105951.html&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''Tolerance as Applied to Religion''''' ====
[[File:Cardinal Joseph Zen (2019).jpg|thumb|'''Cardinal Joseph Zen''']]
The Chinese Constitution explicitly allows for freedom of religion, Article 36 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of religious belief.”&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 36 (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt; The Chinese Embassy in South Africa published a paper on religious freedom stating “[r]eligious disputes are unknown in China. Religious believers and non-believers respect each other, are united and have a harmonious relationship.”&lt;ref&gt;Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.html&lt;/ref&gt; However, while China allows for the practice of religion, the Chinese Communist Party has worked to force religion to align with its worldview. As a result, “China is pursuing a policy of ‘Sinicization’ that requires religious groups to align their doctrines, customs and morality with Chinese culture.”&lt;ref&gt;Pew Research Center, 10 things to know about China’s policies on religion (Oct. 23, 2023),

https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/10/23/10-things-to-know-about-chinas-policies-on-religion/&lt;/ref&gt; In 2018 the Vatican agreed to a deal with the Chinese Communist Party regarding the appointment of bishops. Following this “Cardinal Joseph Zen… said it would legitimise the Communist Party’s control over Chinese Catholics, and be like ‘giving the flock into the mouths of the wolves.’”&lt;ref&gt;Economist, ''China wants to “sinicise” its Catholics'' (Nov. 22, 2022), https://www.economist.com/china/2022/11/22/china-wants-to-sinicise-its-catholics&lt;/ref&gt; China’s concern with religions such as Islam and Christianity is not that they are new to China, they are not. Rather, “Muslims are part of Islam’s global ''umma'' (Arabic for ‘community’) of believers” and “Christians, meanwhile, are thought to have strong overseas ties either to the Vatican, for Catholics, or to overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia and the West, for Protestants in particular.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Johnson|first=Ian|date=May 14, 2024|title=China Is Reversing Its Crackdown on Some Religions, but Not All|url=https://www.cfr.org/articles/china-reversing-its-crackdown-some-religions-not-all|journal=Council on Foreign Relations}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, China sees these religions as non-Chinese. Other religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, and folk religions the states are viewed as “so-called indigenous faiths.”&lt;ref&gt;Johnson,&amp;#x20;Ian&amp;#x20;(May 14, 2024).&amp;#x20;&quot;China Is Reversing Its Crackdown on Some Religions, but Not All&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Council on Foreign Relations''.&lt;/ref&gt; A key law impacting religious tolerance is the Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups.&lt;ref&gt;Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/ref&gt; Article 5 of the measures states that “[r]eligious groups must follow the leadership of the Communist Party of China… persist in the direction of sinification of religion[, and] practice the Core Socialist Values.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 5, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, under Article 6, “[r]eligious groups shall accept the supervision, oversight, and administration of people's governments religious affairs departments.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 17, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/ref&gt; Article 17 states that “[r]eligious groups shall publicize the Communist Party of] China's directives and policies.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 6, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, “[t]he legal protection of citizens' right to the freedom of religious belief in China is basically in accordance with the main contents of the concerned international documents and conventions in this respect.”&lt;ref&gt;Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.html&lt;/ref&gt; The Embassy goes on to list the following international agreements: the United Nations Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the International Convenient on Civil and Political Rights, the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, and the Vienna Declaration and Action Program.&lt;ref&gt;Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.html&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Cultural and Religious Expressions''' ===
[[File:Chinese New Year decorations in Chinatown, Singapore, 20240122 0852 2963.jpg|thumb|Chinese New Year decorations in Chinatown, Singapore]]
           In China there are many festivals and cultural events, with the Chinese New Year being the most famous and one of the oldest. This holiday is lauded as important for many reasons, but it is allowed because it promotes Chinese identity. Some religions, and religious symbols, do not receive an equally welcoming invite from the Chinese Communist Party. While religious worship is allowed theoretically, China has cracked down on the Church in China and on religious symbols.

==== '''''Festivals, The Chinese New Year or Spring Festival''''' ====
Feasts and festivals are thousands of years old. Key aspects of festivals include bringing people together, feasting over food, a reason to celebrate, and the symbolization of the shared joy. China has a long history of festivals. Perhaps the largest and most important is the Chinese New Year. The Chinese New Year is thousands of years old. It likely “originated in the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BC), when people held sacrificial ceremonies in honor of gods and ancestors at the beginning or the end of each year.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Timothy S.Y.|title=History of Chinese New Year|url=https://lammuseum.wfu.edu/education/teachers/chinese-new-year/history-of-chinese-new-year/|journal=Wake Forest University, Museum of Anthropology}}&lt;/ref&gt; This festival has become an integral part of the Chinese nation. However, Chinese Americans, and those around the world, can also be seen celebrating this festival. As a result, this festival is intimately intertwined with the Chinese identity.
[[File:Chinese New Year decorations in Chinatown, Singapore, 20240122 0852 2963.jpg|thumb|Chinese New Year decorations in Chinatown, Singapore]]
[[File:The Lucky Red Envelopes or Packets in Lunar New Year.jpg|thumb|Red Envelopes]]
There are many traditions that play critical roles in the Chinese New Year festival season. The legend of the Chinese New Year began with a mythical beast called that would eat crops and people. Legend states “a wise old man figured out that Nian was scared of loud noises (firecrackers) and the color red. So, people put red lanterns and red scrolls on their windows and doors to stop Nian from coming inside. Crackling bamboo (later replaced by firecrackers) was lit to scare Nian away.”&lt;ref&gt;Lam,&amp;#x20;Timothy S.Y..&amp;#x20;&quot;History of Chinese New Year&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Wake Forest University, Museum of Anthropology''.&lt;/ref&gt; The famous tradition of exchanging red envelopes began with the mythical beast Sui, who would scare children while they slept. As a result, “[e]lders began to give out red envelopes of coins to children for them to play with and keep them awake throughout the night.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Richardson|first=Kaysey A.|date=Jan. 27, 2022|title=A Brief History of the Chinese New Year|url=https://worldtreasures.org/blog/a-brief-history-of-the-chinese-new-year|journal=World Treasures}}&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, “round dumplings shaped like the full moon are shared as a symbol of the family unit and perfection.”&lt;ref&gt;Richardson,&amp;#x20;Kaysey A.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 27, 2022).&amp;#x20;&quot;A Brief History of the Chinese New Year&quot;.&amp;#x20;''World Treasures''.&lt;/ref&gt; These traditions give the Chinese people tangible things to pass down to future generations. It is incredible to see how consistent these traditions have been, indicating how important they are to the Chinese people’s cultural expression.

A critical law in the area of cultural and religious expression in China is the Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage.&lt;ref&gt;Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/ref&gt; Under Article 1 of the Law, it’s stated purpose is  that “of inheriting and promoting the distinguished traditional culture of the Chinese nation, promoting the building of the socialist spiritual civilization and strengthening the protection and preservation of intangible cultural heritage.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 1, Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/ref&gt; Article 6 of the law requires the local governments to “include the protection and preservation of intangible cultural heritage in the national economic and social development plans at their same levels and include the protection and preservation funding into the financial budgets.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 6, Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/ref&gt; According to a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization report “[d]uring [Chinese New Year] in 2024, Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the PRC mobilized the whole country to widely carry out Spring Festival [Intangible Cultural Heritage] activities. A total of more than 45,400 ICH promotion and display activities were carried out nationwide.”&lt;ref&gt;nited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Periodic reporting on the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2004), https://ich.unesco.org/en/periodic-reporting-00460&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''Religious Symbols''''' ====
While religious exercise is allowed in China to some extent, the display of certain items has come under attack. According to a recent report, “Chinese officials have ordered the removal of crosses from churches and have replaced images of Christ and the Virgin Mary with images of President Xi Jinping”.&lt;ref&gt;Tyler Arnold, ''China is Removing Crosses From Churches, Replacing Images of Christ With Xi Jinping'', The National Catholic Register (Oct. 1, 2024), https://www.ncregister.com/cna/china-is-removing-crosses-from-churches-replacing-images-of-christ-with-xi-jinping&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, “new rules to ensure that sites of religious worship, like mosques, look adequately “Chinese,” and to mandate the cultivation of “patriotic” religious leaders.”&lt;ref&gt;Martin Lavička, ''A New Round of Restrictions Further Constrains Religious Practice in Xinjiang'', China File (Apr. 19, 2024), https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/new-round-of-restrictions-further-constrains-religious-practice-xinjiang&lt;/ref&gt; Article 26 of the 2024 Xinjiang Religious Affairs Regulations states that “Religious activity sites that are newly built, renovated, expanded, or rebuilt should reflect Chinese characteristics and style in terms of architecture, sculptures, paintings, decorations, etc.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 26, 2024 Xinjiang Religious Affairs Regulations, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/xj-religious-affairs/&lt;/ref&gt; These actions indicate the Chinese Communist Parties attempt to more deeply accelerate sinicization.

==== '''''The Church in China''''' ====
[[File:20251016 Shangqiu Catholic Church 04.jpg|thumb|Shangqiu Catholic Church]]
In China there are two faces to the Catholic Church. The first is the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (the “CCPA”). The CCPA is obedient to the “the State Council's Religious Affairs Bureau, which is an agency under the United Front Department of the Communist Party. It does not recognize the supreme administrative, legislative, and judicial authority of the Pope.”&lt;ref&gt;The Cardinal Kung Foundation, ''Catholic Church in China, It Is Now Known As An Underground Church'',  http://www.cardinalkungfoundation.org/rc/RCrelfreedom.php&lt;/ref&gt; The second face is the “Underground Catholic Church” which is not governed by the Chinese Communist Party. Recently, the CCPA held the 10th National Congress of Catholicism in China. The CCPA “delegates also unanimously accepted the Work Report of the 9th Standing Committee on Church efforts and activities in the promotion of patriotism, socialism, and sinicization in the Catholic Church as outlined by President Xi Jinping.”&lt;ref&gt;Union of Catholic Asian News, ''China's Catholic leaders vow to accelerate sinicization''''',''' https://www.ucanews.com/news/chinas-catholic-leaders-vow-to-accelerate-sinicization/98499&lt;/ref&gt; Opposed to the CCPA are the underground Church leaders like Cardinal Joseph Zen. Cardinal Zen is critical of the Chinese persecution of Catholics and heavily criticized the 2018 deal the Vatican made with China which requires Chinese approval of bishops.&lt;ref&gt;Harriet Sherwood, ''Vatican signs historic deal with China – but critics denounce sellout'', The Guardian (Sep. 22, 2018), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/22/vatican-pope-francis-agreement-with-china-nominating-bishops&lt;/ref&gt; Regarding the deal, Cardinal Zen stated that “[t]hey’re [sending] the flock into the mouths of the wolves. It’s an incredible betrayal.”&lt;ref&gt;''See'' Harriet Sherwood, ''Vatican signs historic deal with China – but critics denounce sellout'', The Guardian (Sep. 22, 2018), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/22/vatican-pope-francis-agreement-with-china-nominating-bishops&lt;/ref&gt; In China it is “illegal for the priest to instruct the children of the parish in the Faith or give them any materials to read.”&lt;ref&gt;Michael Schmiesing, ''A Hidden Church in'' China, Catholic Answers (Dec. 12, 2024), https://www.catholic.com/magazine/online-edition/a-hidden-church-in-china&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, “minors are not allowed to attend the Mass in some areas of China.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Aly Rothfus, ''Catholic Church in China Faces'' Crisis, The Irish Rover (Nov. 19, 2025), https://irishrover.net/2025/11/catholic-church-in-china-faces-crisis/&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, it must be noted that the Holy See does not recognize the Chinese communist Party as the leader of China. Rather, “the Vatican has maintained formal diplomatic relations with Taiwan.”&lt;ref&gt;Abhishank Mishra &amp; Ananya Sharma, ''China-Taiwan, and a Vatican'' conversion, the interpreter (Jul. 9, 2024), https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/china-taiwan-vatican-conversion&lt;/ref&gt;

As discussed above, China has set a clear policy goal of maintaining, celebrating, and promulgating traditional Chinese festivals to the public. Religious festivals do not enjoy the same support. Article 42 of the Religious Affairs Regulations 2017 provides that “[w]here a large-scale religious activity is held that is beyond the accommodation capacity of a religious activity site the religious group… sponsoring the activity shall, 30 days before the activity is to be held, submit an application to the religious affairs department of the people’s government for the province.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 42, Religious Affairs Regulations 2017, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/religious-affairs-regulations-2017/&lt;/ref&gt; On Easter Sunday 2011, a [c]hurch in Beijing planned to hold an outdoor worship service in a plaza amid high-rise office and commercial buildings. However the police sealed off the plaza and dispelled gathering congregants… Thirty six of the congregants were taken to police stations for interrogation.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Fenggang|first=Yang|date=May 12, 2011|title=The Chinese House Church Goes Public|url=https://divinity.uchicago.edu/sightings/articles/chinese-house-church-goes-public-fenggang-yang|journal=The University of Chicago {{!}} Divinity School}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Privacy and Data Protection''' ===
Our private thoughts and actions are intimate to who we are as people. However, in China, the government wishes to be included in that inner circle. They seek to accomplish this by a program of mass surveillance. While artificial intelligence has been an incredible breakthrough for the world it has also been taken advantage of by nefarious actors. Chief among these is perhaps China. China has employed artificial intelligence to better control its citizens and ensure compliance. Another technology breakthrough, cryptocurrency, has had mixed reactions from China. Cryptocurrency allows transactions to be kept private, a no-go for the Chinese Communist Party. As a result, China has banned cryptocurrency use.

==== '''''Mass Surveillance and Artificial Intelligence''''' ====
It is no surprise that China is renowned for its mass surveillance. Citizens are watched almost constantly to ensure compliance with the Chinese Communist Party’s ideals. In fact the “[p]eople in China are among the most surveilled in the world, taking 16 of the top 20 spots on the most surveilled cities list based on the number of cameras per 1,000 people in an annual assessment.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gates|first=Megan|date=Jun. 1, 2021|title=The Rise of the Surveillance State|url=https://www.asisonline.org/security-management-magazine/monthly-issues/security-technology/archive/2021/june/The-Rise-of-The-Surveillance-State|journal=Security Management}}&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, “documents from one Shanghai district detail plans for AI-powered cameras and drones to ‘automatically discover and intelligently enforce the law,’ including potentially alerting police to crowd gatherings.”[116] China has also begun using artificial intelligence in satellite surveillance, “China is deploying AI-enabled Sun-synchronous satellites over regions that the CCP views as politically sensitive, including Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, Hong Kong and Macau.”&lt;ref&gt;Fergus Ryan, et al., ''The party’s AI How China’s new AI systems are reshaping human rights'', ASPI (dec. 2025), https://aspi.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/27122307/The-partys-AI-How-Chinas-new-AI-systems-are-reshaping-human-rights.pdf. ''See also'', Jinghe Fan, Xin Zhang, ‘Small, swift, and effective’ legislation in China: Towards adaptive governance of AI?, Computer Law &amp; Security Review, Volume 61, 2026, 106329, ISSN 2212-473X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2026.106329.&lt;/ref&gt; In the Xinjiang region China uses mobile apps, biometric data, and artificial intelligence to monitor millions of Muslims.&lt;ref&gt;Gates,&amp;#x20;Megan&amp;#x20;(Jun. 1, 2021).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Rise of the Surveillance State&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Security Management''.&lt;/ref&gt; The use of artificial intelligence is not limited to technical uses. China has begun using artificial intelligence to help it draft policies, “[i]n one case, a ChatGPT user ‘likely connected to a [Chinese] government entity’ asked the AI model to help write a proposal for a tool that analyzes the travel movements and police records of the Uyghur minority— a Turkic-speaking, predominantly Muslim ethnic minority—and other ‘high-risk’ people, according to the OpenAI report.”&lt;ref&gt;Sean Lyngaas &amp; Jim Sclutto, ''Suspected Chinese government operatives used ChatGPT to shape mass surveillance proposals, OpenAI says'', CNN (Oct. 7, 2025), https://www.cnn.com/2025/10/07/politics/china-chatgpt-surveillance&lt;/ref&gt; The use of artificial intelligence in China is alarming. While surveillance in Chian has grown alongside technology since the Chinese Communist Party took power, the introduction of artificial intelligence is the biggest leap that has yet to occur. Moreover, the “CAC’s approach to regulating AI or algorithms is centered on the regime of Algorithm Registry. Providers of certain recommendation algorithms, deep synthesis, and generative AI technologies must register detailed information with the CAC before offering services in China.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Wayne Wei|last2=et al.|date=2025|title=Artificial Intelligence “Law(s)” in China: Retrospect and Prospect|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=5039316|journal=Part I, Journal of AI Law and Regulation (AIRe), Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 29-36, 2025 &amp; Part II, Journal of AI Law and Regulation (AIRe), Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 139-157, 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''Cryptocurrency in China''''' ====
If someone were to analyze an individual’s last year of credit card transactions it is likely one could learn quite a bit about them. For a mass surveillance state like China this is appealing. As a result, cryptocurrencies present an issue for China. Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum use a technology called blockchain that acts as a digital ledger of transactions. This allows individuals to exchange value without the need of an intermediary like a bank. These blockchains enhance “transactional privacy by removing the need for users to reveal their real identities. Confidential transactions and encryption techniques ensure only the involved parties know the details. Zero-knowledge proofs, ring signatures, and stealth addresses advances further strengthen privacy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zaware|first=Rajendra|title=Data Privacy in Cryptocurrencies and Blockchain|url=https://blogs.infosys.com/emerging-technology-solutions/iedps/data-privacy-in-cryptocurrencies-and-blockchain.html|journal=Infosys}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, while all transactions on the blockchain are visible, the identity of who made the transaction is private unless shared.

Importantly, “China’s central bank defined Cryptocurrency as a specified virtual commodity. This legal attribute is not clear, which brings difficulties in consumer protection and criminal identification.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hu|first=Jiye|date=Apr. 25, 2023|title=The Regulation of Cryptocurrency in China|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4423780|journal=China University of Political Science and Law, Business School; Business School}}&lt;/ref&gt; China was renowned for its large cryptocurrency market and “[p]rior to 2017, China had the world’s largest cryptocurrency market—with 80% of Bitcoin, the world’s leading digital coin, transactions conducted in yuan.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hoffman|first=Richard|title=China’s Cryptocurrency and Blockchain Regulatory Environment|url=https://www.ecovis.com/focus-china/chinas-cryptocurrency/|journal=ECOVIS}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, after years of increasing restrictions, China banned cryptocurrency trading and mining in 2021.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=OxKira|date=Oct. 9, 2025|title=Crypto in China: A 2025 guide to the crypto landscape|journal=Arham}}&lt;/ref&gt; This time period saw a flurry of laws implemented regarding digital assets and crypto currencies, “[o]n January 1, 2020, the ‘Cryptography Law of the People’s Republic of China’ came into effect. ‘Data Security Law’ was adopted on June 10, 2021, and ‘Personal Information Protection Law’ was adopted on August 20, 2021.”&lt;ref&gt;Hu,&amp;#x20;Jiye&amp;#x20;(Apr. 25, 2023).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Regulation of Cryptocurrency in China&quot;.&amp;#x20;''China University of Political Science and Law, Business School; Business School''&lt;/ref&gt; The People’s Bank of China “warned financial institutions against providing banking and clearing services to virtual currency-related businesses.”&lt;ref&gt;Xiuhao, et al, ''China steps up crypto crackdown, will vet real-world asset tokens'', Reuters (Feb. 6, 2026), https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/china-vows-tighten-virtual-currency-restrictions-2026-02-06/&lt;/ref&gt; This warning has not been without teeth. In 2025 a Chinese court convicted five people of transacting more than $160 million worth of cryptocurrency.&lt;ref&gt;Prashant Jha, ''Five People Jailed in China Just for Moving USDT'', Yahoo! Finance (Oct. 29, 2025), https://finance.yahoo.com/news/five-people-jailed-china-just-080215125.html&lt;/ref&gt; The court said that these individuals “violated China’s Anti-Money Laundering Law and Foreign Exchange Administration Regulations, both of which prohibit unauthorized cross-border fund transfers.”&lt;ref&gt;Prashant Jha, ''Five People Jailed in China Just for Moving USDT'', Yahoo! Finance (Oct. 29, 2025), https://finance.yahoo.com/news/five-people-jailed-china-just-080215125.html&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:E-CNY logo.svg|thumb|E-CNY logo]]
While these penalties are steep, people in China have persisted in using cryptocurrencies to ensure their transactions remain private. Reports indicate “that there are still around 59 million crypto users in China as of 2025. That is roughly 10% of the global crypto user base, even though most users must operate outside official channels.”&lt;ref&gt;Faari Labinjo, ''The Truth About China’s Crypto Ban: Adoption, Underground Markets and Billions in OTC Trading (2025–2026)'', DeFiPlanet (Mar. 17, 2026), https://defi-planet.com/2026/03/the-truth-about-chinas-crypto-ban-adoption-underground-markets-and-billions-in-otc-trading-2025-2026/&lt;/ref&gt; Interestingly, “[w]hile private cryptocurrencies face heavy restrictions, China has fully embraced its own central bank digital currency (CBDC) known as the digital yuan (e-CNY). By late 2025, e-CNY platforms had processed over 14.2 trillion yuan in transactions and were used by more than 260 million wallets.”&lt;ref&gt;Faari Labinjo, ''The Truth About China’s Crypto Ban: Adoption, Underground Markets and Billions in OTC Trading (2025–2026)'', DeFiPlanet (Mar. 17, 2026), https://defi-planet.com/2026/03/the-truth-about-chinas-crypto-ban-adoption-underground-markets-and-billions-in-otc-trading-2025-2026/&lt;/ref&gt; While this may seem contradictory at first, there is a strategy. Banning cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin ensures private transactions will not occur. Introducing the digital yuan, which is subject to surveillance, will allow China to “create a mechanism through which the government can access reams of digital data that may prove helpful to Beijing in the global race to develop artificial intelligence.”&lt;ref&gt;Jeremy Mark, ''Why China’s digital currency threatens the country’s tech giants'', Atlantic Council (Jul. 15, 2021), https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/why-chinas-digital-currency-threatens-the-countrys-tech-giants/#:~:text=Unlike%20Bitcoin%20and%20other%20cyber,who%20attract%20the%20attention%20of&lt;/ref&gt;  To that end, “[u]nlike Bitcoin and other cyber currencies, all digital-yuan users will register with the [People's Bank of China] under a system described by government officials as “controllable anonymity,’ which will give the government the ability to track illicit transactions and presumably the activities of citizens who attract the attention of security services”&lt;ref&gt;Jeremy Mark, ''Why China’s digital currency threatens the country’s tech giants'', Atlantic Council (Jul. 15, 2021), https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/why-chinas-digital-currency-threatens-the-countrys-tech-giants/#:~:text=Unlike%20Bitcoin%20and%20other%20cyber,who%20attract%20the%20attention%20of&lt;/ref&gt;

Other reasons for adopting the digital yuan include payment efficiency, increased state oversight and support of the yuan as a strategy tool. According to a 2021 report by the working group for the e-CNY, “the issuance of e-CNY will fully meet the public’s daily payment needs, further improve the efficiency of the retail payment system and reduce the cost of retail payment.”&lt;ref&gt;Working Group on E-CNY Research and Development of the People’s Bank of China, ''Progress of Research &amp; Development of E-CNY in China'' (July 2021), https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/server/api/core/bitstreams/8c1d1ea1-a8f7-402c-9f08-edf6863237bc/content&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Right to Bodily, Spiritual and Digital Identity''' ===
An individual’s identity is the essence of who they are and what they believe. In our digital age people have taken on digital identities. In many parts of the world people cannot get by without a digital identity. China is currently attempting to enroll its citizenry in a government issues digital identity. This identity will allow China to compile all enrollees’ personal information. On the other side of the identity coin, China has also sought to compile massive amount of biometric date such as DNA and facial recognition. These data collections have also been extended to individuals visiting China.

==== '''''Digital Identity''''' ====
In a world that has become intensely digital it makes sense that we humans would take on digital identities. These identities are demonstrated by social media, bank accounts, online use, and more. We use these identities to interact with other humans in the digital world. The Chinese government has introduced the National Online Identity Authentication Public Service. This is a “government-controlled digital identity system [which] will allow citizens to register by providing official government documents and then will shield their information from Internet services.”&lt;ref&gt;Robert Lemos, ''China Introduces National Cyber ID Amid Privacy Concerns'', Chinese Human Rights Defenders (Jul. 23, 2025),

https://www.nchrd.org/2025/07/china-introduces-national-cyber-id-amid-privacy-concerns/.&lt;/ref&gt; Chinese authorities say “that the new measure intends to establish a trusted digital identity framework within the public service infrastructure.”&lt;ref&gt;Shane Yi &amp; Michael Caster, ''China: New Internet ID System a threat to online expression'', Article19 (Jun. 25, 2025), [https://www.article19.org/resources/china-new-internet-id-system-a-threat-to-online-expression/ https://www.article19.org/resources/china-new-internet-id-system-a-threat-to-online-expression/.]&lt;/ref&gt; However, “[t]he Chinese government has not provided details about how the system is constructed or the policies in place to protect the data from misuse… for digital-rights activists, the danger is clear.”&lt;ref&gt;Robert Lemos, ''China Introduces National Cyber ID Amid Privacy Concerns'', Chinese Human Rights Defenders (Jul. 23, 2025),

https://www.nchrd.org/2025/07/china-introduces-national-cyber-id-amid-privacy-concerns/&lt;/ref&gt; The digital identity offered by China is proffered under the guise of ease of use. However, in exchange for this ease, Chinese citizens will need to give over intimate personal information to the government. While the program is optional for now it is possible necessary resources online could soon require one to obtain a government controlled digital identity.

==== '''''Biometric Data''''' ====
Despite the increasing importance of the digital identity and personal digital information, there is still information about ourselves that is intimate. Biometric data includes things like DNA, fingerprints, and even voice scans. In China “legislation and regulation are carefully crafted to give public security organs broad powers to harvest and use biometric data in conjunction with the performance of their law enforcement and national security duties.”&lt;ref&gt;Mercator Institute for China, ''China’s Handling of Biometric Data: Trends and Implications for Europe'' (Jun. 14, 2022), https://merics.org/en/events/chinas-handling-biometric-data-trends-and-implications-europe.&lt;/ref&gt; A main biometric tool used by the Chinese government is facial recognition which “is deployed to identify citizens for law enforcement purposes, such as performing identity verification at airports, train stations, or specific public areas, and for commercial purposes to enhance business operations’ efficiency.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Jianyu|last2=Stevenson|first2=Jennifer|date=2022|title=Assessing Legal Protection of Biometric Data in China: Gaps, Principles, and Policy Recommendations|url=https://commons.stmarytx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1776&amp;context=facarticles.|journal=St. Mary’s University}}&lt;/ref&gt; Such collections are not limited to Chinese citizens however. China has begun requiring foreign nationals “to submit their fingerprints and undergo a facial scan at self-help kiosks at their port of entry to the People's Republic of China. These self-help kiosks will issue a receipt once your biometric data is received and that receipt must be given to the border inspector for verification as part of the entry process.”&lt;ref&gt;Duke Travel Registry, ''Announcements: China now requires collection of biometric data upon arrival'', https://duke-travel.terradotta.com/index.cfm?FuseAction=Announcements.Announcement&amp;Announcement_ID=3026&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, China has recently combined blockchain technology with biometric data, “the new digital ID service stores cryptographic keys on-chain after a real-name verification process. According to reports, the system authenticates users’ legal name, facial recognition, and government ID before allowing users to create an infinite number of public-private key pairs to register on online platforms.”&lt;ref&gt;Wahid Pessarlay, ''China blockchain=based ID experiment aims to stop data leaks'', Coingeek (Dec. 29, 2023), https://coingeek.com/china-blockchain-based-id-experiment-aims-to-stop-data-leaks/&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''AI-Generated Personas''''' ====
China has taken the concept of AI-generated personas to the next level with the creation of AI judges. Since 2019, millions of legal cases of been decided by these “smart courts” or “internet courts”. These courts make use of “non-human judges, powered by artificial intelligence (AI) and allows participants to register their cases online and resolve their matters via a digital court hearing.”&lt;ref&gt;Tara Vasdani, Robot justice: China’s use of Internet courts, LexisNexis (Feb. 2020), https://www.lexisnexis.com/en-ca/ihc/robots-justice-chinas-use-of-internet-courts.&lt;/ref&gt; These courts have decided cases on various topics such as “intellectual property, e-commerce, financial disputes related to online conduct, loans acquired or performed online, domain name issues, property and civil rights cases involving the Internet, product liability arising from online purchases and certain administrative disputes.”&lt;ref&gt;Tara Vasdani, Robot justice: China’s use of Internet courts, LexisNexis (Feb. 2020), https://www.lexisnexis.com/en-ca/ihc/robots-justice-chinas-use-of-internet-courts.&lt;/ref&gt; The “judge” appears “by hologram and are artificial creations — there is no real judge present. The holographic judge looks like a real person but is a synthesized, 3D image of different judges, and sets schedules, asks litigants questions, takes evidence and issues dispositive rulings.”&lt;ref&gt;Tara Vasdani, Robot justice: China’s use of Internet courts, LexisNexis (Feb. 2020), https://www.lexisnexis.com/en-ca/ihc/robots-justice-chinas-use-of-internet-courts.&lt;/ref&gt; In addition to efficiency, there are other motives at play behind these smart courts, party control. Interestingly, these “[s]mart courts allow the party to intervene in court decisions without upending the entire normative system by automatically detecting and filtering cases that require political intervention.”&lt;ref&gt;Dory Reiling &amp; Straton Papagianneas, ''Lessons from China’s Smart Court Reform'', International Journal for Court Administration (2015), https://doi.org/10.36745/ijca.679.&lt;/ref&gt; Judges are still involved in the cases process but the use of AI allows them to process cases faster “the Shenzhen Intermediate People’s Court said each judge in the city had handled an average of 744 cases in 2025 – up by 249 cases from the previous year.”&lt;ref&gt;William Zheg, ''AI helped Shenzhen judges handle cases 50% faster. Is this the future for China?'', South China Morning Post (May 4, 2026), https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3352161/ai-helped-shenzhen-judges-handle-cases-50-faster-future-china. &lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Right to Reject Information, Clothing &amp; Human Exhibitions''' ===
In China people are bombarded with propaganda in a daily basis. As such it is virtually impossible to be free from unwanted content. In fact, one may not even realize they are ingesting content they do not want. China has a systemic practice of planting stories in the news and on social media. Furthermore, the government requires Chinese schools to incorporate propaganda into their lessons from the youngest of ages. Also, alarming is China’s oppression of religious clothing. Chief among these is China’s ban on certain Muslim garb in the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region. As such, people are prohibited from outwardly expressing what is most essential to their identity, their faith.

==== '''''Unwanted Content''''' ====
Do individuals in China have the power to reject unwanted content? In reality the answer is no. The Chinese government controls all forms of media in China and there is no way to really block this onslaught of propaganda. Somedays up to 30 percent of a newspapers content will be planted by the state.&lt;ref&gt;University of Oregon, ''New research shows that propaganda is on the rise in'' China, (Apr. 2, 2025), https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1079250&lt;/ref&gt; A recent study showed that “state-scripted propaganda on newsstands is a near-daily phenomenon in China, with some form of scripted propaganda in the news around 90 percent of days. And, on average, at least one front-page article in party newspapers is planted by the state.”&lt;ref&gt;University of Oregon, ''New research shows that propaganda is on the rise in'' China, (Apr. 2, 2025), https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1079250&lt;/ref&gt; While one could choose not to pick up a newspaper in China, for many this is their main source of information and a necessity. Other forms of media are subject to the same with researchers identifying “over 18,000 central or local government accounts on Douyin, China’s version of TikTok, that produce 5 million videos per year.” Notably “[t]he largest share of these accounts belongs to the public security apparatus (34%), followed by state media (24%) and propaganda organs (12%) at the county, city, provincial, or central level.”

In addition to media, the Chinese government requires schools to teach its chosen ideology. Namely, “Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory, the Theory of Three Represents, the Scientific Outlook on Development, and Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 6, Section 1, Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm&lt;/ref&gt; China recently introduced the Patriotic Education Law&lt;ref&gt;Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm.&lt;/ref&gt; which “mandates that love of the country and the ruling Chinese Communist Party be incorporated into work and study for everyone – from the youngest children to workers and professionals across all sectors.”&lt;ref&gt;Chris Lau &amp; Simone McCarthy, ''China feels the country isn’t patriotic enough. A new law aims to change'' that, CNN (Jan. 6, 2024), https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/06/china/china-patriotic-education-law-intl-hnk#:~:text=2%2C%202009.&amp;text=The%20new%20law%20also%20orders,subject%20to%20punishments%2C%20she%20said.&lt;/ref&gt; Article 15 states that “[s]chools at all levels and of all types shall provide coherent patriotic education throughout their curriculum, provide high-quality theoretical and political lessons, and integrate patriotic education into various subjects and textbooks.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 15, Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, 2023, http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm&lt;/ref&gt;

Finally, Xuexi Qiangguo seeks to blend both media and education. Xuexi Qiangguo is an app run by the Chinese Communist Party that citizens are encouraged to download.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Liang|first=Fan|last2=et al.|date=2021|title=The Platformization of Propaganda:How Xuexi Qiangguo Expands Persuasion and Assesses Citizens in China|url=https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16484/3416|journal=University of Michigan: International Journal of Communication}}&lt;/ref&gt; This app allows “users to see state media news reports, video chat with their friends, make a personal schedule and send ‘red envelopes’ of money to friends. The app comes with a Snapchat-like messaging function where messages disappear after being read.”&lt;ref&gt;Lily Kuo &amp; Kate Lyons, China's most popular app brings Xi Jinping to your pocket, The Guardian (Feb. 15, 2019), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/15/chinas-most-popular-app-brings-xi-jinping-to-your-pocket.&lt;/ref&gt; However,, the most important feature of the app is that it allows people to study Xi Jinping’s thought while taking quizzes and earning points. The app appears to hold political significance for the government because “[a] university in Zhejiang called on all party groups to use the app in order to form a ‘stronghold’ for Xi Jinping thought.&lt;ref&gt;Lily Kuo &amp; Kate Lyons, China's most popular app brings Xi Jinping to your pocket, The Guardian (Feb. 15, 2019), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/15/chinas-most-popular-app-brings-xi-jinping-to-your-pocket.&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, some are reporting that “their employers are requiring them to score a certain number of points.”&lt;ref&gt;Lily Kuo &amp; Kate Lyons, China's most popular app brings Xi Jinping to your pocket, The Guardian (Feb. 15, 2019), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/15/chinas-most-popular-app-brings-xi-jinping-to-your-pocket.&lt;/ref&gt; Despite the app’s more lighthearted features, it’s “control models prioritize ideological content and get users to read specific information. This means that the Chinese state could transform the platform into a centralized communication model for manipulating information circulation and directing user behavior.”&lt;ref&gt;Fan Liang, Yuchen Chen, Fangwei Zhao, ''The Platformization of Propaganda:How Xuexi Qiangguo Expands Persuasion and Assesses Citizens in China'', University of Michigan: International Journal of Communication (2021), https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16484/3416.&lt;/ref&gt; A study shows that the app tracks President Xi’s political goals and helps promote them. For example, “the study channel recommended an online course about blockchain on October 25, 2019, since Xi Jinping announced the support for blockchain technology on October 24, 2019.”&lt;ref&gt;Fan Liang, Yuchen Chen, Fangwei Zhao, ''The Platformization of Propaganda:How Xuexi Qiangguo Expands Persuasion and Assesses Citizens in China'', University of Michigan: International Journal of Communication (2021), https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16484/3416.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''Religious Clothing in China''''' ====
[[File:China Xinjiang Northern location map.svg|thumb|Xinjiang]]
In China, certain religious garb is subject to scrutiny. China has introduced “counterterrorism” laws that seek to “ban wearing long beards, full face coverings, and religious dress.”&lt;ref&gt;U.S. Department of State, ''China (Includes Hong Kong, Macau, Tibet, and Xinjiang): Xinjian'', https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/xinjiang&lt;/ref&gt; These laws also ban “wearing clothes associated with ‘religious extremism.’ These regulations do not define ‘abnormal’ or ‘religious extremism.’”&lt;ref&gt;U.S. Department of State, ''China (Includes Hong Kong, Macau, Tibet, and Xinjiang): Xinjian'', https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/xinjiang&lt;/ref&gt; The ban of Muslim women’s head garb has been particular prominence with “regional authorities outlaw[ing] Islamic veils from all public spaces in the regional capital of China’s Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR)… [the ban] empowers Chinese police to punish violators and dole out fines of up to… $800 for those who fail to enforce the prohibition.”&lt;ref&gt;Timothy Grose &amp; James Leibold, ''Why China Is Banning Islamic Veils'', ChinaFile (Feb. 4, 2015), https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/why-china-banning-islamic-veils&lt;/ref&gt; The Chinese Communist Party has sought to promote alternatives to these veils such as hats and braided hair. As part of this campaign, “XUAR officials launched ‘Project Beauty’ in 2011: a five-year, $8 million dollar campaign aimed at developing Xinjiang’s fashion and cosmetics industries while encouraging Muslim women to ‘look towards ‘modern’ culture’ by removing their veils.”&lt;ref&gt;Timothy Grose &amp; James Leibold, ''Why China Is Banning Islamic Veils'', ChinaFile (Feb. 4, 2015), https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/why-china-banning-islamic-veils&lt;/ref&gt;

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[29] Yang, D.L., ''China’s Illiberal Regulatory State in Comparative Perspective''. Chin. Polit. Sci. Rev. 2, 114–133 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-017-0059-x.

[30] China, Reporters Without Borders, https://rsf.org/en/country/china.

[31] BBC News, ''China media guide'' (Aug. 22, 2023), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017881.

[32] safeguardDefenders'', Ownership and control of Chinese media'' (Jun. 14, 2021), https://safeguarddefenders.com/en/blog/ownership-and-control-chinese-media.

[33] [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017881 BBC], ''supra''.

[34] ''[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017881 Id.]''

[35] Conrad Chan, Anthony Dao, Justin Hou, Tony Jin, Calvin Tuong, ''Free Speech vs Maintaining Social Cohesion A Closer Look at Different Policies'', Stanford University (2011), https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/cs181/projects/2010-11/FreeExpressionVsSocialCohesion/china_policy.html.

[36] Sonali Chandel, Zang Jingji, Yu Yunnan, Sun Jingyao, Zhang Zhipeng, ''The Golden Shield Project of China: A Decade Later An in-depth study of the Great Firewall'', College of Engineering and Computing Sciences, New York Institute of Technology (2019), https://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~yunnanyu/files/papers/Golden.pdf.

[37] The Editorial Team, ''China imposes penalty to vessel using Starlink in its waters'', Saftery4Sea (Dec. 23, 2025), https://safety4sea.com/china-imposes-penalty-to-vessel-using-starlink-in-its-waters/.

[38] [https://freedomhouse.org/country/china Freedom House], ''supra''.

[39] [https://freedomhouse.org/country/china ''Id.'']

[40] Cyberspace Administration of China, ''The national cybersecurity administrative law enforcement work was carried out solidly in the second quarter'' (Jul. 18, 2020), https://www.cac.gov.cn/2020-07/21/c_1596879319813780.html; ''see also'' Qiao Long; Editor: Hu Lihan; Web Editor: Rui Zhe, ''China shut down more than 2,000 websites in the second quarter, triggering another large-scale internet crackdown'', rfa (Jul. 24, 2020), https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/yataibaodao/meiti/ql1-07242020062431.html.

[41] [https://freedomhouse.org/country/china Freedom House], ''supra''.

[42] ''[https://freedomhouse.org/country/china Id.]''

[43] Haiping Zheng, ''Regulating the Internet: China’s Law and Practice'', School of Law, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China (Jan. 4, 2013), https://content.scirp.org/pdf/blr_2013032615421340.pdf.

[44] DeLisle, Jacques, Avery Goldstein and Guobin Yang, ''The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era'', University of Pennsylvania (Jan. 16, 2014), https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2379959.

[45] ''[https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2379959 Id.]''

[46] ''[https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2379959 Id.]''

[47] ''[https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2379959 Id.]''

[48] ''[https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2379959 Id.]''

[49] [https://rsf.org/en/country/china Reporters Without Borders], ''supra''.

[50] Leigh Hartman, ''In China, you can’t say these words'', ShareAmerica (Jun. 3, 2020), https://archive-share.america.gov/america.gov/in-china-you-cant-say-these-words/index.html.

[51] Ken Moritsugu, ''Tiananmen Square anniversary shows China's ability to suppress history'', PBS News (Jun. 4, 2025), https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/tiananmen-square-anniversary-shows-chinas-ability-to-suppress-history#:~:text=Security%20was%20tight%20Wednesday%20around,gatherings%20can%20still%20take%20place.

[52] Arlene Getx, ''In record year, China, Israel, and Myanmar are world’s leading jailers of journalists'', Committee to Protect Journalists (Jan. 16, 2025), https://cpj.org/special-reports/in-record-year-china-israel-and-myanmar-are-worlds-leading-jailers-of-journalists/.

[53]Sara L. Zeigler &amp; John R. Vile, ''William Blackstone'', Free Speech Center (Jan. 1, 2009), https://firstamendment.mtsu.edu/article/william-blackstone/.

[54] Congressional-Executive Commission on China, ''Prior Restraints'', https://www.cecc.gov/prior-restraints.

[55] ''[https://www.cecc.gov/prior-restraints Id.]''

[56] ''[https://www.cecc.gov/prior-restraints Id.]''

[57] Regulations on the Administration of Publishing (2001.12.25), https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/regulation-on-the-administration-of-publishing-chinese-and-english-text.

[58] Regulations on the Administration of Publishing (2001.12.25), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/regulation-on-the-administration-of-publishing-chinese-and-english-text.

[59] Zehra Nur Duz, ''China jails 12 for illegal publications about party'', Ankara (Dec. 26, 2019), [https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877? &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877&lt;/nowiki&gt;?].

[60] ''[https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877? Id.]''

[61] Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the.

[62] Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the.

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[66] BBC, ''Hong Kong national security law: What is it and is it worrying?'' (Mar. 18, 2024), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52765838.

[67] ''[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52765838 Id.]''

[68] Ricardo Barrios, ''Hong Kong Under the National Security Law'', Congress.Gov (Nov. 15, 2023), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R47844&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

[69] ''Id.''

[70] Sino-Russian Cybersecurity Agreement 2015, https://jsis.washington.edu/news/china-russia-cybersecurity-cooperation-working-towards-cyber-sovereignty/.

[71] ''[https://jsis.washington.edu/news/china-russia-cybersecurity-cooperation-working-towards-cyber-sovereignty/ Id.]''

[72] James A. Dorn, ''China Needs a Free Market for Ideas'', CATO Institute (Feb. 4, 2017), https://www.cato.org/commentary/china-needs-free-market-ideas#:~:text=The%20lack%20of%20a%20free,of%20the%20Chinese%20Communist%20Party.

[73][73] Ge Chen, ''How China Curbs Free Speech Beyond Its Borders: Legal Strategies of Transnational Censorship'', J. Int'l Media &amp; Ent. L., 11(1), 1-41 (2025-26), https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4621776. 

[74] Ning Wang, ''China’s Future and the Determining Role of the Market for Ideas'', CATO Journal (Vol. 37, No. 1, Winter 2017), https://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/cato-journal/2017/2/cj-v37n1-11.pdf#:~:text=A%20market%20for%20ideas%20flourished,the%20academies%20in%20ancient%20Greece.

[75] Heng-Fu Zou, ''A Free Market For Ideas In China'', The World Bank (April 2021), https://down.aefweb.net/WorkingPapers/w664.pdf.

[76] Vincent K.L. Chang, ''China’s Memory Laws The Global Reach of Beijing’s Push to Juridify Memory'', Verfassungsblog (May 2, 2024), https://verfassungsblog.de/chinas-memory-laws/.

[77] Guang Yang, ''China’s National Memory Laws and the War on Storytelling'', Australian Institute of International Affairs (May 3, 2023), https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/chinas-national-memory-laws-and-the-war-on-storytelling/. ''See also'' Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Heroes and Martyrs, Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, April 27, 2018, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/peoples-republic-of-china-law-on-protection-of-heroes-and-martyrs/.

中华人民共和国英雄烈士保护法, (adopted Apr. 27, 2018, effective May 1, 2018), https://npcobserver.com/legislation/heroes-and-martyrs-protection-law/.

[78] [https://verfassungsblog.de/chinas-memory-laws/ Chang], ''supra''.

[79] Yan Lianke, ''China’s National Amnesia'', The Dial (Apr. 23, 2024), https://www.thedial.world/articles/news/issue-15/china-national-strategy-forgetting.

[80] Amnesty International, ''China: Further information: Two More Activists Detained for “June 4 Baijiu”'' (Jun. 21, 2016), [https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.]

[81] ''[https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/ Id.]''

[82] Radio Free Asia, ''Court in China's Sichuan Jails Fourth Man Over Tiananmen Massacre Liquor'' (Apr. 4, 2019), https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/liquor-04042019105951.html. 

[83] XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 36 (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html.

[84] Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.html.

[85] Pew Research Center, 10 things to know about China’s policies on religion (Oct. 23, 2023),

https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/10/23/10-things-to-know-about-chinas-policies-on-religion/.

[86] Economist, ''China wants to “sinicise” its Catholics'' (Nov. 22, 2022), https://www.economist.com/china/2022/11/22/china-wants-to-sinicise-its-catholics.

[87] Ian Johnson, ''China Is Reversing Its Crackdown on Some Religions, but Not All'', Council on Foreign Relations (May 14, 2024), https://www.cfr.org/articles/china-reversing-its-crackdown-some-religions-not-all.

[88] ''[https://www.cfr.org/articles/china-reversing-its-crackdown-some-religions-not-all Id.]''

[89] Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/.

[90] Article 5, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/.

[91] Article 17, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/.

[92] Article 6, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/.

[93] Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.html.

[94] ''[https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.html Id.]''

[95] Wake Forest University, Timothy S. Y. Lam Museaum of Anthropology, ''History of Chinese New'' Year, https://lammuseum.wfu.edu/education/teachers/chinese-new-year/history-of-chinese-new-year/.

[96] ''[https://lammuseum.wfu.edu/education/teachers/chinese-new-year/history-of-chinese-new-year/ Id.]''

[97] Kaysey A. Richardson, ''A Brief History of the Chinese New Year'', World Treasures (Jan. 27, 2022), https://worldtreasures.org/blog/a-brief-history-of-the-chinese-new-year.

[98] ''[https://worldtreasures.org/blog/a-brief-history-of-the-chinese-new-year Id.]''

[99] Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567.

[100] Article 1, Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567.

[101] Article 6, Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567.

[102] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Periodic reporting on the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2004), https://ich.unesco.org/en/periodic-reporting-00460.

[103] Tyler Arnold, ''China is Removing Crosses From Churches, Replacing Images of Christ With Xi Jinping'', The National Catholic Register (Oct. 1, 2024), https://www.ncregister.com/cna/china-is-removing-crosses-from-churches-replacing-images-of-christ-with-xi-jinping.

[104] Martin Lavička, ''A New Round of Restrictions Further Constrains Religious Practice in Xinjiang'', China File (Apr. 19, 2024), https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/new-round-of-restrictions-further-constrains-religious-practice-xinjiang.

[105] Article 26, 2024 Xinjiang Religious Affairs Regulations, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/xj-religious-affairs/.

[106] The Cardinal Kung Foundation, ''Catholic Church in China, It Is Now Known As An Underground Church'',  http://www.cardinalkungfoundation.org/rc/RCrelfreedom.php.

[107] Union of Catholic Asian News, ''China's Catholic leaders vow to accelerate sinicization''''',''' https://www.ucanews.com/news/chinas-catholic-leaders-vow-to-accelerate-sinicization/98499.

[108] ''See'' Harriet Sherwood, ''Vatican signs historic deal with China – but critics denounce sellout'', The Guardian (Sep. 22, 2018), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/22/vatican-pope-francis-agreement-with-china-nominating-bishops.

[109] ''[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/22/vatican-pope-francis-agreement-with-china-nominating-bishops Id.]''

[110] Michael Schmiesing, ''A Hidden Church in'' China, Catholic Answers (Dec. 12, 2024), https://www.catholic.com/magazine/online-edition/a-hidden-church-in-china.

[111] Aly Rothfus, ''Catholic Church in China Faces'' Crisis, The Irish Rover (Nov. 19, 2025), https://irishrover.net/2025/11/catholic-church-in-china-faces-crisis/.

[112] Abhishank Mishra &amp; Ananya Sharma, ''China-Taiwan, and a Vatican'' conversion, the interpreter (Jul. 9, 2024), https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/china-taiwan-vatican-conversion.

[113] Article 42, Religious Affairs Regulations 2017, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/religious-affairs-regulations-2017/.

[114] Fenggang Yang, The Chinese House Church Goes Public, The University of Chicago | Divinity School (May 12, 2011), https://divinity.uchicago.edu/sightings/articles/chinese-house-church-goes-public-fenggang-yang.

[115] Megan Gates, ''The Rise of the Survellance'' State, Security Mangement (Jun. 1, 2021), https://www.asisonline.org/security-management-magazine/monthly-issues/security-technology/archive/2021/june/The-Rise-of-The-Surveillance-State/.

[116] Jessle Yeung, ''China’s censorship and surveillance were already intense. AI is turbocharging those systems'', CNN (Dec. 4, 2025), https://www.cnn.com/2025/12/04/china/china-ai-censorship-surveillance-report-intl-hnk.

[117] Fergus Ryan, et al., ''The party’s AI How China’s new AI systems are reshaping human rights'', ASPI (dec. 2025), https://aspi.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/27122307/The-partys-AI-How-Chinas-new-AI-systems-are-reshaping-human-rights.pdf. ''See also'', Jinghe Fan, Xin Zhang, ‘Small, swift, and effective’ legislation in China: Towards adaptive governance of AI?, Computer Law &amp; Security Review, Volume 61, 2026, 106329, ISSN 2212-473X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2026.106329.

[118] [https://www.asisonline.org/security-management-magazine/monthly-issues/security-technology/archive/2021/june/The-Rise-of-The-Surveillance-State/ Gates], ''supra''.

[119] Sean Lyngaas &amp; Jim Sclutto, ''Suspected Chinese government operatives used ChatGPT to shape mass surveillance proposals, OpenAI says'', CNN (Oct. 7, 2025), https://www.cnn.com/2025/10/07/politics/china-chatgpt-surveillance.

[120] Wayne Wei Wang ''et al'', ''Artificial Intelligence “Law(s)” in China: Retrospect and Prospect'', Part I, Journal of AI Law and Regulation (AIRe), Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 29-36, 2025 &amp; Part II, Journal of AI Law and Regulation (AIRe), Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 139-157, 2025, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=5039316.

[121] Rajendra Zaware, ''Data Privacy in Cryptocurrencies and Blockchain'', Infosys, https://blogs.infosys.com/emerging-technology-solutions/iedps/data-privacy-in-cryptocurrencies-and-blockchain.html.

[122] Jiye Hu, The Regulation of Cryptocurrency in China, China University of Political Science and Law, Business School; Business School (Apr. 25, 2023), https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4423780.  

[123] Richard Hoffman, ''China’s Cryptocurrency and Blockchain Regulatory Environment'', ECOVIS, https://www.ecovis.com/focus-china/chinas-cryptocurrency/.

[124] OxKira, ''Crypto in China: A 2025 guide to the crypto landscape'', Arham (Oct. 9, 2025), https://info.arkm.com/research/crypto-in-china-a-2025-guide-to-the-crypto-landscape.

[125] [125] Jiye Hu, The Regulation of Cryptocurrency in China, China University of Political Science and Law, Business School; Business School (Apr. 25, 2023), https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4423780.

[126] Xiuhao, et al, ''China steps up crypto crackdown, will vet real-world asset tokens'', Reuters (Feb. 6, 2026), https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/china-vows-tighten-virtual-currency-restrictions-2026-02-06/.

[127] Prashant Jha, ''Five People Jailed in China Just for Moving USDT'', Yahoo! Finance (Oct. 29, 2025), https://finance.yahoo.com/news/five-people-jailed-china-just-080215125.html.

[128] ''[https://finance.yahoo.com/news/five-people-jailed-china-just-080215125.html Id.]''

[129] Faari Labinjo, ''The Truth About China’s Crypto Ban: Adoption, Underground Markets and Billions in OTC Trading (2025–2026)'', DeFiPlanet (Mar. 17, 2026), https://defi-planet.com/2026/03/the-truth-about-chinas-crypto-ban-adoption-underground-markets-and-billions-in-otc-trading-2025-2026/.

[130] ''[https://defi-planet.com/2026/03/the-truth-about-chinas-crypto-ban-adoption-underground-markets-and-billions-in-otc-trading-2025-2026/ Id.]''

[131] Jeremy Mark, ''Why China’s digital currency threatens the country’s tech giants'', Atlantic Council (Jul. 15, 2021), https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/why-chinas-digital-currency-threatens-the-countrys-tech-giants/#:~:text=Unlike%20Bitcoin%20and%20other%20cyber,who%20attract%20the%20attention%20of.

[132] ''[https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/why-chinas-digital-currency-threatens-the-countrys-tech-giants/#:~:text=Unlike%20Bitcoin%20and%20other%20cyber,who%20attract%20the%20attention%20of Id.]''

[133] Working Group on E-CNY Research and Development of the People’s Bank of China, ''Progress of Research &amp; Development of E-CNY in China'' (July 2021), https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/server/api/core/bitstreams/8c1d1ea1-a8f7-402c-9f08-edf6863237bc/content.

[134] Robert Lemos, ''China Introduces National Cyber ID Amid Privacy Concerns'', Chinese Human Rights Defenders (Jul. 23, 2025),

https://www.nchrd.org/2025/07/china-introduces-national-cyber-id-amid-privacy-concerns/.

[135] Shane Yi &amp; Michael Caster, ''China: New Internet ID System a threat to online expression'', Article19 (Jun. 25, 2025), [https://www.article19.org/resources/china-new-internet-id-system-a-threat-to-online-expression/ https://www.article19.org/resources/china-new-internet-id-system-a-threat-to-online-expression/.]

[136] [https://www.nchrd.org/2025/07/china-introduces-national-cyber-id-amid-privacy-concerns/ Lemos], ''supra''.

[137] Mercator Institute for China, ''China’s Handling of Biometric Data: Trends and Implications for Europe'' (Jun. 14, 2022), https://merics.org/en/events/chinas-handling-biometric-data-trends-and-implications-europe.

[138] Jianyu Zhou &amp; Jennifer Stevenson, ''Assessing Legal Protection of Biometric Data in China: Gaps, Principles, and Policy Recommendations'', St. Mary’s University (2022), https://commons.stmarytx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1776&amp;context=facarticles.

[139] Duke Travel Registry, ''Announcements: China now requires collection of biometric data upon arrival'', https://duke-travel.terradotta.com/index.cfm?FuseAction=Announcements.Announcement&amp;Announcement_ID=3026.

[140] Wahid Pessarlay, ''China blockchain=based ID experiment aims to stop data leaks'', Coingeek (Dec. 29, 2023), https://coingeek.com/china-blockchain-based-id-experiment-aims-to-stop-data-leaks/.

[141] Tara Vasdani, Robot justice: China’s use of Internet courts, LexisNexis (Feb. 2020), https://www.lexisnexis.com/en-ca/ihc/robots-justice-chinas-use-of-internet-courts.

[142] ''[https://www.lexisnexis.com/en-ca/ihc/robots-justice-chinas-use-of-internet-courts Id.]''

[143] [https://www.lexisnexis.com/en-ca/ihc/robots-justice-chinas-use-of-internet-courts ''Id''.]

[144] Dory Reiling &amp; Straton Papagianneas, ''Lessons from China’s Smart Court Reform'', International Journal for Court Administration (2015), https://doi.org/10.36745/ijca.679.

[145] William Zheg, ''AI helped Shenzhen judges handle cases 50% faster. Is this the future for China?'', South China Morning Post (May 4, 2026), https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3352161/ai-helped-shenzhen-judges-handle-cases-50-faster-future-china. 

[146] University of Oregon, ''New research shows that propaganda is on the rise in'' China, (Apr. 2, 2025), https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1079250.

[147] ''[https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1079250 Id.]''

[148] Article 6, Section 1, Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm.

[149] Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm.

[150] Chris Lau &amp; Simone McCarthy, ''China feels the country isn’t patriotic enough. A new law aims to change'' that, CNN (Jan. 6, 2024), https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/06/china/china-patriotic-education-law-intl-hnk#:~:text=2%2C%202009.&amp;text=The%20new%20law%20also%20orders,subject%20to%20punishments%2C%20she%20said.

[151] Article 15, Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, 2023, http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm.

[152] ''See'' Fan Liang, Yuchen Chen, Fangwei Zhao, ''The Platformization of Propaganda:How Xuexi Qiangguo Expands Persuasion and Assesses Citizens in China'', University of Michigan: International Journal of Communication (2021), https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16484/3416.

[153] Lily Kuo &amp; Kate Lyons, China's most popular app brings Xi Jinping to your pocket, The Guardian (Feb. 15, 2019), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/15/chinas-most-popular-app-brings-xi-jinping-to-your-pocket.

[154] ''[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/15/chinas-most-popular-app-brings-xi-jinping-to-your-pocket Id.]''

[155] ''[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/15/chinas-most-popular-app-brings-xi-jinping-to-your-pocket Id.]''

[156] [https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16484/3416 Liang], ''supra''.

[157] ''[https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16484/3416 Id.]''

[158] U.S. Department of State, ''China (Includes Hong Kong, Macau, Tibet, and Xinjiang): Xinjian'', https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/xinjiang.

[159] ''[https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/xinjiang Id.]''

[160] Timothy Grose &amp; James Leibold, ''Why China Is Banning Islamic Veils'', ChinaFile (Feb. 4, 2015), https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/why-china-banning-islamic-veils.

[161] ''[https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/why-china-banning-islamic-veils Id.]''
[[Category:Communication|Law in China]]
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      <text bytes="92808" sha1="dv3u5x3j6fb234b3vps3z5v1035axqb" xml:space="preserve">== '''Communications Law in China''' ==
[[File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|thumb|Flag of the People's Republic of China]]
Communication law in China is subject to a complex regulatory scheme. While the Constitution of China promises freedom of speech, the Chinese Communist Party enforces strict censorship, utilizes prior restraint, and attempts to block important ideas and concepts from the minds of the Chinese people. Chinese communication law impact everything from radio to religious dress and even digital assets. The Chinese regulatory scheme faces the complex challenge of keeping up with cutting edge methods of communications while ensuring dominance of the Chinese Communist Party.

=== '''Sources of Communications Law in China''' ===
China’s Constitution guarantees freedom of speech but it’s communication laws tell a different story. China has a sophisticated regulatory framework in place to govern communications in China. These regulatory bodies, in combination with wide reaching laws, have resulted in a nation whose communications are subject to review and approval by the single party in power.

==== '''''Constitution of the People’s Republic of China''''' ====
The key place to begin when approaching a countries approach to any form of law is their Constitution. The Chinese “[c]onstitution recognizes Marxism as the country’s leading ideology and the Communist Party the leading party.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Catá Backer|first=Larry|date=2012|title=Party, People, Government, and State: On Constitutional Values and the Legitimacy of the Chinese State-Party Rule of Law System|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1977551|journal=Boston University International Law Journal|volume=Vol. 30}}&lt;/ref&gt; Notably, “[t]he preamble deserves particular attention because China’s leadership has consistently placed great weight upon the ideological and expressive functions of the constitution and has used the preamble to identify and highlight its core commitments.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Albert|date=February 1, 2021|title=Constitutions, Constitutionalism and the Case of Modern China|url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=3027562 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3027562|journal=SSRN}}&lt;/ref&gt; The preamble lays out broad goals for the People’s Republic of China, it states that the Chinese people “will continue, under the leadership of the Communist Party of China and the guidance of Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory… to… improve socialist rule of law… and promote coordinated material, political, cultural-ethical, social and ecological advancement, in order to build China into a great modern socialist country.”&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, Preamble (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt; This broad phrasing gives the party significant latitude. Furthermore, the Constitution has three key articles that address the issue of communications law. First, Article 35 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of speech, the press, assembly, association, procession and demonstration.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 35 (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt; Second, Article 36 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of religious belief.”&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 36 (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt; Third, Article 40 addresses correspondence:&lt;blockquote&gt;Freedom and confidentiality of correspondence of citizens of the People’s Republic of China shall be protected by law. Except in cases necessary for national security or criminal investigation, when public security organs or procuratorial organs shall examine correspondence in accordance with procedures prescribed by law, no organization or individual shall infringe on a citizen’s freedom and confidentiality of correspondence for any reason.&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 40 (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
[[File:Eleanor Roosevelt UDHR.jpg|thumb|'''Eleanor Roosevelt UDHR''']]
At least on paper, these articles are share some similarities to Articles 18, 19, and 20 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights.&lt;ref&gt;G.A. Res. 217 (III) A, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Dec. 10, 1948), https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights&lt;/ref&gt; However, at the United Nations Human Rights Convention, “China is increasingly vocal in defending its statist position and interpretation of human rights norms.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Initiative for U.S.-China Dialogue on Global Issues|date=Feb. 28, 2024|title=China and the UN Human Rights Regime|url=https://uschinadialogue.georgetown.edu/events/china-and-the-un-human-rights-regime|journal=Georgetown University}}&lt;/ref&gt; Notably, the Constitution is missing several provisions such as freedom of thought, freedom of conscience, and “freedom to receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers” which are seen in the Universal Declaration.&lt;ref&gt;UDHR art. 19, https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''National Regulatory Bodies''''' ====
[[File:汉口中共中央宣传部旧址.jpg|thumb|Former Site of the Central Propaganda Department of the Chinese Communist Party in Hankou]]
The regulatory scheme in China is complicated and grows out of a post-Mao era which “reconstituted the sinews of governance and especially sought to strengthen the government’s regulatory capacity while reducing the government’s direct intervention in state firms. In area after area, they have invoked ‘chaos’ or ‘turmoil’ to justify the need to strengthen or assert control.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=D.L.|date=2017|title=China’s Illiberal Regulatory State in Comparative Perspective|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-017-0059-x|journal=Chin. Polit. Sci. Rev. 2, 114–133}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Central Propaganda Department sets the ideology for Chinese communications regulatory bodies. It is “responsible for monitoring content to ensure that China's publishers, in particular its news publishers, do not print anything that is inconsistent with the Communist Party's political dogma.”&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China'', Agencies Responsible for Censorship in'' China, [https://www.cecc.gov/agencies-responsible-for-censorship-in-china#:~:text=The%20Central%20Propaganda%20Department%20%5B%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1,reporting%20on%20politically%20sensitive%20topics. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/agencies-responsible-for-censorship-in-china#:~:text=The%20Central%20Propaganda%20Department%20%5B%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1,reporting%20on%20politically%20sensitive%20topics&lt;/nowiki&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt; It accomplishes this by screening any writings that touch on politically sensitive issues, informing publishers what they can, and cannot, publish as well as what ideological viewpoint should be taken, and requiring editors and publishers to attend indoctrination sessions in order to ensure they publish from the desired viewpoint.&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China'', Agencies Responsible for Censorship in'' China, [https://www.cecc.gov/agencies-responsible-for-censorship-in-china#:~:text=The%20Central%20Propaganda%20Department%20%5B%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1,reporting%20on%20politically%20sensitive%20topics. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/agencies-responsible-for-censorship-in-china#:~:text=The%20Central%20Propaganda%20Department%20%5B%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1,reporting%20on%20politically%20sensitive%20topics&lt;/nowiki&gt;.]&lt;/ref&gt;

The Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) reports to the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission which “Xi Jinping, General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the Central Military Commission, personally serve[s] as the group leader.”&lt;ref&gt;Office of the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission, ''The Central Leading Group for Cybersecurity and Informatization was established: From a major cyber power to a leading cyber power.'', China Cyberspace Administration (Feb. 28, 2014), https://www.cac.gov.cn/2014-02/28/c_126397488.htm&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, the CAC “is China’s top authority on internet governance, overseeing data privacy, cybersecurity, and platform regulation. It is the primary regulator behind major laws such as the Cybersecurity Law (CSL), Data Security Law (DSL), and Personal Information Protection Law (PIPL).&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Roper|first=Gabrielle|date=Jun. 2, 2025|title=What is the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC)?|url=https://www.chinafy.com/blog/what-is-the-cyberspace-administration-of-china-cac#:~:text=TL;DR:%20The%20Cyberspace%20Administration,fall%20short%20of%20legal%20requirements|journal=Chinafy}}&lt;/ref&gt; The CAC can issue “departmental rules, which are issued by State Council administrative agencies and are legally binding under China’s Legislation Law.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Horsley|first=Jamie P.|date=Aug. 8, 2022|title=Behind the Facade of China’s Cyber Super-Regulator|url=https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/behind-the-facade-of-chinas-cyber-super-regulator/|journal=Stanford University}}&lt;/ref&gt; A counterpart of the CAC is the National Radio and Television Administration (NRTA). The NRTA’s “main task is to censor the radio, film, and television industries.”&lt;ref&gt;''NRTA Chief Emphasize Loyalty to the Party'', Chinascope, https://chinascope.org/archives/19225&lt;/ref&gt; In 2021, the NRTA banned “nine types of banned content, including content that ‘endangers security,’ ‘slanders Chinese culture,’ or does not help youth ‘establish the correct world view.’”&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:MIIT Wanshoulu Office (20210512174810).jpg|thumb|'''MIIT Wanshoulu Office''']]
The Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT)&lt;ref&gt;''Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT) (工业和信息化部)'', Thomson Reuters (Glossary), https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/1-552-9335?transitionType=Default&amp;contextData=(sc.Default)&amp;firstPage=true&lt;/ref&gt; is charged with “regulating and managing China's telecommunications and software sectors, as well as the electronics and information technology manufacturing industries.” The MIIT “enforces regulations aligned with the CAC’s central tenets” The MIIT focuses on the providers and carriers themselves and enforces “cyber and data security rules against providers in the telecommunications and internet sector.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ke|first=Xu|last2=Liu|first2=Vicky|last3=Luo|first3=Yan|last4=Yu|first4=Zhijing|date=Aug. 31, 2021|title=China's key enforcement agencies and lessons learned from recent actions|url=https://iapp.org/news/a/chinas-key-enforcement-agencies-and-lessons-learned-from-recent-actions|journal=iapp}}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, in December of 2021 MIIT found that over one hundred apps were in violation of China’s Personal Information Protection Law and Data Security Law.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Teon|first=Aris|date=Dec. 9, 2021|title=China’s Government Orders Removal of Douban and 105 Other Apps From App Stores|url=https://china-journal.org/2021/12/09/china-government-orders-removal-of-douban-and-105-other-apps-from-app-stores/#:~:text=China's%20Government%20Orders%20Removal%20of,comply%20with%20the%20government's%20directives|journal=China-Journal}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, they were removed from app stores.

==== '''''Key Communications Laws''''' ====
The Cybersecurity Law&lt;ref&gt;Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (2016), Translation: Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (Effective June 1, 2017). Stanford University,

https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/translation-cybersecurity-law-of-the-peoples-republic-of-china-effective-june-1-2017/&lt;/ref&gt; is overseen by the CAC and seeks to “promote the healthy development of the informatization of the economy and society.” Article 6 of the Cybersecurity Law states that a goal of the law is to advocate for “sincere, honest, healthy and civilized online conduct; it promotes the dissemination of core socialist values, adopts measures to raise the entire society’s awareness and level of cybersecurity, and formulates a good environment for the entire society to jointly participate in advancing cybersecurity.”&lt;ref&gt;Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (2016), Translation: Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (Effective June 1, 2017). Stanford University,

&lt;nowiki&gt;https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/translation-cybersecurity-law-of-the-peoples-republic-of-china-effective-june-1-2017/&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; In 2015 the Cybersecurity Law “introduced fines and detentions of up to 15 days for telecommunications firms and internet service providers (ISP), as well as relevant personnel, who fail to restrict certain forms of content”.&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/ref&gt;

The CAC also handles the implementation of the Provisions on the Governance of the Online Information Content Ecosystem. Article 5 states “A network information content producer shall be encouraged to produce, copy and publish information containing the following: Publicizing the Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era…”&lt;ref&gt;Order of the Cyberspace Administration of China (No. 5), https://wilmap.stanford.edu/entries/provisions-governance-online-information-content-ecosystem&lt;/ref&gt;

Finally, China is part of a many international agreements pertaining to communications law. China is a member of the UN and a signatory to both the ICCPR and the ICESCR.&lt;ref&gt;Order of the Cyberspace Administration of China (No. 5), https://wilmap.stanford.edu/entries/provisions-governance-online-information-content-ecosystem&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, in 2005 China signed the United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts.&lt;ref&gt;''U.N. Treaty Bodies and China'', Human Rights in China, https://www.hrichina.org/en/un-treaty-bodies-and-china&lt;/ref&gt; The purpose of this agreement is “facilitating the use of electronic communications in international trade by assuring that contracts concluded and other communications exchanged electronically are as valid and enforceable as their traditional paper-based equivalents.”&lt;ref&gt;''United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts'', Preamble, Jun. 7, 2006, https://uncitral.un.org/en/texts/ecommerce/conventions/electronic_communications/status&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, China signed the Universal Copyright Convention in 1992.&lt;ref&gt;''Universal Copyright Convention, with Appendix Declaration relating to Article XVII and Resolution concerning Article XI'', Sep. 16, 1955, https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/universal-copyright-convention-appendix-declaration-relating-article-xvii-and-resolution-concerning&lt;/ref&gt; The agreement “undertakes to provide for the adequate and effective, protection of the rights of authors and other copyright proprietors in literary, scientific and artistic works, including writings, musical, dramatic and cinematographic works, and paintings, engravings and sculpture.”&lt;ref&gt;Universal Copyright Convention, Article 1, https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/universal-copyright-convention-appendix-declaration-relating-article-xvii-and-resolution-concerning&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Law and the Media in China''' ===
There are some that believe there are three aims of communication: truth, beauty, and dialogue. These aims are furthered by the elements of communications law. There are three such elements that are most relevant to China. First, the means of transmission. Second, the sender and receiver. Third, the message. These are most relevant to China because the government seeks to control all three. As a result, the three aims of communications: truth, beauty, and dialogue are threatened daily. Truth, because certain historical events and facts are banned. Beauty, because words are good, they allow us to think and develop our thoughts which is a beautiful thing for the human person. Finally, dialogue, because a person cannot say what they wish without fear of retaliation.

==== '''''The Means of Transmission''''' ====
The means of transmission of the message may include its code, channel, mode, and nature. However, “[a] major constraint on regulatory state building is the political environment in which Chinese regulators have had to operate. The Administration of Press, Publications, Radio, Film, and TV, for example, operate at the behest of Chinese Communist Party (CCP) organs, especially the CCP Central Committee Propaganda Department.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=D.L.|date=2017|title=China’s Illiberal Regulatory State in Comparative Perspective|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-017-0059-x|journal=Chin. Polit. Sci. Rev. 2, 114–133}}&lt;/ref&gt; In China television is regulated by the National Radio and Television Administration. Regarding the nature of the communications, “[t]he Propaganda Department of the Chinese Communist Party sends a detailed notice to all media every day that includes editorial guidelines and censored topics.”&lt;ref&gt;China, Reporters Without Borders, https://rsf.org/en/country/china&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, the “[s]tate-run Chinese Central TV (CCTV) is China's largest media company.&lt;ref&gt;BBC News, ''China media guide'' (Aug. 22, 2023), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017881&lt;/ref&gt; The government released a statement summing up the CCTV’s main tasks.&lt;blockquote&gt;Its principal responsibilities will be to propagate the theories, political line and policies of the Party; to plan and manage major propaganda reports; to organize the production of radio and television; to produce and broadcast premium radio and television products; to channel hot social topics; to strengthen and improve supervision by public opinion, to promote the integrated development of multimedia; to strengthen the building of international broadcasting capacity; to tell China’s story well.&lt;ref&gt;safeguardDefenders'', Ownership and control of Chinese media'' (Jun. 14, 2021), https://safeguarddefenders.com/en/blog/ownership-and-control-chinese-media&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Furthermore, “[a]ll of China's 2,600-plus radio stations are state-owned”&lt;ref&gt;BBC News, ''China media guide'' (Aug. 22, 2023), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017881&lt;/ref&gt; as well as “around 1,900 newspapers. Each city has its own title, usually published by the local government, as well as a local Communist Party daily.”&lt;ref&gt;BBC News, ''China media guide'' (Aug. 22, 2023), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017881&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, the means and nature of the communications are subject to the government’s control.
[[File:Guess on China's Great Firewall Mechanism.png|thumb|'''Guess on China's Great Firewall Mechanism''']]
Internet censoring in China has been dubbed “the great firewall.” The Golden Shield Project’s aim is “to monitor and censor what can and cannot be seen through an online network in China.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chan|first=Conrad|last2=et al.|date=2011|title=Free Speech vs Maintaining Social Cohesion A Closer Look at Different Policies|url=https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/cs181/projects/2010-11/FreeExpressionVsSocialCohesion/china_policy.html|journal=Stanford University}}&lt;/ref&gt; Popular sites such as “Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, WhatsApp, and Instagram are all blocked in the mainland.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chandel|first=Sonali|last2=et al.|date=2019|title=The Golden Shield Project of China: A Decade Later An in-depth study of the Great Firewall|url=https://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~yunnanyu/files/papers/Golden.pdf|journal=College of Engineering and Computing Sciences, New York Institute of Technology}}&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, China has blocked the use of Starlink. In 2025 China penalized a foreign vessel after an inspection revealed the vessel employing Starlink had “continued transmitting data after entering Chinese territorial waters, in violation of national telecommunications and radio regulations.”&lt;ref&gt;The Editorial Team, ''China imposes penalty to vessel using Starlink in its waters'', Saftery4Sea (Dec. 23, 2025), https://safety4sea.com/china-imposes-penalty-to-vessel-using-starlink-in-its-waters/&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, “[t]he long-standing blocks on international communications platforms have helped to enable the exponential growth of local services such as Tencent’s WeChat and Sina Weibo, which are subject to the government’s strict censorship demands.”&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/ref&gt; The regulatory agencies discussed above play a crucial role in maintaining the “great firewall”. For example, in 2017 MIIT banned the use of unlicensed VPNs.&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, in 2020 the CAC  “suspended 281 websites, and shut down 2,686 websites and 31,000 accounts” as well as 179,000 social media accounts.&lt;ref&gt;Cyberspace Administration of China, ''The national cybersecurity administrative law enforcement work was carried out solidly in the second quarter'' (Jul. 18, 2020), https://www.cac.gov.cn/2020-07/21/c_1596879319813780.html; ''see also'' Qiao Long; Editor: Hu Lihan; Web Editor: Rui Zhe, ''China shut down more than 2,000 websites in the second quarter, triggering another large-scale internet crackdown'', rfa (Jul. 24, 2020), https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/yataibaodao/meiti/ql1-07242020062431.html&lt;/ref&gt;  Finally, “[i]n February 2021, authorities blocked the newly emerged mobile audio app Clubhouse, after thousands of users in China had flocked to the app to discuss detention camps in Xinjiang.”&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' &lt;nowiki&gt;https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''The Sender and Receiver''''' ====
There are two key principles in this element of communications, namely, the centrality of the person and freedom. The principle of the centrality of the person holds that communications are for the human person, this is why human rights are so integral to communication law. In China, communications are for the government, or the centrality of the party. For example, “[t]housands of cyber-police watch the web and material deemed politically and socially sensitive is filtered. Blocked resources include Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and human rights sites.”&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' &lt;nowiki&gt;https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; As opposed to fostering a government that supports the human person’s ability to attain truth and enter into dialogue, the government jealously protects access to information. This is seen in China’s restrictions on internet cafés where individuals may access the web. Startling, “between June and September 2002, the government shutdown 150,000 unlicensed Internet cafes. [today], police routinely ‘[raid]’ internet cafes to see whether there is any ‘illegal’ activity going on.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Haiping|first=Zheng|date=Jan. 4, 2013|title=Regulating the Internet: China’s Law and Practice|url=https://content.scirp.org/pdf/blr_2013032615421340.pdf|journal=School of Law, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China}}&lt;/ref&gt; The latter point is connected to the second key principle, freedom.
[[File:Statue of Deng Xiaoping in Lianhuashan Park Shenzen China 1310759.jpg|thumb|Statue of Deng Xiaoping in Lianhuashan Park Shenzen China]]
The principle of freedom in any communication holds that you are free to express your opinion and those who hear it will tolerate it. This principle has not found a permanent home in China historically. In 1898, following the Hundred Days Reform, “the dynasty imposed a general prohibition of privately published newspaper” for “spreading rumours and confusing the people’s thoughts.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=DeLisle|first=Jacques|last2=et al.|date=Jan. 16, 2014|title=The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2379959|journal=University of Pennsylvania}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1927, the Guomindang built “a system of censorship boards and licensing obligations for films, radio, publications and newspapers.”&lt;ref&gt;DeLisle,&amp;#x20;Jacques&amp;#x3B;&amp;#x20;et al.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 16, 2014).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era&quot;.&amp;#x20;''University of Pennsylvania''.&lt;/ref&gt; Starting in 1980, Deng Xiaoping, former Chairman of the Central Military Commission, further restricting freedom of communication. From then on, “political debate would be an intra-Party matter only, and official media were to be the mouthpiece of the Party.”&lt;ref&gt;DeLisle,&amp;#x20;Jacques&amp;#x3B;&amp;#x20;et al.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 16, 2014).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era&quot;.&amp;#x20;''University of Pennsylvania''.&lt;/ref&gt; This time saw a growing administrative state taking control of the communications field by “laying the basis for the current regulatory structure by creating an administrative department to govern the print sector, and by centralizing licensing procedures.”&lt;ref&gt;DeLisle,&amp;#x20;Jacques&amp;#x3B;&amp;#x20;et al.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 16, 2014).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era&quot;.&amp;#x20;''University of Pennsylvania''.&lt;/ref&gt; The introduction of the internet saw “central and local governments [establish] special Internet information management departments.”&lt;ref&gt;DeLisle,&amp;#x20;Jacques&amp;#x3B;&amp;#x20;et al.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 16, 2014).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era&quot;.&amp;#x20;''University of Pennsylvania''.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''The Message''''' ====
[[File:Umbrella Revolution in Admiralty Night View 20141010.jpg|thumb|Umbrella Revolution]]
Within this element there is the key principle of objectivity and context. This principle holds that journalists, and other professions, ought to give the proper context when communicating and do so in as objective a manner as possible. In China, if a journalist wishes to obtain to renew their press cards they “must download the Study Xi, Strengthen the Country propaganda application that can collect their personal data.”&lt;ref&gt;China, Reporters Without Borders, https://rsf.org/en/country/china&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, journalists and everyday citizens alike are restricted in how they can communicate their messages because certain words are banned. For example, no one cannot search for “dictatorship,” “Great Firewall of China,” or “Go, Hong Kong.”&lt;ref&gt;Leigh Hartman, ''In China, you can’t say these words'', ShareAmerica (Jun. 3, 2020), https://archive-share.america.gov/america.gov/in-china-you-cant-say-these-words/index.html&lt;/ref&gt; China’s approach to Tiananmen Square Massacre is an example of the principle of objectivity and context. After the Chinese military killed possible thousands during a protest in 1989 the government has tried to “erase what it calls the ‘political turmoil’ of 1989 from the collective memory. It bans any public commemoration or mention of the June 4 crackdown, scrubbing references from the internet.”&lt;ref&gt;Ken Moritsugu, ''Tiananmen Square anniversary shows China's ability to suppress history'', PBS News (Jun. 4, 2025), https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/tiananmen-square-anniversary-shows-chinas-ability-to-suppress-history#:~:text=Security%20was%20tight%20Wednesday%20around,gatherings%20can%20still%20take%20place&lt;/ref&gt; In 2024, China was the top jailer of journalists in the world, holding 14% of the world’s journalists in their jails.&lt;ref&gt;Arlene Getx, ''In record year, China, Israel, and Myanmar are world’s leading jailers of journalists'', Committee to Protect Journalists (Jan. 16, 2025), https://cpj.org/special-reports/in-record-year-china-israel-and-myanmar-are-worlds-leading-jailers-of-journalists/&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Censorship &amp; Violent Content''' ===
China practices rigorous censorship in various forms of speech. A foundational principle of freedom of speech is that of no prior restraint which allows speech to enter the marketplace, and its issuer must deal with the consequences after the fact. This principle is not welcome in China. Related to this principal China’s justification for much of their prior restraint, national security. Most clearly demonstrated in the Hong Kong National Security Law, China has enforced expansive prior restraints on speech and jailed those who have attempted to speak out.
[[File:Hong Kong Protests P1240680 Umbrella revolution - protest in Nathan road, Hong Kong (15375576579).jpg|thumb|'''Hong Kong Protests''']]

==== '''''No Prior Restraint''''' ====
The principle of no prior restraint says that speech cannot be stopped before it takes place. Rather, one may say what they wish but may have to deal with the consequences after. This principle is well known in the West.&lt;blockquote&gt;The liberty of the press is indeed essential to the nature of a free state: but this consists in laying no prior restraints upon publications, and not in freedom from censure for criminal matter when published. Every freeman has an undoubted right to lay what sentiments he pleases before the public: to forbid this, is to destroy the freedom of the press: but if he publishes what is improper, mischievous, or illegal, he must take the consequence of his own temerity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zeigler|first=Sara L.|last2=Vile|first2=John R.|date=Jan. 1, 2009|title=William Blackstone|url=https://firstamendment.mtsu.edu/article/william-blackstone/|journal=Free Speech Center}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;This principle ensures that ideas are free to enter the marketplace in nations that have chosen to adopt this concept, like the United States. However, China has not adopted this principle. Rather, China is diametrically opposed to the principle of no prior restraint. The Chinese government requires people to “ask the government's permission before they are allowed to publish.”&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China, ''Prior Restraints'', https://www.cecc.gov/prior-restraints&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, “[t]he Communist Party has the right and the ability to screen works prior to publication, and stop publication of those works it finds objectionable.”&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China, ''Prior Restraints'', https://www.cecc.gov/prior-restraints&lt;/ref&gt; One of the main methods of enforcing prior restraints in China is their licensing scheme…” where “the government requires individuals to obtain a license, permit, or other authorization in order to legally engage in publishing.”&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China, ''Prior Restraints'', https://www.cecc.gov/prior-restraints&lt;/ref&gt; Such requirements ensure that the government approves of any speech before it can enter the marketplace.

A notable piece of Chinese legislation is the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing.&lt;ref&gt;Regulations on the Administration of Publishing (2001.12.25), https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/regulation-on-the-administration-of-publishing-chinese-and-english-text&lt;/ref&gt; Article 3 of the Regulations states that “publishing businesses shall adhere to the path of serving the people and serving socialism, adhere to the guidance of Marxism, Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought and Deng Xiaoping Theory, and promulgate and accumulate scientific technology and cultural knowledge that is advantageous to economic development and social progress.”&lt;ref&gt;Regulations on the Administration of Publishing (2001.12.25), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/regulation-on-the-administration-of-publishing-chinese-and-english-text&lt;/ref&gt; This legislation requires that anything published in China aligns with their preferred thought. This is exactly what the marketplace of ideas sought to prevent. A healthy competition of ideas is best for humanity, not a forced set of ideas. A breach of the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing has grave consequences. In 2019 “[a] Chinese court slapped a dozen of people with varying jail terms for illegally publishing books related to the Communist Party of China.”&lt;ref&gt;Zehra Nur Duz, ''China jails 12 for illegal publications about party'', Ankara (Dec. 26, 2019), [https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877? https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877?]&lt;/ref&gt; The Intermediate People's Court of Yueyang in Hunan province stated that “[t]he accused were convicted of violating state regulations by illegally reprinting and selling huge volumes of publications, which seriously endangered the social order and disrupted the legitimate publishing market.”&lt;ref&gt;Zehra Nur Duz, ''China jails 12 for illegal publications about party'', Ankara (Dec. 26, 2019), [https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877? https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877?]&lt;/ref&gt;

Another important piece of legislation is the eloquently named Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications.&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; Article 3 of the Measures says that “[t]he scope of the important topics… shall be adjusted and promulgated by the General Administration of Press and Publication.”&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; Such important topics include “works and literature concerning any former or current leaders of the party ” ,&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; “topics which deal with maps of China's borders,”&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; and even “topics which deal with any significant historical matters or important historical figures in the history of the Chinese Communist Party.”&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; This legislation requires government approval prior to publishing on important topics. While the complete list of important topics is much longer these three are notable because they are meant to shape the way, one understands Chinese history and China’s place in the world. This dystopian law enforces not only a specific world view, like the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing, but also a specific understanding of China’s history and how they arrived at their present communist government. Thus, these measures bolster the Chinese Communist Party’s control over all speech in China.

==== '''''National Security''''' ====
The Chinese Party often censors speech under the pretense of protecting national security. An example occurred recently in Hong Kong. In 2020 China introduced the National Security Law (“NSL”) to Hong Kong. The NSL “criminalises anything considered as secession, which is breaking away from China; subversion, which is undermining the power or authority of the central government; terrorism, which is using violence or intimidation against people; and collusion with foreign or external forces.”&lt;ref&gt;BBC, ''Hong Kong national security law: What is it and is it worrying?'' (Mar. 18, 2024), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52765838&lt;/ref&gt; This Law has resulted in “[n]umerous pro-democracy news outlets in Hong Kong [being] shut down, including Lai's Apple Daily, which was known to be critical of the mainland Chinese leadership.”&lt;ref&gt;BBC, ''Hong Kong national security law: What is it and is it worrying?'' (Mar. 18, 2024), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52765838&lt;/ref&gt; For example, in 2021 “Hong Kong's national security police raided the offices of ''Stand News'' for suspected breaches of the NSL and separately arrested six senior staff members and one former senior staff member for conspiracy to publish seditious publications.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barrios|first=Ricardo|date=Nov. 15, 2023|title=Hong Kong Under the National Security Law|url=https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R47844|journal=Congress.Gov}}&lt;/ref&gt; The NSL has also impacted other forms of speech as shut down of the Tiananmen vigil in 2002 when “authorities announced they were closing Victoria Park—the traditional site of the Tiananmen vigil—citing ‘Police's observation that some people are using different channels to incite the participation of unauthorised assemblies’ and these assemblies' potential to affect ‘public safety and public order.’”&lt;ref&gt;Barrios,&amp;#x20;Ricardo&amp;#x20;(Nov. 15, 2023).&amp;#x20;&quot;Hong Kong Under the National Security Law&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Congress.Gov''.&lt;/ref&gt; These alarming instances demonstrates China’s use of overbroad justifications, such as national security, to exert control over China and its special administrative regions. Finally, China’s desire for a tighter grip on information does not stop at its borders. In 2015 China signed the Sino-Russian Cybersecurity Agreement.&lt;ref&gt;Sino-Russian Cybersecurity Agreement 2015, https://jsis.washington.edu/news/china-russia-cybersecurity-cooperation-working-towards-cyber-sovereignty/&lt;/ref&gt; The agreement “has two key features: mutual assurance on non-aggression in cyberspace and language advocating cyber-sovereignty.”&lt;ref&gt;Sino-Russian Cybersecurity Agreement 2015, https://jsis.washington.edu/news/china-russia-cybersecurity-cooperation-working-towards-cyber-sovereignty/&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Truth, Honor, &amp; Tolerance''' ===
Chinese censorship has ensured that there is only one product to be bought and sold in the marketplace of ideas, the Chinese Communist Party’s. This booth peddles China’s view of history, as seen in their memory laws, and their chosen religions. China’s failure to encourage a marketplace of ideas has not only impacted freedom of expression in China but also hindered their economic and scientific growth. This limited marketplace extends to how certain historical events are seen. Finally, it is notable that China does allow the practice of religion in their Constitution, and to an extent in practice. However, examples such as the Chinese oppression of Muslims and requiring the Vatican to agree to bishop appointments demonstrates the fact that the Chinese Communist Party is firmly in control of this marketplace.

==== '''''The Marketplace of Ideas''''' ====
The marketplace of ideas is a western concept that has been adopted in the United States. The concept of the marketplace of ideas says that “[t]he best test of truth is the power of the thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market.” This concept is seen in robust public discourse, protests, debate, etc. These all further the belief that government should foster a lively discourse that allows everyone to choose which ideas they believe are best. This concept has not been adopted by China. Rather, “while China has increased economic freedom, it has protected the Party’s iron grip on power and suppressed freedom of expression — there is no free market for ideas. Without such a market, the Chinese people are subservient to the state and their range of choices limited.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dorn|first=James A.|date=Feb. 4, 2017|title=China Needs a Free Market for Ideas|url=https://www.cato.org/commentary/china-needs-free-market-ideas#:~:text=The%20lack%20of%20a%20free,of%20the%20Chinese%20Communist%20Party|journal=CATO Institute}}&lt;/ref&gt; Chinese censorship is pervasive and leaves no stall at the marketplace of ideas uncaptured. For example, “significant amendments were made to both the [Constitution], further consolidating the dominant leadership of the CCP. While these changes were not explicitly centered on censorship, this strengthened power structure indirectly set the stage for a reshaped censorship framework, presenting an illiberal substance under a facade of legitimacy.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Ge|date=2025-26|title=How China Curbs Free Speech Beyond Its Borders: Legal Strategies of Transnational Censorship|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4621776|journal=J. Int'l Media &amp; Ent. L., 11(1), 1-41}}&lt;/ref&gt;

While the lack of a robust coemption of ideas certainly treads on individual rights, some also argue that it also limits China’s potential, “[b]ecause the freedom to supply ideas, choose ideas, and criticize ideas is severely limited, the creativity of the Chinese people is underutilized and their innovative potential undertapped.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Ning|date=Winter 2017|title=China’s Future and the Determining Role of the Market for Ideas|journal=CATO Journal (Vol. 37, No. 1}}&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, “without the freedom to think, speak, and innovate openly, China’s economic growth could stagnate” and as a result “lead to a lack of critical thinking and creativity, which are vital for addressing complex challenges and advancing technological and social innovation.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zou|first=Heng-Fu|date=April 2021|title=A Free Market For Ideas In China|url=https://down.aefweb.net/WorkingPapers/w664.pdf|journal=The World Bank}}&lt;/ref&gt; China’s suppression of the market place of ideas not only violates individual rights but is likely harming both the Chinese economy and even society itself.

==== '''''Memory Laws''''' ====
For China “[t]here is only one correct interpretation of the national past, and it is the party-state – and the party-state alone – that promulgates and polices it.”&lt;ref&gt;Chang,&amp;#x20;Vincent K.L.&amp;#x20;(May 2, 2024).&amp;#x20;&quot;China’s Memory Laws The Global Reach of Beijing’s Push to Juridify Memory&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Verfassungsblog''.&lt;/ref&gt; In 2018, after an incident where Chinese youths cosplayed as Japanese Imperial soldiers and took phots at a war monument in Shanghai, China passed the Heroes and Martyrs Protection Law.&lt;ref&gt;Guang Yang, ''China’s National Memory Laws and the War on Storytelling'', Australian Institute of International Affairs (May 3, 2023), https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/chinas-national-memory-laws-and-the-war-on-storytelling/. ''See also'' Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Heroes and Martyrs, Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, 中华人民共和国英雄烈士保护法, (adopted Apr. 27, 2018, effective May 1, 2018), https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/peoples-republic-of-china-law-on-protection-of-heroes-and-martyrs/.&lt;/ref&gt; This law “calls on citizens to ‘respect, study, and defend’ national heroes and criminalises their defamation.”&lt;ref&gt;Vincent K.L. Chang, ''China’s Memory Laws The Global Reach of Beijing’s Push to Juridify Memory'', Verfassungsblog (May 2, 2024), https://verfassungsblog.de/chinas-memory-laws/&lt;/ref&gt; China’s use of memory laws, or selective history, has resulted in the erasure of historical events that are not flattering or supportive of the Chinese Communist Party. For example, in 2012 a professor teaching in Hong Kong “asked his class of more than forty students from China, all of whom were born in the 1980s, ‘Have any of you heard of June Fourth, Liu Binyan, or Fang Lizhi?’ However, the students simply gazed at one another in silence.”&lt;ref&gt;Yan Lianke, ''China’s National Amnesia'', The Dial (Apr. 23, 2024), https://www.thedial.world/articles/news/issue-15/china-national-strategy-forgetting&lt;/ref&gt; As discussed, nowhere is this amnesia seen better than in the case of Tiananmen Square.

An example of such memory laws in action was seen in 2016 where a group of individuals who promoted liquor bottles that had labels commemorating June 4, 1989, the date of the Tiananmen Square Massacre.&lt;ref&gt;Amnesty International, ''China: Further information: Two More Activists Detained for “June 4 Baijiu”'' (Jun. 21, 2016), [https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/ https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/.]&lt;/ref&gt; One man was “criminally detained on suspicion of ‘inciting subversion of state power’ while [another] was detained on suspicion of ‘picking quarrels and provoking trouble.’”&lt;ref&gt;Amnesty International, ''China: Further information: Two More Activists Detained for “June 4 Baijiu”'' (Jun. 21, 2016), [https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/ https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/.]&lt;/ref&gt; In 2019, one of the men received a three and a half year sentence by a court in southwestern China.&lt;ref&gt;Radio Free Asia, ''Court in China's Sichuan Jails Fourth Man Over Tiananmen Massacre Liquor'' (Apr. 4, 2019), https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/liquor-04042019105951.html&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''Tolerance as Applied to Religion''''' ====
[[File:Cardinal Joseph Zen (2019).jpg|thumb|'''Cardinal Joseph Zen''']]
The Chinese Constitution explicitly allows for freedom of religion, Article 36 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of religious belief.”&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 36 (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt; The Chinese Embassy in South Africa published a paper on religious freedom stating “[r]eligious disputes are unknown in China. Religious believers and non-believers respect each other, are united and have a harmonious relationship.”&lt;ref&gt;Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.html&lt;/ref&gt; However, while China allows for the practice of religion, the Chinese Communist Party has worked to force religion to align with its worldview. As a result, “China is pursuing a policy of ‘Sinicization’ that requires religious groups to align their doctrines, customs and morality with Chinese culture.”&lt;ref&gt;Pew Research Center, 10 things to know about China’s policies on religion (Oct. 23, 2023),

https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/10/23/10-things-to-know-about-chinas-policies-on-religion/&lt;/ref&gt; In 2018 the Vatican agreed to a deal with the Chinese Communist Party regarding the appointment of bishops. Following this “Cardinal Joseph Zen… said it would legitimise the Communist Party’s control over Chinese Catholics, and be like ‘giving the flock into the mouths of the wolves.’”&lt;ref&gt;Economist, ''China wants to “sinicise” its Catholics'' (Nov. 22, 2022), https://www.economist.com/china/2022/11/22/china-wants-to-sinicise-its-catholics&lt;/ref&gt; China’s concern with religions such as Islam and Christianity is not that they are new to China, they are not. Rather, “Muslims are part of Islam’s global ''umma'' (Arabic for ‘community’) of believers” and “Christians, meanwhile, are thought to have strong overseas ties either to the Vatican, for Catholics, or to overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia and the West, for Protestants in particular.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Johnson|first=Ian|date=May 14, 2024|title=China Is Reversing Its Crackdown on Some Religions, but Not All|url=https://www.cfr.org/articles/china-reversing-its-crackdown-some-religions-not-all|journal=Council on Foreign Relations}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, China sees these religions as non-Chinese. Other religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, and folk religions the states are viewed as “so-called indigenous faiths.”&lt;ref&gt;Johnson,&amp;#x20;Ian&amp;#x20;(May 14, 2024).&amp;#x20;&quot;China Is Reversing Its Crackdown on Some Religions, but Not All&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Council on Foreign Relations''.&lt;/ref&gt; A key law impacting religious tolerance is the Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups.&lt;ref&gt;Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/ref&gt; Article 5 of the measures states that “[r]eligious groups must follow the leadership of the Communist Party of China… persist in the direction of sinification of religion[, and] practice the Core Socialist Values.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 5, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, under Article 6, “[r]eligious groups shall accept the supervision, oversight, and administration of people's governments religious affairs departments.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 17, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/ref&gt; Article 17 states that “[r]eligious groups shall publicize the Communist Party of] China's directives and policies.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 6, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, “[t]he legal protection of citizens' right to the freedom of religious belief in China is basically in accordance with the main contents of the concerned international documents and conventions in this respect.”&lt;ref&gt;Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.html&lt;/ref&gt; The Embassy goes on to list the following international agreements: the United Nations Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the International Convenient on Civil and Political Rights, the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, and the Vienna Declaration and Action Program.&lt;ref&gt;Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.html&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Cultural and Religious Expressions''' ===
[[File:Chinese New Year decorations in Chinatown, Singapore, 20240122 0852 2963.jpg|thumb|Chinese New Year decorations in Chinatown, Singapore]]
           In China there are many festivals and cultural events, with the Chinese New Year being the most famous and one of the oldest. This holiday is lauded as important for many reasons, but it is allowed because it promotes Chinese identity. Some religions, and religious symbols, do not receive an equally welcoming invite from the Chinese Communist Party. While religious worship is allowed theoretically, China has cracked down on the Church in China and on religious symbols.

==== '''''Festivals, The Chinese New Year or Spring Festival''''' ====
Feasts and festivals are thousands of years old. Key aspects of festivals include bringing people together, feasting over food, a reason to celebrate, and the symbolization of the shared joy. China has a long history of festivals. Perhaps the largest and most important is the Chinese New Year. The Chinese New Year is thousands of years old. It likely “originated in the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BC), when people held sacrificial ceremonies in honor of gods and ancestors at the beginning or the end of each year.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Timothy S.Y.|title=History of Chinese New Year|url=https://lammuseum.wfu.edu/education/teachers/chinese-new-year/history-of-chinese-new-year/|journal=Wake Forest University, Museum of Anthropology}}&lt;/ref&gt; This festival has become an integral part of the Chinese nation. However, Chinese Americans, and those around the world, can also be seen celebrating this festival. As a result, this festival is intimately intertwined with the Chinese identity.
[[File:Chinese New Year decorations in Chinatown, Singapore, 20240122 0852 2963.jpg|thumb|Chinese New Year decorations in Chinatown, Singapore]]
[[File:The Lucky Red Envelopes or Packets in Lunar New Year.jpg|thumb|Red Envelopes]]
There are many traditions that play critical roles in the Chinese New Year festival season. The legend of the Chinese New Year began with a mythical beast called that would eat crops and people. Legend states “a wise old man figured out that Nian was scared of loud noises (firecrackers) and the color red. So, people put red lanterns and red scrolls on their windows and doors to stop Nian from coming inside. Crackling bamboo (later replaced by firecrackers) was lit to scare Nian away.”&lt;ref&gt;Lam,&amp;#x20;Timothy S.Y..&amp;#x20;&quot;History of Chinese New Year&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Wake Forest University, Museum of Anthropology''.&lt;/ref&gt; The famous tradition of exchanging red envelopes began with the mythical beast Sui, who would scare children while they slept. As a result, “[e]lders began to give out red envelopes of coins to children for them to play with and keep them awake throughout the night.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Richardson|first=Kaysey A.|date=Jan. 27, 2022|title=A Brief History of the Chinese New Year|url=https://worldtreasures.org/blog/a-brief-history-of-the-chinese-new-year|journal=World Treasures}}&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, “round dumplings shaped like the full moon are shared as a symbol of the family unit and perfection.”&lt;ref&gt;Richardson,&amp;#x20;Kaysey A.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 27, 2022).&amp;#x20;&quot;A Brief History of the Chinese New Year&quot;.&amp;#x20;''World Treasures''.&lt;/ref&gt; These traditions give the Chinese people tangible things to pass down to future generations. It is incredible to see how consistent these traditions have been, indicating how important they are to the Chinese people’s cultural expression.

A critical law in the area of cultural and religious expression in China is the Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage.&lt;ref&gt;Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/ref&gt; Under Article 1 of the Law, it’s stated purpose is  that “of inheriting and promoting the distinguished traditional culture of the Chinese nation, promoting the building of the socialist spiritual civilization and strengthening the protection and preservation of intangible cultural heritage.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 1, Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/ref&gt; Article 6 of the law requires the local governments to “include the protection and preservation of intangible cultural heritage in the national economic and social development plans at their same levels and include the protection and preservation funding into the financial budgets.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 6, Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/ref&gt; According to a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization report “[d]uring [Chinese New Year] in 2024, Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the PRC mobilized the whole country to widely carry out Spring Festival [Intangible Cultural Heritage] activities. A total of more than 45,400 ICH promotion and display activities were carried out nationwide.”&lt;ref&gt;nited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Periodic reporting on the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2004), https://ich.unesco.org/en/periodic-reporting-00460&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''Religious Symbols''''' ====
While religious exercise is allowed in China to some extent, the display of certain items has come under attack. According to a recent report, “Chinese officials have ordered the removal of crosses from churches and have replaced images of Christ and the Virgin Mary with images of President Xi Jinping”.&lt;ref&gt;Tyler Arnold, ''China is Removing Crosses From Churches, Replacing Images of Christ With Xi Jinping'', The National Catholic Register (Oct. 1, 2024), https://www.ncregister.com/cna/china-is-removing-crosses-from-churches-replacing-images-of-christ-with-xi-jinping&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, “new rules to ensure that sites of religious worship, like mosques, look adequately “Chinese,” and to mandate the cultivation of “patriotic” religious leaders.”&lt;ref&gt;Martin Lavička, ''A New Round of Restrictions Further Constrains Religious Practice in Xinjiang'', China File (Apr. 19, 2024), https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/new-round-of-restrictions-further-constrains-religious-practice-xinjiang&lt;/ref&gt; Article 26 of the 2024 Xinjiang Religious Affairs Regulations states that “Religious activity sites that are newly built, renovated, expanded, or rebuilt should reflect Chinese characteristics and style in terms of architecture, sculptures, paintings, decorations, etc.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 26, 2024 Xinjiang Religious Affairs Regulations, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/xj-religious-affairs/&lt;/ref&gt; These actions indicate the Chinese Communist Parties attempt to more deeply accelerate sinicization.

==== '''''The Church in China''''' ====
[[File:20251016 Shangqiu Catholic Church 04.jpg|thumb|Shangqiu Catholic Church]]
In China there are two faces to the Catholic Church. The first is the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (the “CCPA”). The CCPA is obedient to the “the State Council's Religious Affairs Bureau, which is an agency under the United Front Department of the Communist Party. It does not recognize the supreme administrative, legislative, and judicial authority of the Pope.”&lt;ref&gt;The Cardinal Kung Foundation, ''Catholic Church in China, It Is Now Known As An Underground Church'',  http://www.cardinalkungfoundation.org/rc/RCrelfreedom.php&lt;/ref&gt; The second face is the “Underground Catholic Church” which is not governed by the Chinese Communist Party. Recently, the CCPA held the 10th National Congress of Catholicism in China. The CCPA “delegates also unanimously accepted the Work Report of the 9th Standing Committee on Church efforts and activities in the promotion of patriotism, socialism, and sinicization in the Catholic Church as outlined by President Xi Jinping.”&lt;ref&gt;Union of Catholic Asian News, ''China's Catholic leaders vow to accelerate sinicization''''',''' https://www.ucanews.com/news/chinas-catholic-leaders-vow-to-accelerate-sinicization/98499&lt;/ref&gt; Opposed to the CCPA are the underground Church leaders like Cardinal Joseph Zen. Cardinal Zen is critical of the Chinese persecution of Catholics and heavily criticized the 2018 deal the Vatican made with China which requires Chinese approval of bishops.&lt;ref&gt;Harriet Sherwood, ''Vatican signs historic deal with China – but critics denounce sellout'', The Guardian (Sep. 22, 2018), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/22/vatican-pope-francis-agreement-with-china-nominating-bishops&lt;/ref&gt; Regarding the deal, Cardinal Zen stated that “[t]hey’re [sending] the flock into the mouths of the wolves. It’s an incredible betrayal.”&lt;ref&gt;''See'' Harriet Sherwood, ''Vatican signs historic deal with China – but critics denounce sellout'', The Guardian (Sep. 22, 2018), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/22/vatican-pope-francis-agreement-with-china-nominating-bishops&lt;/ref&gt; In China it is “illegal for the priest to instruct the children of the parish in the Faith or give them any materials to read.”&lt;ref&gt;Michael Schmiesing, ''A Hidden Church in'' China, Catholic Answers (Dec. 12, 2024), https://www.catholic.com/magazine/online-edition/a-hidden-church-in-china&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, “minors are not allowed to attend the Mass in some areas of China.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Aly Rothfus, ''Catholic Church in China Faces'' Crisis, The Irish Rover (Nov. 19, 2025), https://irishrover.net/2025/11/catholic-church-in-china-faces-crisis/&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, it must be noted that the Holy See does not recognize the Chinese communist Party as the leader of China. Rather, “the Vatican has maintained formal diplomatic relations with Taiwan.”&lt;ref&gt;Abhishank Mishra &amp; Ananya Sharma, ''China-Taiwan, and a Vatican'' conversion, the interpreter (Jul. 9, 2024), https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/china-taiwan-vatican-conversion&lt;/ref&gt;

As discussed above, China has set a clear policy goal of maintaining, celebrating, and promulgating traditional Chinese festivals to the public. Religious festivals do not enjoy the same support. Article 42 of the Religious Affairs Regulations 2017 provides that “[w]here a large-scale religious activity is held that is beyond the accommodation capacity of a religious activity site the religious group… sponsoring the activity shall, 30 days before the activity is to be held, submit an application to the religious affairs department of the people’s government for the province.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 42, Religious Affairs Regulations 2017, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/religious-affairs-regulations-2017/&lt;/ref&gt; On Easter Sunday 2011, a [c]hurch in Beijing planned to hold an outdoor worship service in a plaza amid high-rise office and commercial buildings. However the police sealed off the plaza and dispelled gathering congregants… Thirty six of the congregants were taken to police stations for interrogation.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Fenggang|first=Yang|date=May 12, 2011|title=The Chinese House Church Goes Public|url=https://divinity.uchicago.edu/sightings/articles/chinese-house-church-goes-public-fenggang-yang|journal=The University of Chicago {{!}} Divinity School}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Privacy and Data Protection''' ===
Our private thoughts and actions are intimate to who we are as people. However, in China, the government wishes to be included in that inner circle. They seek to accomplish this by a program of mass surveillance. While artificial intelligence has been an incredible breakthrough for the world it has also been taken advantage of by nefarious actors. Chief among these is perhaps China. China has employed artificial intelligence to better control its citizens and ensure compliance. Another technology breakthrough, cryptocurrency, has had mixed reactions from China. Cryptocurrency allows transactions to be kept private, a no-go for the Chinese Communist Party. As a result, China has banned cryptocurrency use.

==== '''''Mass Surveillance and Artificial Intelligence''''' ====
It is no surprise that China is renowned for its mass surveillance. Citizens are watched almost constantly to ensure compliance with the Chinese Communist Party’s ideals. In fact the “[p]eople in China are among the most surveilled in the world, taking 16 of the top 20 spots on the most surveilled cities list based on the number of cameras per 1,000 people in an annual assessment.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gates|first=Megan|date=Jun. 1, 2021|title=The Rise of the Surveillance State|url=https://www.asisonline.org/security-management-magazine/monthly-issues/security-technology/archive/2021/june/The-Rise-of-The-Surveillance-State|journal=Security Management}}&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, “documents from one Shanghai district detail plans for AI-powered cameras and drones to ‘automatically discover and intelligently enforce the law,’ including potentially alerting police to crowd gatherings.”[116] China has also begun using artificial intelligence in satellite surveillance, “China is deploying AI-enabled Sun-synchronous satellites over regions that the CCP views as politically sensitive, including Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, Hong Kong and Macau.”&lt;ref&gt;Fergus Ryan, et al., ''The party’s AI How China’s new AI systems are reshaping human rights'', ASPI (dec. 2025), https://aspi.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/27122307/The-partys-AI-How-Chinas-new-AI-systems-are-reshaping-human-rights.pdf. ''See also'', Jinghe Fan, Xin Zhang, ‘Small, swift, and effective’ legislation in China: Towards adaptive governance of AI?, Computer Law &amp; Security Review, Volume 61, 2026, 106329, ISSN 2212-473X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2026.106329.&lt;/ref&gt; In the Xinjiang region China uses mobile apps, biometric data, and artificial intelligence to monitor millions of Muslims.&lt;ref&gt;Gates,&amp;#x20;Megan&amp;#x20;(Jun. 1, 2021).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Rise of the Surveillance State&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Security Management''.&lt;/ref&gt; The use of artificial intelligence is not limited to technical uses. China has begun using artificial intelligence to help it draft policies, “[i]n one case, a ChatGPT user ‘likely connected to a [Chinese] government entity’ asked the AI model to help write a proposal for a tool that analyzes the travel movements and police records of the Uyghur minority— a Turkic-speaking, predominantly Muslim ethnic minority—and other ‘high-risk’ people, according to the OpenAI report.”&lt;ref&gt;Sean Lyngaas &amp; Jim Sclutto, ''Suspected Chinese government operatives used ChatGPT to shape mass surveillance proposals, OpenAI says'', CNN (Oct. 7, 2025), https://www.cnn.com/2025/10/07/politics/china-chatgpt-surveillance&lt;/ref&gt; The use of artificial intelligence in China is alarming. While surveillance in Chian has grown alongside technology since the Chinese Communist Party took power, the introduction of artificial intelligence is the biggest leap that has yet to occur. Moreover, the “CAC’s approach to regulating AI or algorithms is centered on the regime of Algorithm Registry. Providers of certain recommendation algorithms, deep synthesis, and generative AI technologies must register detailed information with the CAC before offering services in China.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Wayne Wei|last2=et al.|date=2025|title=Artificial Intelligence “Law(s)” in China: Retrospect and Prospect|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=5039316|journal=Part I, Journal of AI Law and Regulation (AIRe), Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 29-36, 2025 &amp; Part II, Journal of AI Law and Regulation (AIRe), Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 139-157, 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''Cryptocurrency in China''''' ====
If someone were to analyze an individual’s last year of credit card transactions it is likely one could learn quite a bit about them. For a mass surveillance state like China this is appealing. As a result, cryptocurrencies present an issue for China. Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum use a technology called blockchain that acts as a digital ledger of transactions. This allows individuals to exchange value without the need of an intermediary like a bank. These blockchains enhance “transactional privacy by removing the need for users to reveal their real identities. Confidential transactions and encryption techniques ensure only the involved parties know the details. Zero-knowledge proofs, ring signatures, and stealth addresses advances further strengthen privacy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zaware|first=Rajendra|title=Data Privacy in Cryptocurrencies and Blockchain|url=https://blogs.infosys.com/emerging-technology-solutions/iedps/data-privacy-in-cryptocurrencies-and-blockchain.html|journal=Infosys}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, while all transactions on the blockchain are visible, the identity of who made the transaction is private unless shared.

Importantly, “China’s central bank defined Cryptocurrency as a specified virtual commodity. This legal attribute is not clear, which brings difficulties in consumer protection and criminal identification.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hu|first=Jiye|date=Apr. 25, 2023|title=The Regulation of Cryptocurrency in China|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4423780|journal=China University of Political Science and Law, Business School; Business School}}&lt;/ref&gt; China was renowned for its large cryptocurrency market and “[p]rior to 2017, China had the world’s largest cryptocurrency market—with 80% of Bitcoin, the world’s leading digital coin, transactions conducted in yuan.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hoffman|first=Richard|title=China’s Cryptocurrency and Blockchain Regulatory Environment|url=https://www.ecovis.com/focus-china/chinas-cryptocurrency/|journal=ECOVIS}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, after years of increasing restrictions, China banned cryptocurrency trading and mining in 2021.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=OxKira|date=Oct. 9, 2025|title=Crypto in China: A 2025 guide to the crypto landscape|journal=Arham}}&lt;/ref&gt; This time period saw a flurry of laws implemented regarding digital assets and crypto currencies, “[o]n January 1, 2020, the ‘Cryptography Law of the People’s Republic of China’ came into effect. ‘Data Security Law’ was adopted on June 10, 2021, and ‘Personal Information Protection Law’ was adopted on August 20, 2021.”&lt;ref&gt;Hu,&amp;#x20;Jiye&amp;#x20;(Apr. 25, 2023).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Regulation of Cryptocurrency in China&quot;.&amp;#x20;''China University of Political Science and Law, Business School; Business School''&lt;/ref&gt; The People’s Bank of China “warned financial institutions against providing banking and clearing services to virtual currency-related businesses.”&lt;ref&gt;Xiuhao, et al, ''China steps up crypto crackdown, will vet real-world asset tokens'', Reuters (Feb. 6, 2026), https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/china-vows-tighten-virtual-currency-restrictions-2026-02-06/&lt;/ref&gt; This warning has not been without teeth. In 2025 a Chinese court convicted five people of transacting more than $160 million worth of cryptocurrency.&lt;ref&gt;Prashant Jha, ''Five People Jailed in China Just for Moving USDT'', Yahoo! Finance (Oct. 29, 2025), https://finance.yahoo.com/news/five-people-jailed-china-just-080215125.html&lt;/ref&gt; The court said that these individuals “violated China’s Anti-Money Laundering Law and Foreign Exchange Administration Regulations, both of which prohibit unauthorized cross-border fund transfers.”&lt;ref&gt;Prashant Jha, ''Five People Jailed in China Just for Moving USDT'', Yahoo! Finance (Oct. 29, 2025), https://finance.yahoo.com/news/five-people-jailed-china-just-080215125.html&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:E-CNY logo.svg|thumb|E-CNY logo]]
While these penalties are steep, people in China have persisted in using cryptocurrencies to ensure their transactions remain private. Reports indicate “that there are still around 59 million crypto users in China as of 2025. That is roughly 10% of the global crypto user base, even though most users must operate outside official channels.”&lt;ref&gt;Faari Labinjo, ''The Truth About China’s Crypto Ban: Adoption, Underground Markets and Billions in OTC Trading (2025–2026)'', DeFiPlanet (Mar. 17, 2026), https://defi-planet.com/2026/03/the-truth-about-chinas-crypto-ban-adoption-underground-markets-and-billions-in-otc-trading-2025-2026/&lt;/ref&gt; Interestingly, “[w]hile private cryptocurrencies face heavy restrictions, China has fully embraced its own central bank digital currency (CBDC) known as the digital yuan (e-CNY). By late 2025, e-CNY platforms had processed over 14.2 trillion yuan in transactions and were used by more than 260 million wallets.”&lt;ref&gt;Faari Labinjo, ''The Truth About China’s Crypto Ban: Adoption, Underground Markets and Billions in OTC Trading (2025–2026)'', DeFiPlanet (Mar. 17, 2026), https://defi-planet.com/2026/03/the-truth-about-chinas-crypto-ban-adoption-underground-markets-and-billions-in-otc-trading-2025-2026/&lt;/ref&gt; While this may seem contradictory at first, there is a strategy. Banning cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin ensures private transactions will not occur. Introducing the digital yuan, which is subject to surveillance, will allow China to “create a mechanism through which the government can access reams of digital data that may prove helpful to Beijing in the global race to develop artificial intelligence.”&lt;ref&gt;Jeremy Mark, ''Why China’s digital currency threatens the country’s tech giants'', Atlantic Council (Jul. 15, 2021), https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/why-chinas-digital-currency-threatens-the-countrys-tech-giants/#:~:text=Unlike%20Bitcoin%20and%20other%20cyber,who%20attract%20the%20attention%20of&lt;/ref&gt;  To that end, “[u]nlike Bitcoin and other cyber currencies, all digital-yuan users will register with the [People's Bank of China] under a system described by government officials as “controllable anonymity,’ which will give the government the ability to track illicit transactions and presumably the activities of citizens who attract the attention of security services”&lt;ref&gt;Jeremy Mark, ''Why China’s digital currency threatens the country’s tech giants'', Atlantic Council (Jul. 15, 2021), https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/why-chinas-digital-currency-threatens-the-countrys-tech-giants/#:~:text=Unlike%20Bitcoin%20and%20other%20cyber,who%20attract%20the%20attention%20of&lt;/ref&gt;

Other reasons for adopting the digital yuan include payment efficiency, increased state oversight and support of the yuan as a strategy tool. According to a 2021 report by the working group for the e-CNY, “the issuance of e-CNY will fully meet the public’s daily payment needs, further improve the efficiency of the retail payment system and reduce the cost of retail payment.”&lt;ref&gt;Working Group on E-CNY Research and Development of the People’s Bank of China, ''Progress of Research &amp; Development of E-CNY in China'' (July 2021), https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/server/api/core/bitstreams/8c1d1ea1-a8f7-402c-9f08-edf6863237bc/content&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Right to Bodily, Spiritual and Digital Identity''' ===
An individual’s identity is the essence of who they are and what they believe. In our digital age people have taken on digital identities. In many parts of the world people cannot get by without a digital identity. China is currently attempting to enroll its citizenry in a government issues digital identity. This identity will allow China to compile all enrollees’ personal information. On the other side of the identity coin, China has also sought to compile massive amount of biometric date such as DNA and facial recognition. These data collections have also been extended to individuals visiting China.

==== '''''Digital Identity''''' ====
In a world that has become intensely digital it makes sense that we humans would take on digital identities. These identities are demonstrated by social media, bank accounts, online use, and more. We use these identities to interact with other humans in the digital world. The Chinese government has introduced the National Online Identity Authentication Public Service. This is a “government-controlled digital identity system [which] will allow citizens to register by providing official government documents and then will shield their information from Internet services.”&lt;ref&gt;Robert Lemos, ''China Introduces National Cyber ID Amid Privacy Concerns'', Chinese Human Rights Defenders (Jul. 23, 2025),

https://www.nchrd.org/2025/07/china-introduces-national-cyber-id-amid-privacy-concerns/.&lt;/ref&gt; Chinese authorities say “that the new measure intends to establish a trusted digital identity framework within the public service infrastructure.”&lt;ref&gt;Shane Yi &amp; Michael Caster, ''China: New Internet ID System a threat to online expression'', Article19 (Jun. 25, 2025), [https://www.article19.org/resources/china-new-internet-id-system-a-threat-to-online-expression/ https://www.article19.org/resources/china-new-internet-id-system-a-threat-to-online-expression/.]&lt;/ref&gt; However, “[t]he Chinese government has not provided details about how the system is constructed or the policies in place to protect the data from misuse… for digital-rights activists, the danger is clear.”&lt;ref&gt;Robert Lemos, ''China Introduces National Cyber ID Amid Privacy Concerns'', Chinese Human Rights Defenders (Jul. 23, 2025),

https://www.nchrd.org/2025/07/china-introduces-national-cyber-id-amid-privacy-concerns/&lt;/ref&gt; The digital identity offered by China is proffered under the guise of ease of use. However, in exchange for this ease, Chinese citizens will need to give over intimate personal information to the government. While the program is optional for now it is possible necessary resources online could soon require one to obtain a government controlled digital identity.

==== '''''Biometric Data''''' ====
Despite the increasing importance of the digital identity and personal digital information, there is still information about ourselves that is intimate. Biometric data includes things like DNA, fingerprints, and even voice scans. In China “legislation and regulation are carefully crafted to give public security organs broad powers to harvest and use biometric data in conjunction with the performance of their law enforcement and national security duties.”&lt;ref&gt;Mercator Institute for China, ''China’s Handling of Biometric Data: Trends and Implications for Europe'' (Jun. 14, 2022), https://merics.org/en/events/chinas-handling-biometric-data-trends-and-implications-europe.&lt;/ref&gt; A main biometric tool used by the Chinese government is facial recognition which “is deployed to identify citizens for law enforcement purposes, such as performing identity verification at airports, train stations, or specific public areas, and for commercial purposes to enhance business operations’ efficiency.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Jianyu|last2=Stevenson|first2=Jennifer|date=2022|title=Assessing Legal Protection of Biometric Data in China: Gaps, Principles, and Policy Recommendations|url=https://commons.stmarytx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1776&amp;context=facarticles.|journal=St. Mary’s University}}&lt;/ref&gt; Such collections are not limited to Chinese citizens however. China has begun requiring foreign nationals “to submit their fingerprints and undergo a facial scan at self-help kiosks at their port of entry to the People's Republic of China. These self-help kiosks will issue a receipt once your biometric data is received and that receipt must be given to the border inspector for verification as part of the entry process.”&lt;ref&gt;Duke Travel Registry, ''Announcements: China now requires collection of biometric data upon arrival'', https://duke-travel.terradotta.com/index.cfm?FuseAction=Announcements.Announcement&amp;Announcement_ID=3026&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, China has recently combined blockchain technology with biometric data, “the new digital ID service stores cryptographic keys on-chain after a real-name verification process. According to reports, the system authenticates users’ legal name, facial recognition, and government ID before allowing users to create an infinite number of public-private key pairs to register on online platforms.”&lt;ref&gt;Wahid Pessarlay, ''China blockchain=based ID experiment aims to stop data leaks'', Coingeek (Dec. 29, 2023), https://coingeek.com/china-blockchain-based-id-experiment-aims-to-stop-data-leaks/&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''AI-Generated Personas''''' ====
China has taken the concept of AI-generated personas to the next level with the creation of AI judges. Since 2019, millions of legal cases of been decided by these “smart courts” or “internet courts”. These courts make use of “non-human judges, powered by artificial intelligence (AI) and allows participants to register their cases online and resolve their matters via a digital court hearing.”&lt;ref&gt;Tara Vasdani, Robot justice: China’s use of Internet courts, LexisNexis (Feb. 2020), https://www.lexisnexis.com/en-ca/ihc/robots-justice-chinas-use-of-internet-courts.&lt;/ref&gt; These courts have decided cases on various topics such as “intellectual property, e-commerce, financial disputes related to online conduct, loans acquired or performed online, domain name issues, property and civil rights cases involving the Internet, product liability arising from online purchases and certain administrative disputes.”&lt;ref&gt;Tara Vasdani, Robot justice: China’s use of Internet courts, LexisNexis (Feb. 2020), https://www.lexisnexis.com/en-ca/ihc/robots-justice-chinas-use-of-internet-courts.&lt;/ref&gt; The “judge” appears “by hologram and are artificial creations — there is no real judge present. The holographic judge looks like a real person but is a synthesized, 3D image of different judges, and sets schedules, asks litigants questions, takes evidence and issues dispositive rulings.”&lt;ref&gt;Tara Vasdani, Robot justice: China’s use of Internet courts, LexisNexis (Feb. 2020), https://www.lexisnexis.com/en-ca/ihc/robots-justice-chinas-use-of-internet-courts.&lt;/ref&gt; In addition to efficiency, there are other motives at play behind these smart courts, party control. Interestingly, these “[s]mart courts allow the party to intervene in court decisions without upending the entire normative system by automatically detecting and filtering cases that require political intervention.”&lt;ref&gt;Dory Reiling &amp; Straton Papagianneas, ''Lessons from China’s Smart Court Reform'', International Journal for Court Administration (2015), https://doi.org/10.36745/ijca.679.&lt;/ref&gt; Judges are still involved in the cases process but the use of AI allows them to process cases faster “the Shenzhen Intermediate People’s Court said each judge in the city had handled an average of 744 cases in 2025 – up by 249 cases from the previous year.”&lt;ref&gt;William Zheg, ''AI helped Shenzhen judges handle cases 50% faster. Is this the future for China?'', South China Morning Post (May 4, 2026), https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3352161/ai-helped-shenzhen-judges-handle-cases-50-faster-future-china. &lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Right to Reject Information, Clothing &amp; Human Exhibitions''' ===
In China people are bombarded with propaganda in a daily basis. As such it is virtually impossible to be free from unwanted content. In fact, one may not even realize they are ingesting content they do not want. China has a systemic practice of planting stories in the news and on social media. Furthermore, the government requires Chinese schools to incorporate propaganda into their lessons from the youngest of ages. Also, alarming is China’s oppression of religious clothing. Chief among these is China’s ban on certain Muslim garb in the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region. As such, people are prohibited from outwardly expressing what is most essential to their identity, their faith.

==== '''''Unwanted Content''''' ====
Do individuals in China have the power to reject unwanted content? In reality the answer is no. The Chinese government controls all forms of media in China and there is no way to really block this onslaught of propaganda. Somedays up to 30 percent of a newspapers content will be planted by the state.&lt;ref&gt;University of Oregon, ''New research shows that propaganda is on the rise in'' China, (Apr. 2, 2025), https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1079250&lt;/ref&gt; A recent study showed that “state-scripted propaganda on newsstands is a near-daily phenomenon in China, with some form of scripted propaganda in the news around 90 percent of days. And, on average, at least one front-page article in party newspapers is planted by the state.”&lt;ref&gt;University of Oregon, ''New research shows that propaganda is on the rise in'' China, (Apr. 2, 2025), https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1079250&lt;/ref&gt; While one could choose not to pick up a newspaper in China, for many this is their main source of information and a necessity. Other forms of media are subject to the same with researchers identifying “over 18,000 central or local government accounts on Douyin, China’s version of TikTok, that produce 5 million videos per year.” Notably “[t]he largest share of these accounts belongs to the public security apparatus (34%), followed by state media (24%) and propaganda organs (12%) at the county, city, provincial, or central level.”

In addition to media, the Chinese government requires schools to teach its chosen ideology. Namely, “Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory, the Theory of Three Represents, the Scientific Outlook on Development, and Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 6, Section 1, Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm&lt;/ref&gt; China recently introduced the Patriotic Education Law&lt;ref&gt;Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm.&lt;/ref&gt; which “mandates that love of the country and the ruling Chinese Communist Party be incorporated into work and study for everyone – from the youngest children to workers and professionals across all sectors.”&lt;ref&gt;Chris Lau &amp; Simone McCarthy, ''China feels the country isn’t patriotic enough. A new law aims to change'' that, CNN (Jan. 6, 2024), https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/06/china/china-patriotic-education-law-intl-hnk#:~:text=2%2C%202009.&amp;text=The%20new%20law%20also%20orders,subject%20to%20punishments%2C%20she%20said.&lt;/ref&gt; Article 15 states that “[s]chools at all levels and of all types shall provide coherent patriotic education throughout their curriculum, provide high-quality theoretical and political lessons, and integrate patriotic education into various subjects and textbooks.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 15, Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, 2023, http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm&lt;/ref&gt;

Finally, Xuexi Qiangguo seeks to blend both media and education. Xuexi Qiangguo is an app run by the Chinese Communist Party that citizens are encouraged to download.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Liang|first=Fan|last2=et al.|date=2021|title=The Platformization of Propaganda:How Xuexi Qiangguo Expands Persuasion and Assesses Citizens in China|url=https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16484/3416|journal=University of Michigan: International Journal of Communication}}&lt;/ref&gt; This app allows “users to see state media news reports, video chat with their friends, make a personal schedule and send ‘red envelopes’ of money to friends. The app comes with a Snapchat-like messaging function where messages disappear after being read.”&lt;ref&gt;Lily Kuo &amp; Kate Lyons, China's most popular app brings Xi Jinping to your pocket, The Guardian (Feb. 15, 2019), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/15/chinas-most-popular-app-brings-xi-jinping-to-your-pocket.&lt;/ref&gt; However,, the most important feature of the app is that it allows people to study Xi Jinping’s thought while taking quizzes and earning points. The app appears to hold political significance for the government because “[a] university in Zhejiang called on all party groups to use the app in order to form a ‘stronghold’ for Xi Jinping thought.&lt;ref&gt;Lily Kuo &amp; Kate Lyons, China's most popular app brings Xi Jinping to your pocket, The Guardian (Feb. 15, 2019), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/15/chinas-most-popular-app-brings-xi-jinping-to-your-pocket.&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, some are reporting that “their employers are requiring them to score a certain number of points.”&lt;ref&gt;Lily Kuo &amp; Kate Lyons, China's most popular app brings Xi Jinping to your pocket, The Guardian (Feb. 15, 2019), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/15/chinas-most-popular-app-brings-xi-jinping-to-your-pocket.&lt;/ref&gt; Despite the app’s more lighthearted features, it’s “control models prioritize ideological content and get users to read specific information. This means that the Chinese state could transform the platform into a centralized communication model for manipulating information circulation and directing user behavior.”&lt;ref&gt;Fan Liang, Yuchen Chen, Fangwei Zhao, ''The Platformization of Propaganda:How Xuexi Qiangguo Expands Persuasion and Assesses Citizens in China'', University of Michigan: International Journal of Communication (2021), https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16484/3416.&lt;/ref&gt; A study shows that the app tracks President Xi’s political goals and helps promote them. For example, “the study channel recommended an online course about blockchain on October 25, 2019, since Xi Jinping announced the support for blockchain technology on October 24, 2019.”&lt;ref&gt;Fan Liang, Yuchen Chen, Fangwei Zhao, ''The Platformization of Propaganda:How Xuexi Qiangguo Expands Persuasion and Assesses Citizens in China'', University of Michigan: International Journal of Communication (2021), https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16484/3416.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''Religious Clothing in China''''' ====
[[File:China Xinjiang Northern location map.svg|thumb|Xinjiang]]
In China, certain religious garb is subject to scrutiny. China has introduced “counterterrorism” laws that seek to “ban wearing long beards, full face coverings, and religious dress.”&lt;ref&gt;U.S. Department of State, ''China (Includes Hong Kong, Macau, Tibet, and Xinjiang): Xinjian'', https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/xinjiang&lt;/ref&gt; These laws also ban “wearing clothes associated with ‘religious extremism.’ These regulations do not define ‘abnormal’ or ‘religious extremism.’”&lt;ref&gt;U.S. Department of State, ''China (Includes Hong Kong, Macau, Tibet, and Xinjiang): Xinjian'', https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/xinjiang&lt;/ref&gt; The ban of Muslim women’s head garb has been particular prominence with “regional authorities outlaw[ing] Islamic veils from all public spaces in the regional capital of China’s Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR)… [the ban] empowers Chinese police to punish violators and dole out fines of up to… $800 for those who fail to enforce the prohibition.”&lt;ref&gt;Timothy Grose &amp; James Leibold, ''Why China Is Banning Islamic Veils'', ChinaFile (Feb. 4, 2015), https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/why-china-banning-islamic-veils&lt;/ref&gt; The Chinese Communist Party has sought to promote alternatives to these veils such as hats and braided hair. As part of this campaign, “XUAR officials launched ‘Project Beauty’ in 2011: a five-year, $8 million dollar campaign aimed at developing Xinjiang’s fashion and cosmetics industries while encouraging Muslim women to ‘look towards ‘modern’ culture’ by removing their veils.”&lt;ref&gt;Timothy Grose &amp; James Leibold, ''Why China Is Banning Islamic Veils'', ChinaFile (Feb. 4, 2015), https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/why-china-banning-islamic-veils&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''References''' ===
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[[Category:Communication|Law in China]]
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      <text bytes="92663" sha1="4o7s4mvv4dqc8yzkxyyuzcprnlgqnfp" xml:space="preserve">== '''Communications Law in China''' ==
[[File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|thumb|Flag of the People's Republic of China]]
Communication law in China is subject to a complex regulatory scheme. While the Constitution of China promises freedom of speech, the Chinese Communist Party enforces strict censorship, utilizes prior restraint, and attempts to block important ideas and concepts from the minds of the Chinese people. Chinese communication law impact everything from radio to religious dress and even digital assets. The Chinese regulatory scheme faces the complex challenge of keeping up with cutting edge methods of communications while ensuring dominance of the Chinese Communist Party.

=== '''Sources of Communications Law in China''' ===
China’s Constitution guarantees freedom of speech but it’s communication laws tell a different story. China has a sophisticated regulatory framework in place to govern communications in China. These regulatory bodies, in combination with wide reaching laws, have resulted in a nation whose communications are subject to review and approval by the single party in power.

==== '''''Constitution of the People’s Republic of China''''' ====
The key place to begin when approaching a countries approach to any form of law is their Constitution. The Chinese “[c]onstitution recognizes Marxism as the country’s leading ideology and the Communist Party the leading party.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Catá Backer|first=Larry|date=2012|title=Party, People, Government, and State: On Constitutional Values and the Legitimacy of the Chinese State-Party Rule of Law System|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1977551|journal=Boston University International Law Journal|volume=Vol. 30}}&lt;/ref&gt; Notably, “[t]he preamble deserves particular attention because China’s leadership has consistently placed great weight upon the ideological and expressive functions of the constitution and has used the preamble to identify and highlight its core commitments.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Albert|date=February 1, 2021|title=Constitutions, Constitutionalism and the Case of Modern China|url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=3027562 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3027562|journal=SSRN}}&lt;/ref&gt; The preamble lays out broad goals for the People’s Republic of China, it states that the Chinese people “will continue, under the leadership of the Communist Party of China and the guidance of Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory… to… improve socialist rule of law… and promote coordinated material, political, cultural-ethical, social and ecological advancement, in order to build China into a great modern socialist country.”&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, Preamble (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt; This broad phrasing gives the party significant latitude. Furthermore, the Constitution has three key articles that address the issue of communications law. First, Article 35 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of speech, the press, assembly, association, procession and demonstration.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 35 (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt; Second, Article 36 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of religious belief.”&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 36 (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt; Third, Article 40 addresses correspondence:&lt;blockquote&gt;Freedom and confidentiality of correspondence of citizens of the People’s Republic of China shall be protected by law. Except in cases necessary for national security or criminal investigation, when public security organs or procuratorial organs shall examine correspondence in accordance with procedures prescribed by law, no organization or individual shall infringe on a citizen’s freedom and confidentiality of correspondence for any reason.&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 40 (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
[[File:Eleanor Roosevelt UDHR.jpg|thumb|'''Eleanor Roosevelt UDHR''']]
At least on paper, these articles are share some similarities to Articles 18, 19, and 20 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights.&lt;ref&gt;G.A. Res. 217 (III) A, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Dec. 10, 1948), https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights&lt;/ref&gt; However, at the United Nations Human Rights Convention, “China is increasingly vocal in defending its statist position and interpretation of human rights norms.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Initiative for U.S.-China Dialogue on Global Issues|date=Feb. 28, 2024|title=China and the UN Human Rights Regime|url=https://uschinadialogue.georgetown.edu/events/china-and-the-un-human-rights-regime|journal=Georgetown University}}&lt;/ref&gt; Notably, the Constitution is missing several provisions such as freedom of thought, freedom of conscience, and “freedom to receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers” which are seen in the Universal Declaration.&lt;ref&gt;UDHR art. 19, https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''National Regulatory Bodies''''' ====
[[File:汉口中共中央宣传部旧址.jpg|thumb|Former Site of the Central Propaganda Department of the Chinese Communist Party in Hankou]]
The regulatory scheme in China is complicated and grows out of a post-Mao era which “reconstituted the sinews of governance and especially sought to strengthen the government’s regulatory capacity while reducing the government’s direct intervention in state firms. In area after area, they have invoked ‘chaos’ or ‘turmoil’ to justify the need to strengthen or assert control.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=D.L.|date=2017|title=China’s Illiberal Regulatory State in Comparative Perspective|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-017-0059-x|journal=Chin. Polit. Sci. Rev. 2, 114–133}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Central Propaganda Department sets the ideology for Chinese communications regulatory bodies. It is “responsible for monitoring content to ensure that China's publishers, in particular its news publishers, do not print anything that is inconsistent with the Communist Party's political dogma.”&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China'', Agencies Responsible for Censorship in'' China, [https://www.cecc.gov/agencies-responsible-for-censorship-in-china#:~:text=The%20Central%20Propaganda%20Department%20%5B%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1,reporting%20on%20politically%20sensitive%20topics. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/agencies-responsible-for-censorship-in-china#:~:text=The%20Central%20Propaganda%20Department%20%5B%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1,reporting%20on%20politically%20sensitive%20topics&lt;/nowiki&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt; It accomplishes this by screening any writings that touch on politically sensitive issues, informing publishers what they can, and cannot, publish as well as what ideological viewpoint should be taken, and requiring editors and publishers to attend indoctrination sessions in order to ensure they publish from the desired viewpoint.&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China'', Agencies Responsible for Censorship in'' China, [https://www.cecc.gov/agencies-responsible-for-censorship-in-china#:~:text=The%20Central%20Propaganda%20Department%20%5B%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1,reporting%20on%20politically%20sensitive%20topics. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/agencies-responsible-for-censorship-in-china#:~:text=The%20Central%20Propaganda%20Department%20%5B%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1,reporting%20on%20politically%20sensitive%20topics&lt;/nowiki&gt;.]&lt;/ref&gt;

The Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) reports to the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission which “Xi Jinping, General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the Central Military Commission, personally serve[s] as the group leader.”&lt;ref&gt;Office of the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission, ''The Central Leading Group for Cybersecurity and Informatization was established: From a major cyber power to a leading cyber power.'', China Cyberspace Administration (Feb. 28, 2014), https://www.cac.gov.cn/2014-02/28/c_126397488.htm&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, the CAC “is China’s top authority on internet governance, overseeing data privacy, cybersecurity, and platform regulation. It is the primary regulator behind major laws such as the Cybersecurity Law (CSL), Data Security Law (DSL), and Personal Information Protection Law (PIPL).&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Roper|first=Gabrielle|date=Jun. 2, 2025|title=What is the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC)?|url=https://www.chinafy.com/blog/what-is-the-cyberspace-administration-of-china-cac#:~:text=TL;DR:%20The%20Cyberspace%20Administration,fall%20short%20of%20legal%20requirements|journal=Chinafy}}&lt;/ref&gt; The CAC can issue “departmental rules, which are issued by State Council administrative agencies and are legally binding under China’s Legislation Law.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Horsley|first=Jamie P.|date=Aug. 8, 2022|title=Behind the Facade of China’s Cyber Super-Regulator|url=https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/behind-the-facade-of-chinas-cyber-super-regulator/|journal=Stanford University}}&lt;/ref&gt; A counterpart of the CAC is the National Radio and Television Administration (NRTA). The NRTA’s “main task is to censor the radio, film, and television industries.”&lt;ref&gt;''NRTA Chief Emphasize Loyalty to the Party'', Chinascope, https://chinascope.org/archives/19225&lt;/ref&gt; In 2021, the NRTA banned “nine types of banned content, including content that ‘endangers security,’ ‘slanders Chinese culture,’ or does not help youth ‘establish the correct world view.’”&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:MIIT Wanshoulu Office (20210512174810).jpg|thumb|'''MIIT Wanshoulu Office''']]
The Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT)&lt;ref&gt;''Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT) (工业和信息化部)'', Thomson Reuters (Glossary), https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/1-552-9335?transitionType=Default&amp;contextData=(sc.Default)&amp;firstPage=true&lt;/ref&gt; is charged with “regulating and managing China's telecommunications and software sectors, as well as the electronics and information technology manufacturing industries.” The MIIT “enforces regulations aligned with the CAC’s central tenets” The MIIT focuses on the providers and carriers themselves and enforces “cyber and data security rules against providers in the telecommunications and internet sector.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ke|first=Xu|last2=Liu|first2=Vicky|last3=Luo|first3=Yan|last4=Yu|first4=Zhijing|date=Aug. 31, 2021|title=China's key enforcement agencies and lessons learned from recent actions|url=https://iapp.org/news/a/chinas-key-enforcement-agencies-and-lessons-learned-from-recent-actions|journal=iapp}}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, in December of 2021 MIIT found that over one hundred apps were in violation of China’s Personal Information Protection Law and Data Security Law.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Teon|first=Aris|date=Dec. 9, 2021|title=China’s Government Orders Removal of Douban and 105 Other Apps From App Stores|url=https://china-journal.org/2021/12/09/china-government-orders-removal-of-douban-and-105-other-apps-from-app-stores/#:~:text=China's%20Government%20Orders%20Removal%20of,comply%20with%20the%20government's%20directives|journal=China-Journal}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, they were removed from app stores.

==== '''''Key Communications Laws''''' ====
The Cybersecurity Law&lt;ref&gt;Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (2016), Translation: Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (Effective June 1, 2017). Stanford University,

https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/translation-cybersecurity-law-of-the-peoples-republic-of-china-effective-june-1-2017/&lt;/ref&gt; is overseen by the CAC and seeks to “promote the healthy development of the informatization of the economy and society.” Article 6 of the Cybersecurity Law states that a goal of the law is to advocate for “sincere, honest, healthy and civilized online conduct; it promotes the dissemination of core socialist values, adopts measures to raise the entire society’s awareness and level of cybersecurity, and formulates a good environment for the entire society to jointly participate in advancing cybersecurity.”&lt;ref&gt;Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (2016), Translation: Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (Effective June 1, 2017). Stanford University,

&lt;nowiki&gt;https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/translation-cybersecurity-law-of-the-peoples-republic-of-china-effective-june-1-2017/&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; In 2015 the Cybersecurity Law “introduced fines and detentions of up to 15 days for telecommunications firms and internet service providers (ISP), as well as relevant personnel, who fail to restrict certain forms of content”.&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/ref&gt;

The CAC also handles the implementation of the Provisions on the Governance of the Online Information Content Ecosystem. Article 5 states “A network information content producer shall be encouraged to produce, copy and publish information containing the following: Publicizing the Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era…”&lt;ref&gt;Order of the Cyberspace Administration of China (No. 5), https://wilmap.stanford.edu/entries/provisions-governance-online-information-content-ecosystem&lt;/ref&gt;

Finally, China is part of a many international agreements pertaining to communications law. China is a member of the UN and a signatory to both the ICCPR and the ICESCR.&lt;ref&gt;Order of the Cyberspace Administration of China (No. 5), https://wilmap.stanford.edu/entries/provisions-governance-online-information-content-ecosystem&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, in 2005 China signed the United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts.&lt;ref&gt;''U.N. Treaty Bodies and China'', Human Rights in China, https://www.hrichina.org/en/un-treaty-bodies-and-china&lt;/ref&gt; The purpose of this agreement is “facilitating the use of electronic communications in international trade by assuring that contracts concluded and other communications exchanged electronically are as valid and enforceable as their traditional paper-based equivalents.”&lt;ref&gt;''United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts'', Preamble, Jun. 7, 2006, https://uncitral.un.org/en/texts/ecommerce/conventions/electronic_communications/status&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, China signed the Universal Copyright Convention in 1992.&lt;ref&gt;''Universal Copyright Convention, with Appendix Declaration relating to Article XVII and Resolution concerning Article XI'', Sep. 16, 1955, https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/universal-copyright-convention-appendix-declaration-relating-article-xvii-and-resolution-concerning&lt;/ref&gt; The agreement “undertakes to provide for the adequate and effective, protection of the rights of authors and other copyright proprietors in literary, scientific and artistic works, including writings, musical, dramatic and cinematographic works, and paintings, engravings and sculpture.”&lt;ref&gt;Universal Copyright Convention, Article 1, https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/universal-copyright-convention-appendix-declaration-relating-article-xvii-and-resolution-concerning&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Law and the Media in China''' ===
There are some that believe there are three aims of communication: truth, beauty, and dialogue. These aims are furthered by the elements of communications law. There are three such elements that are most relevant to China. First, the means of transmission. Second, the sender and receiver. Third, the message. These are most relevant to China because the government seeks to control all three. As a result, the three aims of communications: truth, beauty, and dialogue are threatened daily. Truth, because certain historical events and facts are banned. Beauty, because words are good, they allow us to think and develop our thoughts which is a beautiful thing for the human person. Finally, dialogue, because a person cannot say what they wish without fear of retaliation.

==== '''''The Means of Transmission''''' ====
The means of transmission of the message may include its code, channel, mode, and nature. However, “[a] major constraint on regulatory state building is the political environment in which Chinese regulators have had to operate. The Administration of Press, Publications, Radio, Film, and TV, for example, operate at the behest of Chinese Communist Party (CCP) organs, especially the CCP Central Committee Propaganda Department.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=D.L.|date=2017|title=China’s Illiberal Regulatory State in Comparative Perspective|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-017-0059-x|journal=Chin. Polit. Sci. Rev. 2, 114–133}}&lt;/ref&gt; In China television is regulated by the National Radio and Television Administration. Regarding the nature of the communications, “[t]he Propaganda Department of the Chinese Communist Party sends a detailed notice to all media every day that includes editorial guidelines and censored topics.”&lt;ref&gt;China, Reporters Without Borders, https://rsf.org/en/country/china&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, the “[s]tate-run Chinese Central TV (CCTV) is China's largest media company.&lt;ref&gt;BBC News, ''China media guide'' (Aug. 22, 2023), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017881&lt;/ref&gt; The government released a statement summing up the CCTV’s main tasks.&lt;blockquote&gt;Its principal responsibilities will be to propagate the theories, political line and policies of the Party; to plan and manage major propaganda reports; to organize the production of radio and television; to produce and broadcast premium radio and television products; to channel hot social topics; to strengthen and improve supervision by public opinion, to promote the integrated development of multimedia; to strengthen the building of international broadcasting capacity; to tell China’s story well.&lt;ref&gt;safeguardDefenders'', Ownership and control of Chinese media'' (Jun. 14, 2021), https://safeguarddefenders.com/en/blog/ownership-and-control-chinese-media&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Furthermore, “[a]ll of China's 2,600-plus radio stations are state-owned”&lt;ref&gt;BBC News, ''China media guide'' (Aug. 22, 2023), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017881&lt;/ref&gt; as well as “around 1,900 newspapers. Each city has its own title, usually published by the local government, as well as a local Communist Party daily.”&lt;ref&gt;BBC News, ''China media guide'' (Aug. 22, 2023), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017881&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, the means and nature of the communications are subject to the government’s control.
[[File:Guess on China's Great Firewall Mechanism.png|thumb|'''Guess on China's Great Firewall Mechanism''']]
Internet censoring in China has been dubbed “the great firewall.” The Golden Shield Project’s aim is “to monitor and censor what can and cannot be seen through an online network in China.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chan|first=Conrad|last2=et al.|date=2011|title=Free Speech vs Maintaining Social Cohesion A Closer Look at Different Policies|url=https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/cs181/projects/2010-11/FreeExpressionVsSocialCohesion/china_policy.html|journal=Stanford University}}&lt;/ref&gt; Popular sites such as “Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, WhatsApp, and Instagram are all blocked in the mainland.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chandel|first=Sonali|last2=et al.|date=2019|title=The Golden Shield Project of China: A Decade Later An in-depth study of the Great Firewall|url=https://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~yunnanyu/files/papers/Golden.pdf|journal=College of Engineering and Computing Sciences, New York Institute of Technology}}&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, China has blocked the use of Starlink. In 2025 China penalized a foreign vessel after an inspection revealed the vessel employing Starlink had “continued transmitting data after entering Chinese territorial waters, in violation of national telecommunications and radio regulations.”&lt;ref&gt;The Editorial Team, ''China imposes penalty to vessel using Starlink in its waters'', Saftery4Sea (Dec. 23, 2025), https://safety4sea.com/china-imposes-penalty-to-vessel-using-starlink-in-its-waters/&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, “[t]he long-standing blocks on international communications platforms have helped to enable the exponential growth of local services such as Tencent’s WeChat and Sina Weibo, which are subject to the government’s strict censorship demands.”&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/ref&gt; The regulatory agencies discussed above play a crucial role in maintaining the “great firewall”. For example, in 2017 MIIT banned the use of unlicensed VPNs.&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, in 2020 the CAC  “suspended 281 websites, and shut down 2,686 websites and 31,000 accounts” as well as 179,000 social media accounts.&lt;ref&gt;Cyberspace Administration of China, ''The national cybersecurity administrative law enforcement work was carried out solidly in the second quarter'' (Jul. 18, 2020), https://www.cac.gov.cn/2020-07/21/c_1596879319813780.html; ''see also'' Qiao Long; Editor: Hu Lihan; Web Editor: Rui Zhe, ''China shut down more than 2,000 websites in the second quarter, triggering another large-scale internet crackdown'', rfa (Jul. 24, 2020), https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/yataibaodao/meiti/ql1-07242020062431.html&lt;/ref&gt;  Finally, “[i]n February 2021, authorities blocked the newly emerged mobile audio app Clubhouse, after thousands of users in China had flocked to the app to discuss detention camps in Xinjiang.”&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' &lt;nowiki&gt;https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''The Sender and Receiver''''' ====
There are two key principles in this element of communications, namely, the centrality of the person and freedom. The principle of the centrality of the person holds that communications are for the human person, this is why human rights are so integral to communication law. In China, communications are for the government, or the centrality of the party. For example, “[t]housands of cyber-police watch the web and material deemed politically and socially sensitive is filtered. Blocked resources include Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and human rights sites.”&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' &lt;nowiki&gt;https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; As opposed to fostering a government that supports the human person’s ability to attain truth and enter into dialogue, the government jealously protects access to information. This is seen in China’s restrictions on internet cafés where individuals may access the web. Startling, “between June and September 2002, the government shutdown 150,000 unlicensed Internet cafes. [today], police routinely ‘[raid]’ internet cafes to see whether there is any ‘illegal’ activity going on.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Haiping|first=Zheng|date=Jan. 4, 2013|title=Regulating the Internet: China’s Law and Practice|url=https://content.scirp.org/pdf/blr_2013032615421340.pdf|journal=School of Law, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China}}&lt;/ref&gt; The latter point is connected to the second key principle, freedom.
[[File:Statue of Deng Xiaoping in Lianhuashan Park Shenzen China 1310759.jpg|thumb|Statue of Deng Xiaoping in Lianhuashan Park Shenzen China]]
The principle of freedom in any communication holds that you are free to express your opinion and those who hear it will tolerate it. This principle has not found a permanent home in China historically. In 1898, following the Hundred Days Reform, “the dynasty imposed a general prohibition of privately published newspaper” for “spreading rumours and confusing the people’s thoughts.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=DeLisle|first=Jacques|last2=et al.|date=Jan. 16, 2014|title=The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2379959|journal=University of Pennsylvania}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1927, the Guomindang built “a system of censorship boards and licensing obligations for films, radio, publications and newspapers.”&lt;ref&gt;DeLisle,&amp;#x20;Jacques&amp;#x3B;&amp;#x20;et al.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 16, 2014).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era&quot;.&amp;#x20;''University of Pennsylvania''.&lt;/ref&gt; Starting in 1980, Deng Xiaoping, former Chairman of the Central Military Commission, further restricting freedom of communication. From then on, “political debate would be an intra-Party matter only, and official media were to be the mouthpiece of the Party.”&lt;ref&gt;DeLisle,&amp;#x20;Jacques&amp;#x3B;&amp;#x20;et al.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 16, 2014).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era&quot;.&amp;#x20;''University of Pennsylvania''.&lt;/ref&gt; This time saw a growing administrative state taking control of the communications field by “laying the basis for the current regulatory structure by creating an administrative department to govern the print sector, and by centralizing licensing procedures.”&lt;ref&gt;DeLisle,&amp;#x20;Jacques&amp;#x3B;&amp;#x20;et al.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 16, 2014).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era&quot;.&amp;#x20;''University of Pennsylvania''.&lt;/ref&gt; The introduction of the internet saw “central and local governments [establish] special Internet information management departments.”&lt;ref&gt;DeLisle,&amp;#x20;Jacques&amp;#x3B;&amp;#x20;et al.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 16, 2014).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era&quot;.&amp;#x20;''University of Pennsylvania''.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''The Message''''' ====
[[File:Umbrella Revolution in Admiralty Night View 20141010.jpg|thumb|Umbrella Revolution]]
Within this element there is the key principle of objectivity and context. This principle holds that journalists, and other professions, ought to give the proper context when communicating and do so in as objective a manner as possible. In China, if a journalist wishes to obtain to renew their press cards they “must download the Study Xi, Strengthen the Country propaganda application that can collect their personal data.”&lt;ref&gt;China, Reporters Without Borders, https://rsf.org/en/country/china&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, journalists and everyday citizens alike are restricted in how they can communicate their messages because certain words are banned. For example, no one cannot search for “dictatorship,” “Great Firewall of China,” or “Go, Hong Kong.”&lt;ref&gt;Leigh Hartman, ''In China, you can’t say these words'', ShareAmerica (Jun. 3, 2020), https://archive-share.america.gov/america.gov/in-china-you-cant-say-these-words/index.html&lt;/ref&gt; China’s approach to Tiananmen Square Massacre is an example of the principle of objectivity and context. After the Chinese military killed possible thousands during a protest in 1989 the government has tried to “erase what it calls the ‘political turmoil’ of 1989 from the collective memory. It bans any public commemoration or mention of the June 4 crackdown, scrubbing references from the internet.”&lt;ref&gt;Ken Moritsugu, ''Tiananmen Square anniversary shows China's ability to suppress history'', PBS News (Jun. 4, 2025), https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/tiananmen-square-anniversary-shows-chinas-ability-to-suppress-history#:~:text=Security%20was%20tight%20Wednesday%20around,gatherings%20can%20still%20take%20place&lt;/ref&gt; In 2024, China was the top jailer of journalists in the world, holding 14% of the world’s journalists in their jails.&lt;ref&gt;Arlene Getx, ''In record year, China, Israel, and Myanmar are world’s leading jailers of journalists'', Committee to Protect Journalists (Jan. 16, 2025), https://cpj.org/special-reports/in-record-year-china-israel-and-myanmar-are-worlds-leading-jailers-of-journalists/&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Censorship &amp; Violent Content''' ===
China practices rigorous censorship in various forms of speech. A foundational principle of freedom of speech is that of no prior restraint which allows speech to enter the marketplace, and its issuer must deal with the consequences after the fact. This principle is not welcome in China. Related to this principal China’s justification for much of their prior restraint, national security. Most clearly demonstrated in the Hong Kong National Security Law, China has enforced expansive prior restraints on speech and jailed those who have attempted to speak out.
[[File:Hong Kong Protests P1240680 Umbrella revolution - protest in Nathan road, Hong Kong (15375576579).jpg|thumb|'''Hong Kong Protests''']]

==== '''''No Prior Restraint''''' ====
The principle of no prior restraint says that speech cannot be stopped before it takes place. Rather, one may say what they wish but may have to deal with the consequences after. This principle is well known in the West.&lt;blockquote&gt;The liberty of the press is indeed essential to the nature of a free state: but this consists in laying no prior restraints upon publications, and not in freedom from censure for criminal matter when published. Every freeman has an undoubted right to lay what sentiments he pleases before the public: to forbid this, is to destroy the freedom of the press: but if he publishes what is improper, mischievous, or illegal, he must take the consequence of his own temerity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zeigler|first=Sara L.|last2=Vile|first2=John R.|date=Jan. 1, 2009|title=William Blackstone|url=https://firstamendment.mtsu.edu/article/william-blackstone/|journal=Free Speech Center}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;This principle ensures that ideas are free to enter the marketplace in nations that have chosen to adopt this concept, like the United States. However, China has not adopted this principle. Rather, China is diametrically opposed to the principle of no prior restraint. The Chinese government requires people to “ask the government's permission before they are allowed to publish.”&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China, ''Prior Restraints'', https://www.cecc.gov/prior-restraints&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, “[t]he Communist Party has the right and the ability to screen works prior to publication, and stop publication of those works it finds objectionable.”&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China, ''Prior Restraints'', https://www.cecc.gov/prior-restraints&lt;/ref&gt; One of the main methods of enforcing prior restraints in China is their licensing scheme…” where “the government requires individuals to obtain a license, permit, or other authorization in order to legally engage in publishing.”&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China, ''Prior Restraints'', https://www.cecc.gov/prior-restraints&lt;/ref&gt; Such requirements ensure that the government approves of any speech before it can enter the marketplace.

A notable piece of Chinese legislation is the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing.&lt;ref&gt;Regulations on the Administration of Publishing (2001.12.25), https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/regulation-on-the-administration-of-publishing-chinese-and-english-text&lt;/ref&gt; Article 3 of the Regulations states that “publishing businesses shall adhere to the path of serving the people and serving socialism, adhere to the guidance of Marxism, Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought and Deng Xiaoping Theory, and promulgate and accumulate scientific technology and cultural knowledge that is advantageous to economic development and social progress.”&lt;ref&gt;Regulations on the Administration of Publishing (2001.12.25), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/regulation-on-the-administration-of-publishing-chinese-and-english-text&lt;/ref&gt; This legislation requires that anything published in China aligns with their preferred thought. This is exactly what the marketplace of ideas sought to prevent. A healthy competition of ideas is best for humanity, not a forced set of ideas. A breach of the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing has grave consequences. In 2019 “[a] Chinese court slapped a dozen of people with varying jail terms for illegally publishing books related to the Communist Party of China.”&lt;ref&gt;Zehra Nur Duz, ''China jails 12 for illegal publications about party'', Ankara (Dec. 26, 2019), [https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877? https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877?]&lt;/ref&gt; The Intermediate People's Court of Yueyang in Hunan province stated that “[t]he accused were convicted of violating state regulations by illegally reprinting and selling huge volumes of publications, which seriously endangered the social order and disrupted the legitimate publishing market.”&lt;ref&gt;Zehra Nur Duz, ''China jails 12 for illegal publications about party'', Ankara (Dec. 26, 2019), [https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877? https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877?]&lt;/ref&gt;

Another important piece of legislation is the eloquently named Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications.&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; Article 3 of the Measures says that “[t]he scope of the important topics… shall be adjusted and promulgated by the General Administration of Press and Publication.”&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; Such important topics include “works and literature concerning any former or current leaders of the party ” ,&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; “topics which deal with maps of China's borders,”&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; and even “topics which deal with any significant historical matters or important historical figures in the history of the Chinese Communist Party.”&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; This legislation requires government approval prior to publishing on important topics. While the complete list of important topics is much longer these three are notable because they are meant to shape the way, one understands Chinese history and China’s place in the world. This dystopian law enforces not only a specific world view, like the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing, but also a specific understanding of China’s history and how they arrived at their present communist government. Thus, these measures bolster the Chinese Communist Party’s control over all speech in China.

==== '''''National Security''''' ====
The Chinese Party often censors speech under the pretense of protecting national security. An example occurred recently in Hong Kong. In 2020 China introduced the National Security Law (“NSL”) to Hong Kong. The NSL “criminalises anything considered as secession, which is breaking away from China; subversion, which is undermining the power or authority of the central government; terrorism, which is using violence or intimidation against people; and collusion with foreign or external forces.”&lt;ref&gt;BBC, ''Hong Kong national security law: What is it and is it worrying?'' (Mar. 18, 2024), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52765838&lt;/ref&gt; This Law has resulted in “[n]umerous pro-democracy news outlets in Hong Kong [being] shut down, including Lai's Apple Daily, which was known to be critical of the mainland Chinese leadership.”&lt;ref&gt;BBC, ''Hong Kong national security law: What is it and is it worrying?'' (Mar. 18, 2024), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52765838&lt;/ref&gt; For example, in 2021 “Hong Kong's national security police raided the offices of ''Stand News'' for suspected breaches of the NSL and separately arrested six senior staff members and one former senior staff member for conspiracy to publish seditious publications.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barrios|first=Ricardo|date=Nov. 15, 2023|title=Hong Kong Under the National Security Law|url=https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R47844|journal=Congress.Gov}}&lt;/ref&gt; The NSL has also impacted other forms of speech as shut down of the Tiananmen vigil in 2002 when “authorities announced they were closing Victoria Park—the traditional site of the Tiananmen vigil—citing ‘Police's observation that some people are using different channels to incite the participation of unauthorised assemblies’ and these assemblies' potential to affect ‘public safety and public order.’”&lt;ref&gt;Barrios,&amp;#x20;Ricardo&amp;#x20;(Nov. 15, 2023).&amp;#x20;&quot;Hong Kong Under the National Security Law&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Congress.Gov''.&lt;/ref&gt; These alarming instances demonstrates China’s use of overbroad justifications, such as national security, to exert control over China and its special administrative regions. Finally, China’s desire for a tighter grip on information does not stop at its borders. In 2015 China signed the Sino-Russian Cybersecurity Agreement.&lt;ref&gt;Sino-Russian Cybersecurity Agreement 2015, https://jsis.washington.edu/news/china-russia-cybersecurity-cooperation-working-towards-cyber-sovereignty/&lt;/ref&gt; The agreement “has two key features: mutual assurance on non-aggression in cyberspace and language advocating cyber-sovereignty.”&lt;ref&gt;Sino-Russian Cybersecurity Agreement 2015, https://jsis.washington.edu/news/china-russia-cybersecurity-cooperation-working-towards-cyber-sovereignty/&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Truth, Honor, &amp; Tolerance''' ===
Chinese censorship has ensured that there is only one product to be bought and sold in the marketplace of ideas, the Chinese Communist Party’s. This booth peddles China’s view of history, as seen in their memory laws, and their chosen religions. China’s failure to encourage a marketplace of ideas has not only impacted freedom of expression in China but also hindered their economic and scientific growth. This limited marketplace extends to how certain historical events are seen. Finally, it is notable that China does allow the practice of religion in their Constitution, and to an extent in practice. However, examples such as the Chinese oppression of Muslims and requiring the Vatican to agree to bishop appointments demonstrates the fact that the Chinese Communist Party is firmly in control of this marketplace.

==== '''''The Marketplace of Ideas''''' ====
The marketplace of ideas is a western concept that has been adopted in the United States. The concept of the marketplace of ideas says that “[t]he best test of truth is the power of the thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market.” This concept is seen in robust public discourse, protests, debate, etc. These all further the belief that government should foster a lively discourse that allows everyone to choose which ideas they believe are best. This concept has not been adopted by China. Rather, “while China has increased economic freedom, it has protected the Party’s iron grip on power and suppressed freedom of expression — there is no free market for ideas. Without such a market, the Chinese people are subservient to the state and their range of choices limited.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dorn|first=James A.|date=Feb. 4, 2017|title=China Needs a Free Market for Ideas|url=https://www.cato.org/commentary/china-needs-free-market-ideas#:~:text=The%20lack%20of%20a%20free,of%20the%20Chinese%20Communist%20Party|journal=CATO Institute}}&lt;/ref&gt; Chinese censorship is pervasive and leaves no stall at the marketplace of ideas uncaptured. For example, “significant amendments were made to both the [Constitution], further consolidating the dominant leadership of the CCP. While these changes were not explicitly centered on censorship, this strengthened power structure indirectly set the stage for a reshaped censorship framework, presenting an illiberal substance under a facade of legitimacy.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Ge|date=2025-26|title=How China Curbs Free Speech Beyond Its Borders: Legal Strategies of Transnational Censorship|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4621776|journal=J. Int'l Media &amp; Ent. L., 11(1), 1-41}}&lt;/ref&gt;

While the lack of a robust coemption of ideas certainly treads on individual rights, some also argue that it also limits China’s potential, “[b]ecause the freedom to supply ideas, choose ideas, and criticize ideas is severely limited, the creativity of the Chinese people is underutilized and their innovative potential undertapped.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Ning|date=Winter 2017|title=China’s Future and the Determining Role of the Market for Ideas|journal=CATO Journal (Vol. 37, No. 1}}&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, “without the freedom to think, speak, and innovate openly, China’s economic growth could stagnate” and as a result “lead to a lack of critical thinking and creativity, which are vital for addressing complex challenges and advancing technological and social innovation.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zou|first=Heng-Fu|date=April 2021|title=A Free Market For Ideas In China|url=https://down.aefweb.net/WorkingPapers/w664.pdf|journal=The World Bank}}&lt;/ref&gt; China’s suppression of the market place of ideas not only violates individual rights but is likely harming both the Chinese economy and even society itself.

==== '''''Memory Laws''''' ====
For China “[t]here is only one correct interpretation of the national past, and it is the party-state – and the party-state alone – that promulgates and polices it.”&lt;ref&gt;Chang,&amp;#x20;Vincent K.L.&amp;#x20;(May 2, 2024).&amp;#x20;&quot;China’s Memory Laws The Global Reach of Beijing’s Push to Juridify Memory&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Verfassungsblog''.&lt;/ref&gt; In 2018, after an incident where Chinese youths cosplayed as Japanese Imperial soldiers and took phots at a war monument in Shanghai, China passed the Heroes and Martyrs Protection Law.&lt;ref&gt;Guang Yang, ''China’s National Memory Laws and the War on Storytelling'', Australian Institute of International Affairs (May 3, 2023), https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/chinas-national-memory-laws-and-the-war-on-storytelling/. ''See also'' Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Heroes and Martyrs, Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, 中华人民共和国英雄烈士保护法, (adopted Apr. 27, 2018, effective May 1, 2018), https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/peoples-republic-of-china-law-on-protection-of-heroes-and-martyrs/.&lt;/ref&gt; This law “calls on citizens to ‘respect, study, and defend’ national heroes and criminalises their defamation.”&lt;ref&gt;Vincent K.L. Chang, ''China’s Memory Laws The Global Reach of Beijing’s Push to Juridify Memory'', Verfassungsblog (May 2, 2024), https://verfassungsblog.de/chinas-memory-laws/&lt;/ref&gt; China’s use of memory laws, or selective history, has resulted in the erasure of historical events that are not flattering or supportive of the Chinese Communist Party. For example, in 2012 a professor teaching in Hong Kong “asked his class of more than forty students from China, all of whom were born in the 1980s, ‘Have any of you heard of June Fourth, Liu Binyan, or Fang Lizhi?’ However, the students simply gazed at one another in silence.”&lt;ref&gt;Yan Lianke, ''China’s National Amnesia'', The Dial (Apr. 23, 2024), https://www.thedial.world/articles/news/issue-15/china-national-strategy-forgetting&lt;/ref&gt; As discussed, nowhere is this amnesia seen better than in the case of Tiananmen Square.

An example of such memory laws in action was seen in 2016 where a group of individuals who promoted liquor bottles that had labels commemorating June 4, 1989, the date of the Tiananmen Square Massacre.&lt;ref&gt;Amnesty International, ''China: Further information: Two More Activists Detained for “June 4 Baijiu”'' (Jun. 21, 2016), [https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/ https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/.]&lt;/ref&gt; One man was “criminally detained on suspicion of ‘inciting subversion of state power’ while [another] was detained on suspicion of ‘picking quarrels and provoking trouble.’”&lt;ref&gt;Amnesty International, ''China: Further information: Two More Activists Detained for “June 4 Baijiu”'' (Jun. 21, 2016), [https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/ https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/.]&lt;/ref&gt; In 2019, one of the men received a three and a half year sentence by a court in southwestern China.&lt;ref&gt;Radio Free Asia, ''Court in China's Sichuan Jails Fourth Man Over Tiananmen Massacre Liquor'' (Apr. 4, 2019), https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/liquor-04042019105951.html&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''Tolerance as Applied to Religion''''' ====
[[File:Cardinal Joseph Zen (2019).jpg|thumb|'''Cardinal Joseph Zen''']]
The Chinese Constitution explicitly allows for freedom of religion, Article 36 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of religious belief.”&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 36 (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt; The Chinese Embassy in South Africa published a paper on religious freedom stating “[r]eligious disputes are unknown in China. Religious believers and non-believers respect each other, are united and have a harmonious relationship.”&lt;ref&gt;Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.html&lt;/ref&gt; However, while China allows for the practice of religion, the Chinese Communist Party has worked to force religion to align with its worldview. As a result, “China is pursuing a policy of ‘Sinicization’ that requires religious groups to align their doctrines, customs and morality with Chinese culture.”&lt;ref&gt;Pew Research Center, 10 things to know about China’s policies on religion (Oct. 23, 2023),

https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/10/23/10-things-to-know-about-chinas-policies-on-religion/&lt;/ref&gt; In 2018 the Vatican agreed to a deal with the Chinese Communist Party regarding the appointment of bishops. Following this “Cardinal Joseph Zen… said it would legitimise the Communist Party’s control over Chinese Catholics, and be like ‘giving the flock into the mouths of the wolves.’”&lt;ref&gt;Economist, ''China wants to “sinicise” its Catholics'' (Nov. 22, 2022), https://www.economist.com/china/2022/11/22/china-wants-to-sinicise-its-catholics&lt;/ref&gt; China’s concern with religions such as Islam and Christianity is not that they are new to China, they are not. Rather, “Muslims are part of Islam’s global ''umma'' (Arabic for ‘community’) of believers” and “Christians, meanwhile, are thought to have strong overseas ties either to the Vatican, for Catholics, or to overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia and the West, for Protestants in particular.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Johnson|first=Ian|date=May 14, 2024|title=China Is Reversing Its Crackdown on Some Religions, but Not All|url=https://www.cfr.org/articles/china-reversing-its-crackdown-some-religions-not-all|journal=Council on Foreign Relations}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, China sees these religions as non-Chinese. Other religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, and folk religions the states are viewed as “so-called indigenous faiths.”&lt;ref&gt;Johnson,&amp;#x20;Ian&amp;#x20;(May 14, 2024).&amp;#x20;&quot;China Is Reversing Its Crackdown on Some Religions, but Not All&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Council on Foreign Relations''.&lt;/ref&gt; A key law impacting religious tolerance is the Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups.&lt;ref&gt;Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/ref&gt; Article 5 of the measures states that “[r]eligious groups must follow the leadership of the Communist Party of China… persist in the direction of sinification of religion[, and] practice the Core Socialist Values.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 5, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, under Article 6, “[r]eligious groups shall accept the supervision, oversight, and administration of people's governments religious affairs departments.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 17, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/ref&gt; Article 17 states that “[r]eligious groups shall publicize the Communist Party of] China's directives and policies.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 6, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, “[t]he legal protection of citizens' right to the freedom of religious belief in China is basically in accordance with the main contents of the concerned international documents and conventions in this respect.”&lt;ref&gt;Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.html&lt;/ref&gt; The Embassy goes on to list the following international agreements: the United Nations Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the International Convenient on Civil and Political Rights, the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, and the Vienna Declaration and Action Program.&lt;ref&gt;Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.html&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Cultural and Religious Expressions''' ===
           In China there are many festivals and cultural events, with the Chinese New Year being the most famous and one of the oldest. This holiday is lauded as important for many reasons, but it is allowed because it promotes Chinese identity. Some religions, and religious symbols, do not receive an equally welcoming invite from the Chinese Communist Party. While religious worship is allowed theoretically, China has cracked down on the Church in China and on religious symbols.

==== '''''Festivals, The Chinese New Year or Spring Festival''''' ====
Feasts and festivals are thousands of years old. Key aspects of festivals include bringing people together, feasting over food, a reason to celebrate, and the symbolization of the shared joy. China has a long history of festivals. Perhaps the largest and most important is the Chinese New Year. The Chinese New Year is thousands of years old. It likely “originated in the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BC), when people held sacrificial ceremonies in honor of gods and ancestors at the beginning or the end of each year.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Timothy S.Y.|title=History of Chinese New Year|url=https://lammuseum.wfu.edu/education/teachers/chinese-new-year/history-of-chinese-new-year/|journal=Wake Forest University, Museum of Anthropology}}&lt;/ref&gt; This festival has become an integral part of the Chinese nation. However, Chinese Americans, and those around the world, can also be seen celebrating this festival. As a result, this festival is intimately intertwined with the Chinese identity.
[[File:Chinese New Year decorations in Chinatown, Singapore, 20240122 0852 2963.jpg|thumb|Chinese New Year decorations in Chinatown, Singapore]]
[[File:The Lucky Red Envelopes or Packets in Lunar New Year.jpg|thumb|Red Envelopes]]
There are many traditions that play critical roles in the Chinese New Year festival season. The legend of the Chinese New Year began with a mythical beast called that would eat crops and people. Legend states “a wise old man figured out that Nian was scared of loud noises (firecrackers) and the color red. So, people put red lanterns and red scrolls on their windows and doors to stop Nian from coming inside. Crackling bamboo (later replaced by firecrackers) was lit to scare Nian away.”&lt;ref&gt;Lam,&amp;#x20;Timothy S.Y..&amp;#x20;&quot;History of Chinese New Year&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Wake Forest University, Museum of Anthropology''.&lt;/ref&gt; The famous tradition of exchanging red envelopes began with the mythical beast Sui, who would scare children while they slept. As a result, “[e]lders began to give out red envelopes of coins to children for them to play with and keep them awake throughout the night.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Richardson|first=Kaysey A.|date=Jan. 27, 2022|title=A Brief History of the Chinese New Year|url=https://worldtreasures.org/blog/a-brief-history-of-the-chinese-new-year|journal=World Treasures}}&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, “round dumplings shaped like the full moon are shared as a symbol of the family unit and perfection.”&lt;ref&gt;Richardson,&amp;#x20;Kaysey A.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 27, 2022).&amp;#x20;&quot;A Brief History of the Chinese New Year&quot;.&amp;#x20;''World Treasures''.&lt;/ref&gt; These traditions give the Chinese people tangible things to pass down to future generations. It is incredible to see how consistent these traditions have been, indicating how important they are to the Chinese people’s cultural expression.

A critical law in the area of cultural and religious expression in China is the Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage.&lt;ref&gt;Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/ref&gt; Under Article 1 of the Law, it’s stated purpose is  that “of inheriting and promoting the distinguished traditional culture of the Chinese nation, promoting the building of the socialist spiritual civilization and strengthening the protection and preservation of intangible cultural heritage.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 1, Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/ref&gt; Article 6 of the law requires the local governments to “include the protection and preservation of intangible cultural heritage in the national economic and social development plans at their same levels and include the protection and preservation funding into the financial budgets.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 6, Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/ref&gt; According to a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization report “[d]uring [Chinese New Year] in 2024, Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the PRC mobilized the whole country to widely carry out Spring Festival [Intangible Cultural Heritage] activities. A total of more than 45,400 ICH promotion and display activities were carried out nationwide.”&lt;ref&gt;nited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Periodic reporting on the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2004), https://ich.unesco.org/en/periodic-reporting-00460&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''Religious Symbols''''' ====
While religious exercise is allowed in China to some extent, the display of certain items has come under attack. According to a recent report, “Chinese officials have ordered the removal of crosses from churches and have replaced images of Christ and the Virgin Mary with images of President Xi Jinping”.&lt;ref&gt;Tyler Arnold, ''China is Removing Crosses From Churches, Replacing Images of Christ With Xi Jinping'', The National Catholic Register (Oct. 1, 2024), https://www.ncregister.com/cna/china-is-removing-crosses-from-churches-replacing-images-of-christ-with-xi-jinping&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, “new rules to ensure that sites of religious worship, like mosques, look adequately “Chinese,” and to mandate the cultivation of “patriotic” religious leaders.”&lt;ref&gt;Martin Lavička, ''A New Round of Restrictions Further Constrains Religious Practice in Xinjiang'', China File (Apr. 19, 2024), https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/new-round-of-restrictions-further-constrains-religious-practice-xinjiang&lt;/ref&gt; Article 26 of the 2024 Xinjiang Religious Affairs Regulations states that “Religious activity sites that are newly built, renovated, expanded, or rebuilt should reflect Chinese characteristics and style in terms of architecture, sculptures, paintings, decorations, etc.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 26, 2024 Xinjiang Religious Affairs Regulations, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/xj-religious-affairs/&lt;/ref&gt; These actions indicate the Chinese Communist Parties attempt to more deeply accelerate sinicization.

==== '''''The Church in China''''' ====
[[File:20251016 Shangqiu Catholic Church 04.jpg|thumb|Shangqiu Catholic Church]]
In China there are two faces to the Catholic Church. The first is the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (the “CCPA”). The CCPA is obedient to the “the State Council's Religious Affairs Bureau, which is an agency under the United Front Department of the Communist Party. It does not recognize the supreme administrative, legislative, and judicial authority of the Pope.”&lt;ref&gt;The Cardinal Kung Foundation, ''Catholic Church in China, It Is Now Known As An Underground Church'',  http://www.cardinalkungfoundation.org/rc/RCrelfreedom.php&lt;/ref&gt; The second face is the “Underground Catholic Church” which is not governed by the Chinese Communist Party. Recently, the CCPA held the 10th National Congress of Catholicism in China. The CCPA “delegates also unanimously accepted the Work Report of the 9th Standing Committee on Church efforts and activities in the promotion of patriotism, socialism, and sinicization in the Catholic Church as outlined by President Xi Jinping.”&lt;ref&gt;Union of Catholic Asian News, ''China's Catholic leaders vow to accelerate sinicization''''',''' https://www.ucanews.com/news/chinas-catholic-leaders-vow-to-accelerate-sinicization/98499&lt;/ref&gt; Opposed to the CCPA are the underground Church leaders like Cardinal Joseph Zen. Cardinal Zen is critical of the Chinese persecution of Catholics and heavily criticized the 2018 deal the Vatican made with China which requires Chinese approval of bishops.&lt;ref&gt;Harriet Sherwood, ''Vatican signs historic deal with China – but critics denounce sellout'', The Guardian (Sep. 22, 2018), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/22/vatican-pope-francis-agreement-with-china-nominating-bishops&lt;/ref&gt; Regarding the deal, Cardinal Zen stated that “[t]hey’re [sending] the flock into the mouths of the wolves. It’s an incredible betrayal.”&lt;ref&gt;''See'' Harriet Sherwood, ''Vatican signs historic deal with China – but critics denounce sellout'', The Guardian (Sep. 22, 2018), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/22/vatican-pope-francis-agreement-with-china-nominating-bishops&lt;/ref&gt; In China it is “illegal for the priest to instruct the children of the parish in the Faith or give them any materials to read.”&lt;ref&gt;Michael Schmiesing, ''A Hidden Church in'' China, Catholic Answers (Dec. 12, 2024), https://www.catholic.com/magazine/online-edition/a-hidden-church-in-china&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, “minors are not allowed to attend the Mass in some areas of China.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Aly Rothfus, ''Catholic Church in China Faces'' Crisis, The Irish Rover (Nov. 19, 2025), https://irishrover.net/2025/11/catholic-church-in-china-faces-crisis/&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, it must be noted that the Holy See does not recognize the Chinese communist Party as the leader of China. Rather, “the Vatican has maintained formal diplomatic relations with Taiwan.”&lt;ref&gt;Abhishank Mishra &amp; Ananya Sharma, ''China-Taiwan, and a Vatican'' conversion, the interpreter (Jul. 9, 2024), https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/china-taiwan-vatican-conversion&lt;/ref&gt;

As discussed above, China has set a clear policy goal of maintaining, celebrating, and promulgating traditional Chinese festivals to the public. Religious festivals do not enjoy the same support. Article 42 of the Religious Affairs Regulations 2017 provides that “[w]here a large-scale religious activity is held that is beyond the accommodation capacity of a religious activity site the religious group… sponsoring the activity shall, 30 days before the activity is to be held, submit an application to the religious affairs department of the people’s government for the province.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 42, Religious Affairs Regulations 2017, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/religious-affairs-regulations-2017/&lt;/ref&gt; On Easter Sunday 2011, a [c]hurch in Beijing planned to hold an outdoor worship service in a plaza amid high-rise office and commercial buildings. However the police sealed off the plaza and dispelled gathering congregants… Thirty six of the congregants were taken to police stations for interrogation.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Fenggang|first=Yang|date=May 12, 2011|title=The Chinese House Church Goes Public|url=https://divinity.uchicago.edu/sightings/articles/chinese-house-church-goes-public-fenggang-yang|journal=The University of Chicago {{!}} Divinity School}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Privacy and Data Protection''' ===
Our private thoughts and actions are intimate to who we are as people. However, in China, the government wishes to be included in that inner circle. They seek to accomplish this by a program of mass surveillance. While artificial intelligence has been an incredible breakthrough for the world it has also been taken advantage of by nefarious actors. Chief among these is perhaps China. China has employed artificial intelligence to better control its citizens and ensure compliance. Another technology breakthrough, cryptocurrency, has had mixed reactions from China. Cryptocurrency allows transactions to be kept private, a no-go for the Chinese Communist Party. As a result, China has banned cryptocurrency use.

==== '''''Mass Surveillance and Artificial Intelligence''''' ====
It is no surprise that China is renowned for its mass surveillance. Citizens are watched almost constantly to ensure compliance with the Chinese Communist Party’s ideals. In fact the “[p]eople in China are among the most surveilled in the world, taking 16 of the top 20 spots on the most surveilled cities list based on the number of cameras per 1,000 people in an annual assessment.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gates|first=Megan|date=Jun. 1, 2021|title=The Rise of the Surveillance State|url=https://www.asisonline.org/security-management-magazine/monthly-issues/security-technology/archive/2021/june/The-Rise-of-The-Surveillance-State|journal=Security Management}}&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, “documents from one Shanghai district detail plans for AI-powered cameras and drones to ‘automatically discover and intelligently enforce the law,’ including potentially alerting police to crowd gatherings.”[116] China has also begun using artificial intelligence in satellite surveillance, “China is deploying AI-enabled Sun-synchronous satellites over regions that the CCP views as politically sensitive, including Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, Hong Kong and Macau.”&lt;ref&gt;Fergus Ryan, et al., ''The party’s AI How China’s new AI systems are reshaping human rights'', ASPI (dec. 2025), https://aspi.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/27122307/The-partys-AI-How-Chinas-new-AI-systems-are-reshaping-human-rights.pdf. ''See also'', Jinghe Fan, Xin Zhang, ‘Small, swift, and effective’ legislation in China: Towards adaptive governance of AI?, Computer Law &amp; Security Review, Volume 61, 2026, 106329, ISSN 2212-473X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2026.106329.&lt;/ref&gt; In the Xinjiang region China uses mobile apps, biometric data, and artificial intelligence to monitor millions of Muslims.&lt;ref&gt;Gates,&amp;#x20;Megan&amp;#x20;(Jun. 1, 2021).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Rise of the Surveillance State&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Security Management''.&lt;/ref&gt; The use of artificial intelligence is not limited to technical uses. China has begun using artificial intelligence to help it draft policies, “[i]n one case, a ChatGPT user ‘likely connected to a [Chinese] government entity’ asked the AI model to help write a proposal for a tool that analyzes the travel movements and police records of the Uyghur minority— a Turkic-speaking, predominantly Muslim ethnic minority—and other ‘high-risk’ people, according to the OpenAI report.”&lt;ref&gt;Sean Lyngaas &amp; Jim Sclutto, ''Suspected Chinese government operatives used ChatGPT to shape mass surveillance proposals, OpenAI says'', CNN (Oct. 7, 2025), https://www.cnn.com/2025/10/07/politics/china-chatgpt-surveillance&lt;/ref&gt; The use of artificial intelligence in China is alarming. While surveillance in Chian has grown alongside technology since the Chinese Communist Party took power, the introduction of artificial intelligence is the biggest leap that has yet to occur. Moreover, the “CAC’s approach to regulating AI or algorithms is centered on the regime of Algorithm Registry. Providers of certain recommendation algorithms, deep synthesis, and generative AI technologies must register detailed information with the CAC before offering services in China.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Wayne Wei|last2=et al.|date=2025|title=Artificial Intelligence “Law(s)” in China: Retrospect and Prospect|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=5039316|journal=Part I, Journal of AI Law and Regulation (AIRe), Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 29-36, 2025 &amp; Part II, Journal of AI Law and Regulation (AIRe), Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 139-157, 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''Cryptocurrency in China''''' ====
If someone were to analyze an individual’s last year of credit card transactions it is likely one could learn quite a bit about them. For a mass surveillance state like China this is appealing. As a result, cryptocurrencies present an issue for China. Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum use a technology called blockchain that acts as a digital ledger of transactions. This allows individuals to exchange value without the need of an intermediary like a bank. These blockchains enhance “transactional privacy by removing the need for users to reveal their real identities. Confidential transactions and encryption techniques ensure only the involved parties know the details. Zero-knowledge proofs, ring signatures, and stealth addresses advances further strengthen privacy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zaware|first=Rajendra|title=Data Privacy in Cryptocurrencies and Blockchain|url=https://blogs.infosys.com/emerging-technology-solutions/iedps/data-privacy-in-cryptocurrencies-and-blockchain.html|journal=Infosys}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, while all transactions on the blockchain are visible, the identity of who made the transaction is private unless shared.

Importantly, “China’s central bank defined Cryptocurrency as a specified virtual commodity. This legal attribute is not clear, which brings difficulties in consumer protection and criminal identification.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hu|first=Jiye|date=Apr. 25, 2023|title=The Regulation of Cryptocurrency in China|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4423780|journal=China University of Political Science and Law, Business School; Business School}}&lt;/ref&gt; China was renowned for its large cryptocurrency market and “[p]rior to 2017, China had the world’s largest cryptocurrency market—with 80% of Bitcoin, the world’s leading digital coin, transactions conducted in yuan.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hoffman|first=Richard|title=China’s Cryptocurrency and Blockchain Regulatory Environment|url=https://www.ecovis.com/focus-china/chinas-cryptocurrency/|journal=ECOVIS}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, after years of increasing restrictions, China banned cryptocurrency trading and mining in 2021.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=OxKira|date=Oct. 9, 2025|title=Crypto in China: A 2025 guide to the crypto landscape|journal=Arham}}&lt;/ref&gt; This time period saw a flurry of laws implemented regarding digital assets and crypto currencies, “[o]n January 1, 2020, the ‘Cryptography Law of the People’s Republic of China’ came into effect. ‘Data Security Law’ was adopted on June 10, 2021, and ‘Personal Information Protection Law’ was adopted on August 20, 2021.”&lt;ref&gt;Hu,&amp;#x20;Jiye&amp;#x20;(Apr. 25, 2023).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Regulation of Cryptocurrency in China&quot;.&amp;#x20;''China University of Political Science and Law, Business School; Business School''&lt;/ref&gt; The People’s Bank of China “warned financial institutions against providing banking and clearing services to virtual currency-related businesses.”&lt;ref&gt;Xiuhao, et al, ''China steps up crypto crackdown, will vet real-world asset tokens'', Reuters (Feb. 6, 2026), https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/china-vows-tighten-virtual-currency-restrictions-2026-02-06/&lt;/ref&gt; This warning has not been without teeth. In 2025 a Chinese court convicted five people of transacting more than $160 million worth of cryptocurrency.&lt;ref&gt;Prashant Jha, ''Five People Jailed in China Just for Moving USDT'', Yahoo! Finance (Oct. 29, 2025), https://finance.yahoo.com/news/five-people-jailed-china-just-080215125.html&lt;/ref&gt; The court said that these individuals “violated China’s Anti-Money Laundering Law and Foreign Exchange Administration Regulations, both of which prohibit unauthorized cross-border fund transfers.”&lt;ref&gt;Prashant Jha, ''Five People Jailed in China Just for Moving USDT'', Yahoo! Finance (Oct. 29, 2025), https://finance.yahoo.com/news/five-people-jailed-china-just-080215125.html&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:E-CNY logo.svg|thumb|E-CNY logo]]
While these penalties are steep, people in China have persisted in using cryptocurrencies to ensure their transactions remain private. Reports indicate “that there are still around 59 million crypto users in China as of 2025. That is roughly 10% of the global crypto user base, even though most users must operate outside official channels.”&lt;ref&gt;Faari Labinjo, ''The Truth About China’s Crypto Ban: Adoption, Underground Markets and Billions in OTC Trading (2025–2026)'', DeFiPlanet (Mar. 17, 2026), https://defi-planet.com/2026/03/the-truth-about-chinas-crypto-ban-adoption-underground-markets-and-billions-in-otc-trading-2025-2026/&lt;/ref&gt; Interestingly, “[w]hile private cryptocurrencies face heavy restrictions, China has fully embraced its own central bank digital currency (CBDC) known as the digital yuan (e-CNY). By late 2025, e-CNY platforms had processed over 14.2 trillion yuan in transactions and were used by more than 260 million wallets.”&lt;ref&gt;Faari Labinjo, ''The Truth About China’s Crypto Ban: Adoption, Underground Markets and Billions in OTC Trading (2025–2026)'', DeFiPlanet (Mar. 17, 2026), https://defi-planet.com/2026/03/the-truth-about-chinas-crypto-ban-adoption-underground-markets-and-billions-in-otc-trading-2025-2026/&lt;/ref&gt; While this may seem contradictory at first, there is a strategy. Banning cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin ensures private transactions will not occur. Introducing the digital yuan, which is subject to surveillance, will allow China to “create a mechanism through which the government can access reams of digital data that may prove helpful to Beijing in the global race to develop artificial intelligence.”&lt;ref&gt;Jeremy Mark, ''Why China’s digital currency threatens the country’s tech giants'', Atlantic Council (Jul. 15, 2021), https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/why-chinas-digital-currency-threatens-the-countrys-tech-giants/#:~:text=Unlike%20Bitcoin%20and%20other%20cyber,who%20attract%20the%20attention%20of&lt;/ref&gt;  To that end, “[u]nlike Bitcoin and other cyber currencies, all digital-yuan users will register with the [People's Bank of China] under a system described by government officials as “controllable anonymity,’ which will give the government the ability to track illicit transactions and presumably the activities of citizens who attract the attention of security services”&lt;ref&gt;Jeremy Mark, ''Why China’s digital currency threatens the country’s tech giants'', Atlantic Council (Jul. 15, 2021), https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/why-chinas-digital-currency-threatens-the-countrys-tech-giants/#:~:text=Unlike%20Bitcoin%20and%20other%20cyber,who%20attract%20the%20attention%20of&lt;/ref&gt;

Other reasons for adopting the digital yuan include payment efficiency, increased state oversight and support of the yuan as a strategy tool. According to a 2021 report by the working group for the e-CNY, “the issuance of e-CNY will fully meet the public’s daily payment needs, further improve the efficiency of the retail payment system and reduce the cost of retail payment.”&lt;ref&gt;Working Group on E-CNY Research and Development of the People’s Bank of China, ''Progress of Research &amp; Development of E-CNY in China'' (July 2021), https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/server/api/core/bitstreams/8c1d1ea1-a8f7-402c-9f08-edf6863237bc/content&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Right to Bodily, Spiritual and Digital Identity''' ===
An individual’s identity is the essence of who they are and what they believe. In our digital age people have taken on digital identities. In many parts of the world people cannot get by without a digital identity. China is currently attempting to enroll its citizenry in a government issues digital identity. This identity will allow China to compile all enrollees’ personal information. On the other side of the identity coin, China has also sought to compile massive amount of biometric date such as DNA and facial recognition. These data collections have also been extended to individuals visiting China.

==== '''''Digital Identity''''' ====
In a world that has become intensely digital it makes sense that we humans would take on digital identities. These identities are demonstrated by social media, bank accounts, online use, and more. We use these identities to interact with other humans in the digital world. The Chinese government has introduced the National Online Identity Authentication Public Service. This is a “government-controlled digital identity system [which] will allow citizens to register by providing official government documents and then will shield their information from Internet services.”&lt;ref&gt;Robert Lemos, ''China Introduces National Cyber ID Amid Privacy Concerns'', Chinese Human Rights Defenders (Jul. 23, 2025),

https://www.nchrd.org/2025/07/china-introduces-national-cyber-id-amid-privacy-concerns/.&lt;/ref&gt; Chinese authorities say “that the new measure intends to establish a trusted digital identity framework within the public service infrastructure.”&lt;ref&gt;Shane Yi &amp; Michael Caster, ''China: New Internet ID System a threat to online expression'', Article19 (Jun. 25, 2025), [https://www.article19.org/resources/china-new-internet-id-system-a-threat-to-online-expression/ https://www.article19.org/resources/china-new-internet-id-system-a-threat-to-online-expression/.]&lt;/ref&gt; However, “[t]he Chinese government has not provided details about how the system is constructed or the policies in place to protect the data from misuse… for digital-rights activists, the danger is clear.”&lt;ref&gt;Robert Lemos, ''China Introduces National Cyber ID Amid Privacy Concerns'', Chinese Human Rights Defenders (Jul. 23, 2025),

https://www.nchrd.org/2025/07/china-introduces-national-cyber-id-amid-privacy-concerns/&lt;/ref&gt; The digital identity offered by China is proffered under the guise of ease of use. However, in exchange for this ease, Chinese citizens will need to give over intimate personal information to the government. While the program is optional for now it is possible necessary resources online could soon require one to obtain a government controlled digital identity.

==== '''''Biometric Data''''' ====
Despite the increasing importance of the digital identity and personal digital information, there is still information about ourselves that is intimate. Biometric data includes things like DNA, fingerprints, and even voice scans. In China “legislation and regulation are carefully crafted to give public security organs broad powers to harvest and use biometric data in conjunction with the performance of their law enforcement and national security duties.”&lt;ref&gt;Mercator Institute for China, ''China’s Handling of Biometric Data: Trends and Implications for Europe'' (Jun. 14, 2022), https://merics.org/en/events/chinas-handling-biometric-data-trends-and-implications-europe.&lt;/ref&gt; A main biometric tool used by the Chinese government is facial recognition which “is deployed to identify citizens for law enforcement purposes, such as performing identity verification at airports, train stations, or specific public areas, and for commercial purposes to enhance business operations’ efficiency.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Jianyu|last2=Stevenson|first2=Jennifer|date=2022|title=Assessing Legal Protection of Biometric Data in China: Gaps, Principles, and Policy Recommendations|url=https://commons.stmarytx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1776&amp;context=facarticles.|journal=St. Mary’s University}}&lt;/ref&gt; Such collections are not limited to Chinese citizens however. China has begun requiring foreign nationals “to submit their fingerprints and undergo a facial scan at self-help kiosks at their port of entry to the People's Republic of China. These self-help kiosks will issue a receipt once your biometric data is received and that receipt must be given to the border inspector for verification as part of the entry process.”&lt;ref&gt;Duke Travel Registry, ''Announcements: China now requires collection of biometric data upon arrival'', https://duke-travel.terradotta.com/index.cfm?FuseAction=Announcements.Announcement&amp;Announcement_ID=3026&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, China has recently combined blockchain technology with biometric data, “the new digital ID service stores cryptographic keys on-chain after a real-name verification process. According to reports, the system authenticates users’ legal name, facial recognition, and government ID before allowing users to create an infinite number of public-private key pairs to register on online platforms.”&lt;ref&gt;Wahid Pessarlay, ''China blockchain=based ID experiment aims to stop data leaks'', Coingeek (Dec. 29, 2023), https://coingeek.com/china-blockchain-based-id-experiment-aims-to-stop-data-leaks/&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''AI-Generated Personas''''' ====
China has taken the concept of AI-generated personas to the next level with the creation of AI judges. Since 2019, millions of legal cases of been decided by these “smart courts” or “internet courts”. These courts make use of “non-human judges, powered by artificial intelligence (AI) and allows participants to register their cases online and resolve their matters via a digital court hearing.”&lt;ref&gt;Tara Vasdani, Robot justice: China’s use of Internet courts, LexisNexis (Feb. 2020), https://www.lexisnexis.com/en-ca/ihc/robots-justice-chinas-use-of-internet-courts.&lt;/ref&gt; These courts have decided cases on various topics such as “intellectual property, e-commerce, financial disputes related to online conduct, loans acquired or performed online, domain name issues, property and civil rights cases involving the Internet, product liability arising from online purchases and certain administrative disputes.”&lt;ref&gt;Tara Vasdani, Robot justice: China’s use of Internet courts, LexisNexis (Feb. 2020), https://www.lexisnexis.com/en-ca/ihc/robots-justice-chinas-use-of-internet-courts.&lt;/ref&gt; The “judge” appears “by hologram and are artificial creations — there is no real judge present. The holographic judge looks like a real person but is a synthesized, 3D image of different judges, and sets schedules, asks litigants questions, takes evidence and issues dispositive rulings.”&lt;ref&gt;Tara Vasdani, Robot justice: China’s use of Internet courts, LexisNexis (Feb. 2020), https://www.lexisnexis.com/en-ca/ihc/robots-justice-chinas-use-of-internet-courts.&lt;/ref&gt; In addition to efficiency, there are other motives at play behind these smart courts, party control. Interestingly, these “[s]mart courts allow the party to intervene in court decisions without upending the entire normative system by automatically detecting and filtering cases that require political intervention.”&lt;ref&gt;Dory Reiling &amp; Straton Papagianneas, ''Lessons from China’s Smart Court Reform'', International Journal for Court Administration (2015), https://doi.org/10.36745/ijca.679.&lt;/ref&gt; Judges are still involved in the cases process but the use of AI allows them to process cases faster “the Shenzhen Intermediate People’s Court said each judge in the city had handled an average of 744 cases in 2025 – up by 249 cases from the previous year.”&lt;ref&gt;William Zheg, ''AI helped Shenzhen judges handle cases 50% faster. Is this the future for China?'', South China Morning Post (May 4, 2026), https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3352161/ai-helped-shenzhen-judges-handle-cases-50-faster-future-china. &lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Right to Reject Information, Clothing &amp; Human Exhibitions''' ===
In China people are bombarded with propaganda in a daily basis. As such it is virtually impossible to be free from unwanted content. In fact, one may not even realize they are ingesting content they do not want. China has a systemic practice of planting stories in the news and on social media. Furthermore, the government requires Chinese schools to incorporate propaganda into their lessons from the youngest of ages. Also, alarming is China’s oppression of religious clothing. Chief among these is China’s ban on certain Muslim garb in the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region. As such, people are prohibited from outwardly expressing what is most essential to their identity, their faith.

==== '''''Unwanted Content''''' ====
Do individuals in China have the power to reject unwanted content? In reality the answer is no. The Chinese government controls all forms of media in China and there is no way to really block this onslaught of propaganda. Somedays up to 30 percent of a newspapers content will be planted by the state.&lt;ref&gt;University of Oregon, ''New research shows that propaganda is on the rise in'' China, (Apr. 2, 2025), https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1079250&lt;/ref&gt; A recent study showed that “state-scripted propaganda on newsstands is a near-daily phenomenon in China, with some form of scripted propaganda in the news around 90 percent of days. And, on average, at least one front-page article in party newspapers is planted by the state.”&lt;ref&gt;University of Oregon, ''New research shows that propaganda is on the rise in'' China, (Apr. 2, 2025), https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1079250&lt;/ref&gt; While one could choose not to pick up a newspaper in China, for many this is their main source of information and a necessity. Other forms of media are subject to the same with researchers identifying “over 18,000 central or local government accounts on Douyin, China’s version of TikTok, that produce 5 million videos per year.” Notably “[t]he largest share of these accounts belongs to the public security apparatus (34%), followed by state media (24%) and propaganda organs (12%) at the county, city, provincial, or central level.”

In addition to media, the Chinese government requires schools to teach its chosen ideology. Namely, “Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory, the Theory of Three Represents, the Scientific Outlook on Development, and Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 6, Section 1, Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm&lt;/ref&gt; China recently introduced the Patriotic Education Law&lt;ref&gt;Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm.&lt;/ref&gt; which “mandates that love of the country and the ruling Chinese Communist Party be incorporated into work and study for everyone – from the youngest children to workers and professionals across all sectors.”&lt;ref&gt;Chris Lau &amp; Simone McCarthy, ''China feels the country isn’t patriotic enough. A new law aims to change'' that, CNN (Jan. 6, 2024), https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/06/china/china-patriotic-education-law-intl-hnk#:~:text=2%2C%202009.&amp;text=The%20new%20law%20also%20orders,subject%20to%20punishments%2C%20she%20said.&lt;/ref&gt; Article 15 states that “[s]chools at all levels and of all types shall provide coherent patriotic education throughout their curriculum, provide high-quality theoretical and political lessons, and integrate patriotic education into various subjects and textbooks.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 15, Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, 2023, http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm&lt;/ref&gt;

Finally, Xuexi Qiangguo seeks to blend both media and education. Xuexi Qiangguo is an app run by the Chinese Communist Party that citizens are encouraged to download.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Liang|first=Fan|last2=et al.|date=2021|title=The Platformization of Propaganda:How Xuexi Qiangguo Expands Persuasion and Assesses Citizens in China|url=https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16484/3416|journal=University of Michigan: International Journal of Communication}}&lt;/ref&gt; This app allows “users to see state media news reports, video chat with their friends, make a personal schedule and send ‘red envelopes’ of money to friends. The app comes with a Snapchat-like messaging function where messages disappear after being read.”&lt;ref&gt;Lily Kuo &amp; Kate Lyons, China's most popular app brings Xi Jinping to your pocket, The Guardian (Feb. 15, 2019), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/15/chinas-most-popular-app-brings-xi-jinping-to-your-pocket.&lt;/ref&gt; However,, the most important feature of the app is that it allows people to study Xi Jinping’s thought while taking quizzes and earning points. The app appears to hold political significance for the government because “[a] university in Zhejiang called on all party groups to use the app in order to form a ‘stronghold’ for Xi Jinping thought.&lt;ref&gt;Lily Kuo &amp; Kate Lyons, China's most popular app brings Xi Jinping to your pocket, The Guardian (Feb. 15, 2019), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/15/chinas-most-popular-app-brings-xi-jinping-to-your-pocket.&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, some are reporting that “their employers are requiring them to score a certain number of points.”&lt;ref&gt;Lily Kuo &amp; Kate Lyons, China's most popular app brings Xi Jinping to your pocket, The Guardian (Feb. 15, 2019), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/15/chinas-most-popular-app-brings-xi-jinping-to-your-pocket.&lt;/ref&gt; Despite the app’s more lighthearted features, it’s “control models prioritize ideological content and get users to read specific information. This means that the Chinese state could transform the platform into a centralized communication model for manipulating information circulation and directing user behavior.”&lt;ref&gt;Fan Liang, Yuchen Chen, Fangwei Zhao, ''The Platformization of Propaganda:How Xuexi Qiangguo Expands Persuasion and Assesses Citizens in China'', University of Michigan: International Journal of Communication (2021), https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16484/3416.&lt;/ref&gt; A study shows that the app tracks President Xi’s political goals and helps promote them. For example, “the study channel recommended an online course about blockchain on October 25, 2019, since Xi Jinping announced the support for blockchain technology on October 24, 2019.”&lt;ref&gt;Fan Liang, Yuchen Chen, Fangwei Zhao, ''The Platformization of Propaganda:How Xuexi Qiangguo Expands Persuasion and Assesses Citizens in China'', University of Michigan: International Journal of Communication (2021), https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16484/3416.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''Religious Clothing in China''''' ====
[[File:China Xinjiang Northern location map.svg|thumb|Xinjiang]]
In China, certain religious garb is subject to scrutiny. China has introduced “counterterrorism” laws that seek to “ban wearing long beards, full face coverings, and religious dress.”&lt;ref&gt;U.S. Department of State, ''China (Includes Hong Kong, Macau, Tibet, and Xinjiang): Xinjian'', https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/xinjiang&lt;/ref&gt; These laws also ban “wearing clothes associated with ‘religious extremism.’ These regulations do not define ‘abnormal’ or ‘religious extremism.’”&lt;ref&gt;U.S. Department of State, ''China (Includes Hong Kong, Macau, Tibet, and Xinjiang): Xinjian'', https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/xinjiang&lt;/ref&gt; The ban of Muslim women’s head garb has been particular prominence with “regional authorities outlaw[ing] Islamic veils from all public spaces in the regional capital of China’s Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR)… [the ban] empowers Chinese police to punish violators and dole out fines of up to… $800 for those who fail to enforce the prohibition.”&lt;ref&gt;Timothy Grose &amp; James Leibold, ''Why China Is Banning Islamic Veils'', ChinaFile (Feb. 4, 2015), https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/why-china-banning-islamic-veils&lt;/ref&gt; The Chinese Communist Party has sought to promote alternatives to these veils such as hats and braided hair. As part of this campaign, “XUAR officials launched ‘Project Beauty’ in 2011: a five-year, $8 million dollar campaign aimed at developing Xinjiang’s fashion and cosmetics industries while encouraging Muslim women to ‘look towards ‘modern’ culture’ by removing their veils.”&lt;ref&gt;Timothy Grose &amp; James Leibold, ''Why China Is Banning Islamic Veils'', ChinaFile (Feb. 4, 2015), https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/why-china-banning-islamic-veils&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''References''' ===
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[[Category:Communication|Law in China]]
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      <text bytes="92775" sha1="bx1hs6fgsbraugm2b3m03cv7al7z86y" xml:space="preserve">== '''Communications Law in China''' ==
[[File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|thumb|Flag of the People's Republic of China]]
Communication law in China is subject to a complex regulatory scheme. While the Constitution of China promises freedom of speech, the Chinese Communist Party enforces strict censorship, utilizes prior restraint, and attempts to block important ideas and concepts from the minds of the Chinese people. Chinese communication law impact everything from radio to religious dress and even digital assets. The Chinese regulatory scheme faces the complex challenge of keeping up with cutting edge methods of communications while ensuring dominance of the Chinese Communist Party.

=== '''Sources of Communications Law in China''' ===
China’s Constitution guarantees freedom of speech but it’s communication laws tell a different story. China has a sophisticated regulatory framework in place to govern communications in China. These regulatory bodies, in combination with wide reaching laws, have resulted in a nation whose communications are subject to review and approval by the single party in power.

==== '''''Constitution of the People’s Republic of China''''' ====
[[File:Mao Zedong Statue- &quot;Long Live the Victory of Mao Zedong Thought&quot; 01.jpg|thumb|'''Mao Zedong Statue''']]

The key place to begin when approaching a countries approach to any form of law is their Constitution. The Chinese “[c]onstitution recognizes Marxism as the country’s leading ideology and the Communist Party the leading party.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Catá Backer|first=Larry|date=2012|title=Party, People, Government, and State: On Constitutional Values and the Legitimacy of the Chinese State-Party Rule of Law System|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1977551|journal=Boston University International Law Journal|volume=Vol. 30}}&lt;/ref&gt; Notably, “[t]he preamble deserves particular attention because China’s leadership has consistently placed great weight upon the ideological and expressive functions of the constitution and has used the preamble to identify and highlight its core commitments.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Albert|date=February 1, 2021|title=Constitutions, Constitutionalism and the Case of Modern China|url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=3027562 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3027562|journal=SSRN}}&lt;/ref&gt; The preamble lays out broad goals for the People’s Republic of China, it states that the Chinese people “will continue, under the leadership of the Communist Party of China and the guidance of Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory… to… improve socialist rule of law… and promote coordinated material, political, cultural-ethical, social and ecological advancement, in order to build China into a great modern socialist country.”&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, Preamble (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt; This broad phrasing gives the party significant latitude. Furthermore, the Constitution has three key articles that address the issue of communications law. First, Article 35 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of speech, the press, assembly, association, procession and demonstration.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 35 (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt; Second, Article 36 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of religious belief.”&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 36 (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt; Third, Article 40 addresses correspondence:&lt;blockquote&gt;Freedom and confidentiality of correspondence of citizens of the People’s Republic of China shall be protected by law. Except in cases necessary for national security or criminal investigation, when public security organs or procuratorial organs shall examine correspondence in accordance with procedures prescribed by law, no organization or individual shall infringe on a citizen’s freedom and confidentiality of correspondence for any reason.&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 40 (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
[[File:Eleanor Roosevelt UDHR.jpg|thumb|'''Eleanor Roosevelt UDHR''']]
At least on paper, these articles are share some similarities to Articles 18, 19, and 20 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights.&lt;ref&gt;G.A. Res. 217 (III) A, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Dec. 10, 1948), https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights&lt;/ref&gt; However, at the United Nations Human Rights Convention, “China is increasingly vocal in defending its statist position and interpretation of human rights norms.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Initiative for U.S.-China Dialogue on Global Issues|date=Feb. 28, 2024|title=China and the UN Human Rights Regime|url=https://uschinadialogue.georgetown.edu/events/china-and-the-un-human-rights-regime|journal=Georgetown University}}&lt;/ref&gt; Notably, the Constitution is missing several provisions such as freedom of thought, freedom of conscience, and “freedom to receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers” which are seen in the Universal Declaration.&lt;ref&gt;UDHR art. 19, https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''National Regulatory Bodies''''' ====
[[File:汉口中共中央宣传部旧址.jpg|thumb|Former Site of the Central Propaganda Department of the Chinese Communist Party in Hankou]]
The regulatory scheme in China is complicated and grows out of a post-Mao era which “reconstituted the sinews of governance and especially sought to strengthen the government’s regulatory capacity while reducing the government’s direct intervention in state firms. In area after area, they have invoked ‘chaos’ or ‘turmoil’ to justify the need to strengthen or assert control.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=D.L.|date=2017|title=China’s Illiberal Regulatory State in Comparative Perspective|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-017-0059-x|journal=Chin. Polit. Sci. Rev. 2, 114–133}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Central Propaganda Department sets the ideology for Chinese communications regulatory bodies. It is “responsible for monitoring content to ensure that China's publishers, in particular its news publishers, do not print anything that is inconsistent with the Communist Party's political dogma.”&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China'', Agencies Responsible for Censorship in'' China, [https://www.cecc.gov/agencies-responsible-for-censorship-in-china#:~:text=The%20Central%20Propaganda%20Department%20%5B%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1,reporting%20on%20politically%20sensitive%20topics. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/agencies-responsible-for-censorship-in-china#:~:text=The%20Central%20Propaganda%20Department%20%5B%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1,reporting%20on%20politically%20sensitive%20topics&lt;/nowiki&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt; It accomplishes this by screening any writings that touch on politically sensitive issues, informing publishers what they can, and cannot, publish as well as what ideological viewpoint should be taken, and requiring editors and publishers to attend indoctrination sessions in order to ensure they publish from the desired viewpoint.&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China'', Agencies Responsible for Censorship in'' China, [https://www.cecc.gov/agencies-responsible-for-censorship-in-china#:~:text=The%20Central%20Propaganda%20Department%20%5B%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1,reporting%20on%20politically%20sensitive%20topics. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cecc.gov/agencies-responsible-for-censorship-in-china#:~:text=The%20Central%20Propaganda%20Department%20%5B%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1,reporting%20on%20politically%20sensitive%20topics&lt;/nowiki&gt;.]&lt;/ref&gt;

The Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) reports to the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission which “Xi Jinping, General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the Central Military Commission, personally serve[s] as the group leader.”&lt;ref&gt;Office of the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission, ''The Central Leading Group for Cybersecurity and Informatization was established: From a major cyber power to a leading cyber power.'', China Cyberspace Administration (Feb. 28, 2014), https://www.cac.gov.cn/2014-02/28/c_126397488.htm&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, the CAC “is China’s top authority on internet governance, overseeing data privacy, cybersecurity, and platform regulation. It is the primary regulator behind major laws such as the Cybersecurity Law (CSL), Data Security Law (DSL), and Personal Information Protection Law (PIPL).&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Roper|first=Gabrielle|date=Jun. 2, 2025|title=What is the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC)?|url=https://www.chinafy.com/blog/what-is-the-cyberspace-administration-of-china-cac#:~:text=TL;DR:%20The%20Cyberspace%20Administration,fall%20short%20of%20legal%20requirements|journal=Chinafy}}&lt;/ref&gt; The CAC can issue “departmental rules, which are issued by State Council administrative agencies and are legally binding under China’s Legislation Law.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Horsley|first=Jamie P.|date=Aug. 8, 2022|title=Behind the Facade of China’s Cyber Super-Regulator|url=https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/behind-the-facade-of-chinas-cyber-super-regulator/|journal=Stanford University}}&lt;/ref&gt; A counterpart of the CAC is the National Radio and Television Administration (NRTA). The NRTA’s “main task is to censor the radio, film, and television industries.”&lt;ref&gt;''NRTA Chief Emphasize Loyalty to the Party'', Chinascope, https://chinascope.org/archives/19225&lt;/ref&gt; In 2021, the NRTA banned “nine types of banned content, including content that ‘endangers security,’ ‘slanders Chinese culture,’ or does not help youth ‘establish the correct world view.’”&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:MIIT Wanshoulu Office (20210512174810).jpg|thumb|'''MIIT Wanshoulu Office''']]
The Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT)&lt;ref&gt;''Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT) (工业和信息化部)'', Thomson Reuters (Glossary), https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/1-552-9335?transitionType=Default&amp;contextData=(sc.Default)&amp;firstPage=true&lt;/ref&gt; is charged with “regulating and managing China's telecommunications and software sectors, as well as the electronics and information technology manufacturing industries.” The MIIT “enforces regulations aligned with the CAC’s central tenets” The MIIT focuses on the providers and carriers themselves and enforces “cyber and data security rules against providers in the telecommunications and internet sector.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ke|first=Xu|last2=Liu|first2=Vicky|last3=Luo|first3=Yan|last4=Yu|first4=Zhijing|date=Aug. 31, 2021|title=China's key enforcement agencies and lessons learned from recent actions|url=https://iapp.org/news/a/chinas-key-enforcement-agencies-and-lessons-learned-from-recent-actions|journal=iapp}}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, in December of 2021 MIIT found that over one hundred apps were in violation of China’s Personal Information Protection Law and Data Security Law.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Teon|first=Aris|date=Dec. 9, 2021|title=China’s Government Orders Removal of Douban and 105 Other Apps From App Stores|url=https://china-journal.org/2021/12/09/china-government-orders-removal-of-douban-and-105-other-apps-from-app-stores/#:~:text=China's%20Government%20Orders%20Removal%20of,comply%20with%20the%20government's%20directives|journal=China-Journal}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, they were removed from app stores.

==== '''''Key Communications Laws''''' ====
The Cybersecurity Law&lt;ref&gt;Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (2016), Translation: Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (Effective June 1, 2017). Stanford University,

https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/translation-cybersecurity-law-of-the-peoples-republic-of-china-effective-june-1-2017/&lt;/ref&gt; is overseen by the CAC and seeks to “promote the healthy development of the informatization of the economy and society.” Article 6 of the Cybersecurity Law states that a goal of the law is to advocate for “sincere, honest, healthy and civilized online conduct; it promotes the dissemination of core socialist values, adopts measures to raise the entire society’s awareness and level of cybersecurity, and formulates a good environment for the entire society to jointly participate in advancing cybersecurity.”&lt;ref&gt;Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (2016), Translation: Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (Effective June 1, 2017). Stanford University,

&lt;nowiki&gt;https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/translation-cybersecurity-law-of-the-peoples-republic-of-china-effective-june-1-2017/&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; In 2015 the Cybersecurity Law “introduced fines and detentions of up to 15 days for telecommunications firms and internet service providers (ISP), as well as relevant personnel, who fail to restrict certain forms of content”.&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/ref&gt;

The CAC also handles the implementation of the Provisions on the Governance of the Online Information Content Ecosystem. Article 5 states “A network information content producer shall be encouraged to produce, copy and publish information containing the following: Publicizing the Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era…”&lt;ref&gt;Order of the Cyberspace Administration of China (No. 5), https://wilmap.stanford.edu/entries/provisions-governance-online-information-content-ecosystem&lt;/ref&gt;

Finally, China is part of a many international agreements pertaining to communications law. China is a member of the UN and a signatory to both the ICCPR and the ICESCR.&lt;ref&gt;Order of the Cyberspace Administration of China (No. 5), https://wilmap.stanford.edu/entries/provisions-governance-online-information-content-ecosystem&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, in 2005 China signed the United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts.&lt;ref&gt;''U.N. Treaty Bodies and China'', Human Rights in China, https://www.hrichina.org/en/un-treaty-bodies-and-china&lt;/ref&gt; The purpose of this agreement is “facilitating the use of electronic communications in international trade by assuring that contracts concluded and other communications exchanged electronically are as valid and enforceable as their traditional paper-based equivalents.”&lt;ref&gt;''United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts'', Preamble, Jun. 7, 2006, https://uncitral.un.org/en/texts/ecommerce/conventions/electronic_communications/status&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, China signed the Universal Copyright Convention in 1992.&lt;ref&gt;''Universal Copyright Convention, with Appendix Declaration relating to Article XVII and Resolution concerning Article XI'', Sep. 16, 1955, https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/universal-copyright-convention-appendix-declaration-relating-article-xvii-and-resolution-concerning&lt;/ref&gt; The agreement “undertakes to provide for the adequate and effective, protection of the rights of authors and other copyright proprietors in literary, scientific and artistic works, including writings, musical, dramatic and cinematographic works, and paintings, engravings and sculpture.”&lt;ref&gt;Universal Copyright Convention, Article 1, https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/universal-copyright-convention-appendix-declaration-relating-article-xvii-and-resolution-concerning&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Law and the Media in China''' ===
There are some that believe there are three aims of communication: truth, beauty, and dialogue. These aims are furthered by the elements of communications law. There are three such elements that are most relevant to China. First, the means of transmission. Second, the sender and receiver. Third, the message. These are most relevant to China because the government seeks to control all three. As a result, the three aims of communications: truth, beauty, and dialogue are threatened daily. Truth, because certain historical events and facts are banned. Beauty, because words are good, they allow us to think and develop our thoughts which is a beautiful thing for the human person. Finally, dialogue, because a person cannot say what they wish without fear of retaliation.

==== '''''The Means of Transmission''''' ====
The means of transmission of the message may include its code, channel, mode, and nature. However, “[a] major constraint on regulatory state building is the political environment in which Chinese regulators have had to operate. The Administration of Press, Publications, Radio, Film, and TV, for example, operate at the behest of Chinese Communist Party (CCP) organs, especially the CCP Central Committee Propaganda Department.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=D.L.|date=2017|title=China’s Illiberal Regulatory State in Comparative Perspective|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-017-0059-x|journal=Chin. Polit. Sci. Rev. 2, 114–133}}&lt;/ref&gt; In China television is regulated by the National Radio and Television Administration. Regarding the nature of the communications, “[t]he Propaganda Department of the Chinese Communist Party sends a detailed notice to all media every day that includes editorial guidelines and censored topics.”&lt;ref&gt;China, Reporters Without Borders, https://rsf.org/en/country/china&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, the “[s]tate-run Chinese Central TV (CCTV) is China's largest media company.&lt;ref&gt;BBC News, ''China media guide'' (Aug. 22, 2023), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017881&lt;/ref&gt; The government released a statement summing up the CCTV’s main tasks.&lt;blockquote&gt;Its principal responsibilities will be to propagate the theories, political line and policies of the Party; to plan and manage major propaganda reports; to organize the production of radio and television; to produce and broadcast premium radio and television products; to channel hot social topics; to strengthen and improve supervision by public opinion, to promote the integrated development of multimedia; to strengthen the building of international broadcasting capacity; to tell China’s story well.&lt;ref&gt;safeguardDefenders'', Ownership and control of Chinese media'' (Jun. 14, 2021), https://safeguarddefenders.com/en/blog/ownership-and-control-chinese-media&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Furthermore, “[a]ll of China's 2,600-plus radio stations are state-owned”&lt;ref&gt;BBC News, ''China media guide'' (Aug. 22, 2023), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017881&lt;/ref&gt; as well as “around 1,900 newspapers. Each city has its own title, usually published by the local government, as well as a local Communist Party daily.”&lt;ref&gt;BBC News, ''China media guide'' (Aug. 22, 2023), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017881&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, the means and nature of the communications are subject to the government’s control.
[[File:Guess on China's Great Firewall Mechanism.png|thumb|'''Guess on China's Great Firewall Mechanism''']]
Internet censoring in China has been dubbed “the great firewall.” The Golden Shield Project’s aim is “to monitor and censor what can and cannot be seen through an online network in China.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chan|first=Conrad|last2=et al.|date=2011|title=Free Speech vs Maintaining Social Cohesion A Closer Look at Different Policies|url=https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/cs181/projects/2010-11/FreeExpressionVsSocialCohesion/china_policy.html|journal=Stanford University}}&lt;/ref&gt; Popular sites such as “Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, WhatsApp, and Instagram are all blocked in the mainland.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chandel|first=Sonali|last2=et al.|date=2019|title=The Golden Shield Project of China: A Decade Later An in-depth study of the Great Firewall|url=https://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~yunnanyu/files/papers/Golden.pdf|journal=College of Engineering and Computing Sciences, New York Institute of Technology}}&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, China has blocked the use of Starlink. In 2025 China penalized a foreign vessel after an inspection revealed the vessel employing Starlink had “continued transmitting data after entering Chinese territorial waters, in violation of national telecommunications and radio regulations.”&lt;ref&gt;The Editorial Team, ''China imposes penalty to vessel using Starlink in its waters'', Saftery4Sea (Dec. 23, 2025), https://safety4sea.com/china-imposes-penalty-to-vessel-using-starlink-in-its-waters/&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, “[t]he long-standing blocks on international communications platforms have helped to enable the exponential growth of local services such as Tencent’s WeChat and Sina Weibo, which are subject to the government’s strict censorship demands.”&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/ref&gt; The regulatory agencies discussed above play a crucial role in maintaining the “great firewall”. For example, in 2017 MIIT banned the use of unlicensed VPNs.&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, in 2020 the CAC  “suspended 281 websites, and shut down 2,686 websites and 31,000 accounts” as well as 179,000 social media accounts.&lt;ref&gt;Cyberspace Administration of China, ''The national cybersecurity administrative law enforcement work was carried out solidly in the second quarter'' (Jul. 18, 2020), https://www.cac.gov.cn/2020-07/21/c_1596879319813780.html; ''see also'' Qiao Long; Editor: Hu Lihan; Web Editor: Rui Zhe, ''China shut down more than 2,000 websites in the second quarter, triggering another large-scale internet crackdown'', rfa (Jul. 24, 2020), https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/yataibaodao/meiti/ql1-07242020062431.html&lt;/ref&gt;  Finally, “[i]n February 2021, authorities blocked the newly emerged mobile audio app Clubhouse, after thousands of users in China had flocked to the app to discuss detention camps in Xinjiang.”&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' &lt;nowiki&gt;https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''The Sender and Receiver''''' ====
There are two key principles in this element of communications, namely, the centrality of the person and freedom. The principle of the centrality of the person holds that communications are for the human person, this is why human rights are so integral to communication law. In China, communications are for the government, or the centrality of the party. For example, “[t]housands of cyber-police watch the web and material deemed politically and socially sensitive is filtered. Blocked resources include Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and human rights sites.”&lt;ref&gt;Freedom House, ''China,'' &lt;nowiki&gt;https://freedomhouse.org/country/china&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; As opposed to fostering a government that supports the human person’s ability to attain truth and enter into dialogue, the government jealously protects access to information. This is seen in China’s restrictions on internet cafés where individuals may access the web. Startling, “between June and September 2002, the government shutdown 150,000 unlicensed Internet cafes. [today], police routinely ‘[raid]’ internet cafes to see whether there is any ‘illegal’ activity going on.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Haiping|first=Zheng|date=Jan. 4, 2013|title=Regulating the Internet: China’s Law and Practice|url=https://content.scirp.org/pdf/blr_2013032615421340.pdf|journal=School of Law, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China}}&lt;/ref&gt; The latter point is connected to the second key principle, freedom.
[[File:Statue of Deng Xiaoping in Lianhuashan Park Shenzen China 1310759.jpg|thumb|Statue of Deng Xiaoping in Lianhuashan Park Shenzen China]]
The principle of freedom in any communication holds that you are free to express your opinion and those who hear it will tolerate it. This principle has not found a permanent home in China historically. In 1898, following the Hundred Days Reform, “the dynasty imposed a general prohibition of privately published newspaper” for “spreading rumours and confusing the people’s thoughts.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=DeLisle|first=Jacques|last2=et al.|date=Jan. 16, 2014|title=The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2379959|journal=University of Pennsylvania}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1927, the Guomindang built “a system of censorship boards and licensing obligations for films, radio, publications and newspapers.”&lt;ref&gt;DeLisle,&amp;#x20;Jacques&amp;#x3B;&amp;#x20;et al.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 16, 2014).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era&quot;.&amp;#x20;''University of Pennsylvania''.&lt;/ref&gt; Starting in 1980, Deng Xiaoping, former Chairman of the Central Military Commission, further restricting freedom of communication. From then on, “political debate would be an intra-Party matter only, and official media were to be the mouthpiece of the Party.”&lt;ref&gt;DeLisle,&amp;#x20;Jacques&amp;#x3B;&amp;#x20;et al.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 16, 2014).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era&quot;.&amp;#x20;''University of Pennsylvania''.&lt;/ref&gt; This time saw a growing administrative state taking control of the communications field by “laying the basis for the current regulatory structure by creating an administrative department to govern the print sector, and by centralizing licensing procedures.”&lt;ref&gt;DeLisle,&amp;#x20;Jacques&amp;#x3B;&amp;#x20;et al.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 16, 2014).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era&quot;.&amp;#x20;''University of Pennsylvania''.&lt;/ref&gt; The introduction of the internet saw “central and local governments [establish] special Internet information management departments.”&lt;ref&gt;DeLisle,&amp;#x20;Jacques&amp;#x3B;&amp;#x20;et al.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 16, 2014).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Privilege of Speech and New Media: Conceptualizing China's Communications Law in the Internet Era&quot;.&amp;#x20;''University of Pennsylvania''.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''The Message''''' ====
[[File:Umbrella Revolution in Admiralty Night View 20141010.jpg|thumb|Umbrella Revolution]]
Within this element there is the key principle of objectivity and context. This principle holds that journalists, and other professions, ought to give the proper context when communicating and do so in as objective a manner as possible. In China, if a journalist wishes to obtain to renew their press cards they “must download the Study Xi, Strengthen the Country propaganda application that can collect their personal data.”&lt;ref&gt;China, Reporters Without Borders, https://rsf.org/en/country/china&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, journalists and everyday citizens alike are restricted in how they can communicate their messages because certain words are banned. For example, no one cannot search for “dictatorship,” “Great Firewall of China,” or “Go, Hong Kong.”&lt;ref&gt;Leigh Hartman, ''In China, you can’t say these words'', ShareAmerica (Jun. 3, 2020), https://archive-share.america.gov/america.gov/in-china-you-cant-say-these-words/index.html&lt;/ref&gt; China’s approach to Tiananmen Square Massacre is an example of the principle of objectivity and context. After the Chinese military killed possible thousands during a protest in 1989 the government has tried to “erase what it calls the ‘political turmoil’ of 1989 from the collective memory. It bans any public commemoration or mention of the June 4 crackdown, scrubbing references from the internet.”&lt;ref&gt;Ken Moritsugu, ''Tiananmen Square anniversary shows China's ability to suppress history'', PBS News (Jun. 4, 2025), https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/tiananmen-square-anniversary-shows-chinas-ability-to-suppress-history#:~:text=Security%20was%20tight%20Wednesday%20around,gatherings%20can%20still%20take%20place&lt;/ref&gt; In 2024, China was the top jailer of journalists in the world, holding 14% of the world’s journalists in their jails.&lt;ref&gt;Arlene Getx, ''In record year, China, Israel, and Myanmar are world’s leading jailers of journalists'', Committee to Protect Journalists (Jan. 16, 2025), https://cpj.org/special-reports/in-record-year-china-israel-and-myanmar-are-worlds-leading-jailers-of-journalists/&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Censorship &amp; Violent Content''' ===
China practices rigorous censorship in various forms of speech. A foundational principle of freedom of speech is that of no prior restraint which allows speech to enter the marketplace, and its issuer must deal with the consequences after the fact. This principle is not welcome in China. Related to this principal China’s justification for much of their prior restraint, national security. Most clearly demonstrated in the Hong Kong National Security Law, China has enforced expansive prior restraints on speech and jailed those who have attempted to speak out.
[[File:Hong Kong Protests P1240680 Umbrella revolution - protest in Nathan road, Hong Kong (15375576579).jpg|thumb|'''Hong Kong Protests''']]

==== '''''No Prior Restraint''''' ====
The principle of no prior restraint says that speech cannot be stopped before it takes place. Rather, one may say what they wish but may have to deal with the consequences after. This principle is well known in the West.&lt;blockquote&gt;The liberty of the press is indeed essential to the nature of a free state: but this consists in laying no prior restraints upon publications, and not in freedom from censure for criminal matter when published. Every freeman has an undoubted right to lay what sentiments he pleases before the public: to forbid this, is to destroy the freedom of the press: but if he publishes what is improper, mischievous, or illegal, he must take the consequence of his own temerity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zeigler|first=Sara L.|last2=Vile|first2=John R.|date=Jan. 1, 2009|title=William Blackstone|url=https://firstamendment.mtsu.edu/article/william-blackstone/|journal=Free Speech Center}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;This principle ensures that ideas are free to enter the marketplace in nations that have chosen to adopt this concept, like the United States. However, China has not adopted this principle. Rather, China is diametrically opposed to the principle of no prior restraint. The Chinese government requires people to “ask the government's permission before they are allowed to publish.”&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China, ''Prior Restraints'', https://www.cecc.gov/prior-restraints&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, “[t]he Communist Party has the right and the ability to screen works prior to publication, and stop publication of those works it finds objectionable.”&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China, ''Prior Restraints'', https://www.cecc.gov/prior-restraints&lt;/ref&gt; One of the main methods of enforcing prior restraints in China is their licensing scheme…” where “the government requires individuals to obtain a license, permit, or other authorization in order to legally engage in publishing.”&lt;ref&gt;Congressional-Executive Commission on China, ''Prior Restraints'', https://www.cecc.gov/prior-restraints&lt;/ref&gt; Such requirements ensure that the government approves of any speech before it can enter the marketplace.

A notable piece of Chinese legislation is the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing.&lt;ref&gt;Regulations on the Administration of Publishing (2001.12.25), https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/regulation-on-the-administration-of-publishing-chinese-and-english-text&lt;/ref&gt; Article 3 of the Regulations states that “publishing businesses shall adhere to the path of serving the people and serving socialism, adhere to the guidance of Marxism, Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought and Deng Xiaoping Theory, and promulgate and accumulate scientific technology and cultural knowledge that is advantageous to economic development and social progress.”&lt;ref&gt;Regulations on the Administration of Publishing (2001.12.25), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/regulation-on-the-administration-of-publishing-chinese-and-english-text&lt;/ref&gt; This legislation requires that anything published in China aligns with their preferred thought. This is exactly what the marketplace of ideas sought to prevent. A healthy competition of ideas is best for humanity, not a forced set of ideas. A breach of the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing has grave consequences. In 2019 “[a] Chinese court slapped a dozen of people with varying jail terms for illegally publishing books related to the Communist Party of China.”&lt;ref&gt;Zehra Nur Duz, ''China jails 12 for illegal publications about party'', Ankara (Dec. 26, 2019), [https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877? https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877?]&lt;/ref&gt; The Intermediate People's Court of Yueyang in Hunan province stated that “[t]he accused were convicted of violating state regulations by illegally reprinting and selling huge volumes of publications, which seriously endangered the social order and disrupted the legitimate publishing market.”&lt;ref&gt;Zehra Nur Duz, ''China jails 12 for illegal publications about party'', Ankara (Dec. 26, 2019), [https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877? https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-jails-12-for-illegal-publications-about-party/1684877?]&lt;/ref&gt;

Another important piece of legislation is the eloquently named Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications.&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; Article 3 of the Measures says that “[t]he scope of the important topics… shall be adjusted and promulgated by the General Administration of Press and Publication.”&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; Such important topics include “works and literature concerning any former or current leaders of the party ” ,&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; “topics which deal with maps of China's borders,”&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; and even “topics which deal with any significant historical matters or important historical figures in the history of the Chinese Communist Party.”&lt;ref&gt;Notice Regarding the Printing and Promulgation of the &quot;Measures on the Recording of Important Topics of Books, Periodicals, Audio/Visual Productions and Electronic Publications&quot; (1997.10.10), Article 3, https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/circular-regarding-the-printing-and-promulgation-of-the-measures-on-the&lt;/ref&gt; This legislation requires government approval prior to publishing on important topics. While the complete list of important topics is much longer these three are notable because they are meant to shape the way, one understands Chinese history and China’s place in the world. This dystopian law enforces not only a specific world view, like the Regulations on the Administration of Publishing, but also a specific understanding of China’s history and how they arrived at their present communist government. Thus, these measures bolster the Chinese Communist Party’s control over all speech in China.

==== '''''National Security''''' ====
The Chinese Party often censors speech under the pretense of protecting national security. An example occurred recently in Hong Kong. In 2020 China introduced the National Security Law (“NSL”) to Hong Kong. The NSL “criminalises anything considered as secession, which is breaking away from China; subversion, which is undermining the power or authority of the central government; terrorism, which is using violence or intimidation against people; and collusion with foreign or external forces.”&lt;ref&gt;BBC, ''Hong Kong national security law: What is it and is it worrying?'' (Mar. 18, 2024), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52765838&lt;/ref&gt; This Law has resulted in “[n]umerous pro-democracy news outlets in Hong Kong [being] shut down, including Lai's Apple Daily, which was known to be critical of the mainland Chinese leadership.”&lt;ref&gt;BBC, ''Hong Kong national security law: What is it and is it worrying?'' (Mar. 18, 2024), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52765838&lt;/ref&gt; For example, in 2021 “Hong Kong's national security police raided the offices of ''Stand News'' for suspected breaches of the NSL and separately arrested six senior staff members and one former senior staff member for conspiracy to publish seditious publications.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barrios|first=Ricardo|date=Nov. 15, 2023|title=Hong Kong Under the National Security Law|url=https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R47844|journal=Congress.Gov}}&lt;/ref&gt; The NSL has also impacted other forms of speech as shut down of the Tiananmen vigil in 2002 when “authorities announced they were closing Victoria Park—the traditional site of the Tiananmen vigil—citing ‘Police's observation that some people are using different channels to incite the participation of unauthorised assemblies’ and these assemblies' potential to affect ‘public safety and public order.’”&lt;ref&gt;Barrios,&amp;#x20;Ricardo&amp;#x20;(Nov. 15, 2023).&amp;#x20;&quot;Hong Kong Under the National Security Law&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Congress.Gov''.&lt;/ref&gt; These alarming instances demonstrates China’s use of overbroad justifications, such as national security, to exert control over China and its special administrative regions. Finally, China’s desire for a tighter grip on information does not stop at its borders. In 2015 China signed the Sino-Russian Cybersecurity Agreement.&lt;ref&gt;Sino-Russian Cybersecurity Agreement 2015, https://jsis.washington.edu/news/china-russia-cybersecurity-cooperation-working-towards-cyber-sovereignty/&lt;/ref&gt; The agreement “has two key features: mutual assurance on non-aggression in cyberspace and language advocating cyber-sovereignty.”&lt;ref&gt;Sino-Russian Cybersecurity Agreement 2015, https://jsis.washington.edu/news/china-russia-cybersecurity-cooperation-working-towards-cyber-sovereignty/&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Truth, Honor, &amp; Tolerance''' ===
Chinese censorship has ensured that there is only one product to be bought and sold in the marketplace of ideas, the Chinese Communist Party’s. This booth peddles China’s view of history, as seen in their memory laws, and their chosen religions. China’s failure to encourage a marketplace of ideas has not only impacted freedom of expression in China but also hindered their economic and scientific growth. This limited marketplace extends to how certain historical events are seen. Finally, it is notable that China does allow the practice of religion in their Constitution, and to an extent in practice. However, examples such as the Chinese oppression of Muslims and requiring the Vatican to agree to bishop appointments demonstrates the fact that the Chinese Communist Party is firmly in control of this marketplace.

==== '''''The Marketplace of Ideas''''' ====
The marketplace of ideas is a western concept that has been adopted in the United States. The concept of the marketplace of ideas says that “[t]he best test of truth is the power of the thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market.” This concept is seen in robust public discourse, protests, debate, etc. These all further the belief that government should foster a lively discourse that allows everyone to choose which ideas they believe are best. This concept has not been adopted by China. Rather, “while China has increased economic freedom, it has protected the Party’s iron grip on power and suppressed freedom of expression — there is no free market for ideas. Without such a market, the Chinese people are subservient to the state and their range of choices limited.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dorn|first=James A.|date=Feb. 4, 2017|title=China Needs a Free Market for Ideas|url=https://www.cato.org/commentary/china-needs-free-market-ideas#:~:text=The%20lack%20of%20a%20free,of%20the%20Chinese%20Communist%20Party|journal=CATO Institute}}&lt;/ref&gt; Chinese censorship is pervasive and leaves no stall at the marketplace of ideas uncaptured. For example, “significant amendments were made to both the [Constitution], further consolidating the dominant leadership of the CCP. While these changes were not explicitly centered on censorship, this strengthened power structure indirectly set the stage for a reshaped censorship framework, presenting an illiberal substance under a facade of legitimacy.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Ge|date=2025-26|title=How China Curbs Free Speech Beyond Its Borders: Legal Strategies of Transnational Censorship|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4621776|journal=J. Int'l Media &amp; Ent. L., 11(1), 1-41}}&lt;/ref&gt;

While the lack of a robust coemption of ideas certainly treads on individual rights, some also argue that it also limits China’s potential, “[b]ecause the freedom to supply ideas, choose ideas, and criticize ideas is severely limited, the creativity of the Chinese people is underutilized and their innovative potential undertapped.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Ning|date=Winter 2017|title=China’s Future and the Determining Role of the Market for Ideas|journal=CATO Journal (Vol. 37, No. 1}}&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, “without the freedom to think, speak, and innovate openly, China’s economic growth could stagnate” and as a result “lead to a lack of critical thinking and creativity, which are vital for addressing complex challenges and advancing technological and social innovation.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zou|first=Heng-Fu|date=April 2021|title=A Free Market For Ideas In China|url=https://down.aefweb.net/WorkingPapers/w664.pdf|journal=The World Bank}}&lt;/ref&gt; China’s suppression of the market place of ideas not only violates individual rights but is likely harming both the Chinese economy and even society itself.

==== '''''Memory Laws''''' ====
For China “[t]here is only one correct interpretation of the national past, and it is the party-state – and the party-state alone – that promulgates and polices it.”&lt;ref&gt;Chang,&amp;#x20;Vincent K.L.&amp;#x20;(May 2, 2024).&amp;#x20;&quot;China’s Memory Laws The Global Reach of Beijing’s Push to Juridify Memory&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Verfassungsblog''.&lt;/ref&gt; In 2018, after an incident where Chinese youths cosplayed as Japanese Imperial soldiers and took phots at a war monument in Shanghai, China passed the Heroes and Martyrs Protection Law.&lt;ref&gt;Guang Yang, ''China’s National Memory Laws and the War on Storytelling'', Australian Institute of International Affairs (May 3, 2023), https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/chinas-national-memory-laws-and-the-war-on-storytelling/. ''See also'' Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Heroes and Martyrs, Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, 中华人民共和国英雄烈士保护法, (adopted Apr. 27, 2018, effective May 1, 2018), https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/peoples-republic-of-china-law-on-protection-of-heroes-and-martyrs/.&lt;/ref&gt; This law “calls on citizens to ‘respect, study, and defend’ national heroes and criminalises their defamation.”&lt;ref&gt;Vincent K.L. Chang, ''China’s Memory Laws The Global Reach of Beijing’s Push to Juridify Memory'', Verfassungsblog (May 2, 2024), https://verfassungsblog.de/chinas-memory-laws/&lt;/ref&gt; China’s use of memory laws, or selective history, has resulted in the erasure of historical events that are not flattering or supportive of the Chinese Communist Party. For example, in 2012 a professor teaching in Hong Kong “asked his class of more than forty students from China, all of whom were born in the 1980s, ‘Have any of you heard of June Fourth, Liu Binyan, or Fang Lizhi?’ However, the students simply gazed at one another in silence.”&lt;ref&gt;Yan Lianke, ''China’s National Amnesia'', The Dial (Apr. 23, 2024), https://www.thedial.world/articles/news/issue-15/china-national-strategy-forgetting&lt;/ref&gt; As discussed, nowhere is this amnesia seen better than in the case of Tiananmen Square.

An example of such memory laws in action was seen in 2016 where a group of individuals who promoted liquor bottles that had labels commemorating June 4, 1989, the date of the Tiananmen Square Massacre.&lt;ref&gt;Amnesty International, ''China: Further information: Two More Activists Detained for “June 4 Baijiu”'' (Jun. 21, 2016), [https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/ https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/.]&lt;/ref&gt; One man was “criminally detained on suspicion of ‘inciting subversion of state power’ while [another] was detained on suspicion of ‘picking quarrels and provoking trouble.’”&lt;ref&gt;Amnesty International, ''China: Further information: Two More Activists Detained for “June 4 Baijiu”'' (Jun. 21, 2016), [https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/ https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/4298/2016/en/.]&lt;/ref&gt; In 2019, one of the men received a three and a half year sentence by a court in southwestern China.&lt;ref&gt;Radio Free Asia, ''Court in China's Sichuan Jails Fourth Man Over Tiananmen Massacre Liquor'' (Apr. 4, 2019), https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/liquor-04042019105951.html&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''Tolerance as Applied to Religion''''' ====
[[File:Cardinal Joseph Zen (2019).jpg|thumb|'''Cardinal Joseph Zen''']]
The Chinese Constitution explicitly allows for freedom of religion, Article 36 states that “[c]itizens of the People’s Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of religious belief.”&lt;ref&gt;XIANFA [Constitution] Dec. 4, 1982, art. 36 (China), https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html&lt;/ref&gt; The Chinese Embassy in South Africa published a paper on religious freedom stating “[r]eligious disputes are unknown in China. Religious believers and non-believers respect each other, are united and have a harmonious relationship.”&lt;ref&gt;Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.html&lt;/ref&gt; However, while China allows for the practice of religion, the Chinese Communist Party has worked to force religion to align with its worldview. As a result, “China is pursuing a policy of ‘Sinicization’ that requires religious groups to align their doctrines, customs and morality with Chinese culture.”&lt;ref&gt;Pew Research Center, 10 things to know about China’s policies on religion (Oct. 23, 2023),

https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/10/23/10-things-to-know-about-chinas-policies-on-religion/&lt;/ref&gt; In 2018 the Vatican agreed to a deal with the Chinese Communist Party regarding the appointment of bishops. Following this “Cardinal Joseph Zen… said it would legitimise the Communist Party’s control over Chinese Catholics, and be like ‘giving the flock into the mouths of the wolves.’”&lt;ref&gt;Economist, ''China wants to “sinicise” its Catholics'' (Nov. 22, 2022), https://www.economist.com/china/2022/11/22/china-wants-to-sinicise-its-catholics&lt;/ref&gt; China’s concern with religions such as Islam and Christianity is not that they are new to China, they are not. Rather, “Muslims are part of Islam’s global ''umma'' (Arabic for ‘community’) of believers” and “Christians, meanwhile, are thought to have strong overseas ties either to the Vatican, for Catholics, or to overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia and the West, for Protestants in particular.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Johnson|first=Ian|date=May 14, 2024|title=China Is Reversing Its Crackdown on Some Religions, but Not All|url=https://www.cfr.org/articles/china-reversing-its-crackdown-some-religions-not-all|journal=Council on Foreign Relations}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, China sees these religions as non-Chinese. Other religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, and folk religions the states are viewed as “so-called indigenous faiths.”&lt;ref&gt;Johnson,&amp;#x20;Ian&amp;#x20;(May 14, 2024).&amp;#x20;&quot;China Is Reversing Its Crackdown on Some Religions, but Not All&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Council on Foreign Relations''.&lt;/ref&gt; A key law impacting religious tolerance is the Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups.&lt;ref&gt;Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/ref&gt; Article 5 of the measures states that “[r]eligious groups must follow the leadership of the Communist Party of China… persist in the direction of sinification of religion[, and] practice the Core Socialist Values.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 5, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, under Article 6, “[r]eligious groups shall accept the supervision, oversight, and administration of people's governments religious affairs departments.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 17, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/ref&gt; Article 17 states that “[r]eligious groups shall publicize the Communist Party of] China's directives and policies.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 6, Measures for the Administration of Religious Groups, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/measures-for-the-administration-of-religious-groups/&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, “[t]he legal protection of citizens' right to the freedom of religious belief in China is basically in accordance with the main contents of the concerned international documents and conventions in this respect.”&lt;ref&gt;Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.html&lt;/ref&gt; The Embassy goes on to list the following international agreements: the United Nations Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the International Convenient on Civil and Political Rights, the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, and the Vienna Declaration and Action Program.&lt;ref&gt;Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of South Africa, ''Freedom of Religious Belief in China'' (October 1997) Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China June 1996, Beijing, https://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/zgrq/200604/t20060425_7639036.html&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Cultural and Religious Expressions''' ===
           In China there are many festivals and cultural events, with the Chinese New Year being the most famous and one of the oldest. This holiday is lauded as important for many reasons, but it is allowed because it promotes Chinese identity. Some religions, and religious symbols, do not receive an equally welcoming invite from the Chinese Communist Party. While religious worship is allowed theoretically, China has cracked down on the Church in China and on religious symbols.

==== '''''Festivals, The Chinese New Year or Spring Festival''''' ====
Feasts and festivals are thousands of years old. Key aspects of festivals include bringing people together, feasting over food, a reason to celebrate, and the symbolization of the shared joy. China has a long history of festivals. Perhaps the largest and most important is the Chinese New Year. The Chinese New Year is thousands of years old. It likely “originated in the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BC), when people held sacrificial ceremonies in honor of gods and ancestors at the beginning or the end of each year.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Timothy S.Y.|title=History of Chinese New Year|url=https://lammuseum.wfu.edu/education/teachers/chinese-new-year/history-of-chinese-new-year/|journal=Wake Forest University, Museum of Anthropology}}&lt;/ref&gt; This festival has become an integral part of the Chinese nation. However, Chinese Americans, and those around the world, can also be seen celebrating this festival. As a result, this festival is intimately intertwined with the Chinese identity.
[[File:Chinese New Year decorations in Chinatown, Singapore, 20240122 0852 2963.jpg|thumb|Chinese New Year decorations in Chinatown, Singapore]]
[[File:The Lucky Red Envelopes or Packets in Lunar New Year.jpg|thumb|Red Envelopes]]
There are many traditions that play critical roles in the Chinese New Year festival season. The legend of the Chinese New Year began with a mythical beast called that would eat crops and people. Legend states “a wise old man figured out that Nian was scared of loud noises (firecrackers) and the color red. So, people put red lanterns and red scrolls on their windows and doors to stop Nian from coming inside. Crackling bamboo (later replaced by firecrackers) was lit to scare Nian away.”&lt;ref&gt;Lam,&amp;#x20;Timothy S.Y..&amp;#x20;&quot;History of Chinese New Year&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Wake Forest University, Museum of Anthropology''.&lt;/ref&gt; The famous tradition of exchanging red envelopes began with the mythical beast Sui, who would scare children while they slept. As a result, “[e]lders began to give out red envelopes of coins to children for them to play with and keep them awake throughout the night.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Richardson|first=Kaysey A.|date=Jan. 27, 2022|title=A Brief History of the Chinese New Year|url=https://worldtreasures.org/blog/a-brief-history-of-the-chinese-new-year|journal=World Treasures}}&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, “round dumplings shaped like the full moon are shared as a symbol of the family unit and perfection.”&lt;ref&gt;Richardson,&amp;#x20;Kaysey A.&amp;#x20;(Jan. 27, 2022).&amp;#x20;&quot;A Brief History of the Chinese New Year&quot;.&amp;#x20;''World Treasures''.&lt;/ref&gt; These traditions give the Chinese people tangible things to pass down to future generations. It is incredible to see how consistent these traditions have been, indicating how important they are to the Chinese people’s cultural expression.

A critical law in the area of cultural and religious expression in China is the Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage.&lt;ref&gt;Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/ref&gt; Under Article 1 of the Law, it’s stated purpose is  that “of inheriting and promoting the distinguished traditional culture of the Chinese nation, promoting the building of the socialist spiritual civilization and strengthening the protection and preservation of intangible cultural heritage.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 1, Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/ref&gt; Article 6 of the law requires the local governments to “include the protection and preservation of intangible cultural heritage in the national economic and social development plans at their same levels and include the protection and preservation funding into the financial budgets.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 6, Law of the People's Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage, February 25, 2011, https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text/336567&lt;/ref&gt; According to a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization report “[d]uring [Chinese New Year] in 2024, Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the PRC mobilized the whole country to widely carry out Spring Festival [Intangible Cultural Heritage] activities. A total of more than 45,400 ICH promotion and display activities were carried out nationwide.”&lt;ref&gt;nited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Periodic reporting on the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2004), https://ich.unesco.org/en/periodic-reporting-00460&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''Religious Symbols''''' ====
While religious exercise is allowed in China to some extent, the display of certain items has come under attack. According to a recent report, “Chinese officials have ordered the removal of crosses from churches and have replaced images of Christ and the Virgin Mary with images of President Xi Jinping”.&lt;ref&gt;Tyler Arnold, ''China is Removing Crosses From Churches, Replacing Images of Christ With Xi Jinping'', The National Catholic Register (Oct. 1, 2024), https://www.ncregister.com/cna/china-is-removing-crosses-from-churches-replacing-images-of-christ-with-xi-jinping&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, “new rules to ensure that sites of religious worship, like mosques, look adequately “Chinese,” and to mandate the cultivation of “patriotic” religious leaders.”&lt;ref&gt;Martin Lavička, ''A New Round of Restrictions Further Constrains Religious Practice in Xinjiang'', China File (Apr. 19, 2024), https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/new-round-of-restrictions-further-constrains-religious-practice-xinjiang&lt;/ref&gt; Article 26 of the 2024 Xinjiang Religious Affairs Regulations states that “Religious activity sites that are newly built, renovated, expanded, or rebuilt should reflect Chinese characteristics and style in terms of architecture, sculptures, paintings, decorations, etc.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 26, 2024 Xinjiang Religious Affairs Regulations, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/xj-religious-affairs/&lt;/ref&gt; These actions indicate the Chinese Communist Parties attempt to more deeply accelerate sinicization.

==== '''''The Church in China''''' ====
[[File:20251016 Shangqiu Catholic Church 04.jpg|thumb|Shangqiu Catholic Church]]
In China there are two faces to the Catholic Church. The first is the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (the “CCPA”). The CCPA is obedient to the “the State Council's Religious Affairs Bureau, which is an agency under the United Front Department of the Communist Party. It does not recognize the supreme administrative, legislative, and judicial authority of the Pope.”&lt;ref&gt;The Cardinal Kung Foundation, ''Catholic Church in China, It Is Now Known As An Underground Church'',  http://www.cardinalkungfoundation.org/rc/RCrelfreedom.php&lt;/ref&gt; The second face is the “Underground Catholic Church” which is not governed by the Chinese Communist Party. Recently, the CCPA held the 10th National Congress of Catholicism in China. The CCPA “delegates also unanimously accepted the Work Report of the 9th Standing Committee on Church efforts and activities in the promotion of patriotism, socialism, and sinicization in the Catholic Church as outlined by President Xi Jinping.”&lt;ref&gt;Union of Catholic Asian News, ''China's Catholic leaders vow to accelerate sinicization''''',''' https://www.ucanews.com/news/chinas-catholic-leaders-vow-to-accelerate-sinicization/98499&lt;/ref&gt; Opposed to the CCPA are the underground Church leaders like Cardinal Joseph Zen. Cardinal Zen is critical of the Chinese persecution of Catholics and heavily criticized the 2018 deal the Vatican made with China which requires Chinese approval of bishops.&lt;ref&gt;Harriet Sherwood, ''Vatican signs historic deal with China – but critics denounce sellout'', The Guardian (Sep. 22, 2018), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/22/vatican-pope-francis-agreement-with-china-nominating-bishops&lt;/ref&gt; Regarding the deal, Cardinal Zen stated that “[t]hey’re [sending] the flock into the mouths of the wolves. It’s an incredible betrayal.”&lt;ref&gt;''See'' Harriet Sherwood, ''Vatican signs historic deal with China – but critics denounce sellout'', The Guardian (Sep. 22, 2018), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/22/vatican-pope-francis-agreement-with-china-nominating-bishops&lt;/ref&gt; In China it is “illegal for the priest to instruct the children of the parish in the Faith or give them any materials to read.”&lt;ref&gt;Michael Schmiesing, ''A Hidden Church in'' China, Catholic Answers (Dec. 12, 2024), https://www.catholic.com/magazine/online-edition/a-hidden-church-in-china&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, “minors are not allowed to attend the Mass in some areas of China.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Aly Rothfus, ''Catholic Church in China Faces'' Crisis, The Irish Rover (Nov. 19, 2025), https://irishrover.net/2025/11/catholic-church-in-china-faces-crisis/&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, it must be noted that the Holy See does not recognize the Chinese communist Party as the leader of China. Rather, “the Vatican has maintained formal diplomatic relations with Taiwan.”&lt;ref&gt;Abhishank Mishra &amp; Ananya Sharma, ''China-Taiwan, and a Vatican'' conversion, the interpreter (Jul. 9, 2024), https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/china-taiwan-vatican-conversion&lt;/ref&gt;

As discussed above, China has set a clear policy goal of maintaining, celebrating, and promulgating traditional Chinese festivals to the public. Religious festivals do not enjoy the same support. Article 42 of the Religious Affairs Regulations 2017 provides that “[w]here a large-scale religious activity is held that is beyond the accommodation capacity of a religious activity site the religious group… sponsoring the activity shall, 30 days before the activity is to be held, submit an application to the religious affairs department of the people’s government for the province.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 42, Religious Affairs Regulations 2017, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/religious-affairs-regulations-2017/&lt;/ref&gt; On Easter Sunday 2011, a [c]hurch in Beijing planned to hold an outdoor worship service in a plaza amid high-rise office and commercial buildings. However the police sealed off the plaza and dispelled gathering congregants… Thirty six of the congregants were taken to police stations for interrogation.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Fenggang|first=Yang|date=May 12, 2011|title=The Chinese House Church Goes Public|url=https://divinity.uchicago.edu/sightings/articles/chinese-house-church-goes-public-fenggang-yang|journal=The University of Chicago {{!}} Divinity School}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Privacy and Data Protection''' ===
Our private thoughts and actions are intimate to who we are as people. However, in China, the government wishes to be included in that inner circle. They seek to accomplish this by a program of mass surveillance. While artificial intelligence has been an incredible breakthrough for the world it has also been taken advantage of by nefarious actors. Chief among these is perhaps China. China has employed artificial intelligence to better control its citizens and ensure compliance. Another technology breakthrough, cryptocurrency, has had mixed reactions from China. Cryptocurrency allows transactions to be kept private, a no-go for the Chinese Communist Party. As a result, China has banned cryptocurrency use.

==== '''''Mass Surveillance and Artificial Intelligence''''' ====
It is no surprise that China is renowned for its mass surveillance. Citizens are watched almost constantly to ensure compliance with the Chinese Communist Party’s ideals. In fact the “[p]eople in China are among the most surveilled in the world, taking 16 of the top 20 spots on the most surveilled cities list based on the number of cameras per 1,000 people in an annual assessment.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gates|first=Megan|date=Jun. 1, 2021|title=The Rise of the Surveillance State|url=https://www.asisonline.org/security-management-magazine/monthly-issues/security-technology/archive/2021/june/The-Rise-of-The-Surveillance-State|journal=Security Management}}&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, “documents from one Shanghai district detail plans for AI-powered cameras and drones to ‘automatically discover and intelligently enforce the law,’ including potentially alerting police to crowd gatherings.”[116] China has also begun using artificial intelligence in satellite surveillance, “China is deploying AI-enabled Sun-synchronous satellites over regions that the CCP views as politically sensitive, including Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, Hong Kong and Macau.”&lt;ref&gt;Fergus Ryan, et al., ''The party’s AI How China’s new AI systems are reshaping human rights'', ASPI (dec. 2025), https://aspi.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/27122307/The-partys-AI-How-Chinas-new-AI-systems-are-reshaping-human-rights.pdf. ''See also'', Jinghe Fan, Xin Zhang, ‘Small, swift, and effective’ legislation in China: Towards adaptive governance of AI?, Computer Law &amp; Security Review, Volume 61, 2026, 106329, ISSN 2212-473X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2026.106329.&lt;/ref&gt; In the Xinjiang region China uses mobile apps, biometric data, and artificial intelligence to monitor millions of Muslims.&lt;ref&gt;Gates,&amp;#x20;Megan&amp;#x20;(Jun. 1, 2021).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Rise of the Surveillance State&quot;.&amp;#x20;''Security Management''.&lt;/ref&gt; The use of artificial intelligence is not limited to technical uses. China has begun using artificial intelligence to help it draft policies, “[i]n one case, a ChatGPT user ‘likely connected to a [Chinese] government entity’ asked the AI model to help write a proposal for a tool that analyzes the travel movements and police records of the Uyghur minority— a Turkic-speaking, predominantly Muslim ethnic minority—and other ‘high-risk’ people, according to the OpenAI report.”&lt;ref&gt;Sean Lyngaas &amp; Jim Sclutto, ''Suspected Chinese government operatives used ChatGPT to shape mass surveillance proposals, OpenAI says'', CNN (Oct. 7, 2025), https://www.cnn.com/2025/10/07/politics/china-chatgpt-surveillance&lt;/ref&gt; The use of artificial intelligence in China is alarming. While surveillance in Chian has grown alongside technology since the Chinese Communist Party took power, the introduction of artificial intelligence is the biggest leap that has yet to occur. Moreover, the “CAC’s approach to regulating AI or algorithms is centered on the regime of Algorithm Registry. Providers of certain recommendation algorithms, deep synthesis, and generative AI technologies must register detailed information with the CAC before offering services in China.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Wayne Wei|last2=et al.|date=2025|title=Artificial Intelligence “Law(s)” in China: Retrospect and Prospect|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=5039316|journal=Part I, Journal of AI Law and Regulation (AIRe), Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 29-36, 2025 &amp; Part II, Journal of AI Law and Regulation (AIRe), Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 139-157, 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''Cryptocurrency in China''''' ====
If someone were to analyze an individual’s last year of credit card transactions it is likely one could learn quite a bit about them. For a mass surveillance state like China this is appealing. As a result, cryptocurrencies present an issue for China. Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum use a technology called blockchain that acts as a digital ledger of transactions. This allows individuals to exchange value without the need of an intermediary like a bank. These blockchains enhance “transactional privacy by removing the need for users to reveal their real identities. Confidential transactions and encryption techniques ensure only the involved parties know the details. Zero-knowledge proofs, ring signatures, and stealth addresses advances further strengthen privacy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zaware|first=Rajendra|title=Data Privacy in Cryptocurrencies and Blockchain|url=https://blogs.infosys.com/emerging-technology-solutions/iedps/data-privacy-in-cryptocurrencies-and-blockchain.html|journal=Infosys}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, while all transactions on the blockchain are visible, the identity of who made the transaction is private unless shared.

Importantly, “China’s central bank defined Cryptocurrency as a specified virtual commodity. This legal attribute is not clear, which brings difficulties in consumer protection and criminal identification.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hu|first=Jiye|date=Apr. 25, 2023|title=The Regulation of Cryptocurrency in China|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4423780|journal=China University of Political Science and Law, Business School; Business School}}&lt;/ref&gt; China was renowned for its large cryptocurrency market and “[p]rior to 2017, China had the world’s largest cryptocurrency market—with 80% of Bitcoin, the world’s leading digital coin, transactions conducted in yuan.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hoffman|first=Richard|title=China’s Cryptocurrency and Blockchain Regulatory Environment|url=https://www.ecovis.com/focus-china/chinas-cryptocurrency/|journal=ECOVIS}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, after years of increasing restrictions, China banned cryptocurrency trading and mining in 2021.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=OxKira|date=Oct. 9, 2025|title=Crypto in China: A 2025 guide to the crypto landscape|journal=Arham}}&lt;/ref&gt; This time period saw a flurry of laws implemented regarding digital assets and crypto currencies, “[o]n January 1, 2020, the ‘Cryptography Law of the People’s Republic of China’ came into effect. ‘Data Security Law’ was adopted on June 10, 2021, and ‘Personal Information Protection Law’ was adopted on August 20, 2021.”&lt;ref&gt;Hu,&amp;#x20;Jiye&amp;#x20;(Apr. 25, 2023).&amp;#x20;&quot;The Regulation of Cryptocurrency in China&quot;.&amp;#x20;''China University of Political Science and Law, Business School; Business School''&lt;/ref&gt; The People’s Bank of China “warned financial institutions against providing banking and clearing services to virtual currency-related businesses.”&lt;ref&gt;Xiuhao, et al, ''China steps up crypto crackdown, will vet real-world asset tokens'', Reuters (Feb. 6, 2026), https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/china-vows-tighten-virtual-currency-restrictions-2026-02-06/&lt;/ref&gt; This warning has not been without teeth. In 2025 a Chinese court convicted five people of transacting more than $160 million worth of cryptocurrency.&lt;ref&gt;Prashant Jha, ''Five People Jailed in China Just for Moving USDT'', Yahoo! Finance (Oct. 29, 2025), https://finance.yahoo.com/news/five-people-jailed-china-just-080215125.html&lt;/ref&gt; The court said that these individuals “violated China’s Anti-Money Laundering Law and Foreign Exchange Administration Regulations, both of which prohibit unauthorized cross-border fund transfers.”&lt;ref&gt;Prashant Jha, ''Five People Jailed in China Just for Moving USDT'', Yahoo! Finance (Oct. 29, 2025), https://finance.yahoo.com/news/five-people-jailed-china-just-080215125.html&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:E-CNY logo.svg|thumb|E-CNY logo]]
While these penalties are steep, people in China have persisted in using cryptocurrencies to ensure their transactions remain private. Reports indicate “that there are still around 59 million crypto users in China as of 2025. That is roughly 10% of the global crypto user base, even though most users must operate outside official channels.”&lt;ref&gt;Faari Labinjo, ''The Truth About China’s Crypto Ban: Adoption, Underground Markets and Billions in OTC Trading (2025–2026)'', DeFiPlanet (Mar. 17, 2026), https://defi-planet.com/2026/03/the-truth-about-chinas-crypto-ban-adoption-underground-markets-and-billions-in-otc-trading-2025-2026/&lt;/ref&gt; Interestingly, “[w]hile private cryptocurrencies face heavy restrictions, China has fully embraced its own central bank digital currency (CBDC) known as the digital yuan (e-CNY). By late 2025, e-CNY platforms had processed over 14.2 trillion yuan in transactions and were used by more than 260 million wallets.”&lt;ref&gt;Faari Labinjo, ''The Truth About China’s Crypto Ban: Adoption, Underground Markets and Billions in OTC Trading (2025–2026)'', DeFiPlanet (Mar. 17, 2026), https://defi-planet.com/2026/03/the-truth-about-chinas-crypto-ban-adoption-underground-markets-and-billions-in-otc-trading-2025-2026/&lt;/ref&gt; While this may seem contradictory at first, there is a strategy. Banning cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin ensures private transactions will not occur. Introducing the digital yuan, which is subject to surveillance, will allow China to “create a mechanism through which the government can access reams of digital data that may prove helpful to Beijing in the global race to develop artificial intelligence.”&lt;ref&gt;Jeremy Mark, ''Why China’s digital currency threatens the country’s tech giants'', Atlantic Council (Jul. 15, 2021), https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/why-chinas-digital-currency-threatens-the-countrys-tech-giants/#:~:text=Unlike%20Bitcoin%20and%20other%20cyber,who%20attract%20the%20attention%20of&lt;/ref&gt;  To that end, “[u]nlike Bitcoin and other cyber currencies, all digital-yuan users will register with the [People's Bank of China] under a system described by government officials as “controllable anonymity,’ which will give the government the ability to track illicit transactions and presumably the activities of citizens who attract the attention of security services”&lt;ref&gt;Jeremy Mark, ''Why China’s digital currency threatens the country’s tech giants'', Atlantic Council (Jul. 15, 2021), https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/why-chinas-digital-currency-threatens-the-countrys-tech-giants/#:~:text=Unlike%20Bitcoin%20and%20other%20cyber,who%20attract%20the%20attention%20of&lt;/ref&gt;

Other reasons for adopting the digital yuan include payment efficiency, increased state oversight and support of the yuan as a strategy tool. According to a 2021 report by the working group for the e-CNY, “the issuance of e-CNY will fully meet the public’s daily payment needs, further improve the efficiency of the retail payment system and reduce the cost of retail payment.”&lt;ref&gt;Working Group on E-CNY Research and Development of the People’s Bank of China, ''Progress of Research &amp; Development of E-CNY in China'' (July 2021), https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/server/api/core/bitstreams/8c1d1ea1-a8f7-402c-9f08-edf6863237bc/content&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Right to Bodily, Spiritual and Digital Identity''' ===
An individual’s identity is the essence of who they are and what they believe. In our digital age people have taken on digital identities. In many parts of the world people cannot get by without a digital identity. China is currently attempting to enroll its citizenry in a government issues digital identity. This identity will allow China to compile all enrollees’ personal information. On the other side of the identity coin, China has also sought to compile massive amount of biometric date such as DNA and facial recognition. These data collections have also been extended to individuals visiting China.

==== '''''Digital Identity''''' ====
In a world that has become intensely digital it makes sense that we humans would take on digital identities. These identities are demonstrated by social media, bank accounts, online use, and more. We use these identities to interact with other humans in the digital world. The Chinese government has introduced the National Online Identity Authentication Public Service. This is a “government-controlled digital identity system [which] will allow citizens to register by providing official government documents and then will shield their information from Internet services.”&lt;ref&gt;Robert Lemos, ''China Introduces National Cyber ID Amid Privacy Concerns'', Chinese Human Rights Defenders (Jul. 23, 2025),

https://www.nchrd.org/2025/07/china-introduces-national-cyber-id-amid-privacy-concerns/.&lt;/ref&gt; Chinese authorities say “that the new measure intends to establish a trusted digital identity framework within the public service infrastructure.”&lt;ref&gt;Shane Yi &amp; Michael Caster, ''China: New Internet ID System a threat to online expression'', Article19 (Jun. 25, 2025), [https://www.article19.org/resources/china-new-internet-id-system-a-threat-to-online-expression/ https://www.article19.org/resources/china-new-internet-id-system-a-threat-to-online-expression/.]&lt;/ref&gt; However, “[t]he Chinese government has not provided details about how the system is constructed or the policies in place to protect the data from misuse… for digital-rights activists, the danger is clear.”&lt;ref&gt;Robert Lemos, ''China Introduces National Cyber ID Amid Privacy Concerns'', Chinese Human Rights Defenders (Jul. 23, 2025),

https://www.nchrd.org/2025/07/china-introduces-national-cyber-id-amid-privacy-concerns/&lt;/ref&gt; The digital identity offered by China is proffered under the guise of ease of use. However, in exchange for this ease, Chinese citizens will need to give over intimate personal information to the government. While the program is optional for now it is possible necessary resources online could soon require one to obtain a government controlled digital identity.

==== '''''Biometric Data''''' ====
Despite the increasing importance of the digital identity and personal digital information, there is still information about ourselves that is intimate. Biometric data includes things like DNA, fingerprints, and even voice scans. In China “legislation and regulation are carefully crafted to give public security organs broad powers to harvest and use biometric data in conjunction with the performance of their law enforcement and national security duties.”&lt;ref&gt;Mercator Institute for China, ''China’s Handling of Biometric Data: Trends and Implications for Europe'' (Jun. 14, 2022), https://merics.org/en/events/chinas-handling-biometric-data-trends-and-implications-europe.&lt;/ref&gt; A main biometric tool used by the Chinese government is facial recognition which “is deployed to identify citizens for law enforcement purposes, such as performing identity verification at airports, train stations, or specific public areas, and for commercial purposes to enhance business operations’ efficiency.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Jianyu|last2=Stevenson|first2=Jennifer|date=2022|title=Assessing Legal Protection of Biometric Data in China: Gaps, Principles, and Policy Recommendations|url=https://commons.stmarytx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1776&amp;context=facarticles.|journal=St. Mary’s University}}&lt;/ref&gt; Such collections are not limited to Chinese citizens however. China has begun requiring foreign nationals “to submit their fingerprints and undergo a facial scan at self-help kiosks at their port of entry to the People's Republic of China. These self-help kiosks will issue a receipt once your biometric data is received and that receipt must be given to the border inspector for verification as part of the entry process.”&lt;ref&gt;Duke Travel Registry, ''Announcements: China now requires collection of biometric data upon arrival'', https://duke-travel.terradotta.com/index.cfm?FuseAction=Announcements.Announcement&amp;Announcement_ID=3026&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, China has recently combined blockchain technology with biometric data, “the new digital ID service stores cryptographic keys on-chain after a real-name verification process. According to reports, the system authenticates users’ legal name, facial recognition, and government ID before allowing users to create an infinite number of public-private key pairs to register on online platforms.”&lt;ref&gt;Wahid Pessarlay, ''China blockchain=based ID experiment aims to stop data leaks'', Coingeek (Dec. 29, 2023), https://coingeek.com/china-blockchain-based-id-experiment-aims-to-stop-data-leaks/&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''AI-Generated Personas''''' ====
China has taken the concept of AI-generated personas to the next level with the creation of AI judges. Since 2019, millions of legal cases of been decided by these “smart courts” or “internet courts”. These courts make use of “non-human judges, powered by artificial intelligence (AI) and allows participants to register their cases online and resolve their matters via a digital court hearing.”&lt;ref&gt;Tara Vasdani, Robot justice: China’s use of Internet courts, LexisNexis (Feb. 2020), https://www.lexisnexis.com/en-ca/ihc/robots-justice-chinas-use-of-internet-courts.&lt;/ref&gt; These courts have decided cases on various topics such as “intellectual property, e-commerce, financial disputes related to online conduct, loans acquired or performed online, domain name issues, property and civil rights cases involving the Internet, product liability arising from online purchases and certain administrative disputes.”&lt;ref&gt;Tara Vasdani, Robot justice: China’s use of Internet courts, LexisNexis (Feb. 2020), https://www.lexisnexis.com/en-ca/ihc/robots-justice-chinas-use-of-internet-courts.&lt;/ref&gt; The “judge” appears “by hologram and are artificial creations — there is no real judge present. The holographic judge looks like a real person but is a synthesized, 3D image of different judges, and sets schedules, asks litigants questions, takes evidence and issues dispositive rulings.”&lt;ref&gt;Tara Vasdani, Robot justice: China’s use of Internet courts, LexisNexis (Feb. 2020), https://www.lexisnexis.com/en-ca/ihc/robots-justice-chinas-use-of-internet-courts.&lt;/ref&gt; In addition to efficiency, there are other motives at play behind these smart courts, party control. Interestingly, these “[s]mart courts allow the party to intervene in court decisions without upending the entire normative system by automatically detecting and filtering cases that require political intervention.”&lt;ref&gt;Dory Reiling &amp; Straton Papagianneas, ''Lessons from China’s Smart Court Reform'', International Journal for Court Administration (2015), https://doi.org/10.36745/ijca.679.&lt;/ref&gt; Judges are still involved in the cases process but the use of AI allows them to process cases faster “the Shenzhen Intermediate People’s Court said each judge in the city had handled an average of 744 cases in 2025 – up by 249 cases from the previous year.”&lt;ref&gt;William Zheg, ''AI helped Shenzhen judges handle cases 50% faster. Is this the future for China?'', South China Morning Post (May 4, 2026), https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3352161/ai-helped-shenzhen-judges-handle-cases-50-faster-future-china. &lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''Right to Reject Information, Clothing &amp; Human Exhibitions''' ===
In China people are bombarded with propaganda in a daily basis. As such it is virtually impossible to be free from unwanted content. In fact, one may not even realize they are ingesting content they do not want. China has a systemic practice of planting stories in the news and on social media. Furthermore, the government requires Chinese schools to incorporate propaganda into their lessons from the youngest of ages. Also, alarming is China’s oppression of religious clothing. Chief among these is China’s ban on certain Muslim garb in the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region. As such, people are prohibited from outwardly expressing what is most essential to their identity, their faith.

==== '''''Unwanted Content''''' ====
Do individuals in China have the power to reject unwanted content? In reality the answer is no. The Chinese government controls all forms of media in China and there is no way to really block this onslaught of propaganda. Somedays up to 30 percent of a newspapers content will be planted by the state.&lt;ref&gt;University of Oregon, ''New research shows that propaganda is on the rise in'' China, (Apr. 2, 2025), https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1079250&lt;/ref&gt; A recent study showed that “state-scripted propaganda on newsstands is a near-daily phenomenon in China, with some form of scripted propaganda in the news around 90 percent of days. And, on average, at least one front-page article in party newspapers is planted by the state.”&lt;ref&gt;University of Oregon, ''New research shows that propaganda is on the rise in'' China, (Apr. 2, 2025), https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1079250&lt;/ref&gt; While one could choose not to pick up a newspaper in China, for many this is their main source of information and a necessity. Other forms of media are subject to the same with researchers identifying “over 18,000 central or local government accounts on Douyin, China’s version of TikTok, that produce 5 million videos per year.” Notably “[t]he largest share of these accounts belongs to the public security apparatus (34%), followed by state media (24%) and propaganda organs (12%) at the county, city, provincial, or central level.”

In addition to media, the Chinese government requires schools to teach its chosen ideology. Namely, “Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory, the Theory of Three Represents, the Scientific Outlook on Development, and Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 6, Section 1, Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm&lt;/ref&gt; China recently introduced the Patriotic Education Law&lt;ref&gt;Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm.&lt;/ref&gt; which “mandates that love of the country and the ruling Chinese Communist Party be incorporated into work and study for everyone – from the youngest children to workers and professionals across all sectors.”&lt;ref&gt;Chris Lau &amp; Simone McCarthy, ''China feels the country isn’t patriotic enough. A new law aims to change'' that, CNN (Jan. 6, 2024), https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/06/china/china-patriotic-education-law-intl-hnk#:~:text=2%2C%202009.&amp;text=The%20new%20law%20also%20orders,subject%20to%20punishments%2C%20she%20said.&lt;/ref&gt; Article 15 states that “[s]chools at all levels and of all types shall provide coherent patriotic education throughout their curriculum, provide high-quality theoretical and political lessons, and integrate patriotic education into various subjects and textbooks.”&lt;ref&gt;Article 15, Patriotic Education Law of the People's Republic of China, 2023, http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2023-10/24/c_1058444.htm&lt;/ref&gt;

Finally, Xuexi Qiangguo seeks to blend both media and education. Xuexi Qiangguo is an app run by the Chinese Communist Party that citizens are encouraged to download.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Liang|first=Fan|last2=et al.|date=2021|title=The Platformization of Propaganda:How Xuexi Qiangguo Expands Persuasion and Assesses Citizens in China|url=https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16484/3416|journal=University of Michigan: International Journal of Communication}}&lt;/ref&gt; This app allows “users to see state media news reports, video chat with their friends, make a personal schedule and send ‘red envelopes’ of money to friends. The app comes with a Snapchat-like messaging function where messages disappear after being read.”&lt;ref&gt;Lily Kuo &amp; Kate Lyons, China's most popular app brings Xi Jinping to your pocket, The Guardian (Feb. 15, 2019), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/15/chinas-most-popular-app-brings-xi-jinping-to-your-pocket.&lt;/ref&gt; However,, the most important feature of the app is that it allows people to study Xi Jinping’s thought while taking quizzes and earning points. The app appears to hold political significance for the government because “[a] university in Zhejiang called on all party groups to use the app in order to form a ‘stronghold’ for Xi Jinping thought.&lt;ref&gt;Lily Kuo &amp; Kate Lyons, China's most popular app brings Xi Jinping to your pocket, The Guardian (Feb. 15, 2019), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/15/chinas-most-popular-app-brings-xi-jinping-to-your-pocket.&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, some are reporting that “their employers are requiring them to score a certain number of points.”&lt;ref&gt;Lily Kuo &amp; Kate Lyons, China's most popular app brings Xi Jinping to your pocket, The Guardian (Feb. 15, 2019), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/15/chinas-most-popular-app-brings-xi-jinping-to-your-pocket.&lt;/ref&gt; Despite the app’s more lighthearted features, it’s “control models prioritize ideological content and get users to read specific information. This means that the Chinese state could transform the platform into a centralized communication model for manipulating information circulation and directing user behavior.”&lt;ref&gt;Fan Liang, Yuchen Chen, Fangwei Zhao, ''The Platformization of Propaganda:How Xuexi Qiangguo Expands Persuasion and Assesses Citizens in China'', University of Michigan: International Journal of Communication (2021), https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16484/3416.&lt;/ref&gt; A study shows that the app tracks President Xi’s political goals and helps promote them. For example, “the study channel recommended an online course about blockchain on October 25, 2019, since Xi Jinping announced the support for blockchain technology on October 24, 2019.”&lt;ref&gt;Fan Liang, Yuchen Chen, Fangwei Zhao, ''The Platformization of Propaganda:How Xuexi Qiangguo Expands Persuasion and Assesses Citizens in China'', University of Michigan: International Journal of Communication (2021), https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16484/3416.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''''Religious Clothing in China''''' ====
[[File:China Xinjiang Northern location map.svg|thumb|Xinjiang]]
In China, certain religious garb is subject to scrutiny. China has introduced “counterterrorism” laws that seek to “ban wearing long beards, full face coverings, and religious dress.”&lt;ref&gt;U.S. Department of State, ''China (Includes Hong Kong, Macau, Tibet, and Xinjiang): Xinjian'', https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/xinjiang&lt;/ref&gt; These laws also ban “wearing clothes associated with ‘religious extremism.’ These regulations do not define ‘abnormal’ or ‘religious extremism.’”&lt;ref&gt;U.S. Department of State, ''China (Includes Hong Kong, Macau, Tibet, and Xinjiang): Xinjian'', https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/xinjiang&lt;/ref&gt; The ban of Muslim women’s head garb has been particular prominence with “regional authorities outlaw[ing] Islamic veils from all public spaces in the regional capital of China’s Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR)… [the ban] empowers Chinese police to punish violators and dole out fines of up to… $800 for those who fail to enforce the prohibition.”&lt;ref&gt;Timothy Grose &amp; James Leibold, ''Why China Is Banning Islamic Veils'', ChinaFile (Feb. 4, 2015), https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/why-china-banning-islamic-veils&lt;/ref&gt; The Chinese Communist Party has sought to promote alternatives to these veils such as hats and braided hair. As part of this campaign, “XUAR officials launched ‘Project Beauty’ in 2011: a five-year, $8 million dollar campaign aimed at developing Xinjiang’s fashion and cosmetics industries while encouraging Muslim women to ‘look towards ‘modern’ culture’ by removing their veils.”&lt;ref&gt;Timothy Grose &amp; James Leibold, ''Why China Is Banning Islamic Veils'', ChinaFile (Feb. 4, 2015), https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/why-china-banning-islamic-veils&lt;/ref&gt;

=== '''References''' ===
----
[[Category:Communication|Law in China]]
[[Category:Law]]
[[Category:China]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>OpenStax Introduction to Business</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <text bytes="1062" sha1="rt2mrtksofm6aqw7se6e64mfoqo2glw" xml:space="preserve">See also [[OpenStax]]

See also [[OpenStax Introduction to Business 2e]]

== OpenStax Introduction to Business ==
Introduction to Business covers the scope and sequence of most introductory business courses. The book provides detailed explanations in the context of core themes such as customer satisfaction, ethics, entrepreneurship, global business, and managing change. Introduction to Business includes hundreds of current business examples from a range of industries and geographic locations, which feature a variety of individuals. The outcome is a balanced approach to the theory and application of business concepts, with attention to the knowledge and skills necessary for student success in this course and beyond.

[https://openstax.org/details/books/introduction-business OpenStax Introduction to Business] (original content)

[https://audileo.com/audiobooks/openstax/introduction-to-business/ OpenStax Introduction to Business audiobook] (official audiobook, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=owZJXiKbNFQ chapter 1 on YouTube])

[[Category:Business]]</text>
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    <title>OpenStax Introduction to Business 2e</title>
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        <id>3006471</id>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1810" sha1="ruohztu6dwggubvz7h27h1s8zbc3s6i" xml:space="preserve">See also [[OpenStax]]

See also [[OpenStax Introduction to Business]]

== OpenStax Introduction to Business 2e ==
Introduction to Business 2e provides a strong, multidimensional foundation in the concepts, skills, and real-world examples of contemporary business. Welcoming and relevant narratives support students as they engage in core themes such as decision making, ethics, customer satisfaction, entrepreneurship, global business, and managing technological and societal changes. The material includes hundreds of current business examples from a range of industries and geographic locations. Extensive illustrations, case studies, review materials, and assessments offer instructors and learners the tools needed to develop a deep, practical understanding. The outcome is a balanced approach to the theory and application of business concepts, with attention to the knowledge and skills necessary for success in further studies and careers.

The Second Edition was written with extensive input from faculty, industry experts, and students. Revisions focus on currency, emerging technologies, changing business practices, and evolving legal and ethical dynamics. The authors emphasize course-wide themes, including the impacts and implications of artificial intelligence, the changing nature of the workplace, and new approaches to team dynamics. A detailed transition guide is available in the instructor resources.

[https://openstax.org/details/books/introduction-business-2e OpenStax Introduction to Business 2e] (original content)

[https://audileo.com/audiobooks/openstax/introduction-to-business-2e/ OpenStax Introduction to Business 2e audiobook] (official audiobook)

[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ylt-Wc3UD7A OpenStax Introduction to Business 2e] (chapter 1 on YouTube)

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    <title>User:Atcovi/OGM &amp; Suicide/The Paper</title>
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      <comment>/* OGM → Suicidal ideation (CORE) */ jiang et. al 2020</comment>
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      <text bytes="11696" sha1="l8906l6wtgacvpap521gsw016hv0xhv" xml:space="preserve">''Better translated as the &quot;thinking space&quot; vs. an actual paper.''

''What we doing?'' Integrating OGM → suicidal ideation within a structured model (IMV + mechanisms).

==Introduction==
'''[[w:Overgeneral_autobiographical_memory|Overgeneral autobiographical memory]]''' (OGM) describes a reduced ability to recall specific events in one's autobiographical memory. For example, one may remember attending a birthday party at some point in their life, but they could not uniquely recall a specific instance of attending a birthday party. OGM has been empirically associated with depression, with depressed individuals reporting higher levels of OGM than non-depressed individuals&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sumner|first=Jennifer A.|last2=Griffith|first2=James W.|last3=Mineka|first3=Susan|date=2010-07|title=Overgeneral autobiographical memory as a predictor of the course of depression: a meta-analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2878838/|journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy|volume=48|issue=7|pages=614–625|doi=10.1016/j.brat.2010.03.013|issn=1873-622X|pmc=2878838|pmid=20399418}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Given the association of depression and suicidal ideation&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chachamovich|first=Eduardo|last2=Stefanello|first2=Sabrina|last3=Botega|first3=Neury|last4=Turecki|first4=Gustavo|date=2009-05|title=[Which are the recent clinical findings regarding the association between depression and suicide?]|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19565147|journal=Revista Brasileira De Psiquiatria (Sao Paulo, Brazil: 1999)|volume=31 Suppl 1|pages=S18–25|doi=10.1590/s1516-44462009000500004|issn=1516-4446|pmid=19565147}}&lt;/ref&gt;, utilizing suicide models, such as the '''Integrated Motivational-Volitional (IMV) model''', provides a theoretical cognitive framework to increase understanding of where OGM may fit in the escalation to suicidal ideation and/or suicide.

The IMV model portrays suicidal behavior as an escalating, behavioral process divided into three phases: pre-motivational phase, motivational phase, and volitional phase. The motivational phase is characterized by suicidal ideation formation, where feelings of entrapment (described as a &quot;proximal [predictor] of suicidal ideation&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=O'Connor|first=Rory C.|last2=Kirtley|first2=Olivia J.|date=2018-09-05|title=The integrated motivational-volitional model of suicidal behaviour|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6053985/|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=373|issue=1754|pages=20170268|doi=10.1098/rstb.2017.0268|issn=1471-2970|pmc=6053985|pmid=30012735}}&lt;/ref&gt;), poor problem-solving abilities, brooding, and interpersonal vulnerabilities (thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness) may transition the individual to the volitional phase. When looking at the IMV model and assessing where OGM could play a part in the transition to suicidal ideation, OGM may impair problem-solving capabilities and the ability to learn from the past through reduced retrieval of specific past experiences, leading to hopelessness&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jiang|first=Wen|last2=Hu|first2=Guangtao|last3=Zhang|first3=Jingxuan|last4=Chen|first4=Ken|last5=Fan|first5=Dongni|last6=Feng|first6=Zhengzhi|date=2020-10-12|title=Distinct effects of over-general autobiographical memory on suicidal ideation among depressed and healthy people|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02877-6|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=501|doi=10.1186/s12888-020-02877-6|issn=1471-244X|pmc=7549224|pmid=33046032}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316563205|title=The Neuroscience of Suicidal Behavior|last=van Heeringen|first=Kees|date=2018-08-23|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-56320-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The current literature aims to shed light on a neglected niche of suicide research: autobiographical memory. Despite the overwhelming research suggesting correlations between OGM and depression and suicidal ideation, research has not thoroughly explored OGM's exact role in a cognitive, theoretical framework of suicidal ideation (specifically within the IMV model). By conducting a narrative review and integrating research on OGM's role in suicidal ideation, this paper furthers understanding on OGM's role in suicidal ideation. 

==OGM as a Vulnerability==
Evidence suggests that OGM is a cognitive vulnerability associated with depression and suicidal ideation, though its predictive relevance may vary depending on the population. 

A meta analysis performed by Sumner et. al (2010) found that OGM accounted for about 1-2% of the variance in depressive symptoms at follow-up&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. A 2020 study found that OGM was associated with depressed patients' current suicidal ideation state and worse-point suicidal ideation, while OGM affected the healthy patients' worse-point suicidal ideation&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. However, Crane et. al (2016) conducted a longitudinal study of n≈5800 adolescents from ages 13 to 16 and found that OGM was not significantly associated with depression and did not moderate the effect of life events, suggesting OGM may not be as generalizable to community samples vs. high-risk populations&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. Even though the findings indicated that OGM was not significantly associated with depression, the study highlights that OGM may function as a vulnerability within high-risk populations. This suggests that OGM's predictive relevance may depend on the risk-level of the population.

OGM persists even past depression, as found in Hallford et. al (2022). A meta-analysis indicated that participants with remitted depression continue to experience small to moderate deficiencies in being able to recall &quot;specific, event-level personal memories&quot;. This indicates that OGM isn't merely a symptom of depression, but may function as a risk factor for future depressive episodes&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.    

Considering the above, the analysis suggests that OGM may function as a cognitive vulnerability that is further exacerbated in high-risk populations vs. the general population.    

==Mechanisms==
The inability to retrieve specific memories from one's autobiographical memory may lead to inefficient problem-solving abilities, which can impact one's ability to deal with difficult situations as they lack past experiences to rely on&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Arie|first=Miri|last2=Apter|first2=Alan|last3=Orbach|first3=Israel|last4=Yefet|first4=Yael|last5=Zalzman|first5=Gil|date=2008-01-01|title=Autobiographical memory, interpersonal problem solving, and suicidal behavior in adolescent inpatients|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010440X07000922|journal=Comprehensive Psychiatry|volume=49|issue=1|pages=22–29|doi=10.1016/j.comppsych.2007.07.004|issn=0010-440X}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Failing to deal with difficult situations can drive an individual to hopelessness. In 1986, an article by Mark J. Williams and Keith Broadbent stipulated that individuals who recently attempted suicide had biased latencies in autobiographical memory retrieval and had reduced specificity in responses to especially positive cues&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/action/cookieAbsent|website=www.tandfonline.com|doi=10.1080/02699938808410925|access-date=2026-05-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;. OGM may not have a direct effect on suicide, but the evidence suggests that OGM intensifies the risk of suicidal ideation through deteriorating cognitive functioning.   

Rumination involves maladaptive dwelling on one's past negative emotions and feelings&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Treynor|first=Wendy|last2=Gonzalez|first2=Richard|last3=Nolen-Hoeksema|first3=Susan|date=2003-06-01|title=Rumination Reconsidered: A Psychometric Analysis|url=https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910315561|journal=Cognitive Therapy and Research|language=en|volume=27|issue=3|pages=247–259|doi=10.1023/A:1023910315561|issn=1573-2819}}&lt;/ref&gt;, and is associated with suicidal behavior/ideation&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=O'Connor|first=Rory C.|last2=Kirtley|first2=Olivia J.|date=2018-09-05|title=The integrated motivational–volitional model of suicidal behaviour|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2017.0268|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|language=en|volume=373|issue=1754|pages=20170268|doi=10.1098/rstb.2017.0268|issn=0962-8436|pmc=6053985|pmid=30012735}}&lt;/ref&gt;. One may reflect on their negative emotions and question such emotions in an abstract manner (&quot;How did I get to feel this way?&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;, &quot;Why did this happen to me?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sumner|first=Jennifer A.|date=2012-02|title=The mechanisms underlying overgeneral autobiographical memory: an evaluative review of evidence for the CaR-FA-X model|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3246105/|journal=Clinical Psychology Review|volume=32|issue=1|pages=34–48|doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2011.10.003|issn=1873-7811|pmc=3246105|pmid=22142837}}&lt;/ref&gt;), which causes one's memory retrieval to capture negative intermediate conceptual information (ex, &quot;I'm a failure&quot;) instead of specific memories. Repeated rumination strengthens these negative self-beliefs, leading to frequent capture of negative conceptual themes and impeding memory retrieval. This association of rumination and general memory aligns with the CaR-FA-X model&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stange|first=Jonathan P.|last2=Hamlat|first2=Elissa J.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Jessica L.|last4=Abramson|first4=Lyn Y.|last5=Alloy|first5=Lauren B.|date=2013-02|title=Overgeneral autobiographical memory, emotional maltreatment, and depressive symptoms in adolescence: evidence of a cognitive vulnerability-stress interaction|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3530666/|journal=Journal of Adolescence|volume=36|issue=1|pages=201–208|doi=10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.11.001|issn=1095-9254|pmc=3530666|pmid=23186994}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

Within the IMV model, we propose that OGM falls under '''Threat to Self Moderators (TSM)'''. TSMs spur entrapment (a perceived sense of being trapped by defeat/humilitation), which can lead to suicidal ideation depending on the effects of '''Motivational Moderators (MM).''' Positive factors, such as motivation to live, positive future thinking, and belongingess can offset the transition of entrapment → suicidal ideation, though negative factors, such as thwarted belongingness, very little social support, and perceived burdensomeness, may increase the chance of entrapment converting into suicidal ideation&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.  

==OGM → Suicidal ideation (CORE)==
The research suggests that OGM is not just associated with depression, but is a contributing factor towards suicidal ideation (especially in high-risk populations). Jiang et. al (2020) found in a study of 365 participants, with roughly 51% of the participants clinically depressed while the other roughly 49% of participants were classified as &quot;healthy&quot;, that OGM was stronger in the depressed group vs. the &quot;healthy&quot; group. WSI (worst suicidal thoughts one has ever had [at a certain point]) and CSI (current point of suicidal ideation) were significantly affected by OGM in the depressed group. OGM was also found to be a mediator between CSI and childhood trauma in depressed patients. As OGM leads to negative memory biases and, therefore, the maintenance of a negative mental state, the researchers suggested that OGM is a consistent contributor to suicidal ideation in depressed patients&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;.

==Contradictions / Nuances==
==Conclusion==

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Atcovi/OGM &amp; Suicide Poster]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2808261</id>
      <parentid>2808249</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-10T22:18:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Atcovi</username>
        <id>276019</id>
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      <text bytes="11760" sha1="4t5316ngcq5jtzghthzx88gbjlnntbq" xml:space="preserve">''Better translated as the &quot;thinking space&quot; vs. an actual paper.''

''What we doing?'' Integrating OGM → suicidal ideation within a structured model (IMV + mechanisms); Value comes from THEORY INTEGRATION and &lt;u&gt;not&lt;/u&gt; &quot;OGM x SI&quot;. 

==Introduction==
'''[[w:Overgeneral_autobiographical_memory|Overgeneral autobiographical memory]]''' (OGM) describes a reduced ability to recall specific events in one's autobiographical memory. For example, one may remember attending a birthday party at some point in their life, but they could not uniquely recall a specific instance of attending a birthday party. OGM has been empirically associated with depression, with depressed individuals reporting higher levels of OGM than non-depressed individuals&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sumner|first=Jennifer A.|last2=Griffith|first2=James W.|last3=Mineka|first3=Susan|date=2010-07|title=Overgeneral autobiographical memory as a predictor of the course of depression: a meta-analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2878838/|journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy|volume=48|issue=7|pages=614–625|doi=10.1016/j.brat.2010.03.013|issn=1873-622X|pmc=2878838|pmid=20399418}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Given the association of depression and suicidal ideation&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chachamovich|first=Eduardo|last2=Stefanello|first2=Sabrina|last3=Botega|first3=Neury|last4=Turecki|first4=Gustavo|date=2009-05|title=[Which are the recent clinical findings regarding the association between depression and suicide?]|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19565147|journal=Revista Brasileira De Psiquiatria (Sao Paulo, Brazil: 1999)|volume=31 Suppl 1|pages=S18–25|doi=10.1590/s1516-44462009000500004|issn=1516-4446|pmid=19565147}}&lt;/ref&gt;, utilizing suicide models, such as the '''Integrated Motivational-Volitional (IMV) model''', provides a theoretical cognitive framework to increase understanding of where OGM may fit in the escalation to suicidal ideation and/or suicide.

The IMV model portrays suicidal behavior as an escalating, behavioral process divided into three phases: pre-motivational phase, motivational phase, and volitional phase. The motivational phase is characterized by suicidal ideation formation, where feelings of entrapment (described as a &quot;proximal [predictor] of suicidal ideation&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=O'Connor|first=Rory C.|last2=Kirtley|first2=Olivia J.|date=2018-09-05|title=The integrated motivational-volitional model of suicidal behaviour|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6053985/|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=373|issue=1754|pages=20170268|doi=10.1098/rstb.2017.0268|issn=1471-2970|pmc=6053985|pmid=30012735}}&lt;/ref&gt;), poor problem-solving abilities, brooding, and interpersonal vulnerabilities (thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness) may transition the individual to the volitional phase. When looking at the IMV model and assessing where OGM could play a part in the transition to suicidal ideation, OGM may impair problem-solving capabilities and the ability to learn from the past through reduced retrieval of specific past experiences, leading to hopelessness&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jiang|first=Wen|last2=Hu|first2=Guangtao|last3=Zhang|first3=Jingxuan|last4=Chen|first4=Ken|last5=Fan|first5=Dongni|last6=Feng|first6=Zhengzhi|date=2020-10-12|title=Distinct effects of over-general autobiographical memory on suicidal ideation among depressed and healthy people|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02877-6|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=501|doi=10.1186/s12888-020-02877-6|issn=1471-244X|pmc=7549224|pmid=33046032}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316563205|title=The Neuroscience of Suicidal Behavior|last=van Heeringen|first=Kees|date=2018-08-23|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-56320-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The current literature aims to shed light on a neglected niche of suicide research: autobiographical memory. Despite the overwhelming research suggesting correlations between OGM and depression and suicidal ideation, research has not thoroughly explored OGM's exact role in a cognitive, theoretical framework of suicidal ideation (specifically within the IMV model). By conducting a narrative review and integrating research on OGM's role in suicidal ideation, this paper furthers understanding on OGM's role in suicidal ideation. 

==OGM as a Vulnerability==
Evidence suggests that OGM is a cognitive vulnerability associated with depression and suicidal ideation, though its predictive relevance may vary depending on the population. 

A meta analysis performed by Sumner et. al (2010) found that OGM accounted for about 1-2% of the variance in depressive symptoms at follow-up&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. A 2020 study found that OGM was associated with depressed patients' current suicidal ideation state and worse-point suicidal ideation, while OGM affected the healthy patients' worse-point suicidal ideation&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. However, Crane et. al (2016) conducted a longitudinal study of n≈5800 adolescents from ages 13 to 16 and found that OGM was not significantly associated with depression and did not moderate the effect of life events, suggesting OGM may not be as generalizable to community samples vs. high-risk populations&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. Even though the findings indicated that OGM was not significantly associated with depression, the study highlights that OGM may function as a vulnerability within high-risk populations. This suggests that OGM's predictive relevance may depend on the risk-level of the population.

OGM persists even past depression, as found in Hallford et. al (2022). A meta-analysis indicated that participants with remitted depression continue to experience small to moderate deficiencies in being able to recall &quot;specific, event-level personal memories&quot;. This indicates that OGM isn't merely a symptom of depression, but may function as a risk factor for future depressive episodes&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.    

Considering the above, the analysis suggests that OGM may function as a cognitive vulnerability that is further exacerbated in high-risk populations vs. the general population.    

==Mechanisms==
The inability to retrieve specific memories from one's autobiographical memory may lead to inefficient problem-solving abilities, which can impact one's ability to deal with difficult situations as they lack past experiences to rely on&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Arie|first=Miri|last2=Apter|first2=Alan|last3=Orbach|first3=Israel|last4=Yefet|first4=Yael|last5=Zalzman|first5=Gil|date=2008-01-01|title=Autobiographical memory, interpersonal problem solving, and suicidal behavior in adolescent inpatients|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010440X07000922|journal=Comprehensive Psychiatry|volume=49|issue=1|pages=22–29|doi=10.1016/j.comppsych.2007.07.004|issn=0010-440X}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Failing to deal with difficult situations can drive an individual to hopelessness. In 1986, an article by Mark J. Williams and Keith Broadbent stipulated that individuals who recently attempted suicide had biased latencies in autobiographical memory retrieval and had reduced specificity in responses to especially positive cues&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/action/cookieAbsent|website=www.tandfonline.com|doi=10.1080/02699938808410925|access-date=2026-05-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;. OGM may not have a direct effect on suicide, but the evidence suggests that OGM intensifies the risk of suicidal ideation through deteriorating cognitive functioning.   

Rumination involves maladaptive dwelling on one's past negative emotions and feelings&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Treynor|first=Wendy|last2=Gonzalez|first2=Richard|last3=Nolen-Hoeksema|first3=Susan|date=2003-06-01|title=Rumination Reconsidered: A Psychometric Analysis|url=https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910315561|journal=Cognitive Therapy and Research|language=en|volume=27|issue=3|pages=247–259|doi=10.1023/A:1023910315561|issn=1573-2819}}&lt;/ref&gt;, and is associated with suicidal behavior/ideation&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=O'Connor|first=Rory C.|last2=Kirtley|first2=Olivia J.|date=2018-09-05|title=The integrated motivational–volitional model of suicidal behaviour|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2017.0268|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|language=en|volume=373|issue=1754|pages=20170268|doi=10.1098/rstb.2017.0268|issn=0962-8436|pmc=6053985|pmid=30012735}}&lt;/ref&gt;. One may reflect on their negative emotions and question such emotions in an abstract manner (&quot;How did I get to feel this way?&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;, &quot;Why did this happen to me?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sumner|first=Jennifer A.|date=2012-02|title=The mechanisms underlying overgeneral autobiographical memory: an evaluative review of evidence for the CaR-FA-X model|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3246105/|journal=Clinical Psychology Review|volume=32|issue=1|pages=34–48|doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2011.10.003|issn=1873-7811|pmc=3246105|pmid=22142837}}&lt;/ref&gt;), which causes one's memory retrieval to capture negative intermediate conceptual information (ex, &quot;I'm a failure&quot;) instead of specific memories. Repeated rumination strengthens these negative self-beliefs, leading to frequent capture of negative conceptual themes and impeding memory retrieval. This association of rumination and general memory aligns with the CaR-FA-X model&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stange|first=Jonathan P.|last2=Hamlat|first2=Elissa J.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Jessica L.|last4=Abramson|first4=Lyn Y.|last5=Alloy|first5=Lauren B.|date=2013-02|title=Overgeneral autobiographical memory, emotional maltreatment, and depressive symptoms in adolescence: evidence of a cognitive vulnerability-stress interaction|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3530666/|journal=Journal of Adolescence|volume=36|issue=1|pages=201–208|doi=10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.11.001|issn=1095-9254|pmc=3530666|pmid=23186994}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

Within the IMV model, we propose that OGM falls under '''Threat to Self Moderators (TSM)'''. TSMs spur entrapment (a perceived sense of being trapped by defeat/humilitation), which can lead to suicidal ideation depending on the effects of '''Motivational Moderators (MM).''' Positive factors, such as motivation to live, positive future thinking, and belongingess can offset the transition of entrapment → suicidal ideation, though negative factors, such as thwarted belongingness, very little social support, and perceived burdensomeness, may increase the chance of entrapment converting into suicidal ideation&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.  

==OGM → Suicidal ideation (CORE)==
The research suggests that OGM is not just associated with depression, but is a contributing factor towards suicidal ideation (especially in high-risk populations). Jiang et. al (2020) found in a study of 365 participants, with roughly 51% of the participants clinically depressed while the other roughly 49% of participants were classified as &quot;healthy&quot;, that OGM was stronger in the depressed group vs. the &quot;healthy&quot; group. WSI (worst suicidal thoughts one has ever had [at a certain point]) and CSI (current point of suicidal ideation) were significantly affected by OGM in the depressed group. OGM was also found to be a mediator between CSI and childhood trauma in depressed patients. As OGM leads to negative memory biases and, therefore, the maintenance of a negative mental state, the researchers suggested that OGM is a consistent contributor to suicidal ideation in depressed patients&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;.

==Contradictions / Nuances==
==Conclusion==

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Atcovi/OGM &amp; Suicide Poster]]</text>
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    <revision>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Atcovi</username>
        <id>276019</id>
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      <comment>some corrections</comment>
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      <text bytes="11952" sha1="dwtm8ptbnimt3v3ctp7cq1m4g4hqqfg" xml:space="preserve">''Better translated as the &quot;thinking space&quot; vs. an actual paper.''

''What we doing?'' Integrating OGM → suicidal ideation within a structured model (IMV + mechanisms); Value comes from THEORY INTEGRATION and &lt;u&gt;not&lt;/u&gt; &quot;OGM x SI&quot; [new findings]. 

--&gt; &quot;OGM may represent an underdeveloped autobiographical-memory mechanism contributing to entrapment, hopelessness, and SI within the IMV framework&quot; 

==Introduction==
'''[[w:Overgeneral_autobiographical_memory|Overgeneral autobiographical memory]]''' (OGM) describes a reduced ability to recall specific events in one's autobiographical memory. For example, one may remember attending a birthday party at some point in their life, but they could not uniquely recall a specific instance of attending a birthday party. OGM has been empirically associated with depression, with depressed individuals reporting higher levels of OGM than non-depressed individuals&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sumner|first=Jennifer A.|last2=Griffith|first2=James W.|last3=Mineka|first3=Susan|date=2010-07|title=Overgeneral autobiographical memory as a predictor of the course of depression: a meta-analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2878838/|journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy|volume=48|issue=7|pages=614–625|doi=10.1016/j.brat.2010.03.013|issn=1873-622X|pmc=2878838|pmid=20399418}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Given the association of depression and suicidal ideation&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chachamovich|first=Eduardo|last2=Stefanello|first2=Sabrina|last3=Botega|first3=Neury|last4=Turecki|first4=Gustavo|date=2009-05|title=[Which are the recent clinical findings regarding the association between depression and suicide?]|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19565147|journal=Revista Brasileira De Psiquiatria (Sao Paulo, Brazil: 1999)|volume=31 Suppl 1|pages=S18–25|doi=10.1590/s1516-44462009000500004|issn=1516-4446|pmid=19565147}}&lt;/ref&gt;, utilizing suicide models, such as the '''Integrated Motivational-Volitional (IMV) model''', provides a theoretical cognitive framework to increase understanding of where OGM may fit in the escalation to suicidal ideation and/or suicide.

The IMV model portrays suicidal behavior as an escalating, behavioral process divided into three phases: pre-motivational phase, motivational phase, and volitional phase. The motivational phase is characterized by suicidal ideation formation, where feelings of entrapment (described as a &quot;proximal [predictor] of suicidal ideation&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=O'Connor|first=Rory C.|last2=Kirtley|first2=Olivia J.|date=2018-09-05|title=The integrated motivational-volitional model of suicidal behaviour|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6053985/|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=373|issue=1754|pages=20170268|doi=10.1098/rstb.2017.0268|issn=1471-2970|pmc=6053985|pmid=30012735}}&lt;/ref&gt;), poor problem-solving abilities, brooding, and interpersonal vulnerabilities (thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness) may transition the individual to the volitional phase. When looking at the IMV model and assessing where OGM could play a part in the transition to suicidal ideation, OGM may impair problem-solving capabilities and the ability to learn from the past through reduced retrieval of specific past experiences, leading to hopelessness&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jiang|first=Wen|last2=Hu|first2=Guangtao|last3=Zhang|first3=Jingxuan|last4=Chen|first4=Ken|last5=Fan|first5=Dongni|last6=Feng|first6=Zhengzhi|date=2020-10-12|title=Distinct effects of over-general autobiographical memory on suicidal ideation among depressed and healthy people|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02877-6|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=501|doi=10.1186/s12888-020-02877-6|issn=1471-244X|pmc=7549224|pmid=33046032}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316563205|title=The Neuroscience of Suicidal Behavior|last=van Heeringen|first=Kees|date=2018-08-23|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-56320-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The current literature aims to shed light on a neglected niche of suicide research: autobiographical memory. Despite the overwhelming research suggesting correlations between OGM and depression and suicidal ideation, research has not thoroughly explored OGM's exact role in a cognitive, theoretical framework of suicidal ideation (specifically within the IMV model). By conducting a narrative review and integrating research on OGM's role in suicidal ideation, this paper furthers understanding on OGM's role in suicidal ideation within the IMV framework. 

==OGM as a Vulnerability==
Evidence suggests that OGM is a cognitive vulnerability associated with depression and suicidal ideation, though its predictive relevance may vary depending on the population. 

A meta analysis performed by Sumner et. al (2010) found that OGM accounted for about 1-2% of the variance in depressive symptoms at follow-up&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. A 2020 study found that OGM was associated with depressed patients' current suicidal ideation state and worse-point suicidal ideation, while OGM affected the healthy patients' worse-point suicidal ideation&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. However, Crane et. al (2016) conducted a longitudinal study of n≈5800 adolescents from ages 13 to 16 and found that OGM was not significantly associated with depression and did not moderate the effect of life events, suggesting OGM may not be as generalizable to community samples vs. high-risk populations&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. Even though the findings indicated that OGM was not significantly associated with depression, the study highlights that OGM may function as a vulnerability within high-risk populations. This suggests that OGM's predictive relevance may depend on the risk-level of the population.

OGM persists even past depression, as found in Hallford et. al (2022). A meta-analysis indicated that participants with remitted depression continue to experience small to moderate deficiencies in being able to recall &quot;specific, event-level personal memories&quot;. This indicates that OGM isn't merely a symptom of depression, but may function as a risk factor for future depressive episodes&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.    

Considering the above, the analysis suggests that OGM may function as a cognitive vulnerability that is further exacerbated in high-risk populations vs. the general population.    

==Mechanisms==
The inability to retrieve specific memories from one's autobiographical memory may lead to inefficient problem-solving abilities, which can impact one's ability to deal with difficult situations as they lack past experiences to rely on&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Arie|first=Miri|last2=Apter|first2=Alan|last3=Orbach|first3=Israel|last4=Yefet|first4=Yael|last5=Zalzman|first5=Gil|date=2008-01-01|title=Autobiographical memory, interpersonal problem solving, and suicidal behavior in adolescent inpatients|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010440X07000922|journal=Comprehensive Psychiatry|volume=49|issue=1|pages=22–29|doi=10.1016/j.comppsych.2007.07.004|issn=0010-440X}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Failing to deal with difficult situations can drive an individual to hopelessness. In 1986, an article by Mark J. Williams and Keith Broadbent stipulated that individuals who recently attempted suicide had biased latencies in autobiographical memory retrieval and had reduced specificity in responses to especially positive cues&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/action/cookieAbsent|website=www.tandfonline.com|doi=10.1080/02699938808410925|access-date=2026-05-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;. OGM may not have a direct effect on suicide, but the evidence suggests that OGM intensifies the risk of suicidal ideation through deteriorating cognitive functioning.   

Rumination involves maladaptive dwelling on one's past negative emotions and feelings&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Treynor|first=Wendy|last2=Gonzalez|first2=Richard|last3=Nolen-Hoeksema|first3=Susan|date=2003-06-01|title=Rumination Reconsidered: A Psychometric Analysis|url=https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910315561|journal=Cognitive Therapy and Research|language=en|volume=27|issue=3|pages=247–259|doi=10.1023/A:1023910315561|issn=1573-2819}}&lt;/ref&gt;, and is associated with suicidal behavior/ideation&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=O'Connor|first=Rory C.|last2=Kirtley|first2=Olivia J.|date=2018-09-05|title=The integrated motivational–volitional model of suicidal behaviour|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2017.0268|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|language=en|volume=373|issue=1754|pages=20170268|doi=10.1098/rstb.2017.0268|issn=0962-8436|pmc=6053985|pmid=30012735}}&lt;/ref&gt;. One may reflect on their negative emotions and question such emotions in an abstract manner (&quot;How did I get to feel this way?&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;, &quot;Why did this happen to me?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sumner|first=Jennifer A.|date=2012-02|title=The mechanisms underlying overgeneral autobiographical memory: an evaluative review of evidence for the CaR-FA-X model|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3246105/|journal=Clinical Psychology Review|volume=32|issue=1|pages=34–48|doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2011.10.003|issn=1873-7811|pmc=3246105|pmid=22142837}}&lt;/ref&gt;), which causes one's memory retrieval to capture negative intermediate conceptual information (ex, &quot;I'm a failure&quot;) instead of specific memories. Repeated rumination strengthens these negative self-beliefs, leading to frequent capture of negative conceptual themes and impeding memory retrieval. This association of rumination and general memory aligns with the CaR-FA-X model&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stange|first=Jonathan P.|last2=Hamlat|first2=Elissa J.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Jessica L.|last4=Abramson|first4=Lyn Y.|last5=Alloy|first5=Lauren B.|date=2013-02|title=Overgeneral autobiographical memory, emotional maltreatment, and depressive symptoms in adolescence: evidence of a cognitive vulnerability-stress interaction|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3530666/|journal=Journal of Adolescence|volume=36|issue=1|pages=201–208|doi=10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.11.001|issn=1095-9254|pmc=3530666|pmid=23186994}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

Within the IMV model, we propose that OGM falls under '''Threat to Self Moderators (TSM)'''. TSMs spur entrapment (a perceived sense of being trapped by defeat/humilitation), which can lead to suicidal ideation depending on the effects of '''Motivational Moderators (MM).''' Positive factors, such as motivation to live, positive future thinking, and belongingess can offset the transition of entrapment → suicidal ideation, though negative factors, such as thwarted belongingness, very little social support, and perceived burdensomeness, may increase the chance of entrapment converting into suicidal ideation&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.  

==OGM → Suicidal ideation (CORE)==
The research suggests that OGM is not just associated with depression, but is a contributing factor towards suicidal ideation (especially in high-risk populations). Jiang et. al (2020) found in a study of 365 participants, with roughly 51% of the participants clinically depressed while the other roughly 49% of participants were classified as &quot;healthy&quot;, that OGM was stronger in the depressed group vs. the &quot;healthy&quot; group. WSI (worst suicidal thoughts one has ever had [at a certain point]) and CSI (current point of suicidal ideation) were significantly affected by OGM in the depressed group. OGM was also found to be a mediator between CSI and childhood trauma in depressed patients. As OGM leads to negative memory biases and, therefore, the maintenance of a negative mental state, the researchers suggested that OGM is a consistent contributor to suicidal ideation in depressed patients&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;.

==Contradictions / Nuances==
==Conclusion==

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Atcovi/OGM &amp; Suicide Poster]]</text>
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    <title>Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
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      <comment>Modifying.</comment>
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      <text bytes="537" sha1="2cl20ea9hmblo8jff5y468zd1sacb0x" xml:space="preserve">{{/Instructions}}

== Nominations for [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucratship]] == 
&lt;!-- {{Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship/Username}} --&gt;
''None at present.''
{{clear}}

== See also ==
*[[Wikiversity:Curators|Curators]]
*[[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodianship]]
*[[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucratship]]
**[[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship/Archive of pending nominations|Candidates for Bureaucratship/Archive of pending nominations]]
*[[Wikiversity:Support staff]]

[[Category:Wikiversity bureaucratship]]</text>
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        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
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      <comment>Converting this to a header.</comment>
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      <text bytes="1011" sha1="4i1uaxd7oe0t8q850r8vicdyc3xfj5i" xml:space="preserve">&lt;includeonly&gt;__TOC__ {{process|WV:NFB|WV:NB}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop}}
==Instructions==
''Please add your request for [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|bureaucratship]] below. Include a short summary of &lt;u&gt;why&lt;/u&gt; you think you should be given the privileges and please refer to your &lt;u&gt;involvement&lt;/u&gt; in other [[Wikimedia]] projects. If you have [[w:Category:Wikipedia functionaries|sysop/bureaucrat]] status at a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|sister project]], please indicate so as well.''

In a [[wiki]], trust arises from good editing, maintanence, communication with users, and consensus-based decision-making. If you are trusted and respected by the community and prepared to help manage user rights, then the project could likely benefit from you being a bureaucrat.

Please place candidate requests or nominations on a ''subpage'' and ''[[Help:Transclusion|transclude]]'' it here.
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&lt;includeonly&gt;{{Wikiversity organization}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;
[[Category:Nominations for Bureaucratship|*]]</text>
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    <title>User talk:~2026-28319-42</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>MathXplore</username>
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      <comment>vandalism1 ([[m:User:ZbVl/VD|Vandoom]])</comment>
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== 2026-05-10 ==
[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello, I’m letting you know that one or more of your recent contributions have been reverted because they did not appear constructive. If you would like to experiment, please use the [[Wikiversity:Sandbox|sandbox]] or ask for assistance at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]]. Thank you.&lt;!-- Glow-vandalism1 @ 1778418091897.6s --&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:01, 10 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
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    <title>Talk:Shona language</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-05-10T15:50:11Z</timestamp>
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        <username>~2026-28088-28</username>
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      <comment>/* hande kumba */ new section</comment>
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      <text bytes="162" sha1="1uwshq5hfcu9u55d6rqurlf322bh16s" xml:space="preserve">== hande kumba ==

hande kumba [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-28088-28|&amp;#126;2026-28088-28]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-28088-28|talk]]) 15:50, 10 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Athena problem</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-05-11T00:42:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-28441-25</username>
        <id>3071763</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;'''Athena problem''' is an [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolved problem]] in [[:w:number theory|number theory]] and [[:w:formal language theory|formal language theory]] and [[:w:order theory|order theory]], this problem is named after the ancient Greek goddess [[:w:Athena|Athena]]. Athena problem is: Give a [[:w:radix|base]] ''b'', write all [[:w:prime number|prime number]]s &gt; ''b'' in the [[:w:positional notation|positional notation]] with base ''b'',...&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="1006" sha1="liss6vll9a4rxnajjanyedtnx64usv7" xml:space="preserve">'''Athena problem''' is an [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolved problem]] in [[:w:number theory|number theory]] and [[:w:formal language theory|formal language theory]] and [[:w:order theory|order theory]], this problem is named after the ancient Greek goddess [[:w:Athena|Athena]]. Athena problem is: Give a [[:w:radix|base]] ''b'', write all [[:w:prime number|prime number]]s &gt; ''b'' in the [[:w:positional notation|positional notation]] with base ''b'', and regard them as [[:w:string (computer science)|string]]s, and find the [[:w:set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:minimal element|minimal element]]s of the set of these strings under the [[:w:subsequence|subsequence]] [[:w:partially ordered set|ordering]].

By [[:w:Higman's lemma|Higman's lemma]], there are no [[:w:infinite set|infinite]] [[:w:antichain|antichain]]s for the subsequence ordering, thus there must be only finitely many such minimal elements, in other words, the set of such minimal elements must be a finite set.</text>
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      <id>2808270</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-05-11T00:43:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-28441-25</username>
        <id>3071763</id>
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      <text bytes="4736" sha1="k114imnmig049ugfso3wym78w6gaimv" xml:space="preserve">'''Athena problem''' is an [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolved problem]] in [[:w:number theory|number theory]] and [[:w:formal language theory|formal language theory]] and [[:w:order theory|order theory]], this problem is named after the ancient Greek goddess [[:w:Athena|Athena]]. Athena problem is: Give a [[:w:radix|base]] ''b'', write all [[:w:prime number|prime number]]s &gt; ''b'' in the [[:w:positional notation|positional notation]] with base ''b'', and regard them as [[:w:string (computer science)|string]]s, and find the [[:w:set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:minimal element|minimal element]]s of the set of these strings under the [[:w:subsequence|subsequence]] [[:w:partially ordered set|ordering]].

By [[:w:Higman's lemma|Higman's lemma]], there are no [[:w:infinite set|infinite]] [[:w:antichain|antichain]]s for the subsequence ordering, thus there must be only finitely many such minimal elements, in other words, the set of such minimal elements must be a finite set.

== Results ==

These are the results of the Athena problem in bases 2 &lt;= ''b'' &lt;= 28:

All numbers are written in ''b'', using A to Z to represent digit values 10 to 35, &quot;{}&quot; means repeating, for example, family 12{3}45 means the sequence {1245, 12345, 123345, 1233345, 12333345, 123333345, ...} (where the members are expressed as base ''b'' strings), subscripts are used to indicate repetitions of digits, e.g. 123&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;567 means 123333567 (all subscripts are written in decimal).

Base 2: 1 prime (the largest of which has 2 digits): {11}

Base 3: 3 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits): {12, 21, 111}

Base 4: 5 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits): {11, 13, 23, 31, 221}

Base 5: 22 primes (the largest of which has 96 digits):

Base 6: 11 primes (the largest of which has 5 digits): {11, 15, 21, 25, 31, 35, 45, 51, 4401, 4441, 40041}

Base 7: 71 primes (the largest of which has 17 digits):

Base 8: 75 primes (the largest of which has 221 digits):

Base 9: 151 primes (the largest of which has 1161 digits):

Base 10: 77 primes (the largest of which has 31 digits):

Base 11: 1068 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: 57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;)

Base 12: 106 primes (the largest of which has 42 digits):

Base 13: 3197 primes (including 4 unproven probable primes: C5&lt;sub&gt;23755&lt;/sub&gt;C, 80&lt;sub&gt;32017&lt;/sub&gt;111, 95&lt;sub&gt;197420&lt;/sub&gt;, A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A)

Base 14: 650 primes, the largest of which has 19699 digits

Base 15: 1284 primes, the largest of which has 157 digits

Base 16: 2347 primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: DB&lt;sub&gt;32234&lt;/sub&gt;, 4&lt;sub&gt;72785&lt;/sub&gt;DD, 3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF)

Base 17: 10415 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 12 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length &lt;= 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites)

Base 18: 549 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits

Base 19: 31417 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 17 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length &lt;= 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites)

Base 20: 3314 minimal primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits

Base 21: 13386 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 8 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length &lt;= 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites)

Base 22: 8003 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5)

Base 23: 65178 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 87 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length &lt;= 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites)

Base 24: 3409 minimal primes, the largest of which has 8134 digits

Base 25: 133639 known minimal primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 85 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length &lt;= 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites)

Base 26: 25256 known minimal primes (including 7 unproven probable primes: 5&lt;sub&gt;19391&lt;/sub&gt;6F, 7&lt;sub&gt;20279&lt;/sub&gt;OL, LD0&lt;sub&gt;20975&lt;/sub&gt;7, 6K&lt;sub&gt;23300&lt;/sub&gt;5, J0&lt;sub&gt;44303&lt;/sub&gt;KCB, M0&lt;sub&gt;61186&lt;/sub&gt;2BB, 85M&lt;sub&gt;197060&lt;/sub&gt;B) and 3 unsolved families ({A}6F, {H}MH, {I}GL, no primes or probable primes with length &lt;= 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites)

Base 27: 102852 known minimal primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 44 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length &lt;= 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites)

Base 28: 25528 known minimal primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: N6&lt;sub&gt;24051&lt;/sub&gt;LR, 5OA&lt;sub&gt;31238&lt;/sub&gt;F, O4O&lt;sub&gt;94535&lt;/sub&gt;9) and 1 unsolved family (O{A}F, no primes or probable primes with length &lt;= 709070, nor can be proven to only contain composites)</text>
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    <title>How women are centered and silenced in the major media</title>
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        <username>DavidMCEddy</username>
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      <comment>create</comment>
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      <text bytes="5303" sha1="j9567yeli5intpa3i43qawng7o3o959" xml:space="preserve">:''This discusses a 2026-05-14 interview with communications professor Allison Butler about her new book on ''The Judgment of Gender: How Women Are Centered and Silenced in Pop Culture''.&lt;ref&gt;Butler (2026).&lt;/ref&gt; A video and 29:00 mm:ss podcast excerpted from the interview will be added when available. The podcast will be released 2026-05-30 to the fortnightly &quot;Media &amp; Democracy&quot; show&lt;ref name=M&amp;D&gt;&lt;!--Media &amp; Democracy--&gt;{{cite Q|Q127839818}}&lt;/ref&gt; syndicated for the [[w:Pacifica Foundation|Pacifica Radio]]&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Pacifica Radio Network--&gt;{{cite Q|Q2045587}}&lt;/ref&gt; Network of [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|over 200 community radio stations]].''&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--list of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates--&gt;{{cite Q|Q6593294}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:''It is posted here to invite others to contribute other perspectives, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] while [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]&lt;ref name=NPOV&gt;The rules of writing from a neutral point of view citing credible sources may not be enforced on other parts of Wikiversity. However, they can facilitate dialog between people with dramatically different beliefs&lt;/ref&gt; and treating others with respect.''&lt;ref name=AGF&gt;[[Wikiversity:Assume good faith|Wikiversity asks contributors to assume good faith]], similar to Wikipedia. The rule in [[w:Wikinews|Wikinews]] is different: Contributors there are asked to [[Wikinews:Never assume|&quot;Don't assume things; be skeptical about everything.&quot;]] That's wise. However, we should still treat others with respect while being skeptical.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!--[[File:2026-05-14 interview with Allison Butler regarding gender differences in major media.WebM|thumb|2026-05-14 interview with Allison Butler on how the major media center and silence women.]]--&gt; 
&lt;!--[[File:2026-05-14 interview with Allison Butler regarding gender differences in major media.ogg|thumb|29:00 mm:ss excerpts from a 2026-05-14 interview with Allison Butler on how the major media center and silence women.]]--&gt;

Communications professor Allison Butler discusses her new book, ''The Judgment of Gender: How Women Are Centered and Silenced in Pop Culture'' with Spencer Graves.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Spencer Graves--&gt;{{cite Q|Q56452480}}&lt;/ref&gt; She compares how women like [[w:Britney Spears|Britney Spears]], [[w:Anita Hill|Anita Hill]], and [[w:Monica Lewinsky|Monica Lewinsky]] have been portrayed with the treatment of comparable males. She notes, for example, that, &quot;in the years since the ''[[w:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization|Dobbs]]'' (2022) decision, fully sentient female bodies have fewer legal rights than either fetuses or embryos.&lt;ref&gt;Butler (2026, p. 246). She continues, &quot;Within one year of the ''Dobbs'' decision, the number of ''legal'' abortions increased by about 2 percent, and by 2024, legal abortions increased by another 1 percent.&quot; (p. 247).&lt;/ref&gt; She asks, &quot;Why aren't women allowed to be complicated?&quot;, documenting how men are allowed to abuse their power for personal gain, but women are more likely to be demonized for comparable offenses.&lt;ref&gt;Butler (2026, p. 250).&lt;/ref&gt; Her recommendations&lt;ref&gt;Butler (2026, pp. 246ff),&lt;/ref&gt; include critical media literacy,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Critical media literacy&quot; is distinguished from &quot;[[w:Media literacy|media literacy]]&quot; that is not &quot;critical&quot; by its efforts &quot;[[w:Media literacy#Power|to analyze and understand the power structures]] that shape media representations and the ways in which audiences&quot; derive meaning from those representations. Accessed 2026-05-10.&lt;/ref&gt; asking how stories are told, and who gets to tell them. &quot;The vast majority of the mainstream media in the United States are approved, produced, and distributed by private, for-profit corporations whose primary priority is profit. ... Once we understand that, we can work to make a change. We can say 'no' to unfair or limiting stories of women and girls by simply ignoring them (and therefore not contributing to further views, clicks, or likes of them, online), and we can actively push back by demanding change from media producers. Media producers profit off our attention; if we shift that attention, we may be able to shift their power.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Butler (2025, p. 256).&lt;/ref&gt; 

== The need for media reform to improve democracy == 

This article is part of [[:category:Media reform to improve democracy]]. A summary of episodes to 2025-11-15 is available in [[Media &amp; Democracy lessons for the future]]. 

==Discussion ==

:''[Interested readers are invite to comment here, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]&lt;ref name=NPOV/&gt; and treating others with respect.&lt;ref name=AGF/&gt;]''

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* &lt;!--Allison T. Butler (2026-03-08) The Judgment of Gender: How Women Are Centered and Silenced in Pop Culture--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139740356}}

[[Category:Media]]
[[Category:News]]
[[Category:Democracy]]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Safety]]
[[Category:Women's studies]]
[[Category:Media literacy]]
[[Category:Media reform to improve democracy]]
&lt;!--list of categories
https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Category_Review
[[Wikiversity:Category Review]]--&gt;</text>
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    <title>OpenStax Introduction to Anthropology</title>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;See also [[OpenStax]]  == OpenStax Introduction to Anthropology == Designed to meet the scope and sequence of your course, OpenStax ''Introduction to Anthropology'' is a four-field text integrating diverse voices, engaging field activities, and meaningful themes like Indigenous experiences and social inequality to engage students and enrich learning. The text showcases the historical context of the discipline, with a strong focus on anthropology as a living and evolving...&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="1216" sha1="2aqi96gkrk8nea4j0mkxlas9dmitw1z" xml:space="preserve">See also [[OpenStax]]

== OpenStax Introduction to Anthropology ==
Designed to meet the scope and sequence of your course, OpenStax ''Introduction to Anthropology'' is a four-field text integrating diverse voices, engaging field activities, and meaningful themes like Indigenous experiences and social inequality to engage students and enrich learning. The text showcases the historical context of the discipline, with a strong focus on anthropology as a living and evolving field.  There is significant discussion of recent efforts to make the field more diverse—in its practitioners, in the questions it asks, and in the applications of anthropological research to address contemporary challenges.  In addressing social inequality, the text drives readers to consider the rise and impact of social inequalities based on forms of identity and difference (such as gender, ethnicity, race, and class) as well as oppression and discrimination. The contributors to and dangers of socioeconomic inequality are fully addressed, and the role of inequality in social dysfunction, disruption, and change is noted.

OpenStax Introduction to Anthropology (original content)

OpenStax Introduction to Anthropology audiobook</text>
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      <text bytes="1480" sha1="e60y9ivar2bdcrhnjjtb6nh52vkls4v" xml:space="preserve">See also [[OpenStax]]

== OpenStax Introduction to Anthropology ==
Designed to meet the scope and sequence of your course, OpenStax ''Introduction to Anthropology'' is a four-field text integrating diverse voices, engaging field activities, and meaningful themes like Indigenous experiences and social inequality to engage students and enrich learning. The text showcases the historical context of the discipline, with a strong focus on anthropology as a living and evolving field.  There is significant discussion of recent efforts to make the field more diverse—in its practitioners, in the questions it asks, and in the applications of anthropological research to address contemporary challenges.  In addressing social inequality, the text drives readers to consider the rise and impact of social inequalities based on forms of identity and difference (such as gender, ethnicity, race, and class) as well as oppression and discrimination. The contributors to and dangers of socioeconomic inequality are fully addressed, and the role of inequality in social dysfunction, disruption, and change is noted.

[https://openstax.org/details/books/introduction-anthropology OpenStax Introduction to Anthropology] (original content)

[https://audileo.com/audiobooks/openstax/introduction-to-anthropology/ OpenStax Introduction to Anthropology audiobook] (official audiobook)

[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JhYpOZD1Kyo OpenStax Introduction to Anthropology] (chapter 1 on YouTube)</text>
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      <comment>added [[Category:Anthropology]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="1507" sha1="ov8r3894xoj0seqtkea7xojke5s10d6" xml:space="preserve">See also [[OpenStax]]

== OpenStax Introduction to Anthropology ==
Designed to meet the scope and sequence of your course, OpenStax ''Introduction to Anthropology'' is a four-field text integrating diverse voices, engaging field activities, and meaningful themes like Indigenous experiences and social inequality to engage students and enrich learning. The text showcases the historical context of the discipline, with a strong focus on anthropology as a living and evolving field.  There is significant discussion of recent efforts to make the field more diverse—in its practitioners, in the questions it asks, and in the applications of anthropological research to address contemporary challenges.  In addressing social inequality, the text drives readers to consider the rise and impact of social inequalities based on forms of identity and difference (such as gender, ethnicity, race, and class) as well as oppression and discrimination. The contributors to and dangers of socioeconomic inequality are fully addressed, and the role of inequality in social dysfunction, disruption, and change is noted.

[https://openstax.org/details/books/introduction-anthropology OpenStax Introduction to Anthropology] (original content)

[https://audileo.com/audiobooks/openstax/introduction-to-anthropology/ OpenStax Introduction to Anthropology audiobook] (official audiobook)

[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JhYpOZD1Kyo OpenStax Introduction to Anthropology] (chapter 1 on YouTube)

[[Category:Anthropology]]</text>
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